ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Fourth Committee: Special Political

Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear From Accidents and Tests

by: Shannon Schubert Old Dominion University Model United Nations Society

Introduction

On 11 March 2011, three nuclear reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Station in Okuma, Japan, experienced nuclear core meltdowns after their emergency generators were disabled. The incident was a result of a catastrophic tsunami and earthquake. This disaster has was the most significant nuclear incident since the ’s at (now in ) went out of control in 1986. One of the Fukushima nuclear reactors explodes on 11 March 2011 Unlike the accident in Ukraine, there have not The world got its first understanding of the risks been any deaths or cases of radiation poisoning following the dropping of atomic bombs by the from Fukushima. That has not stopped scientists U.S. Army Air Force on and and the general public from fearing long-term Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945. effects, should contaminated materials find their Approximately 70,000 people died in each way out of the containment area. attack from prompt blast, heat and fire effects.

An equal number died from later radiation Because of the potential overarching damage, poisoning. nuclear accidents and their impact are a major issue within the Fourth Committee in the The nuclear attacks of 1945 marking the end of General Assembly of the United Nations (UN), World War II gave rise to the notion that nuclear also known as Special Political and warfare would be catastrophic and must be Decolonization (SPECPOL) Committee. prohibited completely. Negotiations among the countries with and without nuclear capabilities Background yielded the creation in 1955 of the United Nations Scientific Committee of the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). Nuclear radiation affects the Earth from natural sources, but those tend to be harmless, low level A further sense of the risks came on 1954, when and uncontroversial. Artificial sources, of the a nuclear test by the United States in the Pacific other hand, are can be prevented, and when they Ocean, Castle Bravo, yielded three times the are not, can be catastrophic. destructive energy expected. Fishermen 200 miles away were hit with lethal radiation.

ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear Radiation From Accidents and Tests

and Fukushima incidents were equally disastrous; the Chernobyl reactor achieved criticality, while none of the Fukushima reactors went critical. On the other hand the high rating indicates the potential for similar effects if Fukushima had gone critical. The famous American nuclear disaster at Three Mile Island in 1979 destroyed a nuclear plant, showing the risks, but resulted in only a small released of nuclear radiation.

The social and psychological disruption caused by the Chernobyl incident effected economic systems throughout the effected regions in UNSCEAR was conceived to "assess and report Ukraine, the Russian Federation, and . levels and effects of exposure to ionized Radioactive materials contaminated all three radiation," one year following the Lucky Dragon 1 countries and , which are elements incident. Working hand-in-hand with the that exude radiation, were "measurable in all United Nations Environment Programme countries of the northern hemisphere."2 (UNEP), the committee has published 25 major works, some of which is examined later in this Since nuclear power rose to the forefront of the issue brief, and meets annually. In addition to scientific world, the importance of containing criticality and radiological incidents surrounding this new power source and nuclear weapons development and testing, handling potential "fall outs" has balanced the scores of nuclear accidents have occurred within nuclear community. However, the subjective nuclear reactors. character of the measuring scale is a point of contention. Nuclear accidents are measured using the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Observed effects of irradiation are less Scale (INES). The ratings are sometimes subjective than the INES. The Hiroshima and subjective to the international authorities, but in Nagasaki attacks, the Castle Bravo/Lucky general, they range from zero to seven. A zero Dragon incident, Chernobyl and Fukushima rating means that there is nothing more than a provide objective measurements of the effects of deviation from normal radiation levels in the radiation. atmosphere, while seven indicates a major accident and a serious hazard. Unlike the scales used to measure natural events, such as tornadoes and hurricanes, "man-made" disasters are more subjective to interpretation.

So far, only two events have been labeled as category seven events: the Chernobyl incident and the Fukushima meltdown. This does not suggest the Chernobyl

1 “About Us,” United Nations Scientific Committee 2 “The Chernobyl Accident,” United Nations on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, accessed Sep 8, Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic 2017. Radiation.

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ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear Radiation From Accidents and Tests

Chernobyl: In 1986 in Ukraine, then a Republic of the Soviet Union, an at a nuclear reactor released radiation into the atmosphere. Radiation doses ranged from approximately two- and-a-half years to over twenty-five years worth of normal radiation at once.5 There were thirty- one direct deaths, and a sharp increase in leukemia, , other , heart disease, reproductive illness, and cataracts, not to mention over 300,000 evacuees in the coming years.6

Fukushima: In 2011 an earthquake off the coast of Japan triggered a tsunami that severely Efforts to stabilize the destroyed Chernobyl nuclear damaged the Fukushima Daiichi in on 5 August 1986. Station. The cores remained stable, and Source: The Atlantic. radioactive escaped the containment

structures. While no one died from the radiation, Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Because the 1945 and while there was no detectable increase in atomic attacks on Japan happened more than cancers or other illnesses, the World Health seventy years ago, they present an opportunity to Organization noted other indirect effects that study the long-term effects of radiation on a were largely based on psychological stresses, large population. The attacks showed immediate, such as mass evacuation, which led to a few acute effects, such as severe burns, but also deaths (mainly among elderly who were long-term effects, such as genetic , 7 relocated to less-than-sanitary housing). These stillbirths, a sharp increase in reported leukemia evacuations are also significant because entire cases within four years, and a sharp increase in families were uprooted from their communities other reported cancers within ten years.3 and their jobs.8

Lucky Dragon incident: When the US conducted the Castle Bravo nuclear tests in 1954, unforeseen weather patterns and unexpected explosive yields caused Japanese fishermen 85 miles away to experience extreme illness “with skin irritations, burns, nausea, loss of hair, and other radiation-linked afflictions.”4 5 In addition to these acute effects, one Alan Taylor, ‘The Chernobyl Disaster: 25 Years crewmember died. Ago’, The Atlantic, 23 March 2011. https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2011/03/the-

chernobyl-disaster-25-years-ago/100033/ 6 “Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an 3 “Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Long Term Health overview.” World Health Organization. Effects.” Columbia | K-1 Project: Center for Nuclear http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/bac Studies. kgrounder/en/ https://k1project.columbia.edu/news/hiroshima-and- 7 “FAQs: Fukushima Five Years On.” World Health nagasaki Organization. 4 Lawrence Wittner. “How Japan Learned About http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/a_e/fukushim ‘Nuclear Safety.’” The Huffington Post.. a/faqs-fukushima/en/ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lawrence- 8 For a discussion on the differences between wittner/how-japan-learned-about-n_b_837135.html Chernobyl and Fukushima, see this NPR article.

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ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear Radiation From Accidents and Tests

on the significance of the issue. But they differ on how to deal with responsibility for its consequences.

Rather than demanding action by specific states, so far the UN stresses standards that all can follow, as best interpreted themselves. This approach, criticized by some as lowest common denominator, or log-rolling politics, is illustrated in three landmark UN reports:

• “Report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic An aerial view of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, 9 the site of the world's worst nuclear accident, is Radiation (1961)” approved studying of the shown in this May 1986 photo made a few days after radiological effects of nuclear weapons tests. the April 26 explosion in Chernobyl, Ukraine. Source: The Atlantic. • “Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space (1992)”10 expresses concern that future development The UN and Nuclear Radiation of nuclear power in outer space will have negative impacts on human health. For the 193 Member States of the UN< radiation issues raise problems of scope and • “Effects of atomic radiation (2016)”11 responsibility. emphasized the importance of future research into the effects of radiation on • Which kinds of nuclear radiation releases human health and the environment. This are the responsibility of the interional resolution explicitly cites Fukushima as a community, and which are the business of cause of continued concern. home governments themselves?

• How active should the UN as a whole be on Current Situation these issues?

• How to distinguish between different kinds In January of 2017, UNSCEAR released their of nuclear events? annual report, which included developments in the levels and effects of the Fukushima incident. • Should the international community respond The committee delved into the results and differently to an intentional test versus an developed new ways to measure radiation accidental release of radiation from a reactor effects not only from nuclear accidents, but disaster? simple tests and day-to-day operations as well. With the advancements of technology, there • What of mishaps with nuclear weapons, have been gaps in the "estimation of human such crashes or accidental release of nuclear weapons during a training flight, or the loss of a nuclear powered submarine at sea?

9 Nuclear radiation is a serious and controversial 1629 (XVI) (1961) 10 A/RES/47/68 (1992) issue for the Member States of the UN. All agree 11 A/RES/71/89 (2016): Press briefing

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ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear Radiation From Accidents and Tests exposures to from electricity will view this agenda item as an opportunity to generation."12 settle score and create trouble for the interional adversaries. Responsibility for the accidents remains a controversial issue. Should the nations who For countries like Ukraine and other Eastern claim ownership of nuclear reactors be European’s any issue related to radiation a held responsible for nuclear events and chance to swipe at Russia over its efforts to limit accidents? Taking into consideration the its responsibility for the Chernobyl disaster. For unbalanced scale of measuring these accidents Pacific Island states, it’s a chance to attack the and factoring in natural elements, such as United States and France for what they see as earthquakes and tsunamis, it is becoming very excess of nuclear testing and failure to difficult to justify individual countries’ compensate them appropriately. For any accountability. Member States opposed to nucleari energy, inclduign Pacfici Island states and much of Latin There is currently no procedure that officially America, it’s a chance to raise burdens for factors in natural elements in order to attribute nuclear advocates. Everyone, in other words, fault, leaving it to pure interpretation and tends to see the issue in terms of their broader assuming the event is 100% man-made. In cases foeign policy priortities. such as Chernobyl, where it was obvious that incorrect operation of the reactor was the cause Recent, radiation issues also have become of the accident, the argument can be made that heavily involved with questions of nuclear the state of ownership, Ukraine, could be made weapons testing, including the possibility that to adhere to some type of reparation. Yet, the the United States—which has not ratified the argument is not so clear in the case of 1995 Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Fukushima, in which natural factors were the (CTBT) might resume nuclear tests, and main cause of the reactor meltdowns. continued underground and possible above ground nuclear testing by North Korea, which is Another point of contention has been voiced as not a signatory to the CTBT. to whether or not nuclear weapons—their tests and their uses—should be considered in the Currently, only five nations are considered same category as events that occur with nuclear nuclear-weapon states (NWS) based on the reactors. Based on a nation's position in the terms set by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation nuclear community, this argument could go of Nuclear Weapons (NPT): these states include either way, especially if legislation were to be China, France, Russian Federation, the United passed holding states responsible for nuclear Kingdom, and the United States. However, three accidents, regardless of cause. other states have successfully tested and detonated nuclear weapons. These states are

India, North Korea, and Pakistan. Israel is Country and Bloc Positions also believed to have nuclear weapons. Except for North Korea, no country has tested nuclear While UN Member States have particular weapon since 1998, when India and Pakistan positions on radiation related issues, they also tested.

China leads a bloc of states that support action 12 “Report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation.” to reduce the risk of radiation exposure. China United Nations. believes any action should be the responsibility http://www.unscear.org/docs/GAreports/2016/A-71- of UN Member States themselves, working 46_e_V1604696.pdf through domestic governments. The UN can set

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ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear Radiation From Accidents and Tests standards. China rigorously applies interional law and will contribute to its tightening. But Russia: The opposite case is true for the Russian China insists only home governments can be Federation. As of June 2017, plans have been responsible for its implementation. China will progressed to expand the role of nuclear energy not support resolutions that name particular within the country. There are currently ten countries for specific attention. It expects the operating nuclear power plants in the nation, UN to set standards for all countries to follow, nine in planning, and five currently under as sovereign equals. construction. After the Chernobyl accident, only one nuclear power plant The ’s 28 Member States were was commissioned until the mid-. The affected by the Chernobyl disaster. Many of CEO of , the only Russian utility their publics strongly prefer alternatives to that operates the nuclear plants, has stated that nuclear power, such in Germany. Others, such as the nation is pursuing a breakthrough in nuclear France and many Eastern Europeans rely on leadership and technology. nuclear power and want to see its safety strengthened, but not reliance diminished. The Russian diplomats seek measures that aid their European Union strongly support improved country’s nuclear reactor exports, such as safety measures everywhere. It believes innocent leaving safety regulations up to the purchasing victims should be compensated, but recognized countries themselves. Compensation for accident funding limits may inhibit that. victims, they say, is exclusively up to the affected governments. It is not a reasonable duty Non-Aligned Movement: the 120 Member for the international community. States of the UN’s largest voting bloc strong support greater radiation safety and The United States has been a leading power in compensation of innocent victims. They also nuclear weapons, as well as nuclear energy since demand easier access to all civilian benefits of the 1940's when they began development of the nuclear energy for all Member States, including nuclear bomb. Throughout World War II and the financial assistance for less developed and , the US continued to develop and poorer countries. They strongly believe modernize their arsenal, competing (often neck- compensation of victims is the responsible to and-neck) with the Soviet Union. Around the Northern countries, which supply the technology year 1980, its use of nuclear energy skyrocketed. and reap the profits, and are best able to sustain Currently, over 19 per cent of electrical energy those burdens. generation in the United States is fueled by nuclear power. However, slight trend has begun Nuclear power states: There are sixteen in the diminution of nuclear power in the United countries around the world that depend on States. nuclear power for almost a quarter of their electricity. France, Belgium, Czech Republic, The United States is not a leading civilian power , Hungary, Slovakia, , generating reactor exporter. Partially for this , , and Ukraine all receive at reason, it expects reactor supplies like China and least one third of their power from nuclear Russia to be responsible for reactor safety and sources. Japan, while still suffering loss at the accidents. events of Fukushima, depends on a quarter of their electricity from nuclear power and that is expected to rise. For all countries heavily reliance on civilian nuclear energy, this is a difficult issue. Some, like Japan, would prefer it Proposals for Action was not resolved in the UN at all.

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ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear Radiation From Accidents and Tests

Radiation issues that the UN can consider manmade disasters. Adopting A/RES/61/194, include the full spectrum. But not all member “Oil slick on Lebanese shores,”13 the body called States may agree to consider all of them. upon Israel to compensate Lebanon for its Possibilities for consideration include destruction of Lebanon’s coastal and marine environment. While this does not explicitly • Dealing with a possible return to answer the question about natural causes of atmospheric nuclear testing. nuclear accidents, it raises some critical questions that must be addressed. • Any return to , atmospheric or underground. 1. How can Fourth Committee encourage universal agreement among states with • Civilian nuclear power risks or energy capabilities accept the costs associated with continued • Storage of spent nuclear reactor fuel. pursuit or maintenance of weapons and energy systems? • Control over radioactive materials in medical devices such as MRI and cancer 2. How to agreements to compensate future treatment equipment. victims or countries whose people or environments are affected? • Financing security or compensation measures. 3. How can we verify that states have effectively secured radiological materials in While North Korea continues nuclear testing— the event of a natural disaster? only underground so far—other countries like the United States are debating a return to nuclear 4. How can we verify states have effective testing themselves. human error-prevention protocols?

Many nations have begun to search for new and 5. How can we encourage universal alternative ways to develop low-cost and reliable ratification of the Comprehensive Test-Ban sources of energy. Renewable resources are Treaty, which will solve the problem of picking up traction quickly. Nuclear power has nuclear weapons testing and accidental multiple characteristics that set it apart as a irradiation of people and environments? valuable and financially friendly source of generation. Developments in safety and construction stability are constantly updated, helping to ensure that the best possible cost-to- gain ratio is found.

The UN can make recommendations on alternative sources of energy, but probably lacks the financial resources to help directly. Nor does it have the authority to demand substitution

The UN General Assembly has previously set precedent for holding nations responsible for

13 A/RES/61/194 (2004): Press Briefing

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ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear Radiation From Accidents and Tests

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ODUMUNC 2018 Issue Brief Compensation for the Effects of Nuclear Radiation From Accidents and Tests

World Heath Organization, “FAQs: Fukushima Five Years On.”http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/a_e/fukushima/faqs-fukushima/en/

World Health Organization, “Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an overview.”. http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/backgrounder/en/

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World Nuclear Association, “Nuclear Power in the World Today”, (January 2017) http://www.world- nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx

For more information, visit the UNSCEAR website at unscear.org (2002)

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