Time Line of Key Historical Events*

January 1986 The rebel group overruns after a heavy battle with government troops. Tito Okello’s government falls. is sworn in as president of the Republic of for a four-year interim term. March 1986 Party activities are suspended in Uganda; but Uganda People’s Democratic Movement (UPDM) is formed to challenge Museveni’s leadership. Other rebel groups, the Holy Spirit Movement of Alice Lakwena and Lord’s Resistance Army of , are also formed.

May 1986 A bill to create the Uganda Human Rights Commission is proposed to investigate human rights abuses since 1962 when Uganda got independence.

August 1986 Prince Mutebi arrives in Uganda from via Busia on his first visit to a liberated Uganda. Former soldiers regrouped under the Uganda People’s Democratic Army (UPDA) launch an attack on NRA. NRA Battalion No. 58 at Bibia repulses the attack. Yoweri Museveni denounces Sudan for assisting 3,000 army rebels to attack Uganda. Budget day, the exchange rate is set at Ug. shs. 1,400 per U.S. dollar. October 1986 Three ministers, Dr. Andrew Kayiira, Dr. David Lwanga, and Mr. Evaristo Nyanzi, and former vice president, , are arrested on treason charges.

November 1986 Uganda National Rescue Front (UNRF) hands over its flag to the NRM at Karila Airstrip in Arua. Brig. announces the absorption of 2,000 UNRF soldiers in the NRA. Alice Lakwena’s Holy Spirit Movement and Peter

* The following were used as sources for part of this timeline: Mugaju (1999), Kaiser and Okumu (2004), and www.IRINnews.org (2006). 202 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

Otai’s Uganda People’s Army (UPA) terrorize people in north and northeastern Uganda. December 1986 The Human Rights Commission is set up under Legal Notice No. 5 of 1986 to investigate human rights abuses from 1962 to January 25, 1986. January 1987 The remains of former President arrive in Uganda from London for reburial. May 1987 A new currency, with a 30 percent tax charge is introduced into circulation. IMF shock treatment applied to Ugandan economy as Economic Recovery Program (ERP) begins. August 1987 Two hundred rebels of Alice Lakwena’s Holy Spirit mobile force killed by NRA in a battle at Flying School. Four hundred Holy Spirit forces killed by NRA at Aloet Railway Station in Soroti District. October 1987 Alice Lakwena’s mobile force is repulsed when attempting to overrun Magamaga barracks. March 1988 The National Resistance Army and the rebel Uganda People’s Democratic Army begin cease-fire discussions in . The NRM government and a leading rebel group since 1986, the Uganda People’s Democratic Army, agree to a cease-fire and sign a formal peace agreement. The human rights group Amnesty International criticizes the army’s conduct in its counterinsurgency operations in northern and northeastern Uganda. Amnesty International criticizes the Uganda government over NRA’s tactics in fighting rebels in the north and northeast of the country. The NRA and UPDA reach an agreement and announce a cease-fire. May 1988 NRC passes legislation that prohibits the practice and pro- motion of sectarianism and introduces press censorship. September 1988 IMF, World Bank, and Western donors make an Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) available to Uganda. October 1988 A Boeing 707 jetliner crashes on the run- way as it lands at Rome Airport in Italy. Thirty people on board die in the accident. A bill establishing a constitutional commission is passed by the country’s parliament, The National Resistance Council. February 1989 Elections to expand the National Resistance Council are held. Time Line of Key Historical Events 203

October 1989 The National Resistance Council votes to extend the interim rule of the National Resistance Movement Government for five more years until 1994. December 1989 An attack is launched from Sudan by ex–Uganda soldiers assisted by Sudanese troops. February 1990 The Spanish Government announces a US$40 million loan to Uganda for the rehabilitation of Airport, the development of central storage, construction of cold stores, and for rolling stock to the Uganda Railways Corporation. NRA in collaboration with civilians starts an offensive against UPA of Otai. April 1990 Brig. Moses Ali, minister of youth, culture, and sports, is arrested and charged with plotting a coup. July 1990 Otema Allimadi, leader of UPDM, signs a peace accord with government. January 1991 President Museveni announces a cabinet reshuffle. George Cosmas Adyebo becomes prime minister while Dr. is elevated to vice president. February 1991 Uganda hosts the joint ACP/EEC Assembly in Kampala. The World Bank approves a US$40 million loan for the reconstruction of northern and northeastern Uganda. April 1991 The army begins a major four-month operation, com- manded by Minister of state for Defence Maj. Gen. David Tinyefuza against rebels in Northern Uganda. May 1991 Museveni formally invites all émigré Ugandan Asians, who had been expelled by Amin, to return. June 1991 A major conference is organized by the Constitutional Commission for leaders of political parties to discuss consti- tutional proposals to be included in the draft constitution. July 1991 Another cabinet reshuffle takes place cutting the cabinet by about 50 percent. The total number of ministers drops from 72 to 42. December 1991 Government announces its intention to liberalize the cotton industry thus ending the Lint Marketing Board monopoly. The National Resistance Council passes the Leadership Code Bill. February 1992 Nationwide elections for officials at the lower local to dis- trict level councils are held. Countrywide RC 1-5 elections begin. 204 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

April 1992 The Army Council announces negotiations over the return of confiscated traditional cultural sites to the kingdoms of Ankole, , Bunyoro, Busoga, and Tooro. Uganda and China sign an agreement on the construction of a new Chinese-funded national stadium at Namboole outside Kampala. May 1992 Paris Club Consultative Group meeting of donors commits US$800 million to Uganda. June 1992 The Uganda High Court acquits Moses Ali of treason charges. July 1992 The government launches a US$93.6 million reconstruc- tion program for northern Uganda, sponsored by the World Bank, donor countries, and aid agencies aimed mainly at the repair of roads and extension of electricity. August 1992 Political party activities are formally suspended by the NRC. The suspension follows a three-day closed session. October 1992 The army bows to pressure from international donors and begins a demobilization of up to 40,000 soldiers. Uganda launches a far-reaching political decentralization program whose objective is to increase citizen participation and political empowerment. November 1992 Formal negotiations between the National Resistance Army (NRA) and Buganda, about the return of cultural sites occu- pied by the army, are inaugurated by President Museveni. December 1992 Constitutional Commission presents draft constitution to government. Negotiations between government and Sabataka of Buganda on the return of traditional sites taken over by government in 1967 open. The demobilization exercise of the NRA begins at First Division Headquarters, Lubiri barracks. February 1993 Pope John Paul II arrives in Uganda on a five-day visit. March 1993 A draft constitution prescribing party political activities for seven years is published. The NRC orders immediate suspension of negotiations on sales of public enterprises by the Public Enterprises Reform and Divestiture until relevant law is enacted. April 1993 The Constitution Assembly Bill is passed. The NRC agrees, in principle, to return cultural sites known as ebyaffe to the Baganda. Time Line of Key Historical Events 205

July 1993 Ronald Muwenda Mutebi II is enthroned as the thirty- sixth king of Buganda Kingdom. NRC passes legislation approving restoration of traditional monarchies, which are given cultural but not political powers. The NRC passes the Constitution Amendment Bill, 1993 (Ebyaffe Bill) to restore the traditional rulers who were abolished under the 1967 Constitution. August 1993 The AIDS Control Programme announces that one out of every eight Ugandans is infected with HIV virus that causes AIDS. The government requests foreign donors for US$550 million to fund a five-year plan to slow the spread of the epidemic. President Museveni opens the Buganda Lukiiko (Parliament) at , Mengo. The commissioner for the Constituent Assembly announces the demarcation of the country into 214 electoral districts. November 1993 Prince John Patrick Barigye is enthroned as thirty-third King of Ankole Kingdom. The government, however, refuses to recognize his coronation. Former , General Tito Okello, returns to Uganda after nearly eight years in exile. January 1994 Uganda Democratic Alliance (UDA) and Uganda Federal Army (UFA) suspend guerilla activities. NRA soldiers head for on a peace keeping mission. The nomination of candidates for the Constituent Assembly takes place. March 1994 Nationwide elections are held to select delegates to the Constituent Assembly (CA), which will debate Uganda’s new Constitution. May 1994 Members of the Constituent Assembly (CA) are sworn in. CA begins debate on draft Constitution. June 1994 Solomon Gafabusa Iguru I is enthroned as the twenty- seventh king of Bunyoro-Kitara Kingdom. November 1994 President Yoweri Museveni reshuffles the cabinet naming Dr. as Uganda’s first ever woman vice president. December 1994 The NRM interim period extended until after the general elections to be held under the new Constitution. February 1995 IMF and World Bank establish the Ugandan Multilateral Debt Fund (UMDF). 206 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

A group of about 30 people attack Buwambo police post in Mpigi district. The group claims to be fighting for federalism. Cabinet extends the term of office for the incumbent resist- ance council committees until after the new constitution is in force. The NRA attacks rebels based in Buseruka, , and kills sixty-three. March 1995 After a crucial and much publicized debate, the CA dele- gates vote to reject a proposed amendment to Article 201 of the draft constitution that would create a Federal system of government based on regions. A group, led by Maj. Robert Itongwa, an NRA deserter, claiming to be a Federo Army fighting the NRM govern- ment, kidnaps the Minister of Health Dr. James Makumbi. April 1995 Kony’s Lord’s Resistance (LRA) massacre at least 150 peo- ple at Atiak in . Uganda severs diplomatic relations with Sudan. June 1995 The CA rejects a motion for a return to multiparty political system. Multiparty advocates walk out of CA. Dr. Paul Kawanga Semogerere resigns from the NRM government. September 1995 The CA enacts the new constitution. October 1995 The CA promulgates the new . December 1995 The presidential and parliamentary elections (interim pro- visions) bill (1995) is tabled before NRC. January 1996 The interim Electoral Commission, under the chairman- ship of Stephen Akabway, the former commissioner for the CA, is sworn in. February 1996 Henry Waako Muloki is enthroned as king (Kyabazinga) of Busoga Kingdom. May 1996 The incumbent president, Yoweri Kaguta Museveni, wins Uganda’s first ever direct presidential elections, defeating challenger Paul Kawanga Ssemogerere and Mohammed Kibirige Mayanja. Yoweri Museveni sworn in as the country’s first directly elected president. June 1996 Local and national legislative “no-party” elections are held. Local councils replace Resistance Committees, and a 276-member Parliament replaces the NRC. Time Line of Key Historical Events 207

October 1996 Traders and other businessmen in Kampala begin six-day closedown strike in protest over the introduction of a new tax, the Value Added Tax. It is the most widespread strike of its kind in Uganda since independence, reaching most other towns in the country. IMF and World Bank launch the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) program. January 1997 Universal Primary Education (UPE) was launched. Enrollment shoots up from 2.5 million to 5.6 million children. The Leadership Code meant to curb corruption and abuse of office among political and public figures takes effect. March 1997 Local Governments Act is established to guide “Local Councils.” The council system encourages extensive civil- ian participation in the areas of local government. The Resistance Council (RC) system ends.

April 1997 World Bank designates Uganda as the first country to receive HIPC debt relief.

May 1997 Government bans examination fees in Primary 1 through 6 under the Universal Primary Education.

July 1997 Movement Bill is passed by Parliament. The Movement Act requires all Ugandan adults to become members of the Movement system.

September 1997 Ministry of Planning and Economic Development sets the implementation of the Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), a twenty-year development framework to reduce poverty to 10 percent by 2017.

November 1997 Nationwide local elections are held.

December 1997 Parliament finally passes amendment licencing a Second National Operator (SNO) before the Uganda Telecommunications Limited, a new company to be cre- ated from the Uganda Posts and Telecommunications Corporation (UP&TC).

January 1998 Government awards South African telecommunications giant, Mobile Telephone Networks (MTN), the tender to establish another telecommunication network in Uganda, breaking the monopoly enjoyed by the UP&TC. 208 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

March 1998 Uganda becomes the first country to benefit from a new World Bank grant-credit initiative by receiving US$185 million to improve education. President Bill Clinton visits Uganda. April 1998 IMF certifies Uganda’s HIPC qualification. June 1998 Ministry of Internal Affairs purchases barracks. August 1998 President Museveni orders the Ugandan army to intervene in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to combat rebel insurgencies. The army occupies the northwest DRC for the next three years. November 1998 The Ministry of Works announces the completion of reha- bilitation work on 60 percent of the total trunk road net- work in Uganda. January 1999 President Yoweri Museveni begins a 200km walk to trace NRA guerilla bases in Luweero triangle and find ways to improve household incomes. The 40,202-seat Mandela National Stadium is opened at a colorful ceremony witnessed by thousands of Ugandans and foreign guests. February 1999 , Municipality MP, sacked as the Movement secretariat director of information. March 1999 Renegade Rwanda Army militia (Interahamwe) attacks Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Western Uganda, killing the warden for Community Conservation, John Ross Wagaba, and abducting 32 tourists. Seventeen tourists later escaped. Government starts peace talks with Uganda National Rescue Front II rebels. April 1999 President Museveni calls for a major constitutional review. Investments in Uganda reach US$1.43 billion mark. Government lifts the nationwide ban on the sale of fish. May 1999 Museveni offers Kony a carrot, appointment to the cabinet, if he is democratically elected. IMF suspends US$18 million loan to protest Uganda’s military involvement in the DRC. June 1999 DRC president, Laurent Kabila, brings charges at the International Criminal Court of Justice (ICJ) against Uganda for territorial aggression. Time Line of Key Historical Events 209

July 1999 Parliament passes the Referendum and Other Provisions Act #2. September 1999 President Museveni confirms Uganda’s withdrawal from the DRC. December 1999 Parliament passes bill granting general amnesty to all rebels. January 2000 Ugandan government presents a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper in qualifying for the Enhanced HIPC initiative. February 2000 IMF and IDA agree to increase Uganda’s HIPC relief; bringing the total to US$2 billion. March 2000 Uganda’s economic reform progresses and reaches the completion point of the “enhanced HIPC framework.” June 2000 Five UPDF battalions pull out of the DRC, in addition to the two that withdrew in April. A referendum is held to decide the future of Uganda’s political system. The movement system receives 4,322,901 (90.7%) votes, while the multiparty side gains 442,823 (9.7%), 51.1% of registered voters cast their votes in a poll boycotted by mainstream political parties. The movement system is extended for another five years. July 2000 Parliament passes the Political Parties and Organizations (PPOA) Bill into law. August 2000 The Constitutional Court declares the Referendum Act of 1999 null and void. The court cites violations of parlia- mentary procedure and lack of quorum (articles 88 and 89) for its ruling. Parliament passes (in one day) the Constitution (Amendment) Act 13, which amended the process (proce- dures) by which a bill could become law. This was to over- come the objections of the Constitutional Court in its ruling against the 1999 Referendum Act. The amendment gave retrospective effect to the 2000 Referendum Act and thus enabled the June referendum. President Bill Clinton visits Uganda. September 2000 “Paris Club” cancels US$145 million of Uganda’s debt under the HIPC initiative. President Museveni carries out a minor cabinet reshuffle with the most important change being that of Moses Ali who was relieved of the Trade, Tourism and Industry port- folio and appointed minister of internal affairs. Edward 210 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

Rugumayo was moved from the Ministry of Internal Affairs to Ali’s former ministry. Parliament turns down President Museveni’s request to revisit the National Security Council (NSC) Bill that had already become law. The president wanted the punishment for an NSC member who released information without authorization to be changed from a 14-year jail sentence to death penalty or imprisonment for life. October 2000 announces his plans to enter the 2001 presidential race as a Movement candidate. December 2000 Vice President Dr. Specioza Kazibwe launches the Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture (PMA) with a call on local leaders to embrace it “for maximum achievement in agriculture in the country.” January 2001 President Museveni launches his reelection campaign with a promise of free secondary education. Limited launches its mobile phone facility in Kampala. February 2001 The government abolishes cost sharing in all its health centers. March 2001 Ugandans vote in the second presidential elections since the enactment of the 1995 constitution. The contestants included the incumbent Yoweri Museveni, Kizza Besigye, , Francis Bwengye, Chappa Karuhanga, and Kibirige Mayanja. Yoweri Kaguta Museveni is declared winner of the 2001 general elections. He is to serve another five-year term. Besigye files a petition with the Uganda Supreme Court asking it to overturn the 2001 presidential election results, alleging widespread fraud, violence, and intimidation. May 2001 Yoweri Kaguta Museveni swears in as president of the Republic of Uganda. June 2001 Ugandans vote in a legislative election to fill all 282 seats in Parliament. The Commission submits its report con- cerning the scandal over the purchase of obsolete helicop- ters from Belarus. The report recommends prosecution of Museveni’s brother for accepting a US$ 800,000 bribe. The report also implicates President Museveni as the authorizing government official. Time Line of Key Historical Events 211

July 2001 President Museveni sets up a judicial commission of inquiry under British judge David Porter to probe allegations by the UN that the UPDF and the presidents close family members were involved in looting natural resources from the DRC. August 2001 Kiiza Besigye, Museveni’s main presidential challenger, flees to the United States on account of claims about gov- ernment harassment. September 2001 President Yoweri Museveni receives an award for his exem- plary leadership in the fight against HIV/AIDS. Government avails drug for the Prevention of Mother-to- Child HIV transmission (PMCTC) free of charge to all pregnant women who test HIV positive. Uganda reopens embassy in as part of the peace overtures to restore diplomatic relations broken in 1995. Heritage Oil and Gas deposit a cash bond of Ug. shs. 875 million with government as a guarantee that they will drill oil near Lake Albert. October 2001 World Bank hails Uganda Investment Authority (UIA) as one of the best promotion agencies in Africa. November 2001 Deputy Chief Justice Laetitia Kikonyogo launches the National Community Service program in Mukono district, with three petty offenders sentenced to 100 hours of community work. East African Legislative Assembly and Court of Justice are inaugurated at Sheikh Amri Abeid stadium, Arusha, in . December 2001 The Uganda Road Safety Initiative is launched at the Sheraton Hotel following the death of four sports journal- ists in August 2001. January 2002 Ugandans go to the polls to elect the chairpersons and councilors for the subcounties, town councils, and munici- pal divisions. The second volume of the Primary school curriculum is launched. Agriculture, Religious Education, Performing Arts, and Physical Education (PAPE) to be taught and examined as separate subjects. Construction of the 250MW US$550 million Hydroelectric power plant at Bujagali on the River Nile is launched. A US$23 million (Ug. shs. 34.5 billion) water project to benefit 163,000 people in four Central Uganda districts is 212 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

commissioned. The project is a joint partnerhip between Uganda and Japan through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). February 2002 The UPDF launches a new project to construct low-cost houses for needy people of Luweero triangle who con- tributed to the NRA liberation struggle twenty-one years ago. Ugandans go to the polls for the LC5 chairpersons. Uganda announces the first ever export agreement of instant coffee to China and the United States under the Africa Growth and Opportunities Act (AGOA). March 2002 Government launches a twenty-five-year strategy worth US$108 million to improve agricultural extension services in the country. Government wins a crucial parliamentary vote allowing it to lease more than 1,000 hectares of Butamira forest reserve to the Madhvani group of companies. Two UPDF soldiers are executed by a firing squad after being found guilty of killing an Irish priest and two office workers on the Kotido—Moroto road. April 2002 The Privatisation Unit (PU) completes the sale of 108 pub- lic enterprises (PEs) with only thirty-eight remaining for sale. Rebel leader, Maj. Gen. Ali Bamuze of the Uganda National Rescue Front II, renounces rebellion and returns home with 1,350 fighters. May 2002 The UPDF armored battalion launches an operation in Kotido district to recover illegal guns from the Jie warriors who have been raiding cattle from their neighbors. (The U.S. government extends a US$290 million aid package toward poverty eradication in Uganda.) Parliament passes the Political Organisations Act (POA) 2002 amid acrimony and a walkout by multipartyists and moderate movementists. The movement voted by 148 against one to restrict activities of political parties and organizations at the national level. Sixty MPs mainly multipartyists, reformists, and moderate movementists walked out. The Sudan government extends up to June the period for UPDF’s operation “Iron Fist” against Kony rebels in the Sudan. Time Line of Key Historical Events 213

Uganda’s antiterrorism law take effect. Museveni’s oppo- nents say the law will be used to curb domestic political reforms and constrain legitimate political opposition. June 2002 Malaria campaign is launched. The World Bank board of executive directors approves the Inspection Panels report on Bujagali and other power projects in Uganda. July 2002 The European Union gives a grant of 4.5 million euros (Ug. shs. 8 billion) to support Uganda’s program for trade opportunities and policy (UPTOP). Government secures US$375 million (Ug. shs. 676 billion) for rural electrification. August 2002 Government names team for peace talks with Joseph Kony’s LRA rebels. September 2002 Ugandans stay at home to be counted in the ninth census since the first one in 1911. The Danish Government boosts Uganda’s prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV/AIDS program (PMTCT) with a US$400,000 (over Ug. shs. 645 million) grant. October 2002 Preliminary results of the 2002 National Population and Housing Census reveal that Uganda has a population of 24.6 million people. Drilling of oil in Uganda’s western rift valley starts. Police raid the offices of the Kampala daily The Monitor and close it down for a week. Two editors and one reporter are arrested and charged for endangering national security by publishing a story claiming that a UPDF helicopter had crashed while engaging the LRA. November 2002 The Porter Commission presents its final report regarding UN allegations that the UPDF had looted natural resources from the DRC. The report singled out Salim Saleh and his wife, and Maj. Gen. as key actors. December 2002 President Yoweri Museveni flags off 164,000 pairs of men’s shorts to America, the first textile export under the AGOA initiative. January 2003 The multimillion state-of-the-art Apparels Tri-Star Uganda limited plant at Bugolobi is launched. Baganda present their documented views, proposals, and aspirations to the Constitutional Review Commission (CRC). 214 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

February 2003 House project for the construction of a sixteen-story complex on plot 34, Kampala Road, is commissioned. March 2003 Uganda was leading its two neighbors, Kenya and Tanzania, in attracting foreign direct investment inflows (FDI). President Yoweri Museveni asks the National Executive Committee (NEC), the Movement’s highest decision- making organ, to free political parties. However, the return to multipartyism would be subjected to a referendum. He also recommends a review of the presidential two-, Art. 105(2) of the 1995 Constitution. Constitutional Court rules that the Movement was a polit- ical organization. The return to a multiparty system of government is endorsed by the Ugandan people in a referendum. This ends the Movement political system. The Uganda Constitutional Court strikes down articles 18 and 19 of the Political Parties and Organizations Act (PPOA) that aimed t suppressing the activities of opposition political parties. The Court also rules that the Movement was not a political “system” but a political organization. April 2003 Batch of 1,500 UPDF soldiers leave Bunia, Congo, des- tined for Uganda. May 2003 Donors hail Uganda’s economic performance as exemplary and announce that they would ensure that their markets remain open to Ugandan exports. Withdrawal of UPDF troops from the DRC is completed. President Museveni reshuffles his cabinet and drops long- time NRM backers, , , and Miria Matembe. Vice President Specioza Kazibwe resigns and is replaced by . The cabinet is expanded from 41 to 67 ministers. June 2003 GDP grows by 4.9 percent, the lowest rate in sixteen years. July 2003 President George W. Bush visits Uganda. July 2003 Radio Veritas Kyoga is closed down by the government for purportedly broadcasting information helpful to rebels. August 2003 Former military dictator and dies. September 2003 Movement (Amendment) Bill is passed into law to prepare the way for a change in political systems. Time Line of Key Historical Events 215

Museveni’s brother Salim Saleh resigns his seat in Parliament which he held as one of the army’s nominations. October 2003 The Uganda Investment Authority (UIA) licenses 49 projects worth US$178,646,826. Launch of measles immunization campaign. Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) summit opens in Kampala. Uganda takes the chair. National Political Commissar is appointed to head talks with the opposition regarding the transition to a multiparty system. November 2003 Assets and liabilities, declared to the Inspector General of Government (IGG) by the forty-four ministers of state, are published for public scrutiny. Multipartyists announce they are ready for talks with the Movement leadership on the country’s transition to plural- ism, ahead of the 2006 general elections. Currency note of Ug. shs. 50,000 denomination goes into circulation. December 2003 The CRC hands over its report to the minister of justice and constitutional affairs. The report findings are made public in March recommending a national referendum to decide the “third term” issue. Five Uganda members of Parliament (MPs) are elected to the Parliament. President Museveni carries out a major purge of the army leadership. A total of 60 officers are sent on forced leave pending investigations and possible court martials. High- ranking officers forced out include, Brig. Nakibus Lakara, Col. Fred Tolit, Maj Gen. James Kazini, Brig. , and Brig. Stephen Kashaka. President Museveni writes to the Army Promotions and Commissions Board asking for permission to retire from the UPDF. He declares his intention to devote his efforts to developing the NRM-O upon retirement from the UPDF. The UPDF High Command allows Lt. Gen. Yoweri Museveni to retire from the armed forces. Vice President Gilbert Bukenya and Prime Minister Nsibambi submit proposals to the Constitutional Review Commission, seeking amendments to 88 articles of the 1995 constitution. Among them was the repeal of article 105(2) so as to remove presidential term limits. Also 216 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

included in the proposals are amendments to articles 69, 70, 71, and 72 so as to allow multiparty politics and the introduction of a federal element into the political struc- ture of Uganda. January 2004 A group of MPs launch a campaign against the two-term presidential limit at a funds-drive in Rushenyi archdeaconry in . The first face-to-face meeting between the multiparty and the Movement leaders kicks off. The supreme court rules that the Constitutional (Amendment) Act 13 of 2000 was null and void because the procedure for amending the constitution had not been followed.

February 2004 The Uganda Supreme Court rules in the case of Obbo and Another versus Attorney General that the offence under sec- tion 50 of the penal code was too vague and conjectural to provide the necessary certainty required to impose an acceptable limitation on freedom of expression. March 2004 The presidents of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania sign a pro- tocol to set up a Customs Union at a stadium in the north- ern town of Arusha. April 2004 Renegade UPDF , Maj. Herbert Itongwa, is charged with war crimes in Denmark. Former Speaker of Parliament and NRM Political Commisar James Wapakhabulo dies. President Yoweri Museveni is promoted to the rank of gen- eral and retired from the army. But, he says as Commander in Chief he will continue fighting terrorists such as Joseph Kony. May 2004 Government sells Uganda Electricity Distribution Company Limited (UEDCL) to a UK-South African group in a deal that promises at least US$65 million (Ug. shs. 125 billion) invested over the next five years. Government pledges to increase electricity access in rural areas from just 1 percent in 2003 to up to 10 percent by 2012. June 2004 Uganda hosts the ninth Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA) business summit in Kampala at the International Conference Centre. President Museveni takes the chair from Omar el Bashir of Sudan. Time Line of Key Historical Events 217

The Constitutional Court declares the Referendum Act 2000 unconstitutional. The court rules that it was not passed in conformity with the procedures set out by the constitution and therefore that the 2000 referendum was null and void. The NRM government appeals this decision to the supreme court. The latter upheld the ruling of the Constitutional Court but ruled the results of the Referendum valid. July 2004 Uganda’s political roadmap to 2006 is released. Presidential and parliamentary elections to be held between February and March, 2006. Brigadier Kenneth Banya, a Kony planner is captured by the UPDF at Atiak 60km north of Gulu town. A US$150 million BIDCO oil palm project is commis- sioned at Bwendero on Kalangala Island. Government secures US$164 million credit from the World Bank to finance the ten-year Rural Electrification Programme. August 2004 National HIV/AIDS sero prevalence survey launched. President Yoweri Museveni is elected chair of the interim executive council of the National Resistance Movement (NRM). Launch of the construction of the 21 km-long Ug. shs. 105 billion Kampala Northern Bypass. Three opposition groups—Refrom Agenda (RA), The Parliamentary Advocacy Reform (Pafo) and the National Democratic Forum (NDF) merge and form a new party called the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC). September 2004 The supreme court rules that the results of the 2000 refer- endum on political systems was valid although the 2000 Referendum Act under which it was held was null and void. Government sets aside Ug. shs. 270 billion for entandikwa (start up) loans for low-income earners and the unemployed. Government white paper on constitutional review process is presented to Parliament. October 2004 Interim leadership of the National Resistance Movement Organisation (NRM-O) party is named. November 2004 Bidandi Ssali resigns as 2nd Vice chair of the NRM-O. He cites unhappiness over the Shs 5 million given to Movement MPS for drumming up support in their con- stituencies for a third term for President Museveni. 218 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

The FDCS application for political party status is gazetted—government spokesman Nsaba Buturvo says that FDC’s registration would be completed by December. December 2004 Acholi religious and civic leaders and offi- cials meet LRA rebel commanders in a bush in Kitgum. January 2005 President Yoweri Museveni ordered the army to resume attacks against the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) rebels after last minute hitches scuttled a truce agreement. Government negotiators hand over an improved version of a proposed cease-fire agreement to the LRA leader, Joseph Kony. The chief mediator, Betty Bigombe, delivers the memorandum. Sudan’s first vice president, Col. Dr. John Garang, vows to flush LRA rebel leader Joseph Kony out of Southern Sudan if he does not accept negotiations to end the northern war. Museveni reshuffles his cabinet, a move observers say will strengthen his hold on power and minimize disagreements in government ahead of a crucial national debate over the lifting of presidential term limits. The government warns of serious food shortages in the northeastern Karamoja region, where 70 percent of some 700,000 pastoralists are estimated to be in need of food. The United Nations World Food Program announces that it has already started feeding 60,000 children under the school-feeding program and will feed up to 500,000 people in the region by June. The Ugandan Health Ministry warns that children in northern districts could face the risk of contracting polio, following a reported outbreak of the disease in neighboring Sudan. The ministry announces a plan to conduct two rounds of supplementary polio vaccinations, targeting chil- dren up to five years, in the districts bordering Sudan. Three people are killed and 30,000 left homeless following a wave of fires that strikes a number of camps for the Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in the north. The camps are home to more than 1.6 million people displaced by the war. February 2005 Uganda denies allegations in a UN report that it had con- tinued to violate a UN-imposed arms embargo in eastern DRC. President Yoweri Museveni offers the LRA rebels an eighteen-day truce from February 4, 2005 to pave way for Time Line of Key Historical Events 219

talks to end the war that has destabilized northern Uganda since 1987. FDC party is launched in Kampala and it immediately kicks off its election campaign with Rizza Besigye as its candidate for president in the 2006 elections. Besigye is to be endorsed by a delegates conference in May. The Buganda Lukiiko (Parliament) endorses the federo proposals agreed between Mengo and the government. The long-awaited Omnibus Constitution (Amendment) Bill is presented to Parliament. It seeks to amend 120 arti- cles of the 1995 constitution. LRA Chief Spokesman, Brig. Sam Kolo Otto, surrenders to UPDF in Gulu. A policy paper drafted by Finance Minister Dr. is published in the press (The ) outlin- ing a radical shift in Uganda’s economic philosophy. The policy paper proposes a move to interventionist model of macroeconomic management away from the neoliberal, laissez-faire approach. A revised political roadmap is released, stating that the gen- eral elections for the president, MPs, and LC5 chiefs is to take place between February 12, 2006 and March 12, 2006. Prime Minister launches the first ever national policy to improve the lives of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) at Speke Resort, . The forty- page document is the first of its kind in Africa. Butebo County MP, Dr. Stephen Malinga, crosses from the UPC party to the Movement at a rally addressed by President Museveni at Budaka subcounty headquarters. March 2005 The NRM acquires a prime land—plot 38, Harrington Road—in Kampala City, where it plans to build its head- quarters. President Museveni says the political crusade that he described as Ekisanja (third term) was intended to safe- guard the achievements of the Movement from opposition. Three MPs instruct their lawyers to file a case in the Constitutional Court challenging the legality of the Omnibus Constitutional Amendment Bill before the Parliament. MPs Abdu Katuntu (Bugweri), Ben Wacha (Oyam North), and Miria Matembe (Mbarara Women Representative) argue that it is unconstitutional for the 220 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

executive to bring one bill seeking to amend 120 articles of the 1995 Constitution. Bob Geldof, Irish rock star and developing world cam- paigner, in an impassioned speech at the launch of Tony Blair’s Commission for Africa report in London, says President Yoweri Museveni should not stand for a third term. Cabinet agrees to revise the controversial Omnibus Constitutional Amendment Bill after MPs and the Judiciary questioned its legality and the way it was pre- sented. The cabinet agrees to separate the parts that had been lumped together in the original bill. President Yoweri Museveni tells members of the NRM par- liamentary group that he wants to remain active in national politics even when he retires. Army Commander Lt Gen. halts the operations of Access Finance Services (AFS) in Bombo barracks. The company was offering loans to soldiers at 54 percent interest. The 2002 Uganda Population and Housing Census reports that Uganda’s population has grown to about 26.8 million. The government directs district officials to let registered political parties operate normally and warns of punitive measures against those who ignore the directive. Chief peace negotiator Betty Bigombe returns to the coun- try to restart efforts to broker peace for war-torn northern Uganda. Leaders from the north arrive in The Hague to ask the International Criminal Court (ICC) to refrain from issuing arrest warrants against LRA leaders. In 2004, the ICC ini- tiated investigations into northern Uganda and then announced plans to issue arrest warrants for the top leader- ship of the LRA, including Kony. Local leaders fear the warrants would jeopardize the peace process. New York–based lobby group Human Rights Watch criti- cizes Uganda’s policy shift toward “abstinence-only pro- grammes” to curb the spread of HIV/AIDS, saying it could reverse significant gains made in the fight against the pandemic. Uganda had been widely acclaimed for its suc- cess in the fight against HIV/AIDS, managing to bring prevalence rates down from more than 20 percent in the late 1980s to around 6 percent. Seventeen demonstrators, protesting proposals that would allow Museveni to seek a third tem in office, are arrested in the capital, Kampala. Time Line of Key Historical Events 221

April 2005 Installation of a 50-megawatt (MW) thermal electricity generating plant to reduce the number of load-shedding days begins. Parliament rescinds its earlier rejection of a motion for a resolution to hold a referendum to change the political system, 189 voted in favor of the reversal while 24 voted against. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) at The Hague begins hearing a case brought by the DRC accusing Uganda of invading its territory and committing human rights violations. The DRC is seeking “compensation from Uganda in respect of all acts of looting, destruction, removal of property.” UNHCR says some 1,118 Rwandans have crossed into southwestern Uganda since April 1. They are thought to be fleeing arrest and prosecution by Rwanda’s traditional jus- tice tribunals, or gacaca, which were set up to try suspects of the 1994 , in which an estimated 937,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus were murdered. Over 1,100 of the asylum-seekers are later denied asylum by the Uganda government and advised to return home. Great Britain announces that it will withhold some 5 million pounds (US$9.6 million) in budgetary support for the Ugandan government over concerns about the pace of the country’s political transition. Ugandan opposition groups welcome the move, but the government insists the transition is being handled in a transparent manner. May 2005 The National Resistance Movement (NRM) launches an ambitious mobilization program to recruit 8,000,000 vot- ers out of the 12,000,000 eligible voters countrywide ahead of 2006 elections. Ugandan parliament votes in favor of holding a referendum in July in which Ugandans would decide on whether to return to a multiparty system of government. The World Bank gives Uganda $4.2 million to fund a proj- ect to resettle an estimated 11,000 former rebel fighters. In 2000, the Uganda government enacted an amnesty law that granted unconditional amnesty to any Ugandan engaged in armed rebellion who surrendered and denounced violence. June 2005 Industrial nations agree to immediately write off US$40 billion of multilateral debt owed by eighteen of the world’s poorest countries, including Uganda. 222 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

In the first round of voting Parliament shows overwhelm- ing support for Constitutional Amendment No. 3 that lifts presidential term limits: 232 MPs voted for, 50 against and 1 abstention. Army representative Col. Fred Bogere abstained. President Museveni announces the abolition of graduated tax in the state of the nation address. A new tax would replace graduated tax. In the same speech Museveni announces that government would assume the responsibil- ity of paying salaries of district chairpersons, district execu- tive members, subcounty and town council chairpersons. Museveni also announces a Constituency Development Fund in which each constituency would receive Ug. shs. 10 million per year to fund development projects. MPs would also receive the equivalent of 6,060 dollars per year per per- son. Fundraising by MPs would be illegal following amendment of the leadership code. Museveni pledges to forgive Kony if he surrenders to gov- ernment forces, assuring him that he will receive the same treatment and immunity from persecution as other former LRA commanders such as former rebel spokesman Kolo. UNHCR reports that at least 7,000 Sudanese refugees fleeing ethnic tension and food shortages have crossed into Uganda, joining some 160,000 Sudanese refugees already in the country. In Kampala, police use tear gas and water cannons to dis- perse dozens of demonstrators protesting a plan to amend the constitution to remove presidential term limits. July 2005 Sudan’s Vice President John Garang is killed in a helicopter crash as he returns home to Sudan after two days of talks with President Museveni in Uganda. Thirteen Ugandans also killed including President Museveni’s chief pilot Col. Nyakairu. Referendum on political systems is held, 92.5 percent of voters favor return to multiparty system but unofficial voter turnout is listed at 30 percent with the Electoral Commission putting it at 47 percent. Parliament approves the creation of 20 new districts, and proposals for two more are sent into committee. The Ugandan army reports that three weeks earlier it had killed Ali Kony, eldest son of LRA leader Joseph Kony, and rebel chief-of-staff Maj. Gen. Lakati Owor. Time Line of Key Historical Events 223

Uganda achieves its targets for the number of HIV-positive people accessing antiretroviral (ARV) therapy six months earlier than anticipated. It had intended to have 60,000 people on the life-prolonging drugs by the end of 2005, but by July, over 65,000 were receiving the treatment. At least forty armed Uganda cattle rustlers are killed by Kenyan warriors and security forces when they cross into neighboring Kenya to raid cattle. The incident reinforces the need to disarm the Kenya-Uganda border communi- ties, which are notorious for cattle rustling and violence. August 2005 K-FM radio, a subsidiary of Monitor Publications Ltd. is closed down and talk show host Andrew Mwenda is arrested and detained on sedition charges. The health ministry reports that a rare strain of cholera bac- teria has claimed the lives of 56 people and infected 2,200 others in several areas of Uganda over the past four months. IDPs in the north are particularly susceptible, given that they live on less than three litres of water per day, far below the 15-litre-a-day international recommendation. First Deputy Prime Minister Lt. Gen. Moses Ali warns for- mer fighters of Uganda National Rescue Front (UNRF) II against resuming armed rebellion. High court orders immediate release (on bail) of 12 treason suspects allegedly connected with the People Redemption Army (PRA) and detained for two years without trial. They were captured in Ituri Province of eastern DRC in 2003. Salva Kiir is sworn in as vice president of Sudan, replacing the late Col. John Garang. A new report by the Ugandan health ministry and its part- ners finds that an estimated 1,000 people displaced by the nineteen-year war in northern Uganda die every week from violence or disease, notably malaria and HIV/AIDS. The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria temporarily suspends all of its grants to Uganda and asks the Ministry of Finance to put in place a mechanism for ensuring effective management. September 2005 A major road linking northern Uganda and southern Sudanese garrison town of Juba is reopened after almost two decades of disuse and insecurity. The road is expected to improve commerce between the two countries. Hundreds of LRA soldiers—under the leadership of LRA deputy commander-in-chief Vincent Otti—flee Sudan for 224 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

northeastern DRC. Uganda demands that the Congolese government disarm and extradite the insurgents and threatens to invade its western neighbor, should they fail to do so. Kinshasa vows to resist any invasion and later sends 2,000 troops to the northeastern town of Aba to attempt to disarm the rebels. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) announces can- cellation of $3.7 billion of Uganda’s debt. The Parliamentary Committee on Legal and Parliamentary Affairs starts holding hearings on the Political Organizations Bill 2005 that would replace the Political Organizations Act 2002 and move Uganda into a multi- party system. Lords Resistance Army (LRA) leaders relocate to the Democratic Republic of Congo. Uganda seeks quick arrest warrants for them. Uganda pays Cable News Network (CNN) US$1million to promote the country as a tourist destination. British MPs, 119 in all, sign and forward a petition to Prime Minister Tony Blair in London calling for free and fair . The petition is in support of a letter written by Sam Akaki the external coordinator and lobbyist for the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC). October 2005 The International Criminal Court (ICC) issues arrest war- rants for five senior LRA members, including Kony and Otti. The move is met with mixed reactions—the EU praises the effort to end impunity, but local northern lead- ers say it is the final nail in the coffin of the fragile peace process. President Museveni shuffles army and promotes Lt. Gen. Aronda Nyakairima to chief of defense forces of the UPDF. Inspector General of Police Maj. Gen. is promoted to the post of lietenant general and named com- mander of the land forces. UPDF’s Chief Political Commissar is promoted to Major Gen. and appointed Inspector General of Police. Former President dies in a South African hospital and is buried in his home town of Akokoro, Apac district. Dr John Sentamu is confirmed pending enthronement as ninety-seventh archbishop of York at a ceremony at St. Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside, London. Time Line of Key Historical Events 225

Col Kiiza Besigye, Uganda’s opposition leader, returns home after four years of self-imposed exile in South Africa. Besigye, who lost to Museveni in his presidential bid in 2001, is chosen as the candidate for the main opposition party FDC. LRA rebels in the north kill two humanitarian workers. The next day, relief agencies suspend all nonessential field missions as a precautionary measure until the situation is reviewed. Another aid worker is killed in early November, further threatening humanitarian activity in the north. November 2005 The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria lifts its suspension of grants to Uganda, citing the country’s “intensive efforts” to rectify “serious mismanagement” of funding. NRM-O National Delegates Conference ends in Kampala after nominating president Museveni as party chair and presidential candidate for the 2006 general elections. Museveni threatens to suspend judges and magistrates who pass “biased” judgments over land issues. Kampala Mayor is elected Democratic Party (DP) president general by the party’s delegates conference. Kizito is to top the DP presidential ticket. Police arrest Besigye on charges of treason and rape. He is accused of leading an armed, DRC-based insurgency, the People’s Redemption Army (PRA), and is also linked to the LRA. Besigye is denied bail and is also charged by a military court of terrorism and illegal possession of weapons. His arrest provokes violent riots across Kampala and leads to local and international criticism of the government’s handling of the case. Parliament votes to amend the constitution in order to repeal Art. 105(a) of the constitution and thus lift presi- dential term limits. Over 30 armed men from a new unit of the Military Intelligence, also known as the Black Mamba Urban Hit Squad, cordon off the premises of the high court during the hearing of the bail application for FDC presidential candidate Kizza Besigye and fourteen others accused of treason. Judge Edmund Sempa Lugayizi withdraws from the treason case, citing intimidation. The Uganda Law Society plans protest against government intimidation of the judiciary. 226 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

The Commonwealth selects Uganda as the venue for its 2007 summit. December 2005 Great Britain cuts another 15 million pounds (US$26.4 million) in direct assistance to Uganda due to concerns about democracy. Similar measures had been taken throughout the year by Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden, with several of them questioning the government’s commitment to democratic reform. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) rules that Uganda violated the nonuse of force in international relations and of nonintervention when it invaded the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in 2003. Uganda is ordered to pay US$10 billion in compensation. The ICJ also found the DRC in violation of obligations owed to Uganda under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961 when its armed forces attacked the Ugandan embassy in Kinshasa and maltreated Ugandan diplomats and other individuals on the embassy premises. January 2006 Uganda introduces new regulations for foreign journalists and shifts accreditation from the legally mandated Media Council to the newly formed Media Center. All foreign journalists are forced to re-register and get clearance from the Media Center before traveling more than 100 km out- side Kampala. Accreditation for a Canadian journalist is withheld and that of BBC reporter Will Ross cut from one year to four months. President Museveni launches the NRM-O manifesto for 2006 at the Kampala Sheraton Hotel. High Court Justice John Bosco Katutsi refuses to dismiss the rape case against FDC President Kizza Besigye saying that he has a case to answer. Opposition MPs Reagan Okumu and Michael Ocula are acquitted of murder. The two were accused of master- minding the death of Movement chairman, Alfred Bongomin of Pabo subcounty, Gulu. February 2006 First multiparty presidential and parliamentary elections held in Uganda in over two decades. President Museveni wins a third term with 59 percent of the vote. FDC presi- dential candidate Kizza Besigye garnered 37 percent. First Lady wins the Ruhaama parliamentary seat European Union (EU) observers endorse the February 23 general elections. Time Line of Key Historical Events 227

The Buganda parliament (Lukiiko) rejects the regional tier system proposed under the Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA) that was enacted in 2005. The CAA provides for regional governments headed by a directly elected chief executive and calls for the Buganda Katikiro (prime minis- ter) to be directly elected. High Court Justice John Bosco Katutsi withdraws from the Kizza Besigye treason case, citing health and conflict-of- interest reasons, and claims by some government officials (e.g. Gen. David Tinyefuza) that he was biased in his rulings. President Museveni and the UPDF Army Council hold their last session in the life of the Movement government. March 2006 FDC presidential candidate Kizza Besigye files petition in supreme court challenging the results of the February 2006 polls and asking for a new election. Besigye accuses the NRM of intimidation, lack of freedom and trans- parency, unfairness, and violence. Government opens account at the for the deposit of refunds from those who misappropriated monies from the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and Malaria. Parliament passes the Labor Disputes (arbitration and settlement) Bill 2005. It is announced that a Joint Country Coordination and Monitoring Committee (JCCMC) is to be launched for the recovery and development of northern Uganda. The JCCMC would include government officials and represen- tatives from the United States, Norway, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Canada, South Africa, the World Bank, WFP, UNDP, and civil society groups such as Civil Society Organization for Peace in Northern Uganda and the Northern NGO Forum. The Electoral Commission (EC) officially releases results of 302 members of the eighth Parliament. NRM has 187 members, 37 are independents, FDC has 35, UPC 13, DP 9 and CP and Jeema have one each. April 2006 Supreme Court rules 4–3 in favor of President Yoweri Museveni and the Electoral Commission in the election petition filed by the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC) that sought to nullify President Museveni’s victory in the February 23 poll. 228 Regime Hegemony in Museveni’s Uganda

May 2006 Yoweri Museveni is sworn in for a third term as president at Ceremonial Grounds. and are elected, unop- posed, as speaker and deputy speaker respectively. Ssekandi presides over the first session of the eighth Parliament. is sworn in as LC5 chairman of Kampala at KCC gardens. LRA leader Joseph Kony is reportedly given at least US$20,000 by the southern Sudanese government to buy food. June 2006 President Museveni announces his cabinet for the third term. Eriya Kategaya returns to the NRM government as first deputy prime minister and minister of East African affairs. July 2006 President Museveni meets members of the opposition for the first time since the February general elections. Divestiture Reform and Implementation Committee approves the US$ 33.5 million sale of Kinyara Sugar Works to RAI of Kenya. Omoro County MP leaves UPC and joins the NRM-O after announcing his intention to run for a seat on the EA legislative assembly. LRA leader Joseph Kony agrees to hold pace talks with the NRM government in Juba Sudan. South Sudan govern- ment to mediate the talks. August 2006 LRA announces withdrawal from peace talks with the Kampala government, citing loss of confidence in the gov- ernment of Southern Sudan and mediator Riek Machar. LRA second in command Vincent Otti announces a unilat- eral cease fire against Uganda army. Sweden resumes aid in the form of budget support to Uganda albeit at half the level originally planned for the 2006 fiscal year. Budget support would amount to US$ 4.7 million for 2006. LRA third-in-command, Maj. Gen. Raska Lukwiya, is killed by the UPDF in Kitgum district. The international Criminal Court (ICC) that had indicted Lukwiya requests the Uganda government for access to his body for confirmation. American ambassador Steven Browning decries and its adverse effects on democratic Time Line of Key Historical Events 229 institutions. He urges the judiciary to have the courage of protecting its independence. Government of Japan pledges US$ 3million to support resettlement of internally displaced persons in northern Uganda Judiciary introduces a public relations office and names High Court Circuit Judge Eriasi Kisawuzi as its publicist. Regan Akena, former escort to LRA commander Tollbert Yadin Nyeko, is killed, west of Wiceri, Amum District, by UPDF forces. The Buganda government opens up parts of Bulange to investors. The government of Uganda signs an agreement with Joseph Kony and the LRA to cease hostilities on both sides. The agreement also calls for LRA rebels, including Kony and his three deputies, to assemble in designated areas. NRM-O candidates win a majority of elections in new dis- trict elections in the north. Cecelia Ogwal returns to Parliament as Dokolo woman MP. Notes

Chapter 1 Introduction 1. Zartman et al. (1995), Herbst (2000), Callaghy et al. (2001), Kaiser and Okumu (2004), Chabal (1999). 2. See for example, James Tindigarukayo (1990), J. J. Barya (1993), Gilbert Khadiagala (1995), Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa (1992), Kizito (1993), Joshua Mugyenyi (1993). 3. This term is used in the context of Uganda’s cultural milieu. It refers to what in might be referred to as “emirembe gya Museveni.” Literally translated it means the times of Museveni. I also use the term to refer to a political order ushered in and dominated by Museveni. Like other political dispensations (e.g., Pax Americana), Pax Musevenica is not used here to mean order, stability, and peace throughout Museveni’s time as president—the northern insurgency is a clear example of this. Nonetheless, the term denotes the last 20 years during which Museveni has been the imprimatur of politics in Uganda. 4. Until 1995 Local Councils (LCs) were called Resistance Councils (RCs). To avoid confusion they will be referred to as Local Councils in the rest of the book. 5. I credit Ron Kassimir for raising this point. 6. Naomi Chazan, Robert Mortimer, John Ravenhill, and Donald Rothchild, Politics and Society in Contemporary Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), p. 41. 7. Otwin Marenin, “The Managerial State in Africa: A Conflict Coalition Perspective,” in Zaki Ergas (ed.), The African State in Transition (London: McMillan, 1987); Also see Joel Migdal, Strong Societies, Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988). 8. Max Weber, Economy and Society (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968). 9. Quoted from Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 61–62. 10. See Patrick Chabal, Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999). 11. Ibid., p. 39. 12. Bratton and van de Walle (1997), p. 61. 13. Patrick Chabal, “Violence, Politics and Rationality in Contemporary Africa,” Inaugural Lecture, Kings College, 1997. 14. Ibid., p. 5. 15. Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 12–14. 232 Notes

16. Goran Hyden, “Governance and the Study of Politics,” in Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), p. 6. 17. Robert Fishman, “Rethinking State and Regime: Southern Europe in Transition to Democracy,” in World Politics vol. 42, no. 3 (April 1): 428. 18. Hyden and Bratton (1992), pp. 19–20. 19. Seymour Martin Lipset, “Social Conflict, Legitimacy and Democracy,” in William Connolly (ed.), Legitimacy and the State (New York: New York University Press, 1984), p. 88. 20. Foster Byarugaba, “The Undemocratic Nature of the Western Model of Democracy: The View of the Third Universal Theory,” paper presented at the First Joint Uganda-Libya Seminar on the Green Book, held at University, Kampala, Uganda, March 2–4, 1990. 21. Robert Dahl’s definition, for example, includes the concept of the procedural minimum, that is, the procedures that must prevail in order for meaningful democracy to operate, and these are frequent and fair elections, the right to vote and the right to form relatively autonomous associations. 22. See Terry Lynn Karl’s “Imposing Consent? Electoralism vs. Democratization in El Salvador,” in Paul W. Drake and Eduardo Silva (eds.), Elections and Democratization in Latin America, 1980–85 (San Diego: Center for Iberian and Latin American Studies, UCSD, 1986). 23. Mahmood Monshipouri, Democratization, Liberalization & Human Rights in the Third World (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995), pp. 15–16. 24. Larry Diamond, “Three Paradoxes of Democracy,” in Larry Diamond and Marc F. Plattner (eds.), The Global Resurgence of Democracy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), pp. 111–123. 25. Diamond (1996), p. 33. 26. Lipset (1984), p. 97. 27. See Nelson Kasfir, The Shrinking Political Arena: Participation and Ethnicity in African Politics with a Case Study of Uganda (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976). 28. E. Khiddu Makubuya. “Transition to Democracy in Uganda: Legal and Organizational Changes in State Structure,” paper prepared under the auspices of The Project Entitled “Managing the Transition to Democracy in Uganda under the National Resistance Movement,” Kampala, Uganda, August 1994. 29. Joel D. Barkan, “The Rise and Fall of a Governance Realm in Kenya,” in Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), p. 167. 30. Guy Martin, “Preface: Democratic Transition in Africa,” in Issue: A Journal of Opinion vol. XXI, no. 1–2 (1993): 6–7, African Studies Association (ASA). 31. Chabal (1999). 32. Alfred Stepan (1978), p. 53. 33. Lipset (1984), p. 88. 34. This claim assumes the legitimacy of the constitution itself but as shall be seen in the chapters to come, the Ugandan people have had to wrestle with the very notion of constitutionalism since political independence in 1962. For a detailed study of constitutionalism in Uganda since 1986 see Erica Bussey, “Constitutional Dialogue in Uganda,” in Journal of African Law vol. 49, no. 1 (2005): 1–23. 35. Lipset (1984), pp. 90–91. Notes 233

36. C. Friedrich, “Legitimacy and Political Obligations,” in From Man and His Government: An Empirical Theory of Politics (London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963). 37. Lipset (1984), p. 88. 38. Nelson Kasfir, “ ‘Movement’ Democracy, Legitimacy and Power in Uganda,” in Justus Mugaju and J. Oloka Onyango (eds.), No-Party Democracy in Uganda: Myths and Realities (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2000), p. 65. 39. Nelson Kasfir, “The Uganda Elections of 1989: Power, Populism and Democratization,” in Hansen, H., and Michael Twaddle (eds.), Changing Uganda: The Dilemmas of Structural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change (London: James Currey, 1991a), pp. 149. 40. Staffan I. Lindberg, “The Democratic Qualities of Multiparty Elections: Participation, Competition and Legitimacy in Africa,” in Commonwealth & Comparative Politics vol. 42, no. 1 (March 2004): 66. 41. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) found that Uganda violated the principles of nonuse of force in international relations and of nonintervention; that it violated its obligations under international human rights law and international humanitar- ian law; and that it violated other obligations owed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. See New Vision, www.newvision.co.ug, December 19, 2005. 42. The extent to which Uganda can be said to have overcome its ethnic, religious, and ideological differences is still questionable. 43. The only commodity that brought these different societies in commercial contact was salt. It became the one essential need around which barter trade was built in precolonial Uganda. See Samwiri Rubaraza Karugire, A Political (: Heineman, 1980), pp. 26–29. 44. This term is borrowed from David Apter, “Democracy for Uganda: A Case for Comparison,” in Daedalus vol. 124, no. 3 (Summer 1995). 45. George Padmore, Africa: Britain’s Third Empire (London: Dennis Dobson, 1948), p. 113. 46. Ibid., p. 24. 47. , Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 41. 48. Karugire (1980), p. 15. 49. Mamdani (1996), p. 42. 50. Ibid., p. 42. 51. Ibid., p. 43. 52. Karugire (1980), Chapter Two. 53. It is not clear, however, whether this form of political organization has effectively dissolved interethnic conflicts. Movement politics—the NRM in particular—has not, for instance, resolved the traditional North/South conflict that has been exacerbated by the LRA war in the north. The predominance of ethnic western- ers in positions of political and economic power follows traditional patterns in which the ethnicity of the chief executive often determines the ethnic identity of the ruling/economic class. 54. Karugire (1980), pp. 49–97. 55. See Joshua B. Rubongoya, “Ethnicity and Class in Public Policy: A Synthetic Approach to the Study of Development in Kenya and Uganda,” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Denver, Denver CO, 1991b, pp. 189–223. 56. See Samwiri Lwanga-Lunyiigo. “The Colonial Roots of Internal Conflict,” in Kumar Rupesinghe. Conflict Resolution in Uganda (London: James Currey, 1989), p. 28. 234 Notes

57. Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994). 58. Mamdani (1996), Chapter Two. 59. Young (1994), p. 3. 60. Khadiagala (1995), p. 66. 61. Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, ed. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 215. 62. Johnnie Carson (former U.S. ambassador to Uganda), “A Legacy in Danger,” speech made at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Africa Program, June 2, 2005. 63. See Stephen F. Burgesss, “Structural Adjustment and Economic Reform,” in Paul Kaiser and Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions in (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004). 64. Bratton et al. (2001) and Therkildsen (2002).

Chapter 2 Continuities in Delegitimation—Postcolonial Tyranny and Anarchy (1962 to 1986) 1. Karugire (1980), p. 190. 2. Jorgensen (1981), p. 221. 3. The Uganda Argus, May 21, 1962, p. 2; May 22, 1962, p. 1. 4. For fear of socialist elements in the UPC, the Baganda (KY) made sure that the independence constitution guaranteed no change in Buganda’s land tenure sys- tem. The UPC also let be the privileges of the traditional hierarchy of Buganda. These included (a) control over Buganda’s representatives in the National Assembly through election by the Lukiiko, (b) control over local government, (c) control over administering customary law by the Buganda courts, (d) control over a new local constabulary and palace guard, and (e) guarantee of federal funds for the cost of services run by the Buganda government, initially set at a minimum of Ug. shs. 1.5 million per month. All these were constitutionally pro- tected (Jorgensen 1981), pp. 217. 5. Uganda, “The Uganda (Independence) Order in Council, 1962,” section 26 (1). Quoted in Jan Jelmert Jorgensen, Uganda: A Modern History (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981), p. 219. 6. Gukiina (1972), Jorgensen (1981), Kabwegyere (1995), Mugaju (1999). 7. Mugaju (1999), p. 19. 8. This constitution is popularly known as the “pigeonhole” constitution because Obote simply deposited it in MPs pigeon holes without any consultation whatsoever. 9. Ibid., p. 23. 10. Jorgensen (1980), p. 230. 11. Khadiagala (1995), p. 36. 12. The subordination of the legislature to the executive branch of government, itself a product of the colonial state, repeats itself in all of the postcolonial governments in Uganda. Chapter 6 probes the same patterns under the NRM government. 13. One such example involved the arrest and detention of Abu Mayanja and the editor of Transition, Rajat Neogy, following the publishing of Mayanja’s letter Notes 235

complaining about the judiciary’s use of political ideology in deciding the out- come of cases. 14. Obbo and Another v. Attorney General: Constitutional Appeal to the Supreme Court no. 2 of 2002. 15. One illustrative example of this was the 1964 elections for the urban authorities of Kampala and Jinja. 16. This policy/tactic was particularly common in Ankole where the DP was quite strong. 17. A good example of this was the fraudulent resolution (August 1962) by the Busoga district council to contravene the Uganda-Order-in-Council regula- tions. When the Uganda High Court reversed the resolution, and thus the elections, the enacted a law that reversed the high court. 18. Karugire (1980), p. 191. 19. This is a weakness suffered by Museveni, especially in the latter part of NRM rule. Key allies and supporters of the NRM have been alienated and expelled or resigned from the Movement. 20. Jorgensen (1981), p. 232. 21. Gukiina (1972), Mamdani (1976), Kabwegyere (1995), Jorgensen (1981), Gershenberg (1972). 22. Jorgensen (1981), p. 235. 23. Kabwegyere (1995), pp. 211–217. 24. Ibid., p. 215. 25. Perlmutter (1981), p. 41. 26. Mudoola (1988), p. 131. 27. This point was made by Robin Luckham in his synthesis of the S. E. Finer and Janowitz schools of thought, both of which explain why the military intervenes so frequently in African states. See William Tordoff, Government and Politics in Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984). 28. Jorgensen (1981), pp. 270–271. 29. Khadiagala (1995), p. 37. 30. Jorgensen (1981), p. 274. 31. Okoth (1995), p. 183. 32. Uganda, The Action Programme, 1977 to 1978 and 1979 to 1980 (Entebbe: Ministry of Planning and Economic Development, 1977), p. 46. 33. Uganda, The Action Programme, 1977 to 1978 and 1979 to 1980 (Entebbe: Ministry of Planning and Economic Development, 1977), p. 46. 34. Kasfir (1983), p. 90. 35. See Jorgensen’s (1981), for a list of “High-ranking Pre-Coup Officers in Army after the Coup” and what happened to them, p. 270. 36. Ali Mazrui, Soldiers and Kinsmen: The Making of a Military Ethnocracy in Uganda (New York: Sage Publications, 1975), p. 45. 37. Khadiagala (1995), p. 35. 38. Chabal and Daloz (1999), p. 106. 39. Tindigarukayo (1988), Brett (1994). 40. Kasfir (1983), p. 97. 41. Ibid., p. 98. 42. Ddungu (1994), p. 19. 43. Ibid., p. 20. 236 Notes

Chapter 3 Reconstructing the State: Challenges of Legitimacy and Power Consolidation 1. See Ali Mazrui, “The Social Origins of Ugandan Presidents: From King to Peasant Warrior,” in Canadian Journal of African Studies vol. 8, no. 1 (1974). 2. Quoted from, Ron Kassimir, “Reading Museveni: Structure, Agency and Pedagogy in Ugandan Politics,” in Canadian Journal of African Studies vol. 32, no. 2/3 (1999): 649–673. 3. Yoweri Museveni, What is Africa’s Problem? (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), p. 7. 4. Museveni abhors what he calls a “barbaric practice” among his people of using the skin of a dead calf to coax milk out of its mother. Quoted from Kassmir 1999, p. 656. 5. Mikeal Karlstrom “The Cultural Kingdom in Uganda: Popular Royalism and the Restoration of the Buganda Kingship,” Ph.D. Disssertation, University of Chicago, 1999, p. 28. 6. Ronald Kassimir (1999), pp. 649–673. 7. Oloka-Onyango (2000), John Jean Barya (2000), Jjuuko (1999). 8. For details of these activities, see Ondoga ori Amaza, Museveni’s Long March from Guerilla to Statesman (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 1998) and Yoweri Museveni, Sowing the Mustard Seed: The Struggle for Freedom and Democracy in Uganda (London: Mcmillan Education Limited, 1997). 9. Karlstrom (1999), p. 28. 10. Ibid., p. 440. 11. Ibid., p. 447. 12. Ibid., p. 447. 13. Ondoga ari Amaza, Museveni’s Long March from Guerilla to Statesman (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 1998), p. 29. 14. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). 15. The exception is Mozambique, where an administrative system was put in place during the liberation struggle against Portuguese oppression and later became integrated into the postcolonial state structure. In fact, Uganda’s LC system was modeled after Mozambique’s. 16. Yoweri Museveni, Sowing the Mustard Seed: The Struggle for Freedom and Democracy in Uganda (London: Macmillan Education Ltd., 1997), pp. 189–190. 17. See Ondoga ori Amaza (1998); Southall (1988). 18. See Goran Hyden, “Governance and the Study of Politics,” in Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton (eds.), Governance and Politics in Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992), pp. 17–19. 19. Nelson Kasfir, “ ‘Movement’ Democracy, Legitimacy and Power in Uganda,” in Justus Mugaju and Oloka Onyango (eds.), No-Party Democracy in Uganda: Myths and Realities (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2000), p. 65. 20. Kasfir (2000), p. 65. 21. Rosalind E. Boyd, “Empowerment of : Real or Symbolic,” in The Review of Political Economy vol. 45/46 (1988): 106–116. 22. E. A. Brett, Providing for the Rural Poor: Institutional Decay and Transformation in Uganda (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1993), p. 39. Notes 237

23. Ibid., p. 39. 24. Apolo Nsibambi, “Resistance Councils and Committees: A Case Study from Makerere,” in Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.), Changing Uganda: The Dilemmas of Structural Adjustment & Revolutionary Change (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1991b), p. 279. 25. In 1995, the government formally dropped the term “resistance,” acknowledg- ing a return to normal conditions. Resistance Councils (RCs) thus became Local Councils (LCs). 26. Kasfir (2000), p. 60. 27. Ibid. 28. Kasfir (2000); John Jean-Barya (2000); J. Oloka Onyango (2000). 29. See Nelson Kasfir, “The Uganda Election of 1989: Power, Populism and Democratization,” in Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.), Changing Uganda: The Dilemma of Structural Adjustment & Revolutionary Change (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1991a). 30. The few restrictions included postprimary educational qualifications or posses- sion of a professional certificate; support of four members of the electoral college and filling out two simple forms (see Kasfir 1991a). 31. Reduced nomination requirements maximized the scope and breadth of candi- dates qualifying to run because they did not need a network or political organi- zation in order to be effective. 32. Kasfir (2000), p. 67. 33. Kasfir (1991a), p. 261. 34. Government control of the LC system had been legalized by LC Statute no. 9 (1987). 35. Quoted from Kasfir (1991a), p. 247. 36. Benjamin J. Odoki, “The Challenge of Constitution-Making and Implementation in Uganda,” in J. Oloka Onyango (ed.), Constitutionalism in Africa: Creating Opportunities, Facing Challenges (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 2001). 37. Quoted from Odoki (2001), p. 267. 38. Oliver Furley, “Democratisation in Uganda,” in Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 38, no. 3 (November 2000): 85. 39. According to Oliver Furley and James Katalikawe (1997), the idea of a demo- cratically elected Constituent Assembly debating the draft constitution was a result of public pressure coming especially from proponents of political party pol- itics. The NRM itself was initially reluctant to endorse the idea because it pre- ferred the National Resistance Council (NRC) that was more favorable to its interests. 40. See Oliver Furley 1999; H. B. Hansen and M. Twaddle (eds.), 1995; Sabiti Makara et al. 1996; Oliver Furley and J. Katalikawe 1999. 41. See John-Jean B. Barya, Popular Democracy and the Legitimacy of the Constitution: Some Reflections on Uganda’s Constitution-Making Process (Kampala: Center for Basic Research, 1993), p. 30. 42. See A. G. G. Gingyera Pincycwa, “Constitutionalism in Uganda: The Necessity for Political Socialization,” paper prepared for a conference on the Dynamics of Political and Administrative Change in Uganda, , Kampala, Uganda. 1992. 43. Arthur Bainomugisha, “The Empowerment of Women,” in Justus Mugaju (ed.), Uganda’s Age of Reforms: A Critical Overview (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1999). 238 Notes

44. Aili Mari Tripp (2000); Sylvia Tamale (1999); Rosalind Boyd (1988); Anne Marie Goetz (2002), etc. 45. Uganda now has a total of six districts and women are guaranteed a seat from each in the national sixty seven legislature or parliament. 46. Sylvia Tamale, “Gender and Affirmative Action in Post-1995 Uganda: A New Dispensation, or Business as Usual?” in J. Oloka-Onyango (ed.), Constitutionalism in Africa: Creating Opportunities, Facing Challenges (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 2001). 47. These are figures from the Academic Registrars office, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, quoted from S. Tamale (2001). 48. Lady Justice Kireju, Justice Constance Byamugisha, Justice Kikonyogo and Justice Alice Mpagi Bahigaine. 49. In 1988 alone Victoria Sekitooleko, Rhoda Kalema, Joyce Mpanga, Florence Nkurukenda, Betty Bigombe, and Gertrude Njuba were appointed ministers. 50. Ruth Mukama, Visible at Last (ACFODE: 1995). 51. Christine Obbo, “Women, Children and a ‘Living Wage,’ ” in Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.), Changing Uganda: The Dilemma of Structural Adjustment and Revolutionary Change (Kampala: Fountain Publishing Ltd., 1991), p. 98. 52. Mary Mugyenyi, “The Impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes on Ugandan Rural Women” (mimeo), 1997. 53. Aili Mari Tripp, Women & Politics in Uganda (Madison: The University of Kampala Wisconsin Press, 2000), p. 113. 54. D. A. Low, “The Dislocated Polity,” in Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.), Uganda Now: Between Decay and Development (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1988), pp. 36–53. 55. Sallie Simba Kayunga, “The Impact of Armed Opposition on the Movement System,” in Justus Mugaju and J. Oloka-Onyango (eds.), No-Party Democracy in Uganda: Myths and Realities (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2000). 56. C. Asowa-Okwe, “Politics and the Crisis in the North,” paper presented at a Faculty of Law Symposium, Makerere University, Uganda, April 26, 1996. 57. Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), p. 76. 58. Sallie Simba Kayunga in Mugaju and Oloka-Onyango (2000), p. 114. 59. The New Vision newspaper, April 16, 1992. 60. Asowa-Okwe (1996), p. 22. 61. See report by Richard Carver of Amnesty International entitled “Uganda’s Human Rights Record: 1986–88” (London, October 1988). 62. This admission was made in an interview between journalist Caroline Clara Lamwaka and Maj. Gen. Salim Saleh. See Caroline Clara H. Lamwaka, “The Civil War and Peace Process in Uganda,” unpublished MA thesis, University of Bradford, U.K., 1996. 63. The 1989 elections for Resistance Councils and National Resistance Council (NLC) were marred by insecurity stemming from rebel and civil war activity in Gulu, Apac, and Kumi districts, Usuk County, and Soroti district. 64. Asowa-Okwe (1996), p. V. 65. Ellen Hauser, “Ugandan Relations with Western Donors in the 1990s: What Impact on Democratisation?” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 37, no. 4 (1999): 621–641. Notes 239

66. Mugaju and Oloka-Onyango (2000), p. 110. Also Tedd Gurr, Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts (Washington DC: U.S. Institute of Peace Studies, 1993). 67. OECD, Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Aid Recipient: Disbursements, Commitments, Country Indicators 1990–1994 (Paris: OECD, 1996), quoted in Paul Kaiser and F.Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions in East Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004), p. 156. 68. Joshua Mugyenyi, “IMF Conditionality and Structural Adjustment under the National Resistance Movement,” in Hansen and Twaddle (1991), p. 74. 69. K. Sawar Lateef, “Structural Adjustment in Uganda: The Initial Experience,” in Hansen and Twaddle (1991), p. 21. 70. Ibid. (1991), p. 25. 71. Ibid. (1991), p. 31. 72. Ibid. (1991), p. 69. 73. This is a reference to the 1991 U.S. Democratic Party presidential campaign slo- gan. Bill Clinton, then a candidate, used it to chastise his opponent (George W. Bush) and to keep the campaign focused on the economy, which was in recession. 74. Larry Diamond, Seymour Martin Lipset, and Juan Linz (eds.), “Building and Sustaining Democratic Government in Developing Countries: Some Tentative Findings,” in World Affairs vol. 150, no. 1 (Summer 1987): 5–19. 75. This is point no. 10 of the Ten Point Programme of the National Resistance Movement. See Museveni (1997), appendix. 76. Mugyenyi in Hansen and Twaddle (1991), p. 70. 77. E. O. Ochieng, “Economic Adjustment Programmes in Uganda, 1985–88,” in Hansen and Twaddle (1991), p. 56. 78. See Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa, “Is Uganda an Emerging Economy?” A report for the OECD project: Emerging Africa. Research report no. 118. Nordiska Afrikainstitutet (Uppsala 2001), pp. 21–22. 79. See the “Background to the Budget 1989–90,” Ministry of Planning and Economic Development, Kampala, July 1989, pp. 61–64. Economist E. O. Ochieng in Hansen and Twaddle (1991, 59) warns, however, that production data (contrary to monetary statistics) and especially agriculture, are highly suspect due to lack of census, for instance, for over twenty years. 80. See Justus Mugaju (ed.), Uganda’s Age of Reforms: A Critical Overview (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1999), p. 4. 81. Quoted in Pamela Mbabazi, Joshua Mugyenyi and Timothy Shaw, “Ugandan Elections 2001: Lessons for/from Democratic Governance,” paper presented at the African Studies Association Annual meeting in Houston TX, November 2001. 82. See Bruce Heilman and Laurean Ndumbaro, “International Context,” in Paul J. Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions in East Africa (Aldershot: Publishing Ltd., 2004). 83. Mette Kjaer, “Fundamental Change or no Change? The Process of Constitutionalizing Uganda,” in Democratization vol. 6, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 108. 84. The debate against “no-party democracy” has been sustained by scholars and politi- cians in both intellectual and popular media. These include Oloka-Onyango (2000), Mamdani (1980), Jjuuko (1999), Barya (2000), Mao (1999), Kjaer (1999). 85. The Courier (1993), no. 141, September 17–23. Quoted in Kjaer vol. 6, no. 4 (1999): 93–113. 240 Notes

86. Early NRM rhetoric was chock full of references to “modernization” and “back- wardness.” Museveni’s early speeches (see Museveni 2000) explain his bush war as intended to gain state power in order to promote the former and fight the latter. 87. Kasfir (1991a), p. 266. 88. Museveni (1997). 89. Also see chapter 6 for the role of political discourse in legitimizing NRM rule. 90. Kassimir (1999), p. 658. 91. See H. Bienen and J. Herbst, “The Relationship between Political and Economic Reform in Africa,” Comparative Politics vol. 29, no. 1(1996): 23–42.

Chapter 4 Institutional Change and Democratization 1. Khadiagala (1995), p. 35. 2. The process itself started in 1988. See chapter 13. 3. Furley and Katalikawe (1997); Furley (1999); Cullimore (1994); Kjaer (1994). 4. Barya (1995); Gingyera-Pinycwa (1992); Kasfir (1991b); Sewanyana (1996); Waligo (1994a); Oloka-Onyango (1996); etc. 5. Furley and Katalikawe (1997), p. 256. 6. Barya (1995), pp. 10–12. 7. Stephen Ndegwa and Ryan E. Letourneau, “Consitutional Reform,” in Paul Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transition in East Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004), p. 89. 8. J. Oloka-Onyango, Governance, Democracy and Development in Contemporary Uganda (Kampala: Center for Basic Research, 1998), p. 21. 9. Article 269 limits the activities of political parties and, therefore, of political organization, generally. 10. Bratton and Lambright (2001). 11. There is a broad intersection between these two groups. Most federalists favor multipartyism and decentralization. 12. In 2003, the NRM relented and acceded to full recognition of party politics in the 2006 general elections. 13. This point is also strongly made by J. Oloka-Onyango (2000), p. 52. 14. Stephen Ndegwa and Ryan E. Letourneau (2004). 15. The Uganda Constitutional Review Commission has proposed and the NRM has agreed to this. 16. Aaron Griffiths and James Katalikawe, “The Reformulation of Ugandan Democracy,” in Can Democracy be Designed: The Politics of Institutional Choice in Conflict-Torn Societies (London and New York: Zed Books, 2003), p. 106. 17. Afrobarometer Briefing Paper no. 1: Key Findings about Public Opinion in Africa (April 2002), p. 2. 18. See Roger Tangri and Andrew Mwenda (2001), “Corruption and Cronyism in Uganda’s Privatization in the 1990s,” in African Affairs vol. 100, no. 393: 117–133. 19. Nsibambi (1998), p. 56. 20. J. Oloka-Onyango, “Uganda’s ‘Benevolent’ Dictatorship,” in Current History: A Journal of Contemporary World Affairs vol. 96, no. 610 (May 1997). Oloka- Onyango makes the claim that the reintroduction of traditional kingships was merely instigated by the NRM’s need for Baganda votes in the 1996 general election. Notes 241

21. Holger Bernt Hansen and Michael Twaddle (eds.), Developing Uganda (Oxford: James Currey, 1998). 22. Figures quoted from Jeni Klugman et al., Conflict and Growth in Africa vol. 2, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda (Development Centre of the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 1999), p. 36. 23. E. A. Brett, “Rebuilding Organization Capacity in Uganda under the NRM,” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 32, no. 1 (1994): 67. 24. Per Tidemand, “New Local State Forms and ‘Popular Participation,’ in Buganda, Uganda,” in The New Local Level Politics in East Africa: Studies on Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya, Research Report no. 95 (Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 1994), pp. 35–37. 25. Per Tidemand (1994), pp. 37–38. 26. Lynn S. Khadiagala, “The Failure of Popular Justice in Uganda: Local Councils and Women’s Property Rights,” in Development and Change vol. 32 (2001): 55–76. 27. Khadiagala (2001), p. 72. 28. Per Tidemand (1994), p. 35. 29. Ibid., p. 33. 30. District Administrators were later renamed Resident District Commissioners or RDCs. 31. Per Tidemand (1994), p. 41. 32. Giovanni Andrea Cornia (2001), p. 80. 33. Per Tidemand (1994) found few instances such as the one in Mbale town where LC5s successfully forced corrupt civil servants out of office (1994:42). 34. Ibid., p. 40. 35. Ibid., p. 45. 36. Ibid., p. 48. 37. Ibid., p. 48. 38. This policy initiative followed recommendations made by the Commission of Inquiry into the Local Government System (June 1987) set up by President Museveni shortly after taking power. 39. See Brett (1994, p. 94). The issue of decentralization was also very contentious in the CA debates. 40. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 90. Financial decentralization was phased in beginning with thirteen districts in financial year 1993 to 1994 and finally covered the entire country in 1995 to 1996. 41. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 90. 42. The 1997 Act replaced the 1967 Local Administrations Act and the 1964 Urban Authorities Act both of which concentrated power in the office of the minister of local government. 43. In their paper presented to the annual African Studies Association (ASA) confer- ence in Houston, Texas (2001), Pamela Mbabazi et al. report an incident in Kabale, where the RDC prevented a popular talk show host critical of Museveni from moderating Museveni’s appearance on Voice of Kigezi radio during the 2001 elections. See Mbabazi et al., Ugandan Elections 2001: Lessons for/from Democratic Governance. Unpublished. 44. See Anne Marie Goetz (2002); she notes the creation of six new districts just before the 1996 presidential elections and eleven new ones in 2000 just in time for the 2001 presidential polls. 242 Notes

45. Geoffrey Tukahebwa, “The Role of District Councils in Decentralizatition,” in Apolo Nsibambi (ed.), Decentralization and Civil Society in Uganda: The Quest for Good Governance (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1998). 46. Ibid., p. 29. 47. Cornia (2002), p. 98. 48. Ole Therkildsen (2002), “Uganda’s Referendum 2000: The Silent Boycott: A Comment,” in African Affairs vol. 101, no. 98: 101, 238. 49. See Brett (1994), p. 67. 50. Ibid., pp. 68–69. 51. Michael Karlstrom (1999). Quoted from Ole Therkildsen (2002), p. 240. 52. See Makara Sabiiti, “Political and Administrative Relations in Decentralization,” in Apolo Nsibambi (ed.), Decentralization and Civil Society in Uganda: The Quest for Good Governance (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1998). 53. Anne Metter Kjaer, “ ‘Old Brooms Can Sweep Too!’: An Overview of Rulers and Public Sector Reforms in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya,” in The Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 42, no. 3 (2004): 398, 407. 54. For details on Uganda’s civil service reforms see Peter Langseth, “Civil Service in Uganda: Objectives and Strategic Plans,” in P. Langseth, J. Katorobo, E. Brett, and J. Munene (eds.), Uganda: Landmarks in Rebuilding a Nation (Kampala: Fountain Publishers Ltd., 1995). 55. Langseth et al. (1995), p. 97. 56. Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa, “Is Uganda an Emerging Economy?” A Report for the OECD Project “Emerging Africa” Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. Research Report no. 118 (1991), p. 87. 57. World Bank presentation at the Donor Consultative Group Meeting in Paris, August 1994. Quoted in Langseth et al. (1995), pp. 112. 58. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 81. 59. Ibid., pp. 28–29. 60. The poor showing by the Democratic Party candidate Paulo Ssemwogerere was partly due to his alliance with the UPC party that was hugely unpopular in Buganda. 61. See John Jean Barya. 1997. “Democracy and the Issue of Culture in Uganda: Reflections on the (NON)Restoration of the Ankole Monarchy,” in East African Journal of Peace & Human Rights vol. 4, no. 1(1997): 556–569. 62. For a detailed account of the development and status of Buganda, see Pierre Englebert, “Born-Again Buganda or the Limits of Traditional Resurgence in Africa,” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 40, no. 3 (2002): 345–368. 63. Administrative structures include the recently reestablished traditional counties (amasaza), subcounties (gombolola), and parishes (miluka); and Kabaka- appointed chiefs at each of these levels. 64. Englebert (2002), p. 349. 65. Ibid., p. 355. 66. Mikael Karlstrom, “The Cultural Kingdom in Uganda: Popular Royalism and the Restoration of the Buganda Kingship,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Chicago, 1999. 67. See J. Oloka-Onyango, “Reflections on the Process of Constitutional Development in Uganda,” in a draft paper presented at the East African Law Society Conference on Constitutionalism, held in Mombasa, Kenya, August 15–16, Notes 243

1996. Also see Doornbos and Mwesigye (1994), Mukyala-Makiika (1998), and J. Oloka-Onyango (1997). 68. Karlstrom (1999), p. 27. 69. Ekech (1975), quoted in Englebert (2002), p. 347. 70. The newspaper archives. 71. Stephen F. Burgess, “Structural Adjustment and Economic Reform,” in Wafula Okumu and Paul Kaiser (eds.), Democratic Transitions in East Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004). 72. Franz Schurmann, “Africa is Saving Itself,” in Choices: The Human Development Magazine vol. 5, no. 1 (1996): 5. 73. Roy Laishley, “Uganda: Turning Growth into Prosperity,” in Africa Recovery vol. 7, no. 2 (October 1993): 19. 74. Franz Schurmann, “Africa is Saving Itself,” p. 7. 75. Burgess (2004). 76. E. A. Brett (1994), Justus Mugaju (1999), Apolo Nsibambi (1998), Geoffrey B. Tukahebwa (1998), Tangri and Mwenda (2001). 77. For a thorough discussion of government corruption in Uganda’s privatization process, see Tangri and Mwenda (2001). 78. Roy Laishley, “Uganda: Turning Growth into Prosperity,” p. 19. 79. Statistical Sources: Uganda (1996), Background to the Budget 1996/97; IMF: International Financial Statistics; World Bank (1995); World Bank Development Data; Statistical Abstract 1998; Bank of Uganda, Monthly Economic Reports. Quoted from Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001). 80. World Bank, World Development Report (various editions); World Bank (1997); World Bank files. 81. Roy Laishley, “Uganda: Turning Growth into Prosperity,” p. 18. 82. Ibid., p. 19. 83. David E. Sahn, Paul A. Dorosh, and Stephen D. Younger (eds.), Structural Adjustment Reconsidered: Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 12. 84. See Oliver Furley, “Democratization in Uganda,” in Conflict Studies no. 317, Research Institute for the Study of Conflict and Terrorism, 1999. 85. Furley (1999), p. 3. 86. These observations complemented the criticisms against the NRM concerning the latter’s disproportionately longer period for campaigning compared to that of Museveni’s two opponents. Furthermore, Museveni used government sponsored political education classes (mchaka mchaka) to influence voters against his oppo- nents who did not have equal access to the media to balance the NRM’s negative campaign. Finally, there were questions of incumbents misusing government cars and positions to boost their campaigns. 87. Nelson Kasfir, “ ‘No-Party Democracy’ in Uganda,” Journal of Democracy vol. 9, no. 2 (1998): 50. 88. Furley (1999), p. 6. 89. Surveys showed that most voters considered the presidential election the most important and some claimed they were simply tired of the election process itself—a sign of voter fatigue (The Monitor, June 28–29, 1996, and The New Vision, June 28, 1996). 90. The East African, August 19–25, 1996. 91. Lipset (1984), p. 88. 244 Notes

Chapter 5 Political Legitimacy Threatened: The Return of Presidentialism 1. Sallie Simba Kayunga, “The Impact of Armed Opposition on the Movement System in Uganda,” in Justus Mugaju and J. Oloka Onyango (eds.), No-Party Democracy in Uganda: Myths and Realities (Kampala: Fountain Publishers, 2000), p. 118. 2. See John Clark, “Explaining Ugandan Intervention in Congo: Evidence and Interpretations,” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 39, no. 2 (2001): 261–287. Also see Prunier G. (1999), “L’Ouganda et les Guerres Congolaises,” in Politiques Africaine vol. 75 (1999): 43–59. 3. Clark (2001), p. 270. 4. Withdrawal of Uganda forces was officially communicated to the president of the UN Security Council in a letter (S/2001/461) from First Deputy Prime Minister/Minister for Foreign Affairs Eriya Kategaya dated May 8, 2001. 5. Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU), Country Report: Uganda, 3rd Quarter 1999, London: EIU. Quoted in John Clark (2001). 6. See Oliver Furley, “Democratisation in Uganda,” in The Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 38 no. 3 (November 2000): 79–102. 7. Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa, “Is Uganda an Emerging Economy: A Report for the OECD Project ‘Emerging Africa.’ ” Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet: Research Report no. 118, 2001, p. 34. 8. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001). 9. See Akiiki B. Mujaju (1997), pp. 29–37. 10. Uganda’s GDP growth dropped from 8.4 percent in 1995 to 4.7 percent in 1996—the first year of Uganda’s intervention. One year—1999—after the more protracted intervention in 1998, Uganda’s GDP growth was 5 percent down from 7.5 percent. Inflation in 1996 rose from 3 percent the previous year to 5 percent and in 1998 it reached 10 percent up from 4 percent in 1997 (See Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 22. 11. A. G. G. Gingyera Pinycwa, “To Be or not to Be: The Precarious Status and Role of Parliaments in the ‘Transition to Democracy,’ in East Africa,” in The Uganda Journal vol. 44 (December 1997). Also see Oliver Furley (1997). 12. Ibid., p. 40. 13. Ibid., p. 41. 14. For details of the alleged offenses by ministers and members of Parliament see Oliver Furley (April 1999). 15. New Vision, November 18, 1997. 16. Scandal seems to have followed him into his second reappointment as the Ministry of Health was implicated in alleged mismanagement of funds provided by The Global Fund to Fight AIDS. Fund officials suspended its grants in 2005 until a better management mechanism was put in place. 17. Furley (April 1999), p. 8. 18. New Vision, October 30, 1997. 19. Furley (April 1999), p. 9. 20. The Monitor, November 27 and December 1, 1997 quoted in Furley (1999). 21. Kizza Besigye, “An Insider’s View of how NRM lost the ‘Broad-base’ ” in Sunday Monitor, November 5, 2000. 22. The Monitor, June 1, 1998. Notes 245

23. At this point the president had a 93 percent popularity rating while resident dis- trict commissioners and LC5s had 53 percent and 59 percent, respectively. In 2003, satisfaction with MP performance had improved to 64 percent, but was still the lowest among other representatives. See Bratton et al., “Democracy and Economy in Uganda: A Public Opinion Perspective,” in Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 4, 2000; and Carolyn Logan et al., “Insiders and Outsiders: Varying Perceptions of Democracy and Governance in Uganda,” Afrobarometer Working no. 27, 2003 (www.afrobarometer.org). 24. Furley (1999), p. 10. 25. Tripp (2000), p. 64. 26. Ibid., p. 64. 27. Anne Marie Goetz, “No Shortcuts to Power: Constraints on Women’s Political Effectiveness in Uganda,” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 40, no. 4 (2002): 554. 28. Goetz (2002), p. 555. 29. See Njuguna Ng’ethe, Strogmen, “State Formatiom, Collapse, and Reconstruction in Africa,” in I. William Zartman (ed.), Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1995). 30. Sigmund Neumann (1932), quoted in Martin Seymour Lipset (1984), p. 95. 31. See Michael Bratton and Gina Lambright, “Uganda’s Referendum 2000: The Silent Boycott,” in African Affairs (2001), vol. 100, no. 380, 429–452. 32. Bratton et al., “Democracy and Economy in Uganda: A Public Opinion Perspective,” Afrobarometer Working Papers no. 4, 2000. 33. Bratton and Lambright (2001), p. 450. 34. Ibid., p. 451. 35. Ole Therkildsen, “Uganda’s Referendum 2000: The Silent Boycott: A Comment,” in African Affairs (2002), pp. 101, 231–241. 36. According to Afrobarometer Paper no. 27, The LC system is associated with the NRM’s policy of decentralization and devolution and to the degree that levels of LC efficacy are so high Ugandans’ attitudes toward democracy and the Movement are likely to be positive. 37. Lipset (1984), p. 93. 38. Ibid., p. 93. 39. New Vision, June 28, 2001. 40. When interviewed in August 2001, Professor Foster Byarugaba of Makerere University, a member of the Constitutional Review Commission, revealed that two of the burning issues before the Commission were the passing of the Political Organizations Bill that would pave the way for the legalization of political party politics and constitutional amendments that would prevent government interfer- ence in the election process. 41. A Constitutional Review Commission completed its work in December 2003 and recommended, among other things, that the Constitutional amendment to remove presidential term limits be put to a popular vote by referendum. 42. Kjaer Mette, “ ‘Old Brooms can Sweep Too!’ An Overview of Rulers and Public Sector Reforms in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya,” in Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 42, no. 3 (September): 103. 43. Quoted from Pamela Mbabazi, Joshua Mugyenyi, and Timothy Shaw, “Ugandan Elections 2001: Lessons for/ from Democratic Governance,” paper presented at the African Studies Association (ASA) annual conference, December 2001, Houston, TX, USA. 246 Notes

44. The New Vision newspaper, Monday, December 11, 2000. 45. See The Monitor newspaper, Tuesday, November 21, 2000. 46. A blatant example of this was the Mbarara Municipality race in which the presi- dent officially campaigned for Ngoma Ngime and decampaigned Winnie Byanyima, Besigye’s wife. The latter won, but not until she overcame a Supreme Court challenge following the elections, from the Ngime/NRM camp. 47. A more detailed study of irregularities in the 2001 election can be found in Andrew Kibaya, “The 2001 Presidential Elections: A Step Backwards in the Democratization Process in Uganda,” LL.B thesis, Makerere University Law School, Kampala, Uganda, July 2001. 48. According to The Monitor (Sunday, November 19, 2000), the then internal affairs minister, Moses Ali, stopped aspiring candidates from campaigning and, in effect, from visiting different parts of the country to hold what the PEA 2000 called consultative sessions. 49. This technique was a throw back to the days of Obote I and the “one plus three” election proposal. Candidates running for parliamentary seats were required to stand for election in three regional constituencies other than their own. The pro- posal was ostensibly put forth to diminish subregional ethnic rivalry. 50. Pamela Mbabazi et al. (2001), p. 6. 51. Pamela Mbabazi et al. (2001) assert that the other two strong pledges in Museveni’s manifesto included building a professional army in the next five years and ensuring a smooth transition by putting in place a mechanism for an orderly leadership succession, p. 9. 52. Aid as a percentage of GNP and gross domestic investment together with aid per capita have been calculated using World Bank (World Bank Development Data 1998) figures for the years 1991 through 1996. 53. World Bank Group, Uganda, http://www.World Bank.org/afr/Ug2.htm, 2000. 54. Quoted from Stephen F. Burgess, “Structural Adjustment and Economic Reform,” in Paul Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions in East Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004), p. 126. 55. See Arne Bigsten and Steve Kayizzi-Mugerwa’s (2001) five sets of indicators for emerging African economies. 56. World Bank Group, Uganda. 57. Susan Dicklitch, “Between Stability and Anarchy: The Struggle for Democracy in Uganda,” American Political Science Association conference paper (August 1999), p. 12. 58. Bigsten and Kayizzi-Mugerwa (2001), p. 29. 59. The NRM, in collaboration with the World Bank has allotted US$ 75 million of IDA funding (part of HIPC debt relief) to the Universal Primary Education plan. 60. Figures are from Republic of Uganda, Ministry of Planning and Economic Development; Background to the Budget. They are averages of fiscal years 1991 to 1992 through 1997 to 1998. 61. See Roger Tangri and Andrew Mwenda, “Corruption and Cronyism in Uganda’s Privatization in the 1990s,” in African Affairs (2000), vol. 100, no. 393, 117–133. For perceptions of corruption in Uganda see Michael Bratton et al., “Democracy, Economy and Gender in Uganda: A Report of a National Sample Survey” (September 13, 2000). Survey was conducted by International Foundation for Election Systems (mimeo). 62. Bratton et al. (2000). Notes 247

63. Carolyn Logan et al. Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 27, 2003. 64. World Bank, Can Africa?, p. 76. 65. Ibid., pp. 13–14. 66. Carolyn Logan et al. (2003), p. 38. 67. Ibid., p. 39. 68. Ibid., p. 38. 69. Ibid., p. 39. 70. Guy Martin, “Preface: Democratic Transition in Africa,” in Issue: A Journal of Opinion vol. xxi, no. 1–2 (1993): 6–7, African Studies Association (ASA).

Chapter 6 Convergence not Fundamental Change 1. A presidency characterized by greater powers than the constitution allows. 2. Earl Conteh-Morgan, “The Crisis of Legitimacy, Representation, and State hege- mony,” in Paul Kaiser and F. Wafula Okumu (eds.), Democratic Transitions in East Africa (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 2004), p. 165. 3. Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 55–66. 4. Ibid., pp. 65–66. 5. Ibid. (1997), p. 63. 6. See Tangri and Mwenda (2001). 7. For a detailed account of the networks of businesses and other deals involving the first family and friends see Joel D. Barkan, “An African ‘Success’ Past its Prime,” in Challenges and Change in Uganda. Presentation made at a Conference held on June 2, 2005, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars: Africa Program, Washington, DC: USA. 8. Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU), Uganda: Country Report, April 2003 (www.eiu.com). 9. EIU. Uganda: Country Report, January 2003, p. 15. 10. The other companies included Trinity Investment, La Conmet, and Sagricof. See EIU Country Report, June 2003, p. 15. 11. See Barkan 2005. 12. EIU Uganda Country Report, April 2004. 13. The Observer newspaper quoted in The Daily Monitor, May 30, 2005. 14. Roger Tangri and Andrew Mwenda, “Military Corruption & Ugandan Politics Since the later 1990s,” in Review of African Political Economy vol. 30, no. 98, 2003, p. 549. 15. The New Vision newspaper (Internet edition), “Police Charged Over Ghosts,” July 6, 2005. 16. According to the Switzerland-based, , Uganda is the seventh most corrupt country in Africa. The French ambassador to Uganda, Jean Pierre Thiant, is quoted in the October 2004 EIU Country Report (www.eiu.com) as expressing donors unhappiness about “luxurious investments from corruption-related practices sprouting up when the majority of Ugandans are poor.” 17. The highly respected IGG boss and author of this report, Jotham Tumwesigye’s, contract was not renewed—he has since been replaced. EIU, July 2005, p. 18. 248 Notes

18. In his 2005 State of the Nation address, President Museveni announced the fol- lowing new districts: Butarega, Karuhira, Kabingo, Ibanda, Koboko, Kaliro, and Kabongo (see The Daily Monitor June 14, 2005, Internet edition www.monitor.co.ug). 19. See chapter 4. The legalization of traditional kingdoms (an important issue to the Baganda) preceded the elections of the Constituent Assembly (CA) that would debate the draft constitution. The NRM needed the Buganda vote in order to win a majority in the CA, pass a NRM-friendly constitution and later win the 1996 general elections. In the run up to the 2006 elections Museveni has pro- posed the regional tier system to further the cause of Buganda’s federalist inter- ests although he argued that the proposal was for all districts wishing to establish regional government. 20. Anne Mette Kjaer, “Fundamental Change or No Change? The Process of Constitutionalizing in Uganda,” in Democratization vol. 6, no. 4 (Winter 1999): 105. 21. Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle (1997), pp. 63–65. 22. Ibid., p. 103. 23. Bidandi Ssali later left the NRM to form a new party. 24. Around this time of year Britain and Norway suspended aid worth US$9 million and 2.4 million, respectively. 25. See EIU, Uganda Country Report, April 2003. 26. The New Vision, Tuesday, July 5, 2005. 27. Kjaer (1999), p. 101. 28. Ssemwogerere and Others v. Attorney General (Constitutional Petition no. 5 of 2003). Decided, March 21, 2003. 29. The reference here is from Joel D. Barkan’s description of Moi’s governance style in “Governance in Kenya,” in Hyden and Bratton (1992), p. 175. 30. See The Monitor newspaper, “The VP Worried Under Probe,” May 26, 2005, The Red Pepper newspaper, “M7 Blasts Bukenya,” May 27, 2005 and The New Vision newspaper, “Bukenya Denies Tongue Lashing,” June 3, 2005. 31. With exception of , who holds a prominent position in the Movement Secretariat, the rest are still in the cabinet. 32. The Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU) Limited: Uganda Country Report, October 2001. EIU also refers to shock expressed by Amnesty International over the tightened clampdown on the opposition and dissent generally, especially since the speech to the Bishops was preceded by MP Winnie Byanyima’s arrest and the harassment of her husband, Col. Kizza Besigye, who later fled Uganda into exile. 33. Anne Mette Kjaer, “ ‘Old Brooms Can Sweep Too!’: An Overview of Rulers and Public Sector Reforms in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya,” Journal of Modern African Studies vol. 42, no. 3 (2004): 389–213. 34. The 1995 IGG report is quite critical of rampant corruption in the judiciary. 35. Ssemwogerere and Others v. Attorney General (Constitutional Appeal no. 1 of 2000), and Ssemwogerere and Olum v. Attorney General (Constitutional Appeal no. 3, 2000), decided June 25, 2004. 36. EIU: Uganda Country Report, October 2004. The Supreme Court upheld (September 2, 2004) the lower court’s ruling as to the unconstitutionality of the Referendum Act 2000, but declared the outcome of the 2000 Referendum, that is, the continuation of the movement system valid. 37. The Daily Monitor newspaper, June 21, 2005. 38. The New Vision newspaper, June 8, 2005 (Internet edition). Notes 249

39. In June, 2005 FDC Members of Parliament threatened to provide a list of those Movement MPs who received the Ug. shs. 5 million “bribe” to donor countries and to ask the latter to impose a travel ban on these MPs as a sign of disapproval for corruption. 40. Porter Report (see Economist Intelligence Unit Limited, Country Report on Uganda, April 2003). 41. EIU, Uganda Country Report, January 2004. 42. See speech by noted political scientist Joel D. Barkan at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (Africa Program) (www.wwics.si.edu) in Washington, DC, June 2, 2005. Also see Voice of America news, newsVOA.com Washington, DC, June 29, 2005. 43. Joel D. Barkan at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (Africa Program), June 29, 2005. 44. This claim was made by FDC leader Kizza Besigye in a letter to The Daily Monitor newspaper, July 11, 2005. 45. See Human Rights Watch, Hostile to Democracy: The Movement System and Political Repression in Uganda (1999) and U.S Department of State, 1999 Country reports on Human Rights Practices: Uganda (2000). 46. See Amnesty International Uganda: The Full Picture—Uncovering Human rights Violations by Government Forces in the Northern War, AI Index: AFR 59/05/99, March 17, 1999. 47. Human Rights Watch Report, April 2004. http://hrw.org/reports/2004/ uganda0404/3.htm and http://hrw.org/backgrounder/ africa/uganda0505/ 1.htm; Amnesty International Report 2004. http://www.Amnesty.org/report/ 2005/uga-summary-eng and http://www.Amnesty.org/report/2004/uga- summary-eng. Also see The Monitor newspaper (Internet edition), April 2, 2004. 48. Ibid. 49. The New Vision newspaper (Internet edition), May 25, 2005. 50. The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited: Country Report, January 2003, p. 12. On August 11, 2005, in a speech to remember the late Sudanese vice pres- ident, John Garang, President Museveni again threatened to close down The Monitor, Red Pepper, and other newspapers if they continued to broadcast news stories deemed to be in “violation of national security.” 51. One day after the August 11 speech mentioned above, K-FM radio station was closed and talk show host Andrew Mwenda was detained and charged for having violated the sedition clause of the Penal Code. The violation was allegedly committed in a program Mwenda hosted during which he criticized Museveni’s government for having indirectly caused the death of John Garang. See The New Vision newspaper (Internet edition), August 12, 2005 and The Monitor, August 13, 2005. 52. Radio Veritas Kyoga was closed down in July 2003 because according to the gov- ernment it broadcast information helpful to the LRA rebels (Economic Intelligence, October 2003). 53. In May of 2004, donors refused to approve Uganda’s budget because it con- tained a proposal for Ug. shs. 30 billion (US$15 million) as the cost of the refer- endum. See EIU Uganda Country Report, July 2004. 54. Daudi La Guma quoted in the BBC News story “Ugandans Vote in Landmark Polls,” http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk, February 23, 2006. 55. Yellow is the NRM party color. 250 Notes

56. Orange is the FDC party color. It is used here more as a symbol of the opposi- tion, generally. 57. Since taking power in 1986 the NRM government has faced several rebel groups that include the following: Allied Democratic Front, Lakwena, West Nile. 58. See EIU Uganda Country Report, January 2003. The Paris-based journalists’ rights group, Reporters sans Frontiers ranked Uganda 52nd out of 139 countries in press freedom, although this was before the one-week government closure of The Daily Monitor newspaper in October of 2003. 59. Constitutional Petition no. 15 of 1997 was appealed to the Supreme Court in Constitutional Petition no. 2 of 2002. The Court decided the case, February 11, 2004, ruling that the managing editor of The Monitor newspaper, Charles Obbo, and reporter, Frank Nyakairu, had not committed a crime under Section 50 of the Penal Code. The two journalists were charged and the newspaper shut down for seven days allegedly because they printed an unfavorable story about the war in the north. The Supreme Court ruled further that the story and the govern- ment case was “too vague, wide and conjectural to provide the necessary cer- tainty required to impose an acceptable limitation on freedom of expression.” See Erica Bussey, “Constitutional Dialogue in Uganda,” in Journal of African Law vol. 49, no. 1(2005), 1–23. 60. This is according to an Afro-barometer survey conducted by Kampala Wilsken Agencies Limited in April of 2005. 61. This survey was done by the Kenyan organization—Strategic Public relations and Research on behalf of the American-based International Republican Institute in 2003. Three thousand people (male and female) from 12 districts (rural and urban) were polled. 62. Bussey (2005), p. 1. 63. The Global Fund Against AIDS was temporarily suspended in August of 2005 for financial mismanagement (seewww.theglobalfund.org/en/media_center/ press/pr_050824.asp). A commission of inquiry set up by the Uganda govern- ment has exposed misallocations of monies from the fund (see “Mukula Hired Planes for Global Fund Country Trips,” www.allafrica.com/stories, March 3, 2006) recruitment of unqualified personnel due to political influence (see “Probe Grills Ministers Son,” in New Vision, March 11, 2006, www. newvision.co.ug and “IGG Probes Health Jobs,” in The Daily Monitor, October 10, 2003, www.monitor.co.ug). 64. This is a practice common to all postcolonial regimes in Uganda. Idi Amin also relied on the Defense Council as the supreme executive organ of state.

Chapter 7 Conclusion 1. Khadiagala (1998), p. 38. 2. David Easton, A Systems Analysis of Political Life (New York: John Wiley, 1965), p. 288. 3. This is J. J. Rousseau’s idea, quoted in James Miller (1994). 4. Sunday Vision newspaper January 23, 2004. Since Museveni is generally more popular in the rural areas, his job performance numbers are expected to be higher than 65 percent. 5. See Kiiza Besigye, “An Insiders View of How NRM Lost the ‘Broad-Base,’ ” in Sunday Monitor newspaper, Sunday, November 5, 2000. Besigye points out that the CA was negatively influenced by executive appointments including the Notes 251

appointments of Specioza Kazibwe and to the vice presidency and premiership, respectively. This coupled with the appointment of other delegates to ministerial positions and directorships marked the beginning of the purge of moderate voices in the government and by implication the end of political broad- basedness. 6. For a detailed exposition of the northern insurgency see Adam Branch, “Neither Peace nor Justice: Political Violence and the Peasantry in Northern Uganda, 1986–1998,” in the online journal African Studies Quarterly vol. 8, no. 2 (Spring 2005): 1–31. 7. See Human Rights House Network, www.humanrightshouse.org/dllvis5.asp. 8. Quoted from The Daily Monitor (Internet edition) June 9, 2005. 9. This term is borrowed from Fareed Zakaria’s essay, “The Rise of Illiberal Democracy,” in Foreign Affairs vol. 76, no. 6, November/December, 1999. Zakaria argues that more and more countries are adopting illiberal democracies, that is, elected and reelected regimes that sidestep liberal democracy by “rou- tinely ignoring constitutional limits on their power and depriving their citizens of basic rights and freedoms.” 10. Michael Bratton et al., “Democracy, Economy and Gender in Uganda: Report of a National Survey,” survey conducted by International Foundation for Election Systems, September 13, 2000. 11. I. William Zartman (1995), p. 5. Bibliography

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Ablo, 155 military regime, 23, 45–51, 56, 74, Abrahamsen, Rita, 89 86 Acana II, Rwot David Ocen, 115 post government, 53–4 Access Finance Services (AFS), 220 Praetorian, 45, 48 Acholi, 17, 51, 55, 61, 82–3, 126, 218 religion, 46, 51 Adamolekun, Lupido, 104 tyranny, 20, 45–6, 49, 91 Administration and Urban Authorities Amnesty International (AI), 83, 173, Decrees, 48 202 Adoko, Akena, 43 anarchy, 4, 11, 49, 65, 70, 101 Adyebo, George Cosmas, 203 Angola, 133, 166 African Caribbean Pacific/ACP, 203 Ankole, 17–18, 34, 115, 204–5 African Caribbean Pacific/EEC, 85, 89 Anti-Terrorism law, 174 African Growth and Opportunity Apac, 83, 224 (AGOA), 61, 212–13 Apiliga, Moses, 86 African Union Parliament, 215 Apparels Tri-Star Uganda, 213 Afrobarometer, 147, 155–6, 196 Appointments Committee Agreement-1900, 117 (Parliamentary), 135 AIDS, Armed Forces Decree, 48 see HIV/AIDS Army Council (AC), 169–71, 180, 189, see Global Fund to Fight AIDS, 204, 227 Malaria and Tuberculosis Army Promotions and Commissions AIDS Control Programme, 205 Board, 215 Akabway, Stephen, 206 Arua, 142, 201 Akaki, Sam, 224 Arusha, 211, 216 Akena, Regan, 229 Asians, 26, 49–50, 85, 88, 119, 123, Ali, Moses, 91, 135–6, 201, 203–4, 154, 184, 203 209, 223 Atubo, Omara, 175 Allied Democratic Front (ADF), 84, Auma, Alice (Lakwena), 82, 84, 201–2 132–4, 177, 190 Austria, 193 Allimadi, Otema, 203 Awori, Aggrey, 150, 175, 210 Aloet Railway Station, 82, 202 American Civil War, 38, 72 Baganda, 17, 21, 37, 61, 64, 115–16, Amin, Idi 118, 167, 204, 213 coup d,êtat, 45 Bamuze, Ali, 212 economic instrumentalism, 47 Banage, William Bazeterra, 86 economic nationalism, 49 Bank of Uganda, 87, 120, 227 economic productivity, 47 Banya, Kenneth, 217 Economic War, 49–50 Banyankore, 64, 71, 115, 167 Kabaka Mutesa, 33 Barclay’s Metals, 121 militarization of politics, 47 Barigye, John Patrick, 115, 205 272 Index

Barya, John Jean, 98 Bunyoro, 17–18, 36, 115, 117, 170, Bayart, Jean-Francois, 192 204–5 bayaye, 52 Bureau Pour la Recherché Geologique Belarus, 164, 210 et Miniere (BRGM), 121 Besigye, Kizza, 35, 84, 92, 100, 131, Buruli, 36 145–6, 148–51, 157, 172–3, Bush, George W., 146, 214 175–6, 180, 195, 210–11, 219, , 74 225–7 Busoga, 18, 34, 36, 115, 117, 137, Bienen, Henry, 92, 186 170, 204, 206 Bigombe, Betty Acan, 84, 218, 220 Buturo, Nsaba, 218 Bigsten, Arne, 152–3 Buwambo, 206 Bika, 117 Buyaga, 36 Binaisa, Godfrey, 37, 42, 53 Bwendero, 217 black mambas, 173, 195 Bwengye, Francis, 210 Black Mamba Urban Hit Squad, 225 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Blenders Uganda Limited, 119 208 Bogere, Fred, 169, 222 Byanyima, Winnie, 35, 100, 123, 131, Bongomin, Alfred, 174, 226 137–8, 146, 151, 168, Boyd, Rosalind E., 67, 71 180, 208 Bratton, Michael, 12, 18, 141–4, 152, 155, 197 Cable News Network (CNN), 224 Brett, E. A., 67, 71, 104 Catholic, 35, 41–2, 61, 170 British Crown, 20, 117 caudillos, 38 broad-based, 15, 20, 23, 46, 48, 70–1, Celtel, 184 110, 148, 167, 186, 188 Central Purchasing Agency, 88 broad-basedness, 10, 12, 16, 70–2, 86, Chad, 183 91–2, 100, 103, 131, 135, 137, Chazan, Naomi, 5 139, 146, 148, 151, 157, 192 Chief Administrative Officer (CAO), 4, Browning, Steven, 228 109 Budaka, 219 Chieftancy of Military Intelligence Budget Speech (1987), 88 (CMI), 164, 173, 189, 195 Buganda, 15–19, 21, 33–4, 36–41, 44, China, 72, 204, 212 46, 63–4, 70, 84, 105, 114–18, Church of Uganda, 171, 214 124, 127, 167, 170, 204–5, 219, civil libertarians, 10 227, 229 civil-military relations, 3, 24, 64, 93, Buganda Civil Service Commission, 183 39–40 civil service bureaucracy, 113 Buganda Crisis, see Milton Obote civil service reform, 4, 61, 96, 104, Buganda Cultural and Development 112–14 Foundation (BUCADEF), Civil Service Reform Program (CSRP), 116–17 113 Buganda State of Emergency, 40–1 Civil Society Organization for Peace, Bugangaizi, 36 227 Bugisu, 17 Clark, John, 132 Bugolobi, 213 clientelism, 5, 7, 14, 16, 27, 72, 104, Buhekura, 36 131, 137, 162–3, 165, 167, 176, Bujagali, 211, 213 193, 195 Bukedi, 17 clientelist, 14, 26, 123, 163, 165, 167, Bukenya, Gilbert, 167, 170, 214–15 173, 193 Bulange, 116, 205, 229 Clinton, Bill, 208–9 Index 273

Coffee Marketing Board (CMB), 103, Constitutional Commission Report, 97 119 Constitutional Court, 136, 141, 170–1, Commission for Africa, 220 209, 214, 217, 219 Commission of Enquiry, 95, 164 Constitutional Review Commission Commission of Human Rights, 95 (CRC), 79, 101, 169, 187, 213, Common Man’s Charter, see Milton 215 Obote Consumption per capita, 122 Common Market for East and Southern convergence, 4, 29, 161–3, 177, Africa (COMESA), 216 179–81, 191 Congo, see Democratic Republic of co-opt, 13, 27–8, 37, 39, 42, 82, 104, Congo 107–8, 115, 129, 131, 157, 159, consent/effectiveness, 10 176, 180, 184, 187, 189–92, 195 Conservative Party (CP), 168, 227 Criminal Investigation Department Constituency Development Fund (CID), 164, 195 (CDF), 172, 222 Customs House, 136 Constituent Assembly (CA), 76–9, 83, Customs Union, 216 97, 99, 103, 115, 117, 125, 137, 159, 193, 205–6 decentralization, 61, 96, 103–5, Constituent Assembly Delegates 107–14, 116, 118, 127, 158, 162, (CADs), 206 168, 171, 177–8, 187–8, 204 Constituent Assembly election, 77–8, decentralized, 6, 17, 19, 22, 65, 68, 83 109, 158 Constituent Assembly Election Rules of Decentralized despotism, 22, 65 Statute 6/1993, 77 Defense Council, 48 Constituent Assembly Statute #5 of democracy 1988, 76, 78 guided, 13, 79, 107, 118, 126, 129, Constituent Assembly Statute #6 of 131, 157, 187–8 1993, 78, 97 liberal, 20, 89, 100, 110, 197 Constitution, 98 pluralist, 99, 101 Constitution (1962), 38, 40, 76 popular, 11, 59–60, 66–7, 74, 84, Constitution (1966), 39–40 104, 159, 183, 192 Constitution (1967), 38, 40, 48, 76, representative, 11, 143 205 democratic elections, 75 Constitution (1995), 98–101, 109, Democratic Party (DP), 34–6, 41, 54, 115–17, 129, 136–7, 141, 145–6, 74, 91–2, 108, 124–5, 141, 143, 151, 174, 185, 187, 210, 214–15, 168, 170, 175, 177, 192, 225, 227 219–20 Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), article 70, 100, 148 16–17, 27, 84, 119, 132–4, 148, article 70a, 100 158, 164, 172, 190, 193, 208–9, article 72, 100 211, 213–14, 218, 221, 223–6 article 74, 100 democratization, 9, 64, 70, 75, 79, 81, article 269, 99, 100–1 105, 107, 112, 124, 139, 141–2, article 270, 100–1 148–9, 152, 163, 193, 199 article 271, 100, 141 Denmark, 213, 216 article 274, 101 Departed Asian Custodian Board, 49 Constitution Amendment Bill (Ebyaffe), Departed Asians’ Property, 88 114, 204–5 departicipation, 13 Constitutional Commission (Odoki Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Commission), 76–9, 95, 97–9, Disaster Preparedness & Refugees, 109, 202–4 136 274 Index

Detention Act, 41 External Security Organization (ESO), Devarajan, Shantayanan, 153 189 devolution, 4, 96, 104–5, 107, 109–13, 118, 127, 144, 197 federo, 21, 37, 117–18, 206, 219 Diamond, Larry, 87, 152 Ferrero, Giuseppe, 185 Director of Public Prosecution (DPP), Finance and Economic Planning 164 Parliamentary Sessional Committee, district administrators (DA), 73, 106 136 district chairpersons, 142, 222 Finance Minister, 179, 219 district councils, 41, 107, 109, 118 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), 214 district development committees, 106 Forum for Democratic Change (FDC), district executive committees, 109, 139 168, 174–7, 191, 196, 217–19, district proliferation, 110 224–6, 227 District Service Commission, 109 Francis, Kizza, 151 Divestiture Reform and Implementation Freedom House, 127 Committee, 228 fundamental change, 4, 16–17, 61, 64, Dokolo, 229 72–3, 75, 87, 90, 93, 123, 134, Domestic Relations Bill, 189 137, 161, 166, 180–1, 186, 191 draft constitution, 77–8, 97–9, 203–6 Furley, Oliver, 99, 125 Dumba, Kasendwa, 86 gacaca, 221 East African Legislative Assembly and Gafabusa, Solomon Iguru, 115, 205 Court of Justice, 211 Garang, John, 218, 222–3 Ebuuru, 36 Geldof, Bob, 220 Ebyaffe, 114–15, 204–5 gender gap, 63 economic egalitarianism, 8 General Service Unit (GSU), see Milton Economic Recovery Program (ERP), Obote 24, 87, 202 Germany, 193 economic reform, 25, 96, 103, 118, Ghana, 166, 183 120, 155, 197, 209 National Democratic Congress economic war, 49–50 (NDC), 198 Ekimeeza, 174 ghost policemen, 165 Ekisanja, 12, 172, 174, 219 ghost soldiers, 164–5, 193 el Bashir, Omar, 216 ghost students, 165 Electoral Commission (EC), 73, 75, ghost teachers, 165 126, 129, 149, 206, 222, 227 ghost worker, 114 Electoralism, 8 Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Malaria elitist, 135 and Tuberculosis, 179, 223, Engola, Sam, 151 225, 227 Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility governability, 11, 13, 18, 22, 69, 107, (ESAF), 202 129, 140, 159, 175, 197 entandikwa, 61, 121, 186, 217 governance realm, 7–10 Entebbe, 86, 121, 203 Gowon, Yusuf, 86 Entebbe Handling Services Ltd., 119 Great Lakes region, 190 Ethiopia, 166, 183 Gulu, 83, 140, 174, 202, 206, 217, ethnoregional dichotomy, 21 219, 226 European Economic Commission Gulu Delegates Conference, 35 (EEC), 88 European Union (EU), 213, haciendado, 38 224, 226 Herbst, Jeffrey, 92, 186 Index 275

Heritage Oil and Gas, 211 International Financial Institutions High Court, 40, 126, 195, 204, 223, (IFI), 24, 60, 89, 120, 185, 193, 225–7, 229 197 Highly Indebted Poor Countries International Monetary Fund (IMF), (HIPC), 119, 153, 207–9 24–6, 80, 87–9, 102–3, 118, 120, historicals, 74 135, 202, 205, 207–9, 224 HIV/AIDS, 24, 86, 147, 156, 205, Inter-Party Co-operative, 124, 126 211, 217, 220, 223 Investment Code, 121 see also Global Funds to Fight AIDS, Islam, see Muslim Malaria and Tuberculosis Iteso, 51 Holy Spirit Mobile Force (HSMF), 82, Itesot, 83 201–2 Itongwa, Herbert, 206, 216 horizontal accountability, 27 Ituri Province, 223 Human Rights Watch (HRW), 173, 177, 220 Jackson, Robert, 191 Hyden, Goran, 7 Japan, 212, 229 Japan National Cooperation Agency Ibingira, G. S. K., 34–5, 37–8 (JICA), 212 , 140 Jeema, 227 illiberal democracy, 29, 175, 181, 185, Joint Anti-Terrorism Task Force (JATF), 199 173, 180, 189, 195 illiberal politics, 196 Joint Country Coordination and imperial presidency, 12, 161, 172, 176, Monitoring Committee (JCCMC), 189 227 informal-presidentialism-personalistic, Jorgensen, Jan Jelmert, 36–7 145 Juba, 223, 228 insider-outsider, 180 Inspector General of Government Kabaka, 18, 34, 36–8, 40, 46, 114–16, (IGG), 16, 95, 101, 128, 137, 155, 118 164–5, 167–8, 215 Kabaka Foundation, 117 Inspector of Government (KY), 34–7 (Ombudsman), 98 Kabale, 74, 121, 150 Institutional Investor, 153 Kabamba Military Training Wing, 63 interest aggregation, 55, 69 Kabarole, 140 interest articulation, 101, 116, Kabila, Laurent, 133, 148, 208 158, 162 Kabwegyere, Tarsis, 44 interest groups, 16, 72, 78, 126, Kadaga, Rebecca, 228 177–8 Kainerugaba, Muhoozi, 172 Inter-Governmental Authority on Kakonge, John, 35, 37 Development (IGAD), 215 Kakwa, 46, 49, 51–52 Internal Security Organization (ISO), Kalangala, 217 28, 173, 180, 189 Kamira, 105–7 Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), Kampala Northern Bypass, 217 218–19, 223 Kampala Sheraton, 119, 211, 226 International Court of Justice (ICJ), Kampala Stock Exchange (KSE), 121 193, 208, 221, 226 Karamoja, 17, 218 International Criminal Court (ICC), Karim, Peter, 164 220, 224, 228 Karlstrom, Mikeal, 116 International Development Agency Karugire, Samwiri, 19, 40 (IDA), 88, 209 Karuhanga, Chappa, 210 276 Index

Kasese, 140 Kuteesa, Sam, 171 Kasfir, Nelson, 54, 61, 67, 70, 90 Kuya, Masette, 86 Kashaka, Stephen, 215 Kyabazinga, 34, 206 Katalikawe, James, 99 Kategaya, Eriya, 35, 100, 170, 214, 228 Labor Disputes Bill, 227 Katikkiro, 116 Lakara, Nakibus, 215 Katuntu, Abdu, 219 Lakwena, see Katutsi, John Bosco, 226–7 Lambright, Gina, 141–4, 152 Kaunda Ground, 174 Land Bill (1998), 81, 137 Kayihura, Kale, 224 Langi, 43, 51, 55 Kayiira, Andrew, 201 LC committees, 62, 79 Kayizzi-Mugerwa, Steve, 152–3 LC system, 60, 63–5, 67–9, 73, 93, 96, Kayunga, Sallie Simba, 133 100, 104–5, 107–8, 111, 158, 169, Kazibwe, Specioza, 135–7, 170, 205, 183 210, 214 Leadership Code, 137, 167, 207, 222 Kazini, James, 134, 164, 172, 213, 215 Bill, 203 Kenya, 33, 51, 120–1, 125, 166, 198, Committee, 98 201, 214, 216, 223, 228 legal bureaucratic, 14 Kenyatta, Jomo, 23, 33 legitimacy Khadiagala, Gilbert, 48, 53, 55, 183 authority, 3, 5, 8, 15, 17, 22–4 Khadiagala, Lynn S., 106 crisis, 3–4, 15, 19–20, 23, 190 kibanda, 54, 86, 89, 120, 184 deficit, 14, 24, 55–6, 85, 150–1, 193, Kicwamba Teacher Training College, 199 133 democratic, 5, 7–8, 12–17, 23, 26–9, Kigezi, 150 44, 52–3, 56, 62, 99, 127, 131, Kiir, Salva, 223 137, 151, 163, 173, 176, Kikonyogo, Laetitia, 211 189–90, 193, 195 Kilembe, 121 governance realm, 7, 12–13, 15 Kinyara Sugar Works, 228 NRM, 4, 13, 16, 23, 25–7, 68, 72–3, Kirya, B. K., 34, 38 78. 83–4, 90, 93, 101, 112, 116, kisanja, 28, 172, 176, 178, 192 123, 131–2, 151, 155, 165, 187, Kisawuzi, Eriasi, 229 193 Kisekka, Samson, 203 patrimonial, 14, 18, 24, 43, 45, 55 Kitara Kingdom, 205 political, 3, 5, 9, 13–14, 22–3, 36, Kitgum, 83, 218, 228 46–8, 51–2, 56, 71, 79, 87, 89, Kivejinja, Kirunda, 135–6, 171 93, 99, 139, 144, 152, 167, 175, Kiwanuka, Ben, 36 191, 197 Kiwanuka, Joseph, 36 regime, 14, 43, 47, 64, 70, 72, 91, Kiyonga, Crispus, 215 93, 96, 102, 108, 110, 114–16, Kizito, John Ssebaana, 225 119, 124, 155, 157, 185 Kjaer, Anne Meete, 112, 168, 178 state, 10, 14, 16, 27, 73, 75, 80, 93, kleptocracy, 45 102–3, 144, 152, 185, 188, 193 Kolo, see Sam Kolo Otto state effectiveness, 53 Kololo Ceremonial Grounds, 228 legitimacy project, 4, 16, 28, 84, 93, Kony, Joseph, 82, 84, 201, 206, 208, 112, 116, 118, 158, 162, 189 212–13, 216–18, 220, 222, 224, Liberia, 205 228–9 Lint Marketing Board (LMB), 119, 203 Kotido district, 212 Lipset, Seymour, 3, 15, 23, 151, 158, Krennerich, Michael, 125 193–4 kulembeka, 60 Lira, 83, 121, 151 Index 277

Local Councils (LCs), 4, 19, 23, 60 Mamdani, Mahmood, 18, 22, 44 Local Defense Units (LDUs), 62, 84, Martin, Guy, 13 111, 178, 183 Masaka, 121, 140, 151 Local Government Bill, 135, 149 Matembe, Miria, 35, 100, 170, 214, Local Government Commission (LGC), 219 109 Mayanja, Muhammed, 125, 150, 206, Local Government Finance Commission 210 (LGFC), 109 Mayombo, Noble, 164 Local Government Tender Boards, 110 Mazrui, Ali, 51 Local Governments Act (1997), Mbabazi, Pamela, 150, 152 109–11, 207 Mbarara, 74, 121, 140, 142, 174, 208, Local Governments (Resistance 219 Councils) Statute (1993), 109 Mbikke, Michael, 151 Logan, Carolyn, 147, 156 Media Bill, 10 Lords Resistance Army (LRA), 11, Media Center, 226 81–3, 132, 151, 164, 173, 177–9, Media Council, 226 183, 187, 193, 206, 213, 218–20, Members of Parliament (MPs), 36, 54, 222–5, 228–9 74, 90, 126, 135, 137–9, 141, lost counties, see Milton Obote 145, 149, 161, 169, 170–2, 174, Low Income Sub-Saharan Africa 212, 215–17, 219–20, 222, 224, (LISSA), 86 226 Lubiri, 38, 40, 204 Mengo, 38, 116, 205, 219 Luganda, 60, 89, 192 Mexico, 72 Lugayizi, Edmund Sempa, 225 Military Intelligence, 225 Lukiiko, 36–8, 115, 205, 219, 227 Military Police, (MP), 48 Lukwiya, Raska, 228 miluka, 46 Lukyamuzi, Ken, 151 Minister for Parliamentary Affairs, 171 Lule, Yusuf, 53, 64, 202 Minister of Constitutional Affairs, 99 lumpen militariat, 52 Minister of State for Education, 136 Lumu, E. B. S., 38 Minister of Water, Lands and Luwero Triangle, 56, 63–4, 84, 115, Environment, 136 121, 179, 208, 212 Minister of Wildlife and Tourism, 136 Lwanga, David, 201 Minister of Works, Transport & Communication, 135 Machar, Riek, 228 Ministries of Finance and Economic Madhvani Group, 212 Planning, 87 mafuta mingi, 50–2, 54 Ministry of Ethics and Integrity, 95, 167 Magamaga, 202 Ministry of Gender and Community magendo, 50–3, 86, 89, 184 Development, 79 magendoism, 52 Ministry of Planning and Economic Magezi, George, 35, 38 Development, 207 mailo (freehold) estates, 40 Ministry of Women in Development, 79 Makau wa Mutua, 6 Mobile Telephone Networks (MTN), Makerere University, 68, 79, 150, 174 184, 207 , 48 Monitor, The, 41, 174, 213 Makumbi, James, 206 Monitor Publications, 174, 223 malaria, 156, 213, 223 Monshipouri, Mahmood, 8 see also Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Move to the Left, see Milton Obote Malaria and Tuberculosis Movement (NRM), 3 Malinga, Stephen, 175, 219 nationalist doctrine, 66 278 Index

Movement Act (MA), 11, 27, 101, 103, mchaka mchaka, 24, 63–4, 66, 103, 138–41, 146, 148, 151, 157–8, 183, 186 180, 188–90, 207 Minister of Defense, 53 Movement Bill, 11, 139, 207, 214 paternalism, 64, 192 movement democracy, 60, 69–72, 74, peasant/warrior, 60, 192 90–1, 93, 99–100, 146, 186, 188 Resistance Councils, 64 Movement Secretariat, 139, 208 Revolution, 62–4 movement system, 11–12, 25, 70, 73, Sowing the Mustard Seed, 92 75, 81, 97, 99, 103, 111, 131–2, special elections, 72, 77 138, 141, 143–4, 146, 148–9, 159, Mushega, Amanya, 168, 180 161, 187, 196, 207, 209 Muslims, 19, 42, 46, 51, 53, 84 Movement’s social philosophy, 65 Mutale, Kakoza, 168 movementists, 10, 12, 28, 90–1, 98, Mutebi, Ronald Muwenda, 114–15, 136–7, 139, 148–9, 174, 191, 212 201, 205 Mpigi, 121, 140, 206 Mutesa II, Edward, 33–4, 36, Mubende, 140 38, 46 Mugabe, Robert, 198 Mutumba, Sebuliba, 151 Mugaju, Justus, 41, 201 muyaye, 52 Muganda, 170 Mwenda, Andrew, 223 Muhwezi, Jim, 135–6, 171 Mwesigye, Hope, 171 Mukama, Ruth, 80 Muloki, Henry Waako, 206 Nadiope, William, 34, 36, 38 multiparty, 11, 78, 83, 91, 97, 99, 125, Naguru, 48 141–4, 206, 209, 216 Namasujju, 105–7 democracy, 61, 69, 148 National Assembly, 16, 39–40, 43 elections, 13, 151, 159, 161, 175, National Association for the 226 Advancement of Muslims movement, 190 (NAAM), 42 structure, 141 National Conference, 139 political system, 206 National Democratic Forum (NDF), politics, 10–11, 17, 25, 28, 61, 70, 177, 191, 217 90–2, 100, 103, 125, 131, 138, National Executive Committee (NEC), 161, 168–9, 172, 177–8, 194, 28, 169–71, 180, 189, 214 216 National Population and Housing system, 11, 27–8, 90, 178, 214–15, Census (2002), 213, 220 221–2, 224 National Resistance Army (NRA), 55–6, multipartyism, 16, 28, 77, 118, 168–9, 59, 64, 66, 77, 79, 82–4, 86, 92, 175, 214 99, 146, 179, 183–6, 201–6, 208, multipartyists, 10, 12, 28, 90, 97–8, 212 100–1, 103, 132, 138, 143–4, 151, National Resistance Council (NRC), 24, 157–8, 173, 177, 187–8, 191, 212, 73–5, 97, 101, 114, 119, 202–6 215 National Resistance Movement Muntu, Mugisha, 100, 168, 180 (NRM), 3 Munyonyo, 219 National Resistance Musazi, I. K., 36 Movement–Organization (NRM- Museveni, Janet, 226 O), 175, 177, 194, 215, 217, 225, Museveni, Yoweri, 228–9 Buganda Kingdom, 115 National Resistance News, 76 culture and ideology, 64 National Security Council (NSC) Bill, liberal ideology, 60 210 Index 279

National Union of Youth Organization O’Donnell, Guillermo, 75 (NUYO), 42 Obasanjo, Olusegun, 148 Nebbi, 83 Obbo and another vs. Attorney General, Nekyon, Adoko, 42 178, 216 neopatrimonial, 4, 7–10, 12–13, 23, Obote II, 4, 29, 39, 53, 56, 91, 150, 28–9, 39–41, 43, 46, 55, 72, 92, 152, 162, 179–81, 186, 104, 107, 131, 158, 162, 188, 191, 198 190, 193, 195, 197 Obote, Milton, class, 26–7, 102, 105, 120, 122, 1966 Constitution, 39–40 127, 186 Buganda Crisis, 37–9 governance, 5–8, 12, 14, 21–3, 63, Common Man’s Charter, 43–4, 56 106, 191, 194 General Service Unit, 42, 51, 55, 180 legitimacy, 4, 7–8, 14–15, 17, 26–7, lost counties, 36–7, 39 29, 131, 137, 142, 162–3, Move to the Left, 43–4 167–8, 173–7, 189, 191, Obote, Miria, 63 194–5, 197 Obwangor, C. J., 34 rule 15, 27, 47, 163, 178 Ochieng, E. O, 37 state, 6–7, 9, 13–14, 40, 55 Ocula, Mike, 174, 226 system, 12, 53, 169 Odaka, Sam, 37 Neumann, Sigmund, Odoki, Benjamin, 97 140, 192 Odoki Commission, see Constitutional new broom, 92, 186, 192 Commission New Movement, 190 Odur, Thomas, 86 New Vision, The, 150, 219 Ogoola, James, 195 Ng’ethe, Njuguna, 183–4 Ogwal, Cecelia, 90, 229 Ngime, Ngoma, 146, 151 Ojok, David Oyite, 51 Ngobi, Mathias Mbalule, 38 Okello, Tito, 51, 81, 86, 92, 201, 205 Nile Hotel, 136 Okumu, Reagan, 174, 201, 226 Nimieri, Jaffer El, 198 Olanya, Tony, 86 njua kali, 80 Olowu, Dele, 104 Njuba, Gertrude, 116–17 Omara, Joel Aliro, 86 Nkangi, Mayanja, 135–6 Omaria, William, 86 Nohlen, Dieter, 125 Ombudsman, 95 nongovernmental organizations see also Inspector of Government (NGOs), 79, 85, 116–18, 184 Omnibus Constitution (Amendment) no-party democracy, 5, 11, 13, 61, 69, Bill, 219–20 71, 74–5, 90–1, 93, 100, 111, 125, Omugabe, 115 131, 187, 191 omujwara nkondo, 115 Northern NGO Forum, 227 Omukama, 19, 115 Norway, 168, 226–7 Onama, Felix, 37, 42 NRA/M, 3, 53 Open General Licensing (OGL), 88 NRM/A, 64, 79, 84–5 Operation Wembley, 28, 173 NRM Secretariat, 73, 107, 136 Order in Council, 36 Nsibambi, Apolo, 68, 71, Otafire, Kahinda, 135–6, 164, 171 215, 219 Otai, Peter, 202–3 , 112, 216 Otim, J. J., 86 Nubi, 51 Otiti, Paul Amule, 86 Nyakairima, Aronda, 220, 224 Otti, Vincent, 223–4, 228 Nyanzi, Evaristo, 201 Otto, Odonga, 174 Nyeko, Tollbert Yadin, 229 Otto, Sam Kolo, 219, 222 280 Index

Oulanyah, Jacob, 175, 228 power consolidation, 15, 29, 37, 39, Owor, Lakati, 222 45–6, 56, 64, 67–8, 70, 72–3, 75, 79, 91, 95, 112, 178, 198 Pabo subcounty, 174, 226 Praetorian Guard, 172, 180 Paimol, 17 Praetorian Rule, 45 parastatals, 10, 16, 21, 43, 48–9, 51, precolonial, 4, 6, 17, 19, 21, 34, 66, 103, 119, 123, 184 115, 192 Paris Club Consultation Group, 88, prebends, 4, 12, 42 119, 204, 209 prebendal, 15, 21, 40, 113, 163, 180 Parish Resistance Council, 65 prebendalism, 70, 179, 197 Parliament Buildings, 61 predatory individualism, 52 Parliamentary Advocacy Forum Presidential Election Act (PEA), 43, (PAFO), 168, 177, 191, 217 146, 149 Parliamentary Committee on Legal and presidential election results, 125, 210 Parliamentary Affairs, 224 Presidential Guard Brigade, 172, 180 party of integration, 140, 192 Presidential Protection Unit (PPU), 172 party state, 140, 158 presidentialism, 7, 12, 27, 45, 56, 72, patrimonial(ism), 4, 21, 29, 34, 47, 49, 76, 104, 131, 137, 139, 145, 150, 61, 192 152, 158, 162–3, 167–73, 176, patron-client network, 14, 131, 163 189, 193, 195, 197 patron-clientelist, 49, 159 Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Pax Musevenica, 4, 29, 39, 60, 62, 67, Transmission (PMCTC), 211, 213 71, 81, 85, 92–3, 99, 102, 105, princely rule, 191 108, 113, 120, 126, 132, 159, Privatisation Unit (PU), 212 161, 167, 178–9, 196 privatization, 10, 25–7, 61, 103, People’s Redemption Army (PRA), 223, 119–20, 123, 152, 155, 163, 184 225 procedural democracy, 8 Pepsi Cola, 119 Produce Marketing Board (PMB), 119 pigeonhole constitution, 76, 78 Program for the Alleviation of Poverty Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture and the Social Costs of Adjustment (PMA), 210 (PAPSCA), 88 Police Ordinance, 41 Progressive Party (PP), 34 Police Ordinance (Amendment) Act, 41 protected villages, 83 political culture, 18, 53, 61, 64, 90, 98, Protestants, 42, 61 162, 196 Public Accounts Committee (PAC), 168 political liberalization, 79, 199 Public Civil Service Commission, 40 Political Organisastions Act (POA), 212 public enterprises (PE), 119, 121, 204, Political Organizations Bill, 224 212 Political Parties Organizations Act Public Enterprises Reform and (PPOA), 10–11, 169–70, 174, Divestiture (PERD), 119, 204 176–8, 180, 188, 191, 209, 214 Public Safety Unit (PSU), 48 politics of the belly, 192 Public Service Revenue and Popular Resistance Army (PRA), 64, 66 Reorganization Commission Porter Commission, 164, 213 (PSRRC), 113 Porter, David, 211 Puritanism, 61 Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), 154–5, 207 Quebec, 37 poverty ratio, 122 Poverty Reduction Strategy Rabwoni, Okwir, 150–1 Paper, 209 Radio Veritas Kyoga, 174, 214 Index 281 rational/legal authority, 9, 189 Sebagala, Latif, 151 RC Statute No. 9, 70–1 Sebaggala, Nasser, 228 reciprocity, 6–7, 20, 24, 45, 48, 55, 64, Sebei, 17 93, 95, 128, 152, 159, 173, 175, Sebuliba, Nsubuga, 151 185, 195, 198 Sebutinde, Julia, 164, 210 Referendum (Political Systems) Act Second Five-Year Plan, 43 (1999), 11, 141, 171, 188–9, 209 Second National Operator (SNO), 207 Referendum (Political Systems) Act sectarianism, 5, 20, 25, 61, 91–2, 96, (2000), 11, 140–4, 146, 151–2, 202 157–8, 177, 188, 190, 197, 209, Seko, Mobutu Sese, 132–3 217 Sentamu, John, 224 Referendum Bill, 141 silent boycott, 143–4 Reform Agenda (RA), 177, 190–1 Smith, B. C., 104 regime hegemony, 27, 131, 161, 170, social capital, 7, 51, 93, 99 178, 189 social development, 123 regime-party-military, 176 social trust, 14, 93, 101, 104, 123, 127, regime validation, 8, 72, 128 131, 152, 161–2, 183 regional tiers, 4, 112, 118, 167, 184, Soroti, 83, 140 227 Soroti District, 82, 202 Reinikka, Ritva, 155 Soroti Flying School, 82, 202 religioethnic cleavages, 22 South Africa, 35, 120, 154, 166, 207, Renegade Rwandan Army 216, 224–5, 227 (Interahamwe), 208 Spain, 193, 203 rent-seeking, 7, 50 Special Forces, 51, 180 behavior, 7, 9, 12, 43, 155, 159, 163, special interest groups, 72, 126 179, 197 Speke Island, 219 representation/governability, 18 Ssali, Jaberi Bidandi, 35, 110, 168, 170, Republic House, 61 180, 214, 217 resident district commissioners (RDCs), Ssekandi, Edward, 228 4, 103, 110, 113, 129, 139, 142, Ssemogerere, Paul, 84, 91, 103, 124–5, 150, 171, 176, 178, 184, 188 140, 206 Resistance Committees and Councils state hegemony, 64, 162, 168 (RCs), 64–5, 67–8, 74, 104, State House, 181 107–8, 184, 203, 206–7 State Research Bureau (SRB), 48 res publica, 9, 14, 68, 95, 198 states penetrative capacity, 15, 52, 67, results oriented management (ROM), 127 113 statism, 8, 28, 102–4, 118, 162, 184, Rosberg, Carl, 191 197 Rugumayo, Edward, 86, 210 statist regime/statist regime type, 7–8, Ruhaama, 226 12–14, 22, 39, 42, 45, 55–6, 66, Rural Electrification Programme, 217 102, 129, 131, 189, 191, 196 Rwakitura, 135 Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), Rwanda, 132–4, 221 26, 80, 87, 89, 92, 132, 155, 184 structural monopoly, 7, 12 Sabataka, 204 substantive democracy, 8–9 Saleh, Jovia, 164 Sudan, 83, 132, 198, 201, 203, 206, Saleh, Salim, 83, 134, 164, 172, 210, 212, 216, 218, 222–3, 228 213, 215 Supreme Court, 11, 41, 141, 146, 149, sang froid, 61 171, 173, 210, 216–17, 227 Schmidt, Siegmar, 125 Suruma, Ezra, 179, 219 282 Index

Tabliq, 84 Uganda National Liberation Army Tanzania, 35, 51, 62, 119, 139, 166, (UNLA), 55 211, 214, 216 Uganda National Liberation Front Tanzania African National Union (UNLF), 55 (TANU), 139 Uganda National Rescue Front Ten Point Programme, The, 23, 66–7, (UNRF), 201, 208, 212, 223 87, 109, 186 Uganda Penal Code, 41 Teso, 17, 34 Uganda People’s Army (UPA), 202–3 Therkildsen, Ole, 144 Uganda People’s Congress (UPC), Tidemand, Per, 105–6 34–7, 39, 41–2, 44, 53–5, 74, Tinyefuza, David, 203, 227 90–2, 108, 124–5, 141, 143, 168, Toko, Wilson, 86 170, 175, 177, 180, 191–2, 219, Tolit, Fred, 215 227–8 Tooro, 115, 117, 170, 204 Uganda People’s Congress/Kabaka Trade, Tourism and Industry, 209 Yekka (UPC/KY) Coalition, 35–6 transparency, 25–6, 68, 75, 137, 166, Uganda People’s Congress Youth 227 League (UPCYL), 37, 42 Tripp, Aili Marie, 140 Uganda People’s Defense Forces tuberculosis, see Global Fund to Fight (UPDF), 150, 164, 172–3, 190, AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria 193, 209, 211–17, 219, 224, Tumukunde, Henry, 164–5, 172, 215 227–9 Tunisia, 136 Uganda People’s Democratic Army Twaddle, Michael, 61 (UPDA), 82, 201–2 Uganda People’s Democratic Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 153 Movement/Army (UPDM/A), Uganda Commercial Bank (UCB), 119, 81–2, 201–3 121 Uganda People’s Union (UPU), 34 Uganda Democratic Alliance (UDA), Uganda Posts and Telecommunications 205 Corporation (UP & TC), 207 Uganda Development Corporation , 20, 22 (UDC), 49 Uganda Railways Corporation (URC), Uganda Electricity Distribution 135, 203 Company Limited (UEDCL), 216 (URA), 12, Uganda Federal Army (UFA), 205 16, 184, 189 Uganda Freedom Fighters (UFF), 64, Uganda Road Safety Initiative, 211 66 Uganda Telecommunications Limited, Uganda Grain Milling Corporation, 119 207, 210 Uganda Hotels, 119 Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), 136 Uganda Human Rights Commission Ugandan Health Ministry, 218, 223 (UHRC), 98, 150, 173, 201 Ugandan Multilateral Debt Fund Uganda Investment Authority (UIA), (UMDF), 205 16, 121, 184, 190, 211, 215 Ugandan Multiple Debt Fund Uganda Journalists Association (UJA), (UMDF), 119 177 Uganda’s Program for Trade and Uganda Law Society (ULS), 177, 184, Opportunities and Policy 225 (UPTOP), 213 Uganda Muslim Community (UMC), United Nations Development Program 42 (UNDP), 121, 123, 227 Uganda National Congress United Nations High Commissioner for (UNC), 34 Refugees (UNHCR), 221–2 Index 283

United Nations World Food Program Weberian, 23 (WFP), 218, 227 Weltanschauung, 61 United States, 24, 35, 61, 72, 133, 137, Whitehall, 19, 22 164, 177, 211–12, 227 white paper, 172, 217 United States Agency for Development Wi Tong, 83 (USAID), 116 World Bank, 24, 26, 87–9, 102–3, 109, Universal Primary Education (UPE), 116, 118–20, 123, 135, 152–3, 103, 154, 156, 207 202–5, 207–8, 211, 213, 217, 221, University of Dar es Salaam, 61 227 World Bank Group, 154 value added tax (VAT), 134–6, 207 World Trade Organization (WTO), 152 van de Walle, Nicholas, 12, 18 World War II, 193 Victoria Group, 164 Wunsch, J. S., 104 Vienna Convetion of Diplomatic Relations, 226 Young, Crawford, 20, 22 Violent Crime Crack Unit (VCCU), Young Democrats, 190 173, 180, 189, 195 Young Parliamentarians Association, 190 Wacha, Ben, 219 Yumbe County, 142 Wagaba, Ross, 208 Wamala, Katumba, 224 Zaire, 198 Wapakhabulo, James, 216 Zartman, I. William, 185 Weber, Max, 185 Zimbabwe, 133, 166, 198