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The War Against Nature: Benton Mackaye's Regional Planning

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The War Against Nature: Benton Mackaye's Regional Planning THE WAR AGAINST NATURE: BENTON MACKAYE’S REGIONAL PLANNING PHILOSOPHY AND THE PURSUIT OF BALANCE by Julie Ann Gavran APPROVED BY SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: ___________________________________________ Eric R. Schlereth, Chair ___________________________________________ Matthew J. Brown ___________________________________________ Pamela S. Gossin ___________________________________________ Peter K. J. Park Copyright 2017 Julie Ann Gavran All Rights Reserved THE WAR AGAINST NATURE: BENTON MACKAYE’S REGIONAL PLANNING PHILOSOPHY AND THE PURSUIT OF BALANCE by JULIE ANN GAVRAN, BA, MA DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of The University of Texas at Dallas in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HUMANITIES – HISTORY OF IDEAS THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT DALLAS May 2017 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I have received tremendous support from many individuals in the past thirteen years. Drs. John Marazita and Ron Carstens have been mentors, colleagues, and friends from my early academic beginning at Ohio Dominican University. I would especially like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Eric Schlereth, for providing me with the final push and guidance to complete this project. I would like to thank the rest of my committee, Drs. Matthew Brown, Pamela Gossin, and Peter Park, for your support throughout the many years of coursework and research, and for helping lay the foundation of this project. I would like to thank the countless people I spoke to throughout the many years of research, especially the staff at Rauner Special Collections Library at Dartmouth College, the Appalachian Trail Conservancy, and the many people who knew Benton personally. Finally, thanks to Drs. Jim Cannici and Gabe Yeamans for providing me lending ears and hearts without which I could not have finished this project. November 2016 iv THE WAR AGAINST NATURE: BENTON MACKAYE’S REGIONAL PLANNING PHILOSOPHY AND THE PURSUIT OF BALANCE Publication No. ___________________ Julie Ann Gavran, PhD The University of Texas at Dallas, 2017 ABSTRACT Supervising Professor: Eric R. Schlereth Benton MacKaye (1879-1975) is widely recognized as the creator of the Appalachian Trail, but scholars rarely acknowledge him for his contributions to environmental thought and planning. In this dissertation, I interpret and analyze MacKaye’s regional planning philosophy and trace the main influences on MacKaye’s work. In particular, I show how MacKaye’s environmental thought in part responded to the challenge of William James’s 1910 essay, “Moral Equivalent of War.” In the essay, James argued for pursuing peaceful alternatives to war while retaining the values of dedication, hard work, and discipline that are central to military training. Although evident in a number of MacKaye’s projects and publications, the connection between his work and James’s argument is clearest in an unpublished essay associated with his 1928 full-length work entitled The New Exploration: A Philosophy of Regional Planning. First, I review the content and impact of William James’s “Moral Equivalent of War” while visiting the responses of many notable individuals as well as MacKaye’s brothers, Percy and James. Next, I situate v MacKaye in the trajectory of environmental history, from Thoreau to Aldo Leopold, who later collaborated with MacKaye. I also explain the work of Lewis Mumford and the Regional Planning Association of America to illustrate how MacKaye was directly involved with the regional planning movement of the 1920s. I argue that these individuals also influenced MacKaye’s proposition for a moral equivalent of war: fighting industrialism to protect the material, energy, and psychological resources found in the natural environment. Thirdly, I argue that James’s essay influenced MacKaye by conducting a close reading of an unfinished and unpublished essay. I then show how the unpublished essay relates to The New Exploration. Finally, I argue that MacKaye implemented his response to “Moral Equivalent of War” in his environmental and regional planning projects in which he was involved throughout his life, such as the United States Forest Service, Tennessee Valley Authority, Regional Planning Association of America, and the Wilderness Society. Additionally, MacKaye worked as a consultant to Dartmouth College Professor Eugene Rosenstock-Huessy and the experimental Civilian Conservation Corps Camp William James, where the primary focus was to fulfill James’s call to provide young men, and later women, with a moral equivalent to war. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iv Abstract ............................................................................................................................................v CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 2 WILLIAM JAMES, THE MACKAYE FAMILY, AND THE LASTING INFLUENCE OF JAMES’S “MORAL EQUIVALENT OF WAR” ............................................24 2.1 William James’s “Moral Equivalent of War” ........................................................28 2.2 Answering James’s Call for a Substitute of War ...................................................41 2.3 Contemporaries of MacKaye and their Responses to “Moral Equivalent of War”64 CHAPTER 3 BENTON MACKAYE: THE BEGINNING OF A LEGACY ..............................83 3.1 Defining Wilderness ..............................................................................................91 3.2 The Early Years ...................................................................................................101 3.3 The Appalachian Trail Project (1921) .................................................................107 3.4 Regional Planning Association of America .........................................................112 CHAPTER 4 WORKING TOWARD A MORAL EQUIVALENT OF WAR .........................121 4.1 Scouting for a New War ......................................................................................132 4.2 The New Exploration ...........................................................................................142 CHAPTER 5 MACKAYE IN MOTION ...................................................................................154 5.1 Townless Highways and Highwayless Towns (1930-1931) ................................155 5.2 Tennessee Valley Authority (1934-1936) ............................................................162 5.3 Philosophers’ Club (1935-1936) ..........................................................................173 5.4 Wilderness Society (1934-1936)..........................................................................178 CHAPTER 6 CAMP WILLIAM JAMES (1939-1942) .............................................................185 6.1 Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy and Youth Work Camps ...........................................188 vii 6.2 The Coordination and Cooperation of an Experimental Camp ...........................197 6.3 Camp William James ...........................................................................................204 6.4 The War against Camp William James ................................................................212 CHAPTER 7 EPILOGUE ..........................................................................................................228 APPENDIX A BENTON MACKAYE’S TRANSCRIPT FROM HARVARD ’00 ..………..234 APPENDIX B THE NEW EXPLORATION .…………………………………………………..237 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………..………………………………………250 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH …………………………………..…………………………………..259 CURRICULUM VITAE viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION HILLTOP Thanks, dear Earth, for all this food; And now we think it would be goo-ed If when the air is hot as hell You’d break the horrid torrid spell To this great thought you seem agreed, And so we thank you much indeed And also the Earth, it would be grand If when ground is dry as sand You would cause a spell of rain To fill our springs and pipes again –B. MK.1 Best known as the creator of the Appalachian Trail, Benton MacKaye (1879-1975) dedicated his life to developing and refining his philosophy of regional planning. MacKaye’s understanding of regional planning incorporated the designation and utilization of land. More importantly, his regional planning philosophy aimed to balance human needs with the needs of the natural environment. Rather than combating or controlling nature, regional planners like MacKaye sought to work with nature to ensure its conservation and preservation. Unlike many other environmental thinkers of his era, MacKaye was not entirely opposed to the reasonable use of environmental resources. His effort to prevent resource waste, especially waste resulting from 1 Benton MacKaye. “Hilltop,” Box 192, Folder 34. MacKaye Family Papers, Rauner Special Collections Library, Dartmouth College. 1 2 the transportation of people and goods to other regions, set him apart from his contemporary regional planners and environmentalists. MacKaye entered his working years during a time of great transition in the United States. The nation was undergoing vast social and political reform. The Progressive Era from the 1890s to the 1920s was ending, while Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs were beginning. MacKaye’s interests in conserving and preserving the natural environment during the nation’s expansion from the metropolis into rural and indigenous areas connected New Deal environmental thinking with
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