A survey of race relations in : 1959 -1960

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Author/Creator Horrell, Muriel Publisher South African Institute of Race Relations, Date 1961 Resource type Reports Language English Subject Coverage (spatial) South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa Coverage (temporal) 1959-1960 Source EG Malherbe Library Description A survey of race relations in South Africa in 1959 and 1960 and includes chapters on: Constitutional matters; Party political developments; Work for inter-racial harmony; The population of South Africa and measures for its registration and control; Unrest and rioting among Africans; Action taken by the Government; Reactions in South Africa to the crisis; The African reserves; General matters affecting non-White people; The liquor laws as these affect the non-White people: Group areas; Housing; Transport services; Employment; Education; Health and nutrition; Welfare; Recreation; Justice; External affaits; Legislation of 1960. Format extent 326 pages (length/size)

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A SURVEY OF RACE IN SOUTH RELATIONS AFRICA 1959 - 1960 Compiled by MURIEL HORRELL Research Officer South African Institute of Race Relations I SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS P.O. Box 97 JOHANNESBURG 1961

A SURVEY OF RACE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer's warmest thanks are once more expressed to Dr. Ellen Hellmann, who again gave willing and invaluable help by commenting in detail on the whole manuscript of this Survey, and making most useful suggestions for its improvement. Very sincere gratitude is expressed, too, to those who contributed material, among them the Institute's Regional Secretaries, Miss Mary Draper, Mrs. Kathleen Matthews, Mrs. Marjorie Fowler and Miss Sheila Robertson, its Research Assistant Mr. Lawrence Reyburn, its Field Officer Mr. J. C. M. Mbata, and the secretary of the Isaacson Foundation Bursary Fund, Mrs. A. Wolpe. Generous help was given, too, by the Municipal Administrators of Non-European Affairs who very kindly sent details about housing schemes in their areas, and by the National Bureau of Educational and Social Research. Numerous Government officials, especially those of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development and Bantu Education, graciously supplied information on a variety of subjects. Others gave ready and courteous assistance by reading and commenting on parts of the manuscript; among them Mr. F. J. van Wyk, Miss Mary Draper and Mr. J. C. M. Mbata. The writer's very deep indebtedness is acknowledged to members of the Institute's staff who gave friendly help in other ways: to Mrs. A. Honeywill who checked the proofs, to Mr. L. Reyburn who assisted, to Miss B. Gordon, Mrs. D. Olsen and Mr. Armstrong Mphahlele who supplied material from the library, and to Miss B. Gershater and Mrs. J. Higgins who did the typing. MURIEL HORRELL.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 iii CONTENTS Page CONSTITUTIONAL MATTERS RE-CONSTITUTION OF THE SENATE ...... 1 Senate Act, No. 53 of 1955 ...... 1 Changes made from 1956 to 1959 ...... 2 Senate Act, No. 53 of 1960 ...... 2 The terms of the Act ...... 2 Method of electing Senators ...... 3 Parliamentary debate on the Bill ...... 3 Senate elections ...... 4 REFERENDUM ON THE REPUBLICAN ISSUE ...... 5 Preliminary announcements by the Prime Minister ...... 5 The Referendum Act, No. 52 of 1960 ...... 6 Terms of the Act ...... 6 Parliamentary debate on the Bill ...... 6 Decision at Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference ... 7 The Referendum ...... 7 Statement subsequently issued by 69 prominent men ...... 8 Action taken in Natal ...... 9 PARTY POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS NATIONAL PARTY ...... 10 UNITED PARTY ...... 10 LIBERAL PARTY ...... 11 PROGRESSIVE PARTY ...... 12 NATIONAL UNION PARTY ...... 15 SOUTH AFRICAN BOND ...... 15 WORK FOR INTER-RACIAL HARMONY S.A. INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS ...... 16 Council meeting, January 1960 ...... 16 Executive Committee meeting, May 1960 ...... 20 Hoernl Memorial Lecture ...... 22 S.A. BUREAU OF RACIAL AFFAIRS ...... 22 ECUMENICAL CONFERENCE ...... 22 WAR VETERANS' FOUNDATION ...... 24 THE POPULATION OF SOUTH AFRICA, AND MEASURES FOR ITS REGISTRATION AND CONTROL CENSUS REPORTS ...... 24 Size of the population ...... 24 Home languages, 1951 ...... 25 Marital status of the population, 1951 ...... 25 Religions ...... 26 Birthplaces of the Coloured and people ...... 28 iv A SURVEY OF RACE POPULATION REGISTRATION ...... Population Registration Amendment Act, No. 30 of 1960 28 Issuing of identity cards ...... 28 Appeals against racial classification ...... 29 REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS, MARRIAGES AND DEATHS ...... 30 Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, No. 5 of 1960 ...... 30 AUTHORITY OF AFRICAN CLERGY AND MINISTERS ...... 131 PUBLICATIONS AND ENTERTAINMENTS BILL, 1960 ...... 32 CONTROL OF EXHIBITION OF FILMS IN AFRICAN AREAS ...... 33 PASSPORTS AND VISAS ...... 33 CONTROL OF ENTRY INTO AND DEPARTURE FROM CERTAIN AFRICAN AREAS ...... 34 BANNINGS AND BANISHMENTS ...... 35 Banning orders issued under the Suppression of Communism and Riotous Assemblies Acts ...... 35 Banishment of Africans under Section five of the Native Administration Act ...... 36 THE TREASON TRIALS ...... 37 REORGANIZATION OF THE CITIZEN FORCE ...... 39 UNREST AND RIOTING AMONG AFRICANS DISTURBANCES RESULTING MAINLY FROM OPPOSITION TO THE BANTU AUTHORITIES SYSTEM East Pondoland ...... 39 Introductory remarks ...... 39 The disturbances ...... 40 Grievances voiced by the people ...... 43 Findings of the Departmental committee of enquiry ... 45 Tembuland ...... 47 Gcalekaland ...... 48 Northern ...... 48 Sequels to rioting that occurred before the year under review 49 ...... 49 M abieskraal ...... 49 A DISTURBANCE RESULTING FROM OPPOSITION TO THE LIQUOR LAWS Cato Manor, Durban ...... 50 MISCELLANEOUS DISTURBANCES Paarl ...... 51 W elkom ...... 52 THE MOUNTING CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE PASS LAWS Opposition to the pass laws in previous years ...... 52 Arrests for pass law offences ...... 52 Order issued by the Commissioner of Police, June 1959 ... 52 Views of Opposition political parties ...... 53 African National Congress conference, December 1959 ... 54

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Pan-African Congress conference, December 1959 ...... Demonstration in Johannesburg, 22 February 1960 ...... DEMONSTRATION PLANNED BY THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS, AND ITS OUTCOME, 18-22 MARCH Announcement of the plans of the Pan-African Congress ... Action taken by P.A.C. members on 21 March ...... Events in and near Vereeniging ...... Evaton ...... Vanderbijl Park ...... Sharpeville ...... Events in , 21 March ...... DISTURBANCES IN CAPE TOWN AND JOHANNESBURG, 23"Day of Mourning" ...... Johannesburg ...... Cape Town ...... SUBSEQUENT DISTURBANCES, 30 MARCH- 11 APRIL Declaration of a state of emergency ...... Cape Town ...... Other towns in the ...... Durban ...... Johannesburg ...... Germiston ...... ... East London and Cradock ...... ...... Pietermaritzburg, Beaufort West and Ermelo Casualty figures ...... 29 MARCH ...... 62 ...... 62 ...... 64 ...... 65 ...... 67 ...... 67 ...... 67 ...... 67 ...... 68 ...... 68 ...... 68 ACTION TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT BANNING OF PUBLIC MEETINGS ...... TEMPORARY RELAXATION OF PASS RAIDS ...... UNLAWFUL ORGANIZATIONS ACT, NO. 34 OF 1960 ... The Governor-General empowered to ban the P.A .C ...... Increased penalties for certain offences under Assemblies Act ...... Brief notes on the Parliamentary debate ...... Banning of the A.N.C. and P.A.C ...... Action taken by these bodies since April ... MOBILIZATION OF THE CITIZEN FORCE ...... DECLARATION OF A STATE OF EMERGENCY ...... 68 ...... 68 ...... 69 A.N.C. and 69 the Riotous EMERGENCY REGULATIONS ...... DURATION OF STATE OF EMERGENCY ...... PERSONS DETAINED UNDER SECTION FOUR OF THE EMERGENCY REGULATIONS ...... Arrests under Section four ......

Rules governing the detention of thes Further information about the conditio Representations made by detainees an Release of the detainees ...... A SURVEY OF RACE e persons ...... 79 ns of detention ...... 81 1 their families ...... 82 ...... 8 3 OTHER ARRESTS DURING THE PERIOD OF EMERGENCY ...... N um ber of arrests ...... Treatment of Africans by the police ...... Trials of Africans accused of offences against the law of the land or the emergency regulations (other than Sections 4 and 4 b is ...... Treatment of Africans arrested under Section 4 bis ...... SUSPENSION OF CERTAIN PUBLICATIONS, AND PROSECUTIONS OF ED ITO RS ...... ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THE PRIME MINISTER ...... 84 84 84 REACTIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA TO THE CRISIS PARLIAMENTARY DEBATE ON THE DISTURBANCES ...... 89 REACTIONS OF LEADERS OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE ...... 90 REACTIONS BY THE CHURCHES ...... 94 Dutch Reformed Churches ...... 94 Statement by the Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town ... 95 Effects of this statement ...... 95 Action taken by the World Council of Churches ...... 97 Deportation of Bishop Reeves ...... 98 Effects on arrangements for the inter-church conferences ... 98 Discussion group of ministers of various churches ...... 100 Joint pastoral letter by the Catholic Bishops ...... 100 Statement by the Transvaal Region of the Presbyterian Church ...... 101 ACTION BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS AT THE TIME OF THE EMERGENCY ...... 101 SABRA'S ANNUAL CONFERENCE ...... 102 PROPOSAL BY PROF. J. L. SADIE ...... 103 STATEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTER ...... 103 FURTHER DECISIONS IN REGARD TO THE "PASS LAWS" ...... 106 Reference books to be compulsory for African women ... 106 Statement by the Commissioner of the S.A. Police ...... 106 Recent announcement by the Minister ...... 106 THE AFRICAN RESERVES APPOINTMENT OF COMMISSIONERS-GENERAL ...... 107 BANTU AUTHORITIES SO FAR ESTABLISHED ...... 107 ALLOWANCES TO CHIEFS AND HEADMEN ...... 108 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AFRICAN RESERVES ...... 109 The extent of the Reserves ...... 109 The future of the Transkei ...... 111

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Proposed Pongola Poort irrigation scheme ...... Soil conservation and agricultural development in the Reserves Industrial development on the borders of the Reserves ... Interim decision in regard to wages in the clothing industry in Northern Natal ...... Government's plan for border industries ...... First meeting of the Economic Advisory Council ... Statement issued after the meeting ...... Memorandum by the S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries ...... Industrial and commercial development within the Reserves The Bantu Investment Corporation ...... Businesses in Transkeian towns ...... R ural villages ...... GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING NON-WHITE PEOPLE AFRICANS No deviation from Government policy as a result of the disturbances ...... Administration of Africans in urban areas ...... Participation of urban Africans in local government ...... Proposed Bantu urban authorities ...... Tribal representation in urban areas ... Residents' associations ...... Proposals for direct representation of Nor governing bodies ...... Conferences on urban Africans ...... Taxation of Africans ...... Normal and provincial income taxes ... African general tax ...... Local tax ...... General and tribal levies ...... Other taxes paid by Africans ...... State expenditure on behalf of Africans ...... African Separatist Churches ...... Compensation for widows of Africans kill negligence ...... Rights of inheritance ...... Naturalization of "foreign" Africans ...... COLOURED PEOPLE Department of Coloured Affairs ...... Head of the Department ...... Branch offices ...... Coloured mission stations and reserves ... Union Council for Coloured Affairs ...... The sense of frustration among many Coloured the Government's attitude ...... 123 ... 124 ... 124 n-Whites on ...... 125 ...... 125 ...... 126 ...... 126 ...... 126 ...... - 127 ...... 127 ...... 127 -.I...... 128 ...... 128 ed through ...... 129 ...... 130 ...... 130 ...... 131 ...... 13 1 ...... 13 1 131 ...... 132 people, and

A SURVEY OF RACE Municipal representation in the Cape ...... Transvaal conference of representatives of the Coloured Com m unity ...... ASIANS Government official responsible for the interests of Asians Immigration Amendment Act, No. 8 of 1960 ...... Review by the Institute of Race Relations of a century of Indian settlement and development ...... THE LIQUOR LAWS AS THESE AFFECT THE NON-WHITE PEOPLE Brief summary of the Union's present laws ...... Inefficacy of these laws ...... Recommendations by the Malan Commission ...... Statement by the Prime Minister, May 1960 ...... Announcement by the Commissioner of Police, August 1960 GROUP AREAS RECENTLY-ANNOUNCED DECISIONS ON POLICY ...... Alternative accommodation must be available before anyone is required to move ...... The future of Indian traders ...... Regulations under the Group Areas Development Act ... RECENT COURT CASES ...... S. M. Lockhat and eighteen others vs. the Minister of the Interior (Durban group areas proclamation) ...... Cassem en 'n ander vs. Oos-Kaapse Komittee van die Groepsgebiederaad en andere (Proceedings before the Board) Administrators of Estate Marks vs. Group Areas Development Board (Property occupied by members of different racial groups) ...... Fixed Properties (S.A.) Ltd. vs. Savage and another (valuation of affected property) ...... O ther cases ...... FINANCES OF GROUP AREAS DEVELOPMENT BOARD ...... PUBLICATIONS ON GROUP AREAS ...... DEVELOPMENTS IN CERTAIN TOWNS WHERE GROUP AREAS WERE PROCLAIMED PRIOR TO 1960 Johannesburg ...... Coloured people (147), Indians (148), The final movement of Africans from Sophiatown (150). Pretoria ...... Cape Town ...... D urban ...... K im berley ...... TOWNS IN WHICH GROUP AREAS WERE PROCLAIMED DURING 1960 ... Pieterm aritzburg ...... R ustenburg ...... Pietersburg ...... 133 134 136 136 136 138 140 140 142 142 142 142 143 144 144 144 145 146 146 146 146 147 147 151 152 153 154 155 155 155 156

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Estcourt...... W olmaransstad ...... Other towns ...... TOWNS IN WHICH FURTHER AREAS HAVE BEEN "DEFINED" Port Elizabeth ...... ix ...... 157 ...... 157 ...... 158 ...... 158 ...... 159 HOUSING HOUSING FUNDS ...... HOUSING REQUIREMENTS ...... PROVISIONS OF ALTERNATIVE "ACCOMMODATION" FOR AFRICANS WHO ARE REQUIRED TO MOVE ...... 160 HOUSING SCHEMES FOR AFRICANS ...... Johannesburg ...... Reef towns ...... Other Transvaal towns ...... The Cape Province ...... N atal ...... Orange ...... HOUSING FOR COLOURED AND INDIAN PEOPLE TRANSPORT SERVICES RAIL AND AIR SERVICES ...... BUS SERVICES in bus services ...... Native Transport Services Account ... EMPLOYMENT THE ECONOMIC SITt The economic Boycotts of S Unemploymen Immigration ...... 160 ...... 160 ...... 162 ...... 163 ...... 164 ...... 165 ...... 167 ...... 168 ...... 170 ...... 1.. ... 170 ...... 170 ...... 171 JATION ...... 172 recession ...... 172 outh African products ...... 173 t ...... 174 ...... 175 Establishment of the Economic Advisory Council ...... The South African Foundation ...... RESERVATION OF WORK ... Note on trends so far evident ...... Developments in regard to determinations made before 1960 Passenger lift attendants (178), the building industry in the Transvaal and Free State (178), domestic appliances (179). New determination for the clothing industry ...... Proposed work reservation determinations ...... FACTORIES, MACHINERY AND BUILDING WORK AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 31 OF 1960 ...... THE POVERTY OF URBAN AFRICANS ...... New survey in Johannesburg by the Institute of Race Relations ......

A SURVEY OF RACE Survey by the Department of Economics of Natal University 186 The necessity for increases in the wages of Africans ...... 187 Recent Wage Determinations ...... 189 Voluntary increases in pay ...... 189 Relative lack of incentives for employers to improve productivity ...... 189 Recent increases granted ...... 190 The Association for the Improvement of Bantu Wages and Productivity ...... 191 Little change in the basic pattern of inequality between the wages of White and Black ...... 191 Recent announcement by the Minister of Labour ...... 191 STRIKES AND LABOUR DISPUTES ...... 192 The separate Industrial Conciliation machinery provided for Africans ...... 192 Disputes without stoppages of work ...... 193 Strikes ...... 193 Statistics for 1959 (193), Langeberg Kooperasie strike (194)., Hammarsdale strike (195), Emco strike (195) TRADE UNIONISM ...... 195 Racial composition of trade unions ...... 195 Developments in regard to co-ordinating bodies ...... 196 EMPLOYMENT IN VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE ECONOMY ...... 197 Occupations in 1951 ...... 197 Agriculture ...... 197 Numbers employed (197), White occupancy of rural areas (198). Appointment of new Inter-Departmental committee (199), Course of training for Coloured farm workers (199), The S.A. Agricultural Union's "Native Policy for Agriculture" (200). Manufacturing ...... 201 Construction and power ...... 201 Commerce ...... 202 African traders in Johannesburg (202), Courses of training for African traders (203), Traders' organizations (203). M ining ...... 203 The Public Service ...... 205 The Railways ...... 206 M unicipal service ...... 206 Personal services ...... 207 The professions ...... 207 Medical profession ...... 207 Law ...... 207 Advocates Admission Draft Bill ...... 207 Other professions ...... 208

RELATIONS: 1959-60 EDUCATION CONTROL OF EDUCATION ...... EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATIONAL SERVICES ...... Expenditure per pupil and per head of population ...... Bantu Education Account ...... Receipts, 1958-59 ...... Extension of University Education Amendment Act, No. 32 of 1960 ...... Estimated expenditure for the year ending 30 March 196 1 ...... Adequacy of funds for Bantu education ...... NUMBER OF SCHOOL PUPILS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN THE STANDARDS ...... TEACHERS ...... N um bers ...... Pension schemes for African teachers ...... Cost-of-living allowances for African teachers ...... NUMBERS OF NON-WHITES WITH VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS ...... AFRICAN EXAMINATION RESULTS ...... EXAMINATION FEES ...... SCHOOL BOARDS AND COMMITTEES FOR BANTU COMMUNITY SCHOOLS FARM SCHOOLS FOR AFRICANS ...... DISTURBANCES AT AFRICAN SCHOOLS ...... EDUCATION OF COLOURED CHILDREN ...... THE TEACHING OF HISTORY ...... SCHOOL FEEDING ...... SPECIAL SCHOOLS ...... Special schools and their enrolment ...... Special Education Amendment Act, No. 45 of 1960 ...... VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ...... Training of African social workers ...... Proposed technical school for Coloured students ...... Students attending technical and vocational classes ...... THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGES ...... Enrolment at universities in 1958 ...... Degrees and diplomas awarded to Non-White students in 1958 Admission of Non-White students to university colleges and universities in 1960 ...... Admissions to the new university colleges ...... Admissions to the Natal Medical School and the University of South Africa ...... Admission of Non-White students to the open universities Regulations for the Bantu university colleges ...... Senates, Boards, etc ...... Admission, control and dismissal of students ...... 216 216 218 219 219 219 221 222 223 224 224 225 226 226 226 227 227 227 228 228 228 229 229 231 231 231

A SURVEY OF RACE Additional regulations for Fort Hare students ...... Fees at the Bantu university colleges ...... Study loans ...... University College of Fort Hare Transfer Amendment Act, No. 62 of 1960 ...... Developments at Fort Hare during 1960 ...... The two new Bantu university colleges ...... University College of Pius XII, ...... University College of the Western Cape ...... BURSARIES AND STUDY LOANS FOR NON-WHITE STUDENTS ...... NIGHT SCHOOLS AND CONTINUATION CLASSES ...... AFRICAN LITERACY RATE ...... HEALTH AND NUTRITION 232 234 234 239 240 VITAL STATISTICS ...... MEDICAL SERVICES ...... Commission of Enquiry into costs ...... Medical services available ...... C linics ...... Treatment of specific diseases ...... Tuberculosis (243), Eye diseases (244), 0 (244). Blood transfusion services ...... NUTRITION Voluntary feeding schemes ...... Announcement by the Prime Minister WELFARE THE CHILDREN'S ACT, NO. 33 OF 1960 ... General provisions ...... Administration of the Act as it affects ...... 240 ...... 241 ...... 241 ...... 241 ...... 243 ...... 243 er diseases ...... ° ...... Africans to be trans- ferred to the Department of Bantu Administration and Development ...... Ethnological grouping of a child in need of care to be taken into account ...... Proposal that children classified in a different racial group from that of their parents might be deemed "in need of care" ...... Notes on the Parliamentary debate ...... Boards of Management of Government institutions for Africans ...... THE BLIND PERSONS' AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 46 OF 1960 ...... CONTROL OF SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES FOR AFRICANS ...... CONTROL AND SITING OF INSTITUTIONS ...... PENSIONS AND GRANTS ...... Estimated State expenditure, 1960-61 ...... Pensions Law Amendment Act, No. 61 of 1960 ...... Increase in social pensions ...... 249 249 250 250 253 253 254 254 O * .°. th

RELATIONS: 1959-60 xiii Rates of old age, blind and disability pensions ...... 254 Amounts paid in pensions and grants ...... 255 Old age, war veterans' and blind pensions and disability grants ...... 255 Unemployment benefits ...... 255 Pneumoconiosis benefits ...... 256 Accidents to African mine-workers ...... 256 Committee of Enquiry into family allowances for Whites ... 256 Sheltered employment services ...... 257 RECREATION THE ARTS ...... 257 Literature ...... 257 Indian arts ...... 258 Painting ...... 258 Music...... 258 ENTERTAINMENT ...... 259 The theatre ...... 259 Cinemas ...... 260 Radio ...... 260 Broadcasting Amendment Act, No. 49 of 1960 ...... 260 Interim broadcasting service for Africans ...... 261 Plans for the future ...... 262 Broadcasts during the State of Emergency ...... 262 SPORTS ...... 263 Bathing ...... 263 Reservation of Separate Amenities Amendment Act, No. 10 of 1960 ...... 263 S.A. Sports Association ...... 263 Soccer ...... 264 Cricket ...... 264 Table tennis ...... 265 Boxing ...... 265 G olf ...... 265 JUSTICE CRIMINAL STATISTICS ...... 266 NOTES ON THE PRISONS SYSTEM ...... 266 Classification of long-term prisoners ...... 266 Use of prison labour ...... 266 The prison farm system ...... 267 The probationary release of prisoners ...... 268 PROMISES OF SIMPLIFIED COURT PROCEDURE AND BETTER POLICE PROTECTION FOR AFRICANS ...... 269 JUVENILES ...... 270 Youth camps ...... 270 Provision of work for urban youth ...... 271

A SURVEY OF RACE TREATMENT OF FARM LABOURERS LEGAL AID BUREAUX EXTERNAL AFFAIRS BOYCOTTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN GOODS ...... Calls for action ...... West Indies and Central America ...... B ritain ...... W est A frica ...... Central and East Africa ...... Scandinavia ...... U nited States ...... M alaya ...... Effects of these boycotts ...... INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS _...... United Nations, November 1959 ...... The Netherlands ...... C anada ...... B ritain ...... Mr. Macmillan's "Wind of Change" speech Dr. Verwoerd's reactions ...... United States ...... United Nations' debate, March/April 1960 ... Brazil ...... Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conference ... Pan-African Federation conference ...... G hana ...... Nigeria ...... Establishment of the S.A. Political Bureau ... 272 273 ...... 274 ...... 274 275 ...... 275 ...... 275 ...... 275 ...... 276 ...... 276 ...... 276 ...... 276 ...... 277 ...... 277 ...... 277 ...... 278 ...... 278 ...... 278 ...... 280 ...... 281 ...... 281 ...... 283 ...... 283 ...... 285 ...... 285 ...... 286 ...... 286 South African membership of international bodies ...... 287 United Nations' consideration of South-West Africa ...... 287 The treatment of persons of Indian origin in South Africa ... 289 SOME RECENT PUBLICATIONS DEALING WITH RACE RELATIONS Published by the Institute of Race Relations ...... 290 Published by others ...... 291 INDEX ...... 294

RELATIONS: 1959-60 xv LEGISLATION OF 1960 Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Act, No. 5 of 1960 ...... 30 Blind Persons Amendment Act, No. 46 of 1960 ...... 249 Broadcasting Amendment Act, No. 49 of 1960 ...... 260 Children's Act, No. 33 of 1960 ...... 246 Extension of University Education Amendment Act, No. 32 of 1960 211 Factories, Machinery and Building Work Amendment Act, No. 31 of 1960 ...... 182 Immigration Amendment Act, No. 8 of 1960 ...... 136 Pensions Law Amendment Act, No. 61 of 1960 ...... 254 Population Registration Amendment Act, No. 30 of 1960 ...... 28 Referendum Act, No. 52 of 1960 ...... 6 Reservation of Separate Amenities Amendment Act, No. 10 of 1960 263 Senate Act, No. 53 of 1960 ...... 2 Special Education Amendment Act, No. 45 of 1960 ...... 225 University College of Fort Hare Transfer Amendment Act, No. 62 of 1960 ...... 235 Unlawful Organizations Act, No. 34 of 1960 ...... 69

CONSTITUTIONAL MATTERS RE-CONSTITUTION OF THE SENATE SENATE ACT, No. 53 OF 1955 The history of the re-constitution of the Senate in 1955 and the reasons for this has been given in previous Surveys0' Briefly, at the beginning of that year teffe-Senate had 48 members, ten nominated by the Governor-General-in-Council (half of these selected on the ground mainly of their thorough acquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of the Coloured races), four elected by Africans, and the remaining 34 (eight for each province and two for South-West Africa) elected, according to the system of proportional representation with the single transferable vote, by the members of the House of Assembly and of the provincial councils(2) sitting together under the Administrator of each province. During the six years preceding 1955 the Government had met with a series of reverses in its efforts to place the Coloured voters of the Cape and Natal(3) on a separate roll. It finally decided that the constitution of the Senate should be altered in such a way as to make it possible for the Government to obtain a two-thirds majority for the necessary legislation at a joint session of both Houses (a procedure laid down in the South Africa Act of 1909 for legislation affecting voting rights). The Senate Act of 1955 provided that the Senate should include eighteen members nominated by the Governor-General (again, half of these selected on the ground mainly of their thorough acquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of the Coloured races), four elected by Africans, two elected from South- West Africa, the rest representing each of the provinces of the Union. Each province would elect a number of members equal (to the nearest figure) to one- fifth of the total number of members of the House of Assembly plus the members of the provincial council elected in that province, but in no case less than eight. In these elections the system of proportional representation would no longer be used: instead, elections would be by majority vote, each voter having one nontransferable vote for each senator to be elected (the bulk vote or "ticket" system). The new arrangement entitled the Transvaal to 27 elected members, the Cape to 22, and the and Natal each to eight. Altogether, the Senate had 89 members. Of the (1) e.g. 1955-1956, page 22. (2) In the case of South-West Africa, the Legislative Assembly. (3) They had not been enfranchised in the other provinces.

A SURVEY OF RACE elected Senators from the provinces, the eight from Natal were members of the United Party and the 57 from the other provinces were Nationalists. CHANGES MADE FROM 1956 TO 1959 The South Africa Act Amendment Act, No. 9 of 1956, removed the entrenchment of voting rights and revalidated the Separate Representation of Voters Act of 1951, which had been rejected by the Appeal Court because it was originally passed by the Senate and the Assembly separately, and with simple majorities. This 1951 Act provided, inter alia, that a White Senator would be nominated by the Governor-General on the ground of his thorough acquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of the Coloured people of the Cape. This appointment was made in July 1957. Then, in 1959, the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act (No. 46 of that year) repealed the Representation of Natives Act of 1936, which had provided that Africans in all provinces should elect four White Senators, and that Africans in the Cape who qualified as voters should elect three White representatives to the House of Assembly and two to the Cape Provincial Council. African representation in these bodies ceased when the term of office of their existing representatives expired at the end of June 1960. As a result of these changes, the Senate had 86 members. The United Party's Senate plan was described in our 1956-57 Survey.(4) SENATE ACT, No. 53 OF 1960 The terms of the Act The Senate Bill of 1960 was referred to a Joint Select Committee after its Second Reading, certain changes being made as a result. In its final form the Act provided for a Senate of, at present, 54 members. Of these, ten will be nominated by the GovernorGeneral, two from each province and two from South-West Africa. At least one of the two must be thoroughly acquainted with the interests of the Cape Coloured, Malay and Griqua peoplel-' in the province or territory concerned and capable of serving as a channel through which these interests may be promoted. In making the nominations the Governor- General must also have regard to the desirability of ensuring that the Senate will as far as practicable consist of persons having knowledge affecting the various interests of the inhabitants of the Union. (4) Page 3. (5) The term "Coloured" is defined so as to exclude Africans and Asians.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 3 As before, one further Senator will be nominated on the ground of his thorough acquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of the Coloured people of the Cape. Members of the House of Assembly and provincial council in each province will form electoral colleges for the election of provincial representatives to the Senate. Their numbers will in each case be divided by ten to determine the number of Senators to be elected from the province concerned: if the number is not a multiple of ten, the lowest next such multiple will be used. There will, however, be a minimum of eight Senators per province. Besides these, two Senators will be elected by the Members of Parliament and Legislative Assembly in South-West Africa. Elections will again take place according to the system of proportional representation, each voter having one transferable vote. According to the Minister of the Interior,(6) in terms of the new arrangement the Transvaal will have 14 elected Senators, the Cape 11, Natal 8, the Orange Free State 8, and South-West Africa 2. On the basis of present party political strength in Parliament and the provincial councils, and including the nominated Senators, the Government will have 39 representatives and the Opposition 15. The Act also provides that the Senate may establish standing committees for various matters. It has in the past had standing committees on certain subjects, but a wider range of such committees will in future be possible. The Minister said(') that these bodies may be asked to consider matters that are not politically contentious, such as social and economic problems, before legislation is drafted. They will be representative of the various political parties in the proportion in which these parties are represented in the Senate. Method of electing Senators R 1341 of 2 September set out regulations for the election of Senators, according to the preferential voting system. Parliamentary debate on the Bill When introducing the Bill at its Second Reading the Minister of the Interior said(8) that now the Government had achieved its purposes through the 1955 legislation, it proposed again reducing the size of the Senate and reintroducing the system of proportional representation. He went on to describe the terms of the Bill. (6) Assembly, 22 February 1960, Hansard 6 cols. 1959. (7) Cols. 1967-8. (8) Cols. 1951-4. A SURVEY OF RACE All the Opposition parties opposed the measure. On behalf of the United Party, its leader, Sir de Villiers Graaff 9) welcomed the decision to re-constitute the Senate, but stated that the Government's plan did not go far enough. The provinces should have equal representation, their representatives being elected directly by White voters and not by electoral colleges composed of M.P.'s and M.P.C.'s. The actual strength of the various parties would then be reflected in the Senate. Limited numbers of White Senators should be elected by Coloured and African people, through separate voters' rolls. Mrs. V. M. L. Ballinger, leader of the Liberal Party and of the Natives' Representatives, supported') the suggestions by Sir de Villiers in regard to equal representation from each province and direct voting on a basis of proportional representation. She urged that the vote should be extended to Non-Whites too, beginning with those who possessed at least the degree of education normally attained by Whites under the compulsory education system. While this number was comparatively small, there should be further Senators to represent the rest, elected by Non-Whites, who would be free to choose persons of their own racial groups. The leader of the Progressive Party, Dr. J. van A. Steytler, considered(") that the constitution and powers of the Senate should be entrenched against attempts to subvert it for party or sectional purposes. The Bill, he said, did not give the Senate adequate substantive powers, failed to provide representation of any value for the Non-White people, did not make it possible for Non-Whites to be elected as Senators, and provided inadequate safeguards for racial minorities. Dr. Steytler, too, was in favour of the equal representation of all provinces. Mr. J. D. du P. Basson of the National Union pleaded for increased representation of Coloured people by members of their own group, if they so wished, and for the representation by Whites of Africans who are permanently resident outside the Reserves. SENATE ELECTIONS The term of office of the elected Senators expired on 26 November 1960, and that of the nominated Senators on 6 December. Members of the House of Assembly and provincial council in each province met on 26 October to elect provincial representatives to the reconstituted Senate. The results were as had been (9) Cols. 1973-85. (10) Cols. 2010-6. (11) Col. 2033.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 5 forecast-28 seats to the Government and 15 to the Opposition, as follows: Government Opposition Transvaal ...... 10 4 Cape ...... 7 4 Free State ...... 8 0 Natal ...... 1 7 South-West Africa ...... 2 0 Including the ten Senators still to be nominated and the Senator selected on the ground of his acquaintance with the reasonable wants and wishes of the Coloured people of the Cape, the Government would have a total of 39 supporters in the Senate. REFERENDUM ON THE REPUBLICAN ISSUE PRELIMINARY ANNOUNCEMENTS BY THE PRIME MINISTER On 20 January 1960 the Prime Minister announced("2) in the Assembly that the Government intended holding a referendum on the republican issue, the decision to be by majority verdict even if it was a majority of only one. The republic, when established, would be a democratic one, he said. There would be no radical changes in South Africa's parliamentary institutions or constitutional practices. The monarch would be replaced by a President, who would be outside the political arena: unlike the old republican system in the Transvaal and Free State the head of the state would not also be the head of the government. The language and other rights of Englishspeaking as well as -speaking citizens would be fully protected. Later, on 21 March, the Prime Minister reiterated(3 that a bare majority of votes would be regarded as adequate, and added, "If we do not succeed ... next time we will adopt the ... method ... of allowing (the) ... decision to be taken by the majority in a Parliament elected for that purpose." The Government believed, Dr. Verwoerd said, "that on sober common-sense grounds the Commonwealth is of value to us to-day." He continued, however, by saying that the Commonwealth was of little help in connection with South Africa's colour policy. (12) Hansard 1 cols. 99-107. (13) Assembly, Hansard 10 cols. 3765-77.

6 A SURVEY OF RACE THE REFERENDUM ACT, No. 52 OF 1960 Terms of the Act In the main, the Referendum Act consisted of a series of amendments to the Electoral Act of 1946 with the object of making the ordinary electoral machine available for a referendum. The place of candidates in Parliamentary elections would be taken by referendum agents, appointed by the electoral officers, each constituency to have one pro-republican and one anti-republican agent. Their expenses would be borne by political parties or other organizations. The ballot papers would state merely: "Are you in favour of a Republic for the Union? Yes Nom Voters would be asked to make a cross in the square opposite their choice of answer. White voters only would participate in the referendum. Parliamentary debate on the Bill The Deputy Minister of the Interior moved in the Assembly on 11 March that leave be granted to introduce the Bill. The leaders of all Opposition parties and of the Natives' and Coloured representatives objected, on the ground that the referendum would be confined to White voters. The Progressive and Liberal Parties considered that not only registered Coloured voters should participate (as the United Party had suggested), but that Asians and Africans, too, should be given the opportunity of expressing their point of view.(") Introducing the Bill at its Second Reading on 22 April, the Deputy Minister said15) that the National Party upheld "the principle that White South Africa is the guardian of the Non-White and that it would be wrong to call in the Non- Whites as an arbiter in this matter." It would be for the Government and Parliament to interpret and to implement the decision of the White voters, he continued. Guillotines were imposed on the debates in both Houses of Parliament. Sir de Villiers Graaff, who led the opposition to the measure, re-emphasized that it was undesirable to exclude Coloured voters, said that there should be some attempt to consult with the (14) Hansard 8 cols. 3200-9. (15) Hansard 14 cols. 5877-83.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 7 African people, pointed out that the Bill failed to define the type of republic to be voted upon or to guarantee that South Africa, as a republic, would remain a member of the Commonwealth, and stressed the opinion that at a time of national emergency it was highly unwise to plan very controversial constitutional changes.(") DECISION AT COMMONWEALTH PRIME MINISTERS' CONFERENCE On behalf of the Prime Minister, who was then in hospital, Mr. Eric Louw, the Minister of External Affairs, attended the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conference held in London during May 1960. It is believed that Mr. Louw sought advance approval for South Africa's remaining in the Commonwealth as a republic, but no such assurance was given. In the communiqu6 issued at the end of the conference it was stated, "In the event of South Africa deciding to become a republic and if the desire was subsequently expressed to remain a member of the Commonwealth, the meeting suggested that the South African Government should then ask for the consent of the other Commonwealth Governments." THE REFERENDUM The referendum was held on 5 October. The voting was as follows: For Against a republic a republic Cape ...... 271,418 269,784 Transvaal ...... 406,632 325,041 Natal ...... 42,299 135,598 Orange Free State ...... 110,171 33,438 South-West Africa ...... 19,938 12,017 Total ... 850,458 775,878* There were 7,436 spoilt papers. On an average, 5,451 voters in each constituency were in favour of a republic, and 4,974 against it. To analyse the voting by provinces, the percentages of the valid votes that were pro-republic were 77 in the Orange Free State, 62 in South-West Africa, 56 in the Transvaal, 50 in the Cape and 24 in Natal, the overall percentage being 52.3. There were 1,800,748 people on the voters' roll, so that the average percentage poll was 90.75. (16) Cols. 5885-6. * It was announced later that a mistake had been made in the Houghton constituency result. This reduces the anti-republican vote by 1,000.

A SURVEY OF RACE The result showed a cleavage between town and country, and between different parts of the Union. Natal, the , and the urban areas of the Transvaal and the Western Cape were largely anti-republican. It also became clear yet again how great an advantage the delimitation system bestows on the National Party. Assuming that its members voted for a republic and that other parties were opposed to this, and assuming, too, that the distribution of seats in the House of Assembly should reflect the voting strength of the various parties, 52.3 per cent of the members elected by White voters should be representatives of the National Party, that is, 82 members, instead of the 102 members this party It is interesting to try to estimate the strength of the major parties in constituencies that the National Party did not contest at the general election in 1958. There were 31 of these. In 1960 the average number of pro-republican votes cast in these constituencies was 1,938, which is 17 per cent of the average number of valid votes, viz 11,363, cast in the 31 constituencies. If the figures are analysed on a provincial basis, the averages were 1,460 per constituency in Natal, 1,778 in the Transvaal and 2,430 in the Cape. STATEMENT SUBSEQUENTLY ISSUED BY 69 PROMINENT MEN On 21 October, sixty-nine prominent South Africans representative of all walks of life, of both language groups and of both the largest political parties issued a statement declaring their belief that the great opportunities which awaited the country could only be successfully realized on the basis of what was right and just for all sections of the population; that no group was superior or inferior to another merely on the grounds of race or colour; that every South African, regardless of race, colour or religion, had an inalienable right to respect of his personal dignity as a human being; and that everything possible should be done to improve relationships between different sections of the population, within the framework of a civilized, stable, well-run and prosperous society. They were conscious, they continued, of the need to examine many aspects of racial relationships in the light of the important changes which had taken place in South Africa and elsewhere over the past twenty years. were more than ever before being challenged to meet the spiritual, material and political ne!ds of all racial groups. Their responsibilities should be carried out in a spirit of humility and in such a way as to maintain the Western character, the stability and the orderly progress of the country.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 9 Divisions between Afrikaans- and English-speaking White South Africans were making it difficult for men of goodwill to give effective attention to these and other problems. It was urgently necessary to bring about a greater degree of unity. The people of South Africa were asked to accept the results of the referendum and proceed to establish a republic as soon as possible, maintaining the existing form of democratic constitution, and desiring to maintain the Commonwealth relationship. Once the constitutional issue was settled, undivided attention could be given to colour and racial issues and to other matters of fundamental importance. Friendly and constructive relationships should be established with other African countries. The firm alignment of South Africa with the Western democratic world was supported. ACTION TAKEN IN NATAL The leader of the United Party in Natal, Mr. D. E. Mitchell, announced on the following day that the Natal Provincial Council would be asked to initiate action which might lead to constitutional reforms to protect the fundamental rights of the people of that province. It was reported on 26 October'6A) that the resolution to be put before the Provincial Council would demand that the new republican constitution should include five entrenched "fundamental rights"-freedom of worship, the equality of English and Afrikaans, parental choice of medium of education, independent universities, and freedom of opinion and the Press. The resolution would state that the provincial council should maintain its existing powers, and that further powers should be ceded by the Government. These should include: (a) exclusive provincial rights over the control of education, including African and technical education; (b) absolute control by the province over the appointment, dismissal and terms of employment of Provincial Administration officials; (c) powers of taxation and appropriation and borrowing of funds for effective administration; (d) the right to establish a provincial police force. It would be stated, further, that Parliament should relinquish any power to legislate in regard to local matters in the province. All Crown and State-owned land in the province should revert to Natal. This resolution was passed at a Natal Provincial Council meeting held on 31 October. (itA) Rand Daily Mail, 26 and 27 October 1960.

10 A SURVEY OF RACE At the time of writing, the United Party members of the Transvaal Provincial Council were planning a resolution to be put before this Council, asking the Government for an assurance that provincial rights would be maintained in the republic. This resolution was unlikely to be as far-reaching as the Natal one. PARTY-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS NATIONAL PARTY No developments of significance have taken place within the National Party during the year under review. The outcome of the referendum on the republican issue has undoubtedly strengthened the position of Dr. H. F. Verwoerd as leader of the party. If, as has been suggested, the majority of South Africans voted along party lines in this referendum, then the result indicates that about 52.3 per cent of the Whites in the Union are supporters of the National Party or the National Union Party (dealt with below). UNITED PARTY Until the end of October 1960 there had been no developments of note within the United Party, either, since the Progressives broke away, an event described in the previous issue of this Survey.(7) The then broad racial policy of the United Party was expressed by Mr. S. J. M. Steyn, in an amendment he moved during February to a motion in the Assembly by the leader of the Progressive Party.080 The amendment was as follows: "That this House: 1. confirms the traditional and accepted South African policy of social and residential separation among the races; 2. condemns the policies of the Government which seek a solution of South Africa's race problems in unrealistic attempts to develop independent Native states, especially as those policies have no regard to the permanent presence of millions of Natives of the same ethnic groups outside those areas; 3. calls upon the Government to accept the permanent multi-racial character of the South African State and to formulate its policies accordingly; and (17) Page 6. (18) Assembly, 15 February 1960, Hansard 5 cols. 1560-1.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 11 4. demands that such reformed policies should, inter alia(a) accept the restoration of the Cape Coloured people in the Cape Province and Natal on a common roll; (b) be based upon consultation with the Native peoples at all levels and their representation as a group in the Parliament of South Africa while ensuring the maintenance of those Western standards of which the European race group is by tradition and history the guardian." Late in October, however, the leader of the United Party, Sir de Villiers Graaff, visited Britain and Canada to enlist support for South Africa's continued membership of the Commonwealth. Before leaving, he issued a statement which reorientated United Party policy. His main points were: 1. Coloured people entitled to vote on a separate roll or a common roll should also have the right to stand for Parliament. 2. Artificial economic discrimination against Coloured people, like job reservation, must disappear. 3. Asians in South Africa must be accepted as a permanent part of the population. 4. Immediate attention must be given to the effects of the application of the Group Areas Act on their economic enterprises. 5. Negotiations must be opened to determine their future political status. 6. Special emphasis must be laid on the development of the African Reserves with White capital and White skill. 7. South Africa must have the courage to accept a permanent detribalized African population as a fact. 8. This group must be given representation in Parliament based primarily on a permanent urban middle class, whose emergence must be fostered. LIBERAL PARTY The Liberal Party has recently revised its franchise policy. The new policy, as published in Contact of 18 June 1960, is, "The Liberal Party of South Africa aims to achieve the responsible participation of all South Africans in the government and democratic process of the country, and, to this end, to extend the right of franchise on the common roll to all adult persons. "The Liberal Party considers it a prerequisite of a universal franchise that there should be entrenched in a rigid constitution a Bill of Rights based on the Universal Declaration of Human

12 ASURVEYOFRACE Rights, which will protect the rights of all individuals, and which shall be enforceable by an independent judiciary. "The Liberal Party feels that it is not possible at this stage to foresee the precise circumstances under which the change will occur, but aims to have the idea of a universal franchise and a Bill of Rights accepted by the people of South Africa, and to bring about the change with the minimum possible dislocation." Early in 1960 the Liberal Party decided to support the economic boycott of South African goods planned in several other countries. Mainly as a result of one or other of these developments, several prominent party members have resigned, among them Mr. Walter P. Stanford, M.P., Mr. Donald B. Molteno, Q.C., Dr. Oscar Wollheim and Mr. Gerald Gordon, Q.C. Some of those who resigned jolned the Progressive Party instead. During October 1960 (after the ending of the state of emergency), two meetings which the Liberal Party was to have held in Cape Town and Johannesburg respectively were banned by the magistrates concerned. PROGRESSIVE PARTY The Progressive Party, formed in November 1959, held its first naticnal conference in Johannesburg during the same month. The congress adopted a statement of its main principles and policies, the principles being: "1. The maintenance and extension of the values of Western civilization, the protection of fundamental human rights and the safeguarding of the dignity and worth of the human person, irrespective of race, colour or creed. 2. The assurance that no citizen of the Union of South Africa shall be debarred on grounds of race, religion, language or sex, from making the contribution to our national life of which he or she may be capable. 3. The recognition that in the Union of South Africa there is one nation which embraces various groups differing in race, religicns, language and traditions, that each such group is cntitled to the protection of these things and of its right of participation in the government of the nation; and that understanding, tolerance and goodwill between the different groups must be fostered. 4. The maintenance inviolate of the Rule of Law. 5. The promotion of social progress and the improvement of living standards through the energetic development of a modern economy based on free enterprise, whereby the national resources of men and materials can be fully utilized,

RELATIONS: 1959-60 6. The promotion of friendly relations with other nations, more particularly the members of the Commonwealth and those who share with us the heritage of Western civilization." In the Assembly on 5 February 1960, the party leader, Dr. J. van A. Steytler, moved that the House should accept a motion based on these principles.(") It was in reply to this that Mr. Steyn moved the motion quoted above. Dr. Steytler was elected leader at the inaugural congress, the Hon. H. G. Lawrence, M.P., Q.C., being elected National Chairman. The congress decided that membership of the party should be open to persons of any race who possessed the qualifications deemed suitable by the party for registering as voters on a common roll. Local branches would in due course decide for themselves whether they should be mixed or exclusively White or Non-White. A commission of experts was set up to define the qualifications for voting and to draft a recommended new constitution for South Africa, to incorporate a Bill of Rights and constitutional safeguards for minority groups. The decentralization of legislative and executive power in favour of the provinces was suggested by the congress. Towards the end of 1959 Professor I. S. Fourie, M.P., broke away from the Progressive Party to become an Independent, and Mr. W. P. Stanford, M.P., left the Liberal Party to join the Progressives. The latter party thus continued during 1960 to have twelve Members of Parliament. It engaged in its first contest with the United Party at a municipal by-election in Johannesburg in July, losing by 99 votes, the total poll being 3,657. The report of the constitutional commission, which was headed by Mr. Donald Molteno, Q.C., and which embodied four minority reports on various matters, was made public on 14 November 1960, and was considered by a Union-wide Party congress on the two following days. The congress decided that South Africa should have a rigid constitution incorporating a Bill of Rights, which could only be amended by a special procedure still to be laid down by the commission. Eighteen basic rights and freedoms were suggested by the commission, accepted in principle by the congress and referred to the National Executive Committee for further consideration in detail. (19) Hansard 3 cols. 1000-1.

A SURVEY OF RACE It was agreed by the congress that all voters should be South African citizens (as defined by law and entrenched in the constitution), and should have attained the age of 21 years. There should be two voters' rolls, both non-racial and open to persons of both sexes-an "A" or ordinary roll, and a "B" or special roll. Qualifications for the "A" roll would be: (a) a Standard VIII certificate or equivalent, or (b) a Standard VI certificate or equivalent, and, for the past two years, either an income of £300 a year, or occupation (i.e. control) of fixed property valued at £500; or (c) the passing of a prescribed literacy test in an official language, and, for the past two years, either an income of £500 a year in cash or kind, or occupation of fixed property valued at £500; or (d) marriage to a person with the necessary income or property qualifications provided that the applicant had the required educational standard; or (e) past registration on any list of voters for Members of Parliament. For admission to the "B" roll a literacy test only would be required. "B" voters would elect ten per cent of the members of the House of Assembly, voting three months before each general election in especially delimited constituencies. All candidates for election to Parliament would have to be registered on the "A" roll. If at any time the number of "B" voters fell below 20 per cent of the number of registered "A" voters, then the percentage of special roll seats would be reduced. The income and property qualifications would be reviewed every five years by a committee headed by a judge, this revision being made in accordance with the purchasing power of money. It was decided to set up an ad hoc committee to enquire into the question of proportional representation in the Assembly. The congress was of the opinion that the Senate should be a "comparatively non- racial" body that would have power to check any legislation except money bills, and would be able to block any discriminatory legislation introduced by a majority group in the Assembly. Machinery for resolving any deadlocks between the two Houses of Parliament was suggested. It was proposed that the Senate should consist of twelve members from each of the provinces and six from South- West Africa. They would be directly elected by "A" roll voters in specially defined constituencies, and would require the support of at least one-fifth of the members of each racial group in their constituencies.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 NATIONAL UNION PARTY An account was given in the previous issue of this Survey2") of the differences of opinion between Mr. J. D. du P. Basson, M.P., and the leaders of the National Party, which led to his expulsion from the party by majority vote. During February 1960 Mr. Basson launched a new political party, the National Union, with the broad. aim of returning to the main principles of Hertzogism and achieving a greater degree of co-operation between the Afrikaans and English sections of the population. His party favoured a republican form of government, but emphasized that the republic must be founded on the broad will of the people, based on Western democratic principles and the existing parliamentary system, and within the Commonwealth. According to its published aims, the party is opposed to any measures which drive the White and Coloured people apart, assail the dignity of the latter as human beings, and hinder them from making constructive contributions to the progress of the country. Coloured people, the party considers, should have the right to elect their own Coloured representatives to legislative bodies. Large-scale and rapid economic and political development should take place in the Bantu areas on a basis of mutual consultation and joint responsibility. Those whose permanent homes are outside the Reserves should be given a greater responsibility in the management of their own affairs, and measures causing unnecessary friction should be removed. The political rights which were removed in 1959 should be restored, the Bantu outside the Reserves participating more directly in the election of their representatives. The National Union urges that diplomatic and other forms of contact with other states on the continent of Africa should be fostered, ano that a more positive immigration policy should be pursued. SOUTH AFRICAN BOND The aims of the S.A. Bond, formed in December 1955, were outlined in an earlier issue of this Survey.21) In August 1960 the Bond opposed the National Party at a Parliamentary by- election in the constituency, its candidate obtaining 416 votes against 4,881 polled in favour of his opponent. (20) Page 1. (21) 1955-56. page 3.

A SURVEY OF RACE WORK FOR INTER-RACIAL HARMONY S.A. INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS INSTITUTE'S COUNCIL MEETING, JANUARY 1960 The following papers were given at the Institute's annual Council meeting, held in Durban during January 1960: Opening speech by the Most Rev. Denis Hurley, Catholic Archbishop of Durban. A Review of Recent Legislation, by the Director, Mr. Quintin Whyte (RR 8/60). Fifty Years of Union, by Mr. D. B. Molteno, Q.C.-Fifty Years of Union-Political Review. Papers by Prof. L. M. Thompson (RR 1/60) and Ex-Chief A. J. Luthuli (RR 250/59). Fifty Years of Economic Development, by Mrs. M. Kooy (RR 2 / 60). Social Development Since Union, by Miss Hansi Pollak (RR 6/60). The Indian Community of South Africa-Past, Present and Future, by Dr. S. Cooppan (RR 7/60). South Africa and the Wider Africa, 1910-1960, by Professor the Hon. E. H. Brookes (RR 14/60). The Findings of Council on "A Hundred Years of Indian Settlement and Development in South Africa" are described later in this Survey. Its findings on "Fifty Years of Union" were as follows: Social Development Since Union 1. Council recognizes the great developments made in the provision of education, health, and welfare services during the past fifty years for people of all racial groups. 2. Until 1948 Non-Whites were included in all major governmental social welfare programmes, although these were based on the traditional pattern of differentiation. But the earlier promising developments have been marred by the application of policies of separation which have led to the fragmentation of our society. 3. From 1948 with the increasing extension of the policy of apartheid the State welfare programme, in contrast with that of the voluntary organizations, has been relatively static. It has been marked by the exclusion of certain Non-White groups from benefits and services previously enjoyed and from certain new services provided, and there has been ever-widening disparity in the level of grants and social pensions for the four racial groups. 4. Council records its appreciation of the present vigorous programme for the provision of houses for urban Africans. It (22) Published by the Institute as a panhIlet.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 17 regrets however, that the present policy precludes the grant of sub-economic housing loans for such development. 5. Council condemns the official policy of making Africans, who constitute the poorest section of our population, increasingly meet the cost of the social services which they receive. 6. Council acknowledges the progress made in penal reform in terms of the Criminal Laws Amendment Act and the Prisons Act of 1959, and urges their earliest implementation. 7. (a) The present official policies regarding urban Africans are creating frustration, confusion and stultification for national and local voluntary organizations undertaking African welfare work in urban areas. (b) Council is convinced that it is imperative that institutions created in response to urban African needs should be permitted to continue their activities. It is illogical, impracticable and inhumane that they be removed to the Reserves. (c) Council considers that the future development of progressive, well- administered and financially secure voluntary services for Africans is essential. This goal can best be attained by continued co-operative, inter-racial effort. While recognizing and appreciating the increasing degree of African responsibility, both in staffing and administering such services, Council is convinced that the enforced exclusion of Europeans from such voluntary effort is not in the interests of the Africans themselves nor of the community as a whole. Council further notes that this policy threatens to put an end to the participation of international organizations in the voluntary welfare field. (d) Council urges the Executive to seek opportunities, through a national conference or otherwise, of bringing together nationally organized voluntary welfare organizations to examine in all its aspects the continuation and future provision of welfare services for Africans, particularly for those in urban areas. 8. (a) Whilst recognizing that great progress has been made in the extension of schooling to Non-White groups, Council is of the opinion that for the Indian, Coloured, and urban African communities compulsory education is long overdue. In regard to the African community as a whole, Council acknowledges the manifold difficulties in the way of immediate compulsory education, but urges that it be regarded as a . (b) Council reiterates its earlier findings that the transfer of African education to the Bantu Education Department is unsound in principle. It totally rejects the concept that there should be different types or standards of education

18 A SURVEY OF RACE for different racial groups, and profoundly regrets the final blow in the fragmentation of education that has come at university level. (c) Council regrets the discouragement and virtual abolition of all general schemes of school feeding, especially in Non-European schools. 9. Council regards with grave apprehension the announced policy of the Government to impose a uniform educational policy on the Provinces, and opposes all measures which aim at restricting legitimate variety in education and thereby controlling the intellectual life of the country on lines determined by the Government. 10. The migrant labour system is a social evil largely responsible not only for the disintegration of African family life in urban and rural areas but also for the general unrest and insecurity so manifest among the African population. Far from recognizing migratory labour for the evil that it is, the Government is perpetuating and extending it as an acceptable feature of our social structure. 11. Council is dismayed at the growing interference in the domestic affairs of Church, professional, cultural, trade, welfare and other voluntary associations having multi-racial membership. 12. The enforced fragmentation of South African society, affecting as it does not only voluntary association but every activity of the national life, is probably the most serious of the changes that has taken place in the last decade. The possibility of facing the challenge of the future in a spirit of co-operation, persons of all races combining in a joint effort according to their ability, has receded to a dangerous degree. 13. Council, despite all the above difficulties, believes that with faith, hope and hard work, it is still possible to rebuild South African society on lines which commend themselves to the moral sense of mankind, and calls on the people of South Africa to face the future in this spirit. Economic Development since Union 1. The first fifty years of Union have seen great economic change and development, involving an increasing measure of interracial economic integration. More diversified employment opportunities have become available to members of all races in lesser or greater degree. Urban and industrial development has been accompanied by advances, inter alia, in housing and labour legislation. In addition to industries pioneered by private enterprise, the development, with government encouragement or direct initiative, of a few siccessful and expanding public enterprises, has taken place.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 19 2. Nevertheless, poverty on a massive scale is still the dominant characteristic of the economic conditions of the Non-White and particularly the African peoples. 3. In spite of the findings and recommendations of commission after commission-from the 1925 Economic and Wages Commission onward-such progress as has been made to deal with this poverty by realizing South Africa's full productive potential has been achieved by private enterprise with very little government initiative. Indeed, to a large extent it has been achieved in spite of government policy which has created or supported obstacles to economic advance. In particular, official policy has failed adequately to develop the productive capacities of the Non-White peoples, and has imposed positive restrictions on their use and development in the supposed interests of the Whites. 4. The Institute deplores the increasing number of racially discriminatory laws and administrative practices which have been introduced especially over the last ten years. It considers that job reservation, influx control, enforced racial fragmentation of trade unions and the official insistence that the African labour force increasingly become migratory in nature have inhibited economic development. Legislation introduced and directives issued, together with threatening and often conflicting statements of Government spokesmen, have created a state of widespread economic anxiety, uncertainty and insecurity among all sections of the South African community and have impaired the confidence of overseas investors. 5. The Institute considers that the present and proposed measures to rehabilitate the Bantu reserves are grossly inadequate, relative to the magnitude of the need and the urgency of the task. The Institute records its emphatic conviction that such development does not imply the partition of the country into separate and potentially rival industrial areas. 6. Finally, the Institute recognizes that fear on the part of Whites of unemployment and of Non-White competition at "cutrates" is a factor blocking the economic advance of the Non-Whites and causing deterioration in race relations. It considers that such fear can be more successfully overcome by positive measures to promote an expanding economy than by restrictive measures which lead to recessions and uncertainty, thereby perpetuating the very fear that they are designed to alleviate. Political Deve!opment since Unlon 1. The members of the National Convention of 1908-1909, all of whom were White South Africans, were optimistic that the Constitution they had devised would result in the removal of friction between English- and Afrikaans-speaking Whites. As General

20 ASURVEYOFRACE C. R. de Wet said in 1909, "To-day it does not matter what race we belong to... as long as we are South Africans". 2. Members of the Convention also declared that, notwithstanding the fact that the Constitution debarred Non-Whites from Parliament, and excluded from its franchise all Non-Whites in the Transvaal and the Orange Free State and nearly all in Natal, the Union Parliament and Government would deal fairly with the Non-White inhabitants. 3. The events of the last fifty years have not justified this optimism. There is still friction and misunderstanding between Afrikaans- and English-speaking White South Africans. The Indians in Natal have been deprived of their municipal franchise; the Cape Coloured voters have been placed on a separate roll; the Africans are being deprived of all representation in Parliament. Non-Whites are subjected to laws which restrict their capacity to own and occupy property, to move about inside their own country, to be educated in institutions of their own choice, to improve their industrial status, to express their opinions without fear of reprisals, and even, in many cases, to live ordinary family lives. Indeed, some of these restrictive measures apply also to Whites. 4. In this Half-Centenary Year we believe that we should dedicate ourselves to the following tasks: (a) Respect for the personality and human dignity of all inhabitants of the Union, and their equal treatment irrespective of the colour of their skins. (b) The removal of causes of friction between the two main groups of Whites, and between Whites and Non-Whites. (c) A common voters' roll for Whites and Non-Whites, skin colour not being a disqualification from being placed on the roll. (d) The removal of the restriction in the South Africa Act confining membership of the Senate and the House of Assembly to Whites only. (e) The timeous publication before Parliament meets of all important Bills (with the exception of Bills flowing from the Budget) to enable the public to make representations on their subject matter. (f) The passing of legislation ensuring that the liberty of every inhabitant of the Union shall not be interfered with save as a result of an order of Court. (g) The effective entrenchment in a new Constitution of the fundamental rights and liberties of all inhabitants of South Africa. EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE MEETING, MAY 1960 Action taken by the Institute at the time of the emergency in South Africa is described in a later chapter of this Survey, where

RELATIONS: 1959-60 21 the broad decisions taken at a specially convened Executive Committee meeting are summarized. At the conclusion of this meeting the Executive Committee issued the following statement: "The Executive Committee of the South African Institute of Race Relations, meeting in this time of great crisis and difficulty, wishes to reaffirm its belief in freedom and in political rights for men of every race and colour in South Africa as members of an essentially integrated society. The Institute is convinced that the granting of political rights to Africans and other Non-Whites in the Union is as inevitable as it is just. The only choice open to the governing White population is whether to give these early with goodwill or later after much suffering and sorrow. The lull following on the strong measures taken by the Government must not be taken as acquiescence in the present unjust conditions. South Africa will face further times of division and disaster until the just claims of her Non-White citizens are honestly met. "It is the desire of the Institute to save South Africa avoidable and useless suffering. It therefore appeals to the Government to end the state of emergency as soon as possible and to hasten the investigation of all cases with a view to the immediate release of as many people as possible and the bringing of the rest before the Courts of Law for just and open trial at an early date. The Institute expresses its sympathy with the dependants of those detained. It also urges that the pace of any economic or administrative reforms be accelerated in all areas and that more attention be paid to the vital needs of the urban African population whose permanent and vitally important status has been very little accepted up to the present. "Realising that much can be done to ease tensions and to benefit the urban African even if for a time main political issues remain unresolved, the Institute desires to co-operate with the Chambers of Mines, Commerce and Industries and with local authorities and the Central Government, especially with regard to immediate concessions and relaxations in pass laws and influx control and also in such matters as the raising of Non-White wages, the abolition of Job Reservation and the provision of better opportunities in commerce and industry for Non-White workers, including the right of collective bargaining. It urges further, the provision of opportunities for freehold tenure by Africans in urban areas, active participation of Non-Whites in local government, and a greater decentralisation of power to local authorities. "The Institute commends to all the urgent necessity for maintaining and extending friendly contact with Non-Whites. It believes that inter-racial conferences should be held wherever practicable, and expresses the hope that these will lead to a national conference, and one day to the summoning of a National Convention of all races to shape by consent the future of the Union.

22 ASURVEYOFRACE "Committed by its whole history and tradition to peaceful courses, and earnestly desiring to save South Africa from division and disaster, the Institute appeals to all in authority to come to terms with facts and to find solutions which will commend themselves to the Non-Whites. The Institute is convinced that there still exists among large sections of the Non-Whites a sincere and deeply felt desire to co-operate with the White population, and also that there is a very real danger that the continual thrusting out of these Non-White South Africans from the European life of the country may kill this spirit of co-operation and produce separation and hatred in its place, to the moral and material ruin of the country that we all love." HOERNLiE MEMORIAL LECTURE The 16th annual Hoernl6 Memorial Lecture was delivered in Durban on 7 July 1960 by Professor C. W. de Kiewiet, president of the University of Rochester in New York. The title of his lecture was "Can Africa Come of Age?"('1) It was repeated in Johannesburg on 27 July, on which occasion the Institute presented an illuminated scroll to Mrs. V. M. L. Ballinger, who until the Government abolished the representation of Africans in Parliament, was leader of the Natives' Representatives in the House of Assembly. S.A. BUREAU OF RACIAL AFFAIRS The proceedings at the annual conference of SABRA are outlined in a later chapter. ECUMENICAL CONFERENCE Sponsored by the Continuation Committee of the South African Churches' Conferences,2) an Ecumenical conference was held in Johannesburg from 7 to 10 December 1959 to consider Christian responsibility in South Africa. This conference was called as part of a world-wide study of Christian responsibility in areas of rapid social change being sponsored by the World Council of Churches. There were about 200 delegates and visitors, clergy and laymen, Afrikaans- and English-speaking, White and Black, including nine visitors from overseas. Both the official and the informal (1) 7his lecture has been published by the Institute in pamphlet form. (2) See 1958-1959 Sarvey, page 18,

RELATIONS: 1959-60 23 social arrangements were completely multi-racial. After Dr. W. Nicol had opened the conference with an address on "Our Changing World", the following papers were read: Man in Areas of Rapid Social Change- The Rev. D. Kitagawa and the Rev. Dr. E. C. Blake (both from overseas). The Effects of Industrialization and Economic Development on Rapidly Changing Areas -Prof. Monica Wilson and Dr. S. Biesheuvel. The Community in Areas of Rapid Social Change - The Rt. Rev. H. H. Munro. The Task of the Christian Church- Prof. H. D. A. du Toit and the Rev. G. Setiloane. Responsible Citizenship - Dr. R. E. van der Ross and Mr. A. M. Broeksma, Q.C. Arrangements for the conference were made by the Hon. Secretary of the Continuation Committee, Mr. F. J. van Wyk, who is Assistant Director of the Institute of Race Relations. In its resolutions, the conference, inter alia: 1. Stressed the responsibility of the Church to be a living community in which all believers share both the privileges and the duties of their common fellowship, liberated from the restraints of unworthy social systems, dehumanising industrial regimentation and persistent personal sins; 2. Urged an earnest reconsideration of the policy of migratory labour with a view to the re-establishment of normal family life, adequately housed, and provided for by wage earners enjoying sound human relationship at their work; 3. Appointed the existing Continuation Committee to prepare, in consultation with the Christian Council of South Africa and the Federal Council of the Dutch Reformed Churches, for the creation of a council to which all the various churches in South Africa shall belong; 4. Called upon the Church and its individual members to accept and practise respect for human personality, regardless of racial and cultural differences; 5. Supported the efforts being made to raise the wages of unskilled Non-White workers; 6. Urged all churches in areas of rapid social change to consider: (i) the development of youth work for Africans; (ii) the establishment of homecraft schools and the organizing of courses in house-wifery and child care to prepare African girls for the Christian home; (iii) the appointment of Christian social workers; (iv) the erection of community and social centres;

24 ASURVEYOFRACE (v) the provision of an adequate training for African and European ministers and social workers who have to serve in these areas; (vi) the provision of suitable literature on moral purity and the Christian home. 7. An additional resolution, referred to the Continuation Committee for reconsideration: Urged that channels of consultation between White and NonWhite leaders be opened up, either by the government creating a type of Non-White Council of State with advisory powers, or unofficially by the Churches themselves. The plans made by the World Council of Churches, during the crisis situation in South Africa, to hold a conference of its member churches in the Union are described in a subsequent chapter. WAR VETERANS' FOUNDATION General Smuts's old home at Irene has been bought for the nation by Mr. Guy Braithwaite of Pretoria, at whose suggestion the War Veterans' Foundation has been set up. The founders plan to use the building as a rallying point "for all men and women of goodwill, and particularly for all organizations devoted to the tasks of establishing goodwill and racial harmony in the Union." Provision has been made for three Afrikaans-speaking and three English-speaking ex-servicemen to serve as trustees, with one representative each from the former Cape Corps, Indian and Malay Corps and Native Military Corps. THE POPULATION OF SOUTH AFRICA AND MEASURES FOR ITS REGISTRATION AND CONTROL CENSUS REPORTS SIZE OF THE POPULATION According to the official publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, the estimated size of the South African population in mid-1960, given in thousands, was: Whites Coloured Asians Africans Total Cape ...... 1,050 1,282 20 2,776 5,128 Natal ...... 340 47 377 1,996 2,760 Transvaal ...... 1,458 106 62 4,146 5,772 Free State ...... 275 15 - 978 1,268 Totals ... 3,123 1,450 459 9,896 14,928

RELATIONS: 1959-60 25 A census of the population was taken during September 1960-the first since 1951. HOME LANGUAGES, 1951 The publication quoted above lists the home languages of the people of South Africa in 1951Y) Of the Whites, 57 per cent spoke Afrikaans at home, 39 Der cent English, and one per cent both. Of the Coloured people, 89 per cent spoke Afrikaans, 10 per cent English, and one per cent both. Tamil was the most common home language among the Indians; next in order of frequency being Hindi, Gujarati, Telegu and Urdu. Xhosa was most often spoken by Africans, followed by Zulu, Pedi, Southern Sotho, Tswana, Tsonga, Swazi, Ndebele and Venda. The official languages spoken by the people of South Africa were given in last year's Survey.2' MARITAL STATUS OF THE POPULATION, 1951 Volume VII of the 1951 Census Report, which deals with the marital status, religions and birthplaces of the Non-White peoples, was published during the year under review.3' In the table that follows, certain information from this report has been compared with figures for 1951 in respect of the White group, as given in previously issued volumes.(4) The percentages of the total numbers of each group of the population (including children) that fell into the various marital categories were: Not married ...... 49.6 67.3 64.7 60.2 Married (religious or civil) ... 44.6 27.7 31.5 7.8 Married (lobolo) ...... - - 24.8 Living together ...... + 0.4 + 2.1 Widowed ...... 4.7 4.0 3.5 4.8 Divorced ...... 1.1 0.5 0.3 0.3 Unspecified ...... + 0.1 + + (+ represents less than one-half of 0.1 per cent) A greater proportion of the Whites than of any other group was married, and the divorce rate was also far the highest amongst the Whites. The proportion of the total White population that had (1) Tables A 18 and 19. (2) Page 279. (3) U.G. 38/1959. (4) U.G. 61 and 62 of 1954. Percentages calculated by the Institute.

26 ASURVEYOFRACE been divorced was 1.3 per cent in urban areas but only 0.4 per cent in rural areas. While the percentages of the total African population that had entered into lobolo marriages were practically the same in urban and rural areas, the proportions that had contracted civil or religious marriages varied considerably, being 13.6 per cent in the towns and only 5.7 per cent in rural areas. There were more African widows and widowers in rural areas than in the towns (the percentages being 5.3 and 3.6 respectively); but, as is to be expected, the proportions of Africans who were living together or were divorced were higher in urban than in rural areas. (The percentages were: living together-2.9 per cent urban, 1.8 per cent rural; divorced-0.5 per cent urban, 0.2 per cent rural). The Institute's Research staff analysed the statistics for Africans in more detail, excluding persons under 15 years of age and those who did not furnish information. The resultant figures. for the Union as a whole, were: Percentages Not married ...... 34.7 Married (Civil or religious) ...... 12.8 Married (Lobolo) ...... 40.7 Living together ...... 3.4 W idowed ...... 7.9 Divorced ...... 0.5 The proportion of Africans in this group who had married according to religious or civil rites, while only 12.8 per cent in the Union generally, was as high as 26.2 per cent in the metropolitan area of Cape Town and the Witwatersrand- Vereeniging-Vanderbijl Park municipal townships. So far as the major metropolitan areas were concerned, the proportion of persons who had contracted lobolo marriages was highest in the Witwatersrand (39.2 per cent) and Pretoria (36.4 per cent), and lowest in Port Elizabeth (23.4 per cent). In the Union as a whole 3.4 per cent of persons in the group concerned were living together; the proportion was 3.9 per cent in the metropolitan areas of Johannesburg and Cape Town but as high as 5.4 per cent in Pretoria. RELIGIONS In the table that follows, information regarding the religions of the people has been summarized, the percentages again having been calculated by the Institute's staff.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 27 Percentage of population group concerned adhering to stated religion Total no. of Religion adherents White Coloured Asian African ChristianDutch Reformed N. G. Kerk 1,696,127 42.0 26.4 + 3.5 Hervormde ...... 213,845 7.0 0.9 + 0.3 Gereformeerde ... 144,384 4.2 2.2 + 0.1 ChristianEnglish-speaking, Swiss, French, German, etc. Methodist ...... 1,363,958 8.3 9.2 0.5 12.2 Anglican ...... 1,230,509 15.8 20.8 1.3 6.8 Roman Catholic ... 784,414 5.3 6.6 2.1 5.4 Lutheran ...... 499,336 1.0 5.2 + 4.9 Presbyterian ... 276,997 3.8 0.3 - 2.0 Apostolic ...... 268,715 2.9 3.5 0.2 1.8 Congregational ... 247.452 0.5 10.2 + 1.4 Baptist ...... 113.360 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.9 Other ...... 282,671 3.0 5.5 1.6 1.6 ChristianNative Separatist ... 1,594,740 - 0.1 - 18.6 Jewish ...... 108.743 4.1 + - + Asian religions Hindu ...... 246,820 + + 67.2 + Islam ...... 146,829 + 5.7 21.5 0.1 Other ...... 2,501 + - 0.6 + Other beliefs ... 46,755 0.2 0.3 2.0 0.4 No religion or heathen ...... 3,405,348 0.5 1.4 1.2 39.4 Unspecified ...... 98,358 0.4 0.9 1.3 0.6 + = less than half of 0.1 per cent. Of the Whites, the highest proportions were adherents of the N.G. Kerk (42.0 per cent), the Anglican Church (15.8 per cent), and the Methodist Church (8.3 per cent). These three Churches, together with the Congregational Church, also had the greatest proportions of Coloured adherents: N.G. Kerk-26.4 per cent, Anglicans- 20.8 per cent, Congregational-10.2 per cent, Methodist-9.2 per cent. 5.7 per cent of the Coloured people were followers of Islam.

28 ASURVEYOFRACE Of the Asians, 67.2 per cent were Hindus, and 21.5 per cent Muslims. Of the Christian Churches, the Roman Catholics and Anglicans had the highest proportions of Asian adherents. So far as Africans were concerned, 39.4 per cent were heathen or followed no particular religion, and 18.6 per cent belonged to Native Separatist Churches. Of the other Christian Churches, the Methodists, followed by the Anglicans and Roman Catholics, had the highest proportions of adherents. BIRTHPLACES OF THE COLOURED AND ASIAN PEOPLE Of the Coloured people, 89.7 per cent were born in the Cape, 5.2 per cent in the Transvaal, and 4.5 per cent elsewhere in the Union. The remaining 0.6 per cent were born overseas. Of the Asians, 77.7 per cent were born in Natal, 9.4 per cent in the Transvaal, 3.5 per cent elsewhere in the Union, and 9.3 per cent outside South Africa (the remaining 0.1 per cent having failed to specify their birthplaces). 8.6 per cent of the Asians were born in India or Pakistan - a total of 31,295 persons. Of these, 784 had arrived in the Union more than 60 years before the census was taken, 7,478 more than 40 years, 8,164 more than 20 years, and 10.999 up to 20 years. POPULATION REGISTRATION POPULATION REGISTRATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 30 OF 1960 The Population Registration Amendment Act, No. 30 of 1960, transferred the control of population registration from the Director of Census and Statistics to the Secretary for the Interior. The official entitled the Population Registrar will continue to be in charge of the work itself. ISSUING OF IDENTITY CARDS In reply to a question in the Senate on 24 March 1960, the Deputy Minister of the Interior said(5) that 1,771,000 identity cards had so far been issued to White, Coloured and Asian citizens, while 1,200,000 cards had still to be issued. Judging from information given in January 1960 by the Minister in the Assembly6), it appears that 70 per cent of the Whites had by then received their cards, as against 25 per cent of the Coloured and only 9 per cent of the Asians. The identity cards of Africans are incorporated in their reference books. The whole question of reference books is dealt with later in this Survey. (5) Hansard 6 col. 1289. (6) Hansard 1 cols. 197-8.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 29 APPEALS AGAINST RACIAL CLASSIFICATION The Minister of the Interior said in the Assembly on 12 February 196007) that 2,623 appeals had been lodged against the racial classifications decided upon by officials. Of these, 95 had been upheld, 35 dismissed, 39 withdrawn or discontinued because of the appellant's death, 1,101 had been reviewed by the Director of Census, and 1,353 had still to be dealt with. (These figures do not tally with others given by the Minister later('), when he said that the central board of review in Pretoria had heard 111 appeals, upheld 76 and dismissed 35. Of the 35, seven were later upheld by the Supreme Court.) As was mentioned in the previous issue of this Survey,(), the Minister announced during September 1959 that the board of review was to be replaced by special appeal boards to be set up in the Transvaal, Cape, and possibly Natal. The first two boards commenced sittings in February. The Minister said in the Assembly on 20 May(") that by then the Pretoria board had heard 50 appeals, upheld 49 and dismissed one. The Cape Town board had heard and upheld 18 appeals. During July 1960 a Transvaal woman appealed to the Supreme Court, Pretoria, against her classification as an African. This classification had been made by the Director of Census in 1954 and upheld, after she had objected, by the reviewing board. She had an African mother, she said, but a Coloured father. Her husband was an African, and of their eight children, one had been classified as Coloured, two as Africans, while the remaining five were too young for classification but were attending schools for Coloured children. Her appeal was upheld.(") In numbers of cases the appellants lived in a state of uncertainty and suspense for years before their cases were decided. The Star of 25 February told of one such story, relating to a family in Cape Town whose members lived in White circles, were educated in White schools and were employed as Whites. The eldest son was married to a White girl and had two children. During 1956 one of the younger sons, who wished to become an apprentice, applied for a copy of his birth certificate, which was sent to him with his race entered as "mixed". (His birth had been registered by a district nurse in a country town.) The youth returned the certificate immediately, stating that he was White, but then all four sons were officially notified that they had been classified as Coloured and that their names had been (7) Hansard 4 cols. 1397-8. (8) Assembly, 20 May, Hansard 18 col. 8254. (9) Page 40. (10) Hansard 18 col. 8254. (11) Rand Daily Mail reports, 6 and 9 July 1960.

30 A SURVEY OF RACE removed from the White voters' roll. They went to see the Population Registrar in Cape Town. who said there must have been some mistake, and gave the young man a letter stating that he could enter his apprenticeship as a White person. But no official confirmation was received from Pretoria. It was not until 1960 -- four years later - that the family's appeal was heard by the board in Cape Town and upheld. The Star of 1 April 1960 told of a woman who had successfully appealed against her classification as Coloured, but whose marriage to a White man had meanwhile been delayed for two years. REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS, DEATHS AND MARRIAGES BIRTHS, MARRIAGES AND DEATHS REGISTRATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 5 of 1960 Until 1960, records of births, marriages and deaths for all sections of the population were kept by the registrar in each province, details being transmitted to him by district registrars and marriage officers. Persons wanting birth, marriage or death certificates applied to one of these officials and paid the prescribed fee. The Deputy Minister of the Interior announced in the Assembly on 16 February 1960(2) that in future the central records relating to African births and deaths, and to marriages in which the husband is an African, will be kept, instead, by the Director of the Bantu Reference Bureau in Pretoria. The Births, Marriages and Deaths Registration Amendment Act of 1960 makes it generally necessary,(3) when an African man is marrying under the common law, for more copies of the marriage register to be signed than are required for members of other racial groups. If it is an ecclesiastical wedding, copies of the register must be sent by the marriage officer to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner or magistrate of the district concerned. This official will keep one copy and forward the others to the registrar. He will also forward copies of the register of any marriages contracted in his office. The Deputy Minister said'") that it was desirable for Bantu Affairs Commissioners or magistrates to maintain records of African marriages, in addition to the maintenance of a central record by the Director of the Bantu Reference Bureau. Bantu Affairs Commissioners and magistrates were in close touch with marriage officers in their districts and could ensure that statutory provisions were observed, for example that marriages were (12) Hansard 5 col. 1610. 03) Amendment to Section thirty-nine and new section thirty-nne bis of the Principal Act. (14) Col. 1611.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 31 registered, and that protection was given to the rights of wives by customary union in cases where the husbands later contracted common law marriages to other women. Since 1 January 1960, Africans wishing to have copies of birth or death certificates have had to apply to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner or magistrate instead of to the provincial registrar. Copies of marriage certificates may be obtained from these officials or from the marriage officer if the wedding was an ecclesiastical one. '5) The Amendment Act stipulated(6 that different fees may be prescribed for different kinds of certificates. The Deputy Minister explained(") that the intention was to issue birth certificates free of charge, with the aim of encouraging registration: a great number of parents of all races neglected to register the births of their children, he said. No charge is being made for certificates relating to births which took place after 1 January 1960; but if these documents are lost, duplicates cost 5/-. A fee of 2/6 is charged for original certificates of births which took place during 1959. If a child is more than a year old before its birth is registered, however, the fee payable for the certificate is £1. The Directorate of the Bantu Reference Bureau is now filing a card for each African child whose birth is registered. When a child becomes sixteen years of age the card will be transferred to the section dealing with the issuing of identity cards and reference books.!"8) AUTHORITY OF AFRICAN CLERGY AND MINISTERS In the Assembly on 9 May 19600'9 Dr. D. L. Smit of the United Party read aloud the terms of a circular letter, dated 3 March, that had been sent from the Department of Bantu Administration and Development to the churches in South Africa. This read: "It has come to the Department's notice that certain churches engaged in missionary work among the Bantu, whose administration has until recently been controlled almost exclusively by Europeans, have of late been entrusting to the Bantu ministers greater executive responsibilities in the conduct of the affairs of the church . . . The Department has followed this development with interest because firstly, in general, it accords with the Government's policy of preparing the Bantu eventually to take over the (15) Amendment to Section forty of the principal Act. (16) Addition to Section forty-eight. (17) Col. 1161. (18) Star report, 18 January 1960. (19) Hansard 17 cols. 7026-7.

32 A SURVEY OF RACE administration of their own affairs and, secondly, on account of the diversity in method of the churches engaged in missionary work. "But it is conceivable and, in fact, appears almost inevitable that, unless certain precautionary measures are taken, Bantu bishops or even Bantu ministers will be placed in a position of authority over European ministers, missionaries or employees of the Church such as personnel attached to mission hospitals." The Churches were asked to inform the Department what part their African ministers played in administration, whether the situation envisaged had arisen or was likely to arise, and whether in this connection any reorganization had been made or was contemplated. The implications of this letter, Dr. Smit said, would be regarded by many professing Christians as an ungodly interference by the Government in matters of religion. Canon A. H. Zulu was during the year under review appointed the first African Assistant Bishop of the Anglican Church in South Africa. PUBLICATIONS AND ENTERTAINMENTS BILL, 1960 A Publications and Entertainments Bill was read for the first time in the Assembly during 1960, and referred to a Select Committee after its first reading. No further progress had been made with it at the time of writing. It was designed to replace the Entertainments (Censorship) Act of 1931. The Bill provides for the appointment by the Minister of the Interior of a Publications Board consisting of a chairman and not less than ten other members, their qualifications, period and conditions of office and remuneration to be prescribed by regulation. It states that no-one may print any book or Deriodical without the Board's approval, or publish, distribute, exhibit or sell any book or periodical printed in the Union which has not been approved by the Board. A periodical is defined as a publication mainly containing narratives or articles of general interest which is published at intervals of between six days and twelve months inclusive. The Board is required to reject any book or periodical which in its opinion is indecent, obscene or on any ground objectionable. It may grant approval subject to the condition that a specified portion be excised. On such conditions as it deems fit, it may exempt certain persons from this procedure. but may at any time withdraw the exemption. The Board may prohibit the manufacture, printing, distribution, display or sale of any book, periodical, pamphlet. picture, photograph, model or sound recording which in its opinion is undesirable in that, inter alia, it prejudices good order or general

RELATIONS: 1959-60 33 welfare, offends decency or religious convictions, harms relations between any sections of the people, or "is otherwise on any ground objectionable." Newspapers may be deemed to be undesirable on the same grounds. In their case, prosecutions may be instituted only on the authority of the Attorney-General. The Board is also required to censor films to be shown in public. Again, conditional approval may be granted. A film is to be rejected if it is considered to be undesirable for the reasons given above, or if it promotes communism as defined in the Suppression of Communism Act, or depicts in an offensive way persons, crime, love scenes, scenes of violence involving White and NonWhite persons or the intermingling of such persons. The Board may prohibit the giving of any public entertainment if it considers that this may offend the religious convictions or feelings of any section of the population, or that it is contrary to the public interest or good morals. The Bill provides for the establishment of an Appeal Board to hear objections to any decision of the Board, its chairman to be a judge, an advocate, a magistrate of at least ten years' standing, or a -former judge or magistrate. The decision of the Appeal Board will be final. Any decision of or steps taken by the Board or Appeal Board will not be subject to appeal to or review by any court of law.") Mention is made in a later chapter of this Survey of action taken against certain publications or their editors under the emergency regulations. CONTROL OF EXHIBITION OF FILMS IN AFRICAN AREAS Proclamation No. 58 of 1960, of 18 March, stated that, except with the written permission of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development, no-one may distribute or exhibit any cinematograph film or film advertisement to Africans in an African Reserve. Maximum penalties on being found guilty of contravening this proclamation are £50 or three months. PASSPORTS AND VISAS In reply to a question in the Assembly on 9 February 1960, the Minister of the Interior said(2") that during the preceding six months the applications of 34 persons for passports had been refused. He did not consider it to be in the public interest to (20) A more detailed analysis of the Bill, prepared by the Institute's Research Assistant, is available as RR. 158/60. (21) Hansard 4 cols. 1138-9.

34 A SURVEY OF RACE disclose the names of these persons or the reasons for the refusal of their applications. Some of them who had enquired also about exit permits were informed that these would be granted. According to various Press and other reports, among those who have been refused passports in recent months are the Rev. S. M. Mokatini, selected to visit the United States under the leadership exchange programme, Mr. Dennis Brutus of the S.A. Sports Association who wished to attend a meeting of the Olympic Committee in Rome to urge the international recognition of NonWhite South African athletes, Dr. P. L. Tsele who wanted to go to London to specialize in medicine, Mr. Z. Nquini, the winner of a scholarship to the University of Khartoum, and an African student selected to take up a scholarship at Cambridge. Mr. A. M. Phahle, who resigned his post as senior lecturer in physics at Fort Hare when the Bantu Education Department took over the control. was denied a passport, but granted an exit permit on condition that he did not return to the Union. The journalist Mr. Lewis Nkosi was refused a passport to enable him to take up a Nieman Fellowship that had been offered him at Harvard but was also granted an exit permit. Passports were granted, among others, to sixty members of the original "King Kong" cast to go to London for the Jack Hylton production of this show, to Mr. S. Motsuenyane and his wife to visit the United States under the leadership exchange programme, to Mr. C. Goliath of the Benoni Coloured School to study the work of the Boys' Brigade in Britain, to Lemmie "Special" Mabaso of penny whistle fame to appear on television in America, and to Messrs. A. Mbatini and M. Yawa to take up teaching posts in Nigeria. In numbers of cases, however, passports were granted only after protracted negotiations or long delays. Mr. Mbatini, for example, had been kept waiting for more than a year. Lemmie Mabaso's passport arrived too late for him to accept a £700 television offer. Several people, including Mr. Alan Paton, had to cancel their original air bookings because of delays in the issuing of passports. Mr. Nkosi was kept waiting for four months before being advised that he would not receive one. Among those to whom visas were refused were Mr. John Hatch of the British Labour Party and Mrs. Mary K. Frank, an American theatrical producer. CONTROL OF ENTRY INTO AND DEPARTURE FROM CERTAIN AFRICAN AREAS As has been described in earlier issues of this Survey,2") Proclamation No. 52 of 1958, as amended by No. 138 of 1959, (22) 1957-58, page 69, and 1958-59. page 128.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 35 enables the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development to impose control over the entry of persons to or their departure from African areas where there has been unrest. A further amendment was gazetted on 8 April 1960, contained in Proclamation No. 109 of that year. It states that if an African habitually resides outside an area to which these proclamations have been applied for purposes of employment or for any other reason, he will not be deemed to be a resident of the area, even if he owns or is the occupier of property there, or is a registered taxpayer in the area, or owes allegiance to a chief there. The effect of this is that such an African, like other non-residents, may not enter the area without a permit from the Bantu Affairs Commissioner. In areas to which Parts I and III of the original proclamation have been applied, it is an offence to fail to report the unlawful presence of any African, or to make a verbal or written statement likely to interfere with the authority of the State or a chief, or to threaten anyone on account of his loyalty to the State or any of its officials or any chief or headman. If Part II of the proclamation is applied to any area, it becomes an offence to leave without a permit. On 24 June 1960, in terms of Government Notices 880 and 881, Parts I and III were applied for periods of six months to all African areas in the Marico () area, the farms Metz, Enable and Muckle Glen in the Letaba district, two farms in the Nebo area, all African areas of Sekhukhuneland and in the Peddie area, and to numbers of farms and locations in the Pietersburg and Potgietersrus districts. BANNINGS AND BANISHMENTS BANNING ORDERS UNDER THE SUPPRESSION OF COMMUNISM AND RIOTOUS ASSEMBLIES ACTS In reply to a question in the Assembly on 29 January 1960(231) the Minister of Justice said that from June 1959 to the day on which he was speaking six Whites, seven Africans and three Coloured persons had been prohibited from attending gatherings in the Union, in each case for a period of five years. No legal provision existed for them to defend themselves against the evidence on which the orders were made. According to various Press reports, the three Coloured people, whose banning orders were served during December 1959, were Mr. R. E. Viljoen, a member of the Cape Town City Council and national chairman of the Anti-Coloured Affairs Department (23) Hansard 2 cols. 584-5.

36 A SURVEY OF RACE Committee, Dr. N. A. Murison. National Secretary of this committee, and Mr. W. P. van Schoor, president of the Teachers' League of S.A. Mr. Viljoen was told that he could continue to attend City Council meetings. Dr. Murison and Mr. van Schoor were served with further notices restricting them for five years to the magisterial districts of the Cape, Wynberg, Simonstown and Beilville. Among the others, who received their orders during December or early January, were Mr. Vic Goldberg of Johannesburg, the local chairman of the Congress of Democrats, his wife (who was also confined to the district of Johannesburg for five years), Miss A. Rietstein of Cape Town, a member of the C.O.D., Mr. Alfred Nzo, a member of the national executive of the African National Congress, and Mr. Peter Nthite, national secretary of the A.N.C. Youth League. Mr. Nthite was also ordered to remain in the district of Johannesburg for five years. As is described in a later chapter of this Survey, there was a state of emergency in South Africa from 30 March to 31 August, during which period hundreds of people were detained in prison institutions. Shortly after the ending of the emergency. Mr. R. Arenstein of Durban was issued with orders prohibiting him from attending meetings and confining him to the district of Durban for five years. He is an attorney, and was defending certain Pondos charged with arson during disturbances which are described later. This ban was subsequently lifted for the purpose only of enabling him to continue the defence. BANISHMENT OF AFRICANS UNDER SECTION FIVE OF THE NATIVE ADMINISTRATION ACT In last year's Survey a summary was given(4) of information released by the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development in regard to the 81 Africans who were served with removal orders during the years 1948-1958 inclusive. In reply to a question in the Assembly on 22 January 1960(") he gave a supplementary list of a further seven persons who had been banished since 1948. The removal orders were for indefinite periods, he said, but each was reviewed at least once a year. Each person was paid an amount of £2 prior to his departure, the Minister added. Employment was offered to him at his new place of residence, or, if employment was not available, an allowance was paid, the amount being determined by the circumstances of each case. Removal was resorted to in cases where the presence of the African concerned was inimical to peace, order and good government in a particular area. (24) 1958-59 Survey, page 112. The names of some of the banished persons were given on page 14 of this 1958-59 Survey, on pages 60 et seq of the 1957-58 issue, and in earlier volumes. (25) Hansard 1 cols. 214-5.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 37 Replying to further questions on 8 March, the Minister disclosed(") that the areas to which the last seven Africans had been ordered were Kirsten or Tabaans location in the Sibasa district, the Mngomezulu area of Ingwavuma, the farms Kalkspruit or Chloe in the Pietersburg district, or the farms Southey or Driefontein near Vryburg. The Minister was again questioned about this whole matter on 15 March"27) Two removal orders had been withdrawn, he replied, and 28 further Africans had been allowed to return home or to settle at places of their own choice, indefinitely or for stated periods, and subject to good behaviour. He gave their names and the areas to which they had been allowed to go. The December 1959 issue of Drum contained an illustrated article describing the circumstances of some of the banished men, their financial difficulties, and the boredom and frustration they were experiencing. Further investigations were made by the Black Sash and the Liberal Party, the latter reporting that two men working on Trust farms were receiving £4 8s. 4d. and £5 a month respectively. On 15 November 1959 the Minister granted an interview to a deputation from the Christian Council, which conveyed to him the deep concern of the Christian community over certain features of the banishment orders-the sudden manner in which they were apparently served, involving serious dislocation of the work and domestic life of the persons concerned; the facts that reasons for the orders were not disclosed, and that no appeal was possible to the courts. The deputation suggested that the allowances paid to banished persons were totally inadequate, and that, although in theory their relatives were allowed to visit them, this provision was in practice of little value because of the long distances to be travelled. The Minister said, in reply, that if the rate of the allowances was inadequate it would be reviewed, but pointed out that there were facilities for earning money. An official of his department visited all banished persons at least every three months to hear complaints. Ministers of religion would certainly be given permits to visit these people.(28') THE TREASON TRIALS Accounts have been given in previous issues of this Survey29) of the arrests of 156 persons during December 1956 on charges (26) Assembly Hansard 8 col. 2932. (27) Assembly Hansard 9 cols. 3380-1. (28) From account of interview given in The South African Outlook, 1 February 1960. (29) 1956-7 page 41; 1957-8 page 34, 1958-9 page 44.

38 ASURVEYOFRACE of high treason and of the year-long preparatory examination, at the end of which 91 were committed for trial. Their trial opened in August 1958, but after lengthy legal argument the Crown withdrew the indictment. A new indictment was framed against thirty of the accused, its essence being an allegation of conspiracy to overthrow the State by violence and to substitute another form of state. Leave was granted for an appeal to the Appellate Division on certain points of law concerning the validity of the indictment; but the Appeal Court ruled that it had no power to decide on the matter at that stage. Meanwhile the trial of the remaining 61 accused was commenced. The defence applied successfully for the indictment to be quashed on the ground that it had been framed without regard to orders of the court relating to the indictment in the other case. The trial of the first thirty people was resumed on 3 August 1959. With a recess of nearly two months over Christmas, the Crown case lasted until early March 1960, when the defence commenced leading evidence, its object being to prove that it was not the policy of the organizations mentioned in the indictment to use violence against the State. When a state of emergency was proclaimed on 30 March the accused, who had been out on bail, were against imprisoned. The leader of the defence team asked the court to consider whether it was proper for the Crown to continue with the trial in view of the fact that the Government, in support of its decision to declare a state of emergency, had made positive statements about issues in the trial which, in effect, appeared to constitute a judgment. Furthermore, the defence had no knowledge of how many of the people it wished to call were detained or where; and even more important, it feared that, in terms of the emergency regulations, statements made by witnesses in court might be deemed to be subversive. The presiding judge adjourned the trial for nearly three weeks and, when it was resumed, announced that the Minister of Justice had given the assurance that witnesses would be exempt from the application of the emergency regulations in so far as evidence given in court was concerned. The accused stated that they were not prepared to accept this assurance. The emergency regulations were then amended by a proclamation providing that no evidence given by a person in a criminal trial begun before 29 March would be used in evidence against him in a criminal prosecution concerning any alleged contravention of the emergency regulations. Nor would it be taken into account by the Minister, a magistrate or commissioned officer for any purposes of the emergency regulations. The treason trial accused still maintained that witnesses were not adequately protected, but the court ruled that the trial should continue.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 39 A few days later complaints were voiced in court about the facilities made available to the accused in gaol for consultation with witnesses. On instructions by the accused, the defence counsel were withdrawn on 26 April for reasons connected with the declaration of a state of emergency. The defence team returned to the trial on 1 August. During August the defence applied unsuccessfully for the recusal of the presiding judge, alleging that he had questioned witnesses in such a way as to suggest that he was not taking an impartial view of the evidence. At the termination of the state of emergency on 31 August the accused were again allowed out on bail. The defence evidence came to an end early in October. The Crown then applied for an adjournment until 7 November to enable its counsel to prepare argument. This application was granted, but the presiding judge expressed himself as being "amazed" at the necessity for it. REORGANIZATION OF THE CITIZEN FORCE In terms of an announcement made during December 1959 by the Minister of Defence, South Africa's Citizen Force, instead of being formed into an armoured task force for the defence of the Middle East gateways to Africa (as had been planned a few years earlier), was being recast into lightly armed, highly mobile regiments strategically scattered over the Union, and designed chiefly for internal security.(3) UNREST AND RIOTING AMONG AFRICANS DISTURBANCES RESULTING MAINLY FROM OPPOSITION TO THE BANTU AUTHORITIES SYSTEM EAST PONDOLAND Introductory remarks There has been great unrest since the end of 1959 in Bizana, Flagstaff and Lusikisiki, the three eastern districts of Pondoland, bordering on Natal. This unrest spread later to certain other districts of the Transkei. Press reports were discouraged by the authorities. Reporters could not be debarred from visiting the small "White" towns in the area nor from travelling along the main roads, but were not granted permits to enter the African Reserves, and were refused permission (30) Star report, 2 December 1959.

40 A SURVEY OF RACE to meet the . The newly-appointed CommissionerGeneral for the Transkei is reported(') to have said on 21 September 1960, "It is quite clear that some newspapers have embarked on a systematic campaign of creating suspicion with regard to events in the Bantu homelands, and every opportunity is seized to discredit the Bantu authorities in the eyes of the Bantu as well as the White people". He is said to have refused to see a party of journalists, and to have stated that news would be released only through his office and solely to the S.A. Press Association. A departmental committee was appointed to enquire into the causes of the disturbances, with special reference to the observance of Pondo law and custom in connection with the establishment of tribal authorities, the fixing of their boundaries, the appointment of members, the proper functioning of these bodies, and such other matters as appeared to be necessary. The chairman was the Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner for the Ciskei. The findings of this committee are summarized later in this Survey. The disturbances The first reported incident took place on 16 February 1960,') when it was stated that two White constables went to an area near the town of Bizana to investigate an allegation that Africans had ploughed up land in a betterment scheme that had been reserved for other purposes. Their vehicle was attacked by about twenty men brandishing assegais and sticks, but they made good their escape. Although the incident was in no way directed against White traders, as a precaution several White families in the area went to the town for the night. Information about the next incident was given by the Prime Minister in the Assembly on 22 March.3) On the 19th of that month two tribal councillors were taken to hospital in Bizana after an angry mob had assaulted them and burned down their huts. Rumours spread that the crowd planned to the hospital in order to murder the councillors, and also to storm the gaol to try to release a man who had been arrested in connection with the assault. Numbers of White traders from outlying areas brought their families to Bizana for safety, on the nights of the 19th and 20th fifteen women with their children sought refuge in the hospital, where a guard was posted, and the town was patrolled at night. According to Press reports(') a crowd of about 500 Africans gathered on the main road: the Prime Minister said that they came no nearer than eight miles from the town and the rumoured attack did not eventuate. (1) Rand Daily Mail, 22 September 1960. (2) Star, 17 February. (3) Hansard 10 cols. 3848-9. (4) Star, 21 March.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 41 It was alleged, he continued, that the chief of Tzekelo Location near Bizana intended enlisting the help of men of the Maci tribe at Harding in demonstrating at a meeting of chiefs and tribal authorities that was planned for 23 March. The Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner, accompanied by police in saracens, entered the location to investigate. At first only a few women and children could be seen, but when the party had penetrated deep into the location the women uttered loud war cries and the Africans began emerging and collecting in large armed groups. The Commissioner addressed several groups in turn and heard their complaints: opposition was expressed to the Bantu authorities system, and it was said that the tribal authorities wanted to deprive the people of their land. He offered to explain the working of the system if a meeting was arranged. The groups dispersed when ordered to do so. Policemen who later gave evidence in court are reported(') to have said that between 20 March and 23 June, 27 kraals were burned down. On 2 May a police party was forced to open fire on a mob that had set fire to the hut of a headman in the Bizana district. Further disturbances took place on 22 May. It is reported(') that the kraal of Chief Cele, near Bizana, was set alight, and that when the mob failed to obey an order to disperse the police opened fire, one African being killed and three wounded. On the same afternoon a crowd numbering more than a hundred is said to have attacked the kraal of Councillor Dana, a member of the Territorial Authority, in the Lusikisiki district. He faced them with a shotgun while neighbours went for help. When the police arrived Councillor Dana had been injured and two Africans were found dead with shotgun wounds. The crowd had left, on its way setting fire to five kraals about three miles away. Three more kraals were burned during the next week.7) According to Press reports,O) squads of heavily armed police patrolled the affected districts, employing a helicopter to search for people who had been involved in the disturbances. A serious clash between tribesmen and the police took place on 6 June in a valley adjoining Ngquza Hill, between Bizana and Lusikisiki. It was reported(") that Africans from a score of kraals met there to discuss complaints against their chiefs: estimates of their numbers varied from between four and five hundred to several thousand. Two aircraft and a helicopter dropped tear gas and smoke bombs on the crowd, and police vehicles approached from two directions, one party apparently descending from the hill. The (5) Rand Daily Mail, 12 August, and Star, 9 September. (6) Rand Daily Mail, 25 May. (7) Ibid, 12 August and Sunday Times, 12 June. (8) Daily News, 1 June. (9) Rand Daily Mail and Mercury, 9 June, Sunday Times and Sunday Tribune, 12 June, Contact, 2 July, Daily News, 14 June.

A SURVEY OF RACE Africans raised a white flag. The police alleged that shots were fired at them - but a Press report states that later, when under crossexamination during a court case, a police sergeant agreed it was possible that the firing had come from the second party of police. At all events the police then opened fire, pursuing the tribesmen who fled into the bush. In an official statement issued on 9 June the Minister of Justice said that six Africans had been shot dead. At the subsequent inquest a constable reported that according to fresh evidence the number was eleven, but it was stated that Pondos who claimed to have been at the scene put the number as high as thirty. Thirteen wounded persons were admitted to the Holy Cross Mission Hospital, and it was believed that other wounded remained either in their kraals or in hiding amongst the hills. Twenty-one arrests were made, two Africans subsequently being acquitted and the rest found guilty of "fighting". The dead were buried in shallow graves at the scene of the meeting: an order for their exhumation for post- mortems was granted at the inquest. After this clash, police patrolling was intensified, the Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner flew to Pretoria for consultations and, on return, held a series of meetings to enable the people to air their grievances. Hut-burning continued. The headman of Mtentu location near Umtata is said to have been burned to death in his hut, a woman who had been with him dying in hospital. It was reported that another sub-headman in Amadibe location was burned to death on 21 June, two more kraals in the Amankwe location were set on fire and two women stabbed on 25 June, a man murdered and four more huts set alight in the Pumlo location near Lusikisiki on 6 September, and motorists on the main road stoned on 16 September. Tribesmen in the Bizana district refused to fill in returns when the official census was taken early in September. Mr. Enoch Mbhele, a Pondo from Bizana, left South Africa secretly during September with the intention of placing a memorandum before the United Nations. Towards the end of September the chairman of the Port St. Johns District Authority, who was also a member of the Territorial Authority, is reported(") to have been murdered in the Majola location while engaged in conducting a census enumeration. About 200 of his followers then stormed the section of the location from where the attackers were believed to have come, and burned down some 50 huts. (10) Star, 27 September 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 43 Grievances voiced by the people The whole situation naturally gave cause for considerable concern, and at first it was uncertain whether the findings of the committee of enquiry would be published. Miss Mary Draper, the Institute's Natal Regional Organizer, thus visited such areas of Pondoland as were open to the public, submitting a report(") on her tentative conclusions about the reasons for the unrest. Similar reports by others were published in various journals and newspapers. It was stated in Contact(12) that an "Anti-Bantu Authorities Committee" in Pondoland, which had women's brigades too, had been organizing the tribesmen. Pondos throughout the Union had been banding themselves into groups and committees to lend support and to raise money for the campaign. According to Miss Draper (and other sources, where this is stated) the main causes of the unrest tentatively appear to be four-fold. 1. Recent actions by the Paramount Chief, Botha Sigcau, had caused an old dispute to flare up again. Botha was the eldest recognised son of his father, but according to Pondo custom was not eligible to succeed him to the Paramountcy. The second son, Mandlonke, was appointed. He committed sucide in 1937. Tribesmen expected that the third son, Nelson, would then be selected, but instead the then government appointed Botha. Aided by substantial contributtions from the tribesmen Nelson unsuccessfully contested this decision in the courts. This matter is still a cause for resentment. Botha's life was threatened on several occasions during 1960: from time to time he had to flee temporarily from the Great Place at Qaukeni.(3) 2. Secondly, the appointment and actions of certain chiefs, subchiefs, councillors and headmen have been resented. Botha Sigcau is said to have overlooked persons opposed to his rule when appointments were made. According to a Press report(4) of a statement by the Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner for the Transkei, the appointment of some members of some Bantu authorities was made without consultation with the people. Under cross-examination at the trial of certain Africans accused of arson, a police sergeant is reported(5) to have said that before the introduction of Bantu authorities decisions were made by the tribesmen, and not only by the indunas as was the case subsequently. (11) RR 152/60. (12) Issue of 10 September. (13) Information partly obtained from an article in Drum, Sept. 1960. (14) Rand Daily Mail, 15 June. (15) Ibid, 12 August.

44 ASURVEYOFRACE Miss Draper writes, "I met with numerous allegations that bribery and corruption are rife amongst certain chiefs and headmen, and that gifts in cash or in kind are expected in return for favours. Members of the Bantu authorities have been given increased administrative powers, including judicial powers, but the people feel that only those who can afford to pay receive justice". 3. Increased taxation and the imposition of levies and other charges were also referred to as contributory factors in the unrest. Apart from the general and local taxes payable, a general levy on African taxpayers of 10/- a year has been in force in the Transkei since 1955. 4. Opposition to betterment schemes appears to be one of the main causes of dissatisfaction. Such schemes are not compulsory, but tribal authorities may accept them on behalf of their people. Miss Draper mentioned repeated criticism that, instead of explaining to the tribesmen the advantages of these schemes, certain chiefs and headmen had merely announced that they were to be undertaken. She reports that, although the actual work has not proceeded far in Eastern Pondoland, more than half the land in the area falling under Botha Sigcau's Qaukeni Regional Authority (Bizana, Flagstaff, Lusikisiki, Tabankulu and Mount Ayliff districts) has been declared a betterment area. Some parts are being replanned and divided into arable, grazing and residential areas. The extensive growing of New Zealand hemp (phormium tenax) is proposed in a sparsely- populated area of 30,000 morgen in the Lambasi location near Lusikisiki, which was set aside as a traditional grazing ground during the rule of a previous Paramount Chief. "In rehabilitating or stabilising rural locations", Miss Draper writes, "the authorities are faced with the problem that there is insufficient arable land that can be re-apportioned to the population in economically-sized plots for agricultural purposes. For this reason, the landless section of the community is to be re-housed in rural villages . . . Africans who are required to move their homes under betterment schemes receive only a small token sum as recompense ... One agricultural officer.., explained that as dwellings were in the main very primitive and constructed of mud and thatch available locally, financial loss was not great. I mentioned a case of a man in the Matatiele district who had spent about £200 on building a house from cement blocks and who had received only about £30. He admitted that there were a few instances of this sort but they were in a minority, and such persons had to make sacrifices for the general good ... "Several Africans I talked to expressed the opinion that the people are convinc e that the members of the Bantu authorities had

RELATIONS: 1959-60 no real powers, 'but were merely tools by which the Government imposed its will on the people'... "It is probably true to say that governments anywhere in the world who have attempted to introduce widespread agrarian reforms have met with little co- operation from the people most directly affected, the peasant class, who are by tradition averse to anything that spells change. In the Union, the Government policy of appointing its own nominees to Bantu authorities to assist in implementing reforms is making the work immeasurably more difficult ... When unpopular laws are administered by unpopular leaders the difficulties are multiplied ... "Whatever the operative factors, there seems little doubt that the word 'betterment' is among the worst swear words in the Pondo's vocabulary". Intimidation was undoubtedly occurring. Chiefs and councillors who were attempting to implement Government policies went in fear of their lives. Miss Draper was told, she said, "that if tribesmen called a meeting or staged a demonstration against Bantu authorities it was dangerous not to attend, as it might be thought that one supported the system, and one therefore ran the risk of one's kraal being burnt down". Findings of the Departmental Committee of Enquiry A meeting of tribesmen was called at Bizana on 11 October to hear the findings of the Departmental Committee of Enquiry announced by its chairman. It was reported that no members of the police were present at the meeting, but that a strong force was standing by at the police station. According to Press reports,(6) the chairman said that numbers of the people's complaints were justified; but instead of bringing these to the notice of the Government through local magistrates or the Chief Magistrate at Umtata, they had wasted money in employing attorneys and had held secret meetings. Law-abiding people had been threatened, told that if they did not attend the meetings their huts would be burned, and ordered to contribute money, being fi--d £5 if they refused. Many huts had been burned and £20,000 damage caused. The people had been seriously misled. They were told that the Government was against them, whereas all the time the Government was anxious to govern the various tribes according to their own laws and through their own chiefs and councillors. Dealing with various complaints, first, that the people were not properly consulted about the Bantu authorities system and that (16) Star, 1 October and Rand Daily Mail, 12 October.

46 ASURVEYOFRACE it had been forced on them, the committee found that the system was fully explained to the chiefs and headmen and many of the people. When the tribal authorities were formed, however, the old customs of the tribes who resided at Bizana were not observed in all respects. The people of Bizana had every right to resent this. On the complaint that the Paramount Chief of Eastern Pondoland did not consult the people when nominating members of tribal authorities, it was found that there was consultation, but mistakes were made later when members of tribal authorities were nominated. These mistakes were not deliberate, nor were they made by the Paramount Chief. The membership of tribal authorities was too small. Some locations had no representation and others had insufficient. The laws and customs of the tribes concerned should have been observed, and they should have been given an opportunity to say whom they wanted on the Bantu authorities. The complaint that headmen who were not heads of tribal authorities should not try cases was justified, and the committee recommended that this matter be put right. A number of grievances, however, could not be attributed to Bantu authorities. One of these was the rehabilitation scheme, the fear of which was unfounded. The Government never undertook rehabilitation, stock reduction, , control of ploughing, etc., unless the people asked for these measures. Increased taxation and stock rates, the health rate and increases in the general levy were necessary because of increased expenses. As far as reference books and labour bureaux complaints were concerned, the committee found that hardships were sometimes experienced, but these were due to non-compliance with the law. The many advantages of these books had not been fully explained. On Bantu education, the finding was that the syllabuses were better now than they had been before and that the education was not inferior. Complaints about dipping regulations had been referred by the Committee to the Veterinary Department for investigation. Mr. V. M. P. Leibbrandt, Chief Magistrate and Bantu Affairs Commissioner of the Transkei, then addressed the tribesmen. Those complaints about boundaries between different authorities and the appointment of members of tribal authorities which the commission had found to be justified would be rectified as soon as possible, after consultation with the people, he said. A similar meeting of tribesmen was called at Flagstaff on 12 October, the findings of the departmental committee being heard without comment. But at a third meeting held at Lusikisiki on the following day, after listening to the findings a spokesman for the

RELATIONS: 1959-60 47 local Pondo said that they still did not want the Bantu authorities system, they did not want their chiefs and headmen because these had not been appointed according to tribal custom, and they would like the Government to relax a ban recently placed on Mr. R. I. Arenstein, a Durban lawyer who had been representing them in certain legal cases, but had recently been prohibited from attending gatherings or leaving the Durban magisterial district.(1;7 This ban was subsequently lifted for the purpose only of enabling Mr. Arenstein to continue his defence of certain tribesmen accused of arson. Shortly afterwards, on 25 October, it was reported&'8) that a meeting of about 6,000 Pondo at Imzizi Hill near Bizana rejected the committee's findings and decided to refuse to pay taxes as a sign of their opposition to the Bantu authorities system. A deputation of headmen was appointed to convey the feelings of the meeting to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner at Bizana, and to state that if there was any official victimization of the tribesmen as a result of the decision, the people of Eastern Pondoland would adopt an attitude of total non-co-operation with officials. A boycott of stores run by Whites in Bizana was also decided upon. TEMBULAND According to a report by the editor of Contact,(19) resentment of the Bantu authorities system is building up also in Tembuland in the central Transkei. In this area, too, journalists have been warned that they may not leave the White towns or main roads without a permit. A hut in the Engcobo district belonging to a headman, Spalding Matyile, in which census returns for part of the area were temporarily housed, was burned on 10 September. About two days later at Baziya, near Umtata, the hut of another pro- Government chief, Absolom Yengwa, was set on fire when he and his wife and child were asleep inside. As the woman tried to escape she and the child were slightly wounded by gun-fire. Mr. Yengwa then began shooting at the attackers and drove them away. There was a serious clash at Mqanduli, south of Umtata, on 16 September between supporters and opponents of Bantu authorities, eleven people being killed. On 24 October, three prominent Tembus, Jackson B. Nkosiyane, Bangilizwe M. Joyi and Twalimfene A. G. Joyi, applied for a court order directing the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development to furnish particulars of banishment orders served on them in 1958, or failing compliance, for an order setting aside the (17) Rand Daily Mail report, 14 October 1960. (18) Star, 25 October 1960. (19) Issue of 24 September 1960.

48 ASURVEYOFRACE deportations. They had been sent to Voorspoed, ; Louis Trichardt; and the farm Wesselsvlei in the district respectively. Mr. B. M. Jovi said in court that he was earning only £4 ls. a month at Louis Trichardt, and out of that had to pay for his food and clothing. It was impossible for him to support his family.(2") The court dismissed these applications with costs. GCALEKALAND It was reported in a subsequent issue of Contact' ) that the opposition to the Bantu authorities and rehabilitation schemes was also spreading to Gcalekaland, the home of the true Xhosa tribe. A meeting of about 500 tribesmen called by the Willowvale magistrate informed him of their rejection of these schemes. There was widespread distrust of the newly-appointed Paramount, Zwelidumile Bungeni Sigcawa. NORTHERN TRANSVAAL There is also dissatisfaction among the of the Northern Transvaal in regard to the Bantu Authorities system. The Field Officer of the Institute of Race Relations, Mr. J. C. M. Mbata, visited the area during September 1960, and reported (RR. 177/60) that there is a considerable intermingling of Tsonga, Venda and in this area. Until recently there was peaceful coexistence. But the Tsonga now complain that Venda chiefs have been appointed in predominantly Tsonga areas and are being given very considerable authority. The people no longer have the say in their own affairs that is customary according to the traditional tribal system. One of the four regional authorities in the Northern Transvaal is composed entirely of Tsonga chiefs; but the Tsonga are in the minority on the other three, and feel that their affairs are neglected by these regional authorities. Certain Venda practices are being forced on them. One Tsonga school board has been dissolved and its powers transferred to a predominantly Venda regional authority. The change-over in another case was not complete at the time of the visit. All of this has caused much resentment, and assaults on chiefs and reprisals have been reported. On 28 August, at a meeting called to discuss the formation of a territorial authority, the Tsonga spokesman requested the Government to establish a separate Bantu authorities system for his group. At the time of writing no solution to this dispute had been found: the three groups had been asked to appoint committees to discuss the matter with Bantu Affairs Commissioners. (20) Rand Daily Mail, 25 October 1960. (21) 22 October 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 49 SEQUELS TO RIOTING THAT OCCURRED BEFORE THE YEAR UNDER REVIEW Sekhukhuneland The rioting that took place in Sekhukhuneland during May 1958 after large sections of the Ba-Pedi tribe had opposed the Bantu authorities system was described in an earlier edition of this Survey.(22) During the disturbances there was a dispute at Madibong between pro- and anti- Government factions. John Kgolane had been made sub-chief there, but the majority of the people considered that his ex-wife should have been appointed. Finally he and his body-guard were murdered, sixteen Africans later being sentenced to death in consequence. The sentence was set aside by the Appeal Court, which referred the case back to the Transvaal Supreme Court for further evidence on certain points. After hearing fresh evidence, the court again imposed the death sentence. Once more the accused appealed, and on this occasion the convictions and sentences were set aside in two cases but upheld in the remaining fourteen cases. Those who had been convicted and various organizations, among them the Institute of Race Relations, urged the GovernorGeneral to exercise his prerogative of mercy. In its petition the Institute said, "A study of the background and the sequence of events which gave rise to public violence do reveal acts which, while not constituting provocation in the legal sense, nevertheless, in the tribal situation in Sekhukhuneland, all provoked local feelings of resentment, bitterness and a sense of outrage." The Governor-General commuted all the sentences to life imprisonment. There is still great unrest in Sekhukhuneland, and widespread opposition to the Government's policies and to the methods used by pro-Government chiefs in carrying them out. It was reported(23) that at a recent meeting the Ba-Pedi decided upon a campaign of open defiance; to refuse to pay taxes or rent for Trust land, to defy agricultural planning schemes that impose restrictions on the area of ground which can be cultivated, and to refuse to cull cattle. Mabieskraal An account was given in our last Survey(24) of a disturbance that occurred at Mabieskraal, to the north of in the Transvaal, after a section of the people had demonstrated against the authority of an acting chief who had been appointed by the Government following the banishment of the chief, Jeremiah Mabie. (22) 1957-58, page 72. (23) Sunday Times, 23 October 1960. (24) Page 129.

A SURVEY OF RACE There is obviously still unrest. Proclamation No. 24 of 1960, dated 26 February, stated that because of disunity, the Batlhako tribe at Mabieskraal was unable to adopt resolutions regarding tribal contracts and liabilities. The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development was, therefore, empowered to approve any contracts or liabilities entered into or incurred by the chief if he was satisfied that they were in the interests of the tribe. This arrangement was to be in force for a year, the period to be extended if necessary. A DISTURBANCE RESULTING FROM OPPOSI [ION TO THE LIQUOR LAWS CATO MANOR, DURBAN During the afternoon of 24 January 1960 a raiding party of eight White and 18 African policemen went to Cato Manor to search for illicit liquor. Numerous arrests were made, and when the number of prisoners had mounted to 32 it was decided that three of the policemen should take them to the police station while the others continued the raid. It is stated that an African constable accidentally trod on a woman's foot. Although apologies were made the woman followed the police, shouting at them. A large crowd very quickly collected and began stoning the police, who opened fire with their service revolvers before being forced to retreat. Fifteen sought refuge in a small bungalow, which was besieged by angry Africans armed with sticks, stones and pangas. The Africans eventually broke in. Four White and five African policemen were murdered in the bungalow or as they attempted to escape, the remaining White constable and three African policemen were seriously injured, and two African constables received minor injuries. The body of one African civilian, with a bullet wound in the chest, was found later. A second detachment of police that had come to investigate reports of trouble was prevented from reaching the scene by roadblocks, and was also attacked. Members sent a radio message asking urgently for re-inforcements: by the time these arrived the crowds had dispersed.("-) Strong bodies of police raided Cato Manor and held 271 Africans for questioning. Many of these were released after questioning or during the course of the preparatory investigation, 65 of them finally being committed for trial. Ten of these were released later, one died, 27 were charged with murder and the rest with public violence. The Minister of Justice imposed a four weeks' ban on public meetings in the . (25) Information given by Minister of Justice. Assembly 25 January. 1960, Hansard 2 cols. 300-1. and evidence led at the subsequent trial.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 The Leader of the Opposition in Parliament pressed for the appointment of a judicial commission of enquiry to investigate the basic reasons for the series of disturbances at Cato Manor. The Minister of Justice replied(6) that the Government considered this unnecessary, but had decided to appoint a committee consisting of senior members of the Departments of Justice, Police and Bantu Administration to enquire into the events of 24 January, to recommend what steps should be taken to prevent their repetition, and in general to try to ensure greater safety for the police. After the report had been received the Government would decide whether or not to publish it, the Minister said. The Natal Region of the Institute of Race Relations submitted a memorandum(") to this Committee dealing with the general socio-economic reasons for unrest at Cato Manor. MISCELLANEOUS DISTURBANCES PAARL It was mentioned in our last Survey28') that on 31 October 1959 the authorities announced that Mrs. Elizabeth Mafekeng, who has eleven children, was to be banished from Paarl in the Western Cape and ordered to an isolated farm near Vryburg in the north of the Province. Mrs. Mafekeng was President of the African Food and Canning Workers' Union and Vice-President of the African National Congress Women's League. On 8 November, the day before she was due to leave, she escaped and went to Basutoland. This fact was at first kept secret and, unaware of her absence, large crowds, estimated at more than 3,000, assembled next day in the street outside her house. An interesting point was that Coloured demonstrators predominated: there are large numbers of Coloured canning workers in Paarl who shared the indignation of their African fellow-workers. Passing cars were stoned and it was reported that some shots were fired at the police. Eventually the police opened fire to disperse the mob. According to reports,(9 at least twelve demonstrators were injured and one White civilian stabbed. Numbers of arrests were made: 58 accused were later acquitted and six persons found guilty of public violence. During December a disturbance took place in the African township following the arrest of a woman for non-possession of a permit to be in the area. The municipal registration offices were set on fire and three vehicles stoned. (26) Hansard 2 col. 381. (27) N.R. 11160. (28) Page 225. (29) Rand Daily Mail and Star of 10 November 1959.

A SURVEY OF RACE A serious faction fight between Nyasa and Xhosa workers occurred in a mine compound at Welkom on Christmas day 1959. The police were summoned and eventually dispersed the crowds by making baton charges. THE MOUNTING CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE PASS LAWS OPPOSITION TO THE PASS LAWS IN PREVIOUS YEARS In a recently-issued Fact Paper,O) the Institute of Race Relations traced the history of the long opposition to the pass laws by the African National Council and the (abolished) Natives Representative Council. Opposition expressed by other bodies in past years has been described in previous issues of this Survey. In the Institute's Fact Paper a summary was given of the views of various Commissions of Inquiry that have considered the pass laws, and the laws themselves were analysed - an elaborate task which showed the complexity of the nine Acts of Parliament, one Proclamation and three Government Notices which control the movement of Africans. ARRESTS FOR PASS LAW OFFENCES No detailed statistics relating to pass law offences later than those quoted in our last Survey2) have been published; but a more recent total figure was contained in the publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years. This showed that the total number of convictions of Africans for offences against laws and regulations for "Bantu control" increased from 365,911 in 1957 to 396,836 in 1958. Numerous individual cases of hardship resulting from the application of influx control and the pass laws were described in the Fact Paper. ORDER ISSUED BY THE COMMISSIONER OF THE POLICE, JUNE 1959 On 6 June 1959 the Commissioner of the S.A. Police issued a Special Force Order3) in which he said: "It is felt that in cases of minor offences holders of reference books are entitled to better treatment than the irresponsible and idle type without reference books and are therefore entitled to the protection afforded them by the reference books... (1) No. 7 -1960. -The 'Pass Laws' (2) Page 108. (3) Quoted in full in Assembly Hansard No. 2 of 1960, cols. 390-2.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 53 "The following instructions must therefore be strictly followed in future: (a) Natives who are in possession of reference books and who are in employment, or who run their own businesses or are property owners, or who on account of advanced age do not work and who are not more than a year or two in arrear with their taxes, must not be arrested for minor offences but are only to be warned, or warned or summoned for Court. (b) Accused persons are, of course, still entitled to pay admission of guilt if they so desire. (c) When bail is considered, a Native who conforms to the above requirements should be treated with more consideration by, for instance, fixing a smaller amount of bail or by even releasing him on his own recognizances. (d) Native women should be treated in the same way as Native males. "It must, of course, be realized that many of the Natives will not heed warning to appear before Court. In minor cases the Public Prosecutor should be consulted with in order to delete the cases from the roll as it cannot be afforded to waste valuable time in searching for accused persons in minor offences." It will be noticed that, in terms of this order, African men were still liable to summary arrest unless they could produce reference books indicating that they had complied with the various relevant laws and regulations. At the time of writing, no statistics had been published that would enable one to determine whether, as a result of the order, arrests for "pass law" offences decreased in number. VIEWS OF OPPOSITION POLITICAL PARTIES The pass laws were debated in Parliament on 4 March 1960, on a motion introduced by Mrs. V. M. L. Ballinger, leader of the Liberal Party and of the Natives' Representatives. She moved : (4) "that in the opinion of this House the pass system now applied to our African population constitutes an unjustifiable invasion of personal liberty, is (a) in conflict with the legitimate needs and demands of a modern industrial society; (b) inconsistent with sound principles of government in a democratic state; and (c) generally costly and inefficient, serving only to create poverty and inter-racial tension, and should be replaced forthwith by a system in keeping with modern democratic practice." (4) Assembly Hansard 7, cols. 2724-38.

54 A SURVEY OF RACE Seconding this motion, Mr. W. P. Stanford of the Progressive Party supported "wholeheartedly the abolition of the pass law system and the influx control system. We say that it must be replaced by a rational system of the canalization of labour through labour bureaux on a voluntary and not a penal system . . . There must naturally be stabilization of the rural and the urban population and there must be a raising of wage levels to a living wage level in both the farming and the urban communities, and . . . a proper development of the Reserves.'(') Although the United Party did not support the motion, it maintained that the pass law system should be simplified and applied with greater fairness and justice. AFRICAN NATIONAL CONGRESS CONFERENCE, DECEMBER 1959 The more important of the resolutions passed at the 47th annual conference of the A.N.C., held in Durban on 12 and 13 December 1959. dealt with two main matters: the economic boycott and the pass laws. The international boycott of South African goods was welcomed, members being urged to intensify their internal boycott of listed "Nationalist products." A major campaign against the pass laws, which would have several culminating points, was agreed upon. Arrangements would be made for deputations to wait upon local authorities and Bantu Affairs Commissioners throughout the country on 31 March, "AntiPass Day", urging the abolition of the pass laws. On 15 April, "African Freedom Day", numerous public meetings would be convened to plan mass anti-pass demonstrations to be held at the time of the Union Festival, during May. Further country-wide demonstrations would take place on 26 June. PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS CONFERENCE, DECEMBER 1959 The rival P.A.C. held its first annual conference in Orlando, Johannesburg on 20 December. It planned a "status campaign" aimed at achieving courteous treatment for Africans in shops. It also decided to launch "decisive and final positive action" against the pass laws under the slogan of "no bail, no defence, no fine." The detailed plans for this campaign are described below. DEMONSTRATION IN JOHANNESBURG ON 22 FEBRUARY 1960 A pamphlet which condemned the pass laws was produced in February 1960 by the consultative committee of fourteen organizations which had been established by the Anglican Bishop of Johannesburg, the Rt. Rev. A. Reeves. Copies were widely distributed. (5) Cols. 2739-40.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 On 22 February the A.N.C. together with members of the "Bishop's Committee" staged a silent anti-pass demonstration on the Johannesburg City Hall steps. A deputation from the A.N.C. handed to a representative of the City Council a memorandum in which the Council was urged to inform the Government that the influx control system was oppressive and should be abolished, and was asked to replace the compulsory labour bureau with a voluntary bureau organized on the lines of a labour exchange. That same day, in a speech at a City Council Meeting, Councillor Mrs. K. Mitchell of the Progressive Party described her party's views and recommendations in regard to the pass law system. DEMONSTRATION PLANNED BY THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS, AND ITS OUTCOME, 18-22 MARCH ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE PLANS OF THE PAN-AFRICAN CONGRESS At a Press conference on 18 March, Mr. R. M. Sobukwe, President of the P.A.C., announced(6) that his organization had planned a campaign aimed at the abolition of the pass laws, which would commence on 21 March. Members were being called upon to leave their passes at home and to surrender themselves for arrest at the nearest police station. Should the police refuse to arrest them, their instructions were to go home, and return to the police station later in the day. The slogan "no bail, no defence, no fine" would be strictly adhered to. After serving their gaol sentences, the campaigners would again offer themselves for arrest. P.A.C. members had been instructed to conduct the campaign in a spirit of non- violence, Mr. Sobukwe said. If ordered by the police to disperse, they should do so quietly and in an orderly manner. He had written to the Commissioner of Police, informing him of the campaign, and appealing to him to instruct his men not to make impossible demands of the Africans. He had added, "If the police are interested in maintaining law and order they will have no difficulty at all." This campaign, Mr. Sobukwe stated, was the first step in the P.A.C.'s aim to achieve "freedom and independence" for the Union's Africans by 1963. The Secretary-General of the African National Congress informed Mr. Sobukwe by letter that the A.N.C. would not support this campaign. "We must avoid sensational actions which might not succeed, because we realize that it is treacherous to the liberation movement to embark on a campaign which has not been (6) Rand Daily Mail report, 19 March 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACE properly prepared for and which has no reasonable prospect of success," he wrote. ACTION TAKEN BY P.A.C. MEMBERS ON 21 MARCH At numbers of police stations in widely scattered areas the demonstrations went off according to plan. Mr. Sobukwe and a number of companions, for example, presented themselves without passes at the Orlando police station, Johannesburg, and were arrested. Mr. Sobukwe immediately resigned his lectureship on the staff of the Department of Bantu Studies at the Witwatersrand University. Others were arrested at various police stations in Johannesburg, Durban and other centres. In other towns, for example, at various police stations in the Cape Peninsula, the police refused to arrest volunteers and persuaded them to go home. There were areas in which irresponsible junior leaders of the movement apparently employed methods of intimidation to induce people to join the demonstrations. For example, according to Press reports of evidence led later at a judicial enquiry, it would seem that this occurred at Sharpeville, Vereeniging. But because of the widespread and bitter opposition to the pass laws and other legislation, and the tense atmosphere that existed in the Union, many hundreds of Africans who were not P.A.C. members voluntarily joined the demonstrations in some towns. Others came with them, out of curiosity. Large crowds collected; and in the circumstances outbursts of emotionalism were inevitable. EVENTS IN AND NEAR VEREENIGING A judicial commission investigated events that occurred in townships near Vereeniging. As its report had not been made public at the time of writing, a summary is given instead of Press reports of the occurrences themselves and of the evidence led at the enquiry. Evaton It would appear that a very large crowd (estimated in a Press report7) at 10,000) gathered outside the Evaton police station on the morning of 21 March, demanding to be arrested. When the police refused, the people began to get excited; but they finally scattered after military aircraft had dived low over their heads. (7) Rand Daily Mail, 22 March 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Vanderbijl Park Another crowd, estimated(8) at between three and four thousand. gathered at the Vanderbijl Park police station. It was reported that about 20 White men, carrying firearms, threatened to take action against the Africans, but were deterred by the police officer in charge, who then arrested the leader of the African demonstrators. The crowd began to get angry. They failed to withdraw when military aircraft swooped overhead and when nine tear gas bombs were thrown in their direction, but were finally dispersed by a police baton charge. An African who led the stoning of a police car, and one other man, were shot dead by the police. Sharpeville The main disturbances in this area took place at Sharpeville Location, Vereeniging. As fairly detailed accounts of the events that occurred here and at other centres were given in the Institute's Fact Paper Days of Crisis in South Africa,(') for the purposes of this Survey summarized versions only are included, together with any information that has become available since the Fact Paper was issued. Early on the morning of 21 March a crowd of Africans variously estimated at between five and seven thousand marched to the municipal offices at the entrance to the location. Police officers said later in evidence that they were afraid the Africans intended marching on Vereeniging. After tear gas bombs had been thrown and a baton charge made the demonstrators dispersed into side streets, about 60 policemen following them. Stones were flung, one policeman being slightly injured, and it was stated that several shots were fired by Africans, and that some policemen opened fire without an order to do so from their officer. No African was, however, hurt. The police then joined others in the police station inside the township, which became surrounded by a crowd that gradually increased in size until it is said to have numbered between 5,000 and 20,000 (estimates differed widely). The people are reported by the police to have been shouting and brandishing various weapons. Their leader, said to be Mr. Nyakane Tsolo, when questioned by a police lieutenant, said they had come without their reference books and wished to be arrested. The lieutenant urged him to send them home. In evidence given later before the judicial commission it was argued that although the crowd was noisy and excitable it was not hostile. In general, the people had not carried sticks. They had (8) Star, 21 March and 13 and 14 April. (9) No. 5 -1960.

A SURVEY OF RACE gathered at the police station because it was believed, rightly or wrongly, that a senior police officer was to make a statement on the pass laws. Police reinforcements were summoned, arriving accompanied by saracen armoured cars. A police colonel arrested Mr. Tsolo and two others. As the third man was arrested the tension increased, a scuffle took place, some stones were thrown, two shots were heard, and the crowd surged forward, so that it appeared that the fence might be pushed over. It is said that two of the officers tried to speak to the crowd over loudspeakers, but could not make themselves heard, and that two White policemen opened fire without an order to do so, about 50 others then following suit, using service revolvers, rifles and sten guns. The crowd wavered and then fled, leaving many dead and wounded. The police tended the wounded and summoned ambulances, which took them to the Vereeniging and Baragwanath hospitals. On 22 March it was officially announced("°) that 67 Africans had been killed and 186 wounded: of the latter, 40 were women and 8 children.(") A C.I.D. officer who subsequently investigated the shooting said in evidence that 69 people had been killed and 178 wounded. It would appear that firing was continued after the people began to flee: according to evidence given by medical practitioners at the enquiry, of the bullet wounds that could be classified, 30 shots had entered the wounded or killed persons from the front and 155 from the back. For at least a week after the disturbances very many of the shops and factories in the Vereeniging and Vanderbijl Park areas were very seriously short of African labour: numbers of them were forced to close temporarily. It was alleged(2 that crowds in Sharpeville forced the buses to cease operating on 22 March, and that numbers of men who had gone to work begged their employers to allow them to return home, or left without permission, on hearing that reprisals might otherwise be taken against them or their families. Some months later, during September, 224 civil claims for damages amounting to about £398,000, arising from the disturbance at Sharpeville, were served on the Department of Justice. On 21 October, however, the Minister of Justice announced that during the next Parliamentary Session the Government would introduce legislation to indemnify itself and its officials retrospectively against claims resulting from action taken during the disturbances. (10) Rand Daily Mail of that date. (11) Minister of Justice, Assembly, 5 April, Hansard 12 col. 4837. (12) eg. Star and Rand Daily Mail of 22 March.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 59 EVENTS IN CAPE TOWN, 21 MARCH The Prime Minister said in the Assembly on 21 March(") that on that morning about 1,200 Africans had congregated at the Philippi police station and a few hundred at the police station at Nyanga. More than 1,000 had been formally arrested at Wynberg. A serious disurbance took place that day in Langa township. A second judicial commission was appointed to investigate the events: again, its report had not been made public at the time of writing, thus the summary that follows is based on Press reports. During the morning of 21 March a large meeting was held, apparently with the object of organizing a march to the police station to invite arrest. Police officers arrived and summoned the leaders, who included Mr. Philip Kgosana of the P.A.C., to find out what was being planned. They warned the leaders that the march would be unlawful and regarded as a hostile act. At their request, Mr. Kgosana dispersed the gathering, asking them to re-assemble that evening. It is said that later in the morning he dispersed groups of Africans who had gathered outside the police station, emphasizing that the police were not to be attacked. The magistrate decided to ban further meetings at Langa that day, and a police patrol toured the township broadcasting this message. Nevertheless at about 5 p.m. a large crowd gathered at New Flats, a square around which are a number of multi-storey hostels. Many of the people apparently understood that at the meeting they would hear the answer of the authorities on the question of passes, although the leaders had not told them this. An improvised platform was set up, and a Cape Times reporter said that when he arrived at about 5.30 p.m. the crowd, estimated at 6,000, was listening in a peaceable way to a long prayer. Numbers of them were sitting on the ground. The arrival of a squad of police in a saracen and wire-screened vans apparently disconcerted the Africans. The police officer used a portable loudspeaker to warn the people three times to disperse within three minutes. The reporter, who together with a photographer had climbed on the roof of a low building to see what was happening, said in evidence that he did not hear this warning and presumed that many of the Africans had not done so. The crowd failing to disperse, the police charged with batons and riot sticks. It is said that one of the leaders tried to speak to the police to tell them that three minutes was insufficient time for the crowd (estimated by then at 10,000) to disperse, but was hit with a baton. Other Africans were hit as they ran or after they had fallen. A second baton charge was made to disperse people who were advancing from another direction. (13) Hansard 10. col. 3759. A SURVEY OF RACE Now enraged, Africans began stoning the police - but no serious injuries were caused. It is said that a shot was fired by an African in one of the blocks of flats. The police then opened fire on their attackers, and numbers of shots were also fired from a Browning machine gun mounted on the saracen. The reporter said he saw five Africans returning the fire from round the corners of buildings. He and his companion were stoned - he jumped down and was hit with a bottle and injured as he escaped, the photographer being rescued by the police. There was sporadic firing by the police for ten or fifteen minutes, it is said. Reinforcements then arrived, a cease-fire order was given, and the police, together with the reporter and photographer, retired in their vehicles. As they were returning to the police station their vans were stoned and they again fired at the attackers. Four White nurses, passing along the same road by car, were also stoned and injured. The police threw a cordon across the road and diverted traffic. As he left, the reporter tried to signal to the driver who had brought him to return to town, but the signal was apparently not understood. This driver was subsequently murdered and the car set alight. Numbers of buildings were also set on fire. Damage to the extent of £14,000 was done to Council property alone. The homes of several African police constables were ransacked. According to evidence given at the enquiry, the casualties included the driver, two Africans killed by bullets, the four nurses who had been hurt, 26 Africans wounded by gunfire, 21 Africans injured by clubs, and some policemen who had been struck by stones or sticks. Next morning the police attempted to rout out all the men in the single quarters to send them to work. Some who escaped into the bush were followed with the aid of a helicopter. The police used riot sticks, and shots were fired. They beat up Africans seen walking in the streets of Langa - one man was wounded while on his way home from shift work. DISTURBANCES IN CAPE TOWN AND JOHANNESBURG 23 - 29 MARCH "DAY OF MOURNING" Before describing subsequent disturbances, it is convenient to record that Ex- Chief Luthuli of the A.N.C. called on Africans and other sections of the population to observe 28 March as a day of mourning for the dead of the Sharpeville and Langa riots, appealing to them to stay away from work on that day.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 According to a Press report,(4) he said in evidence given at the treason trial that he did not think one "stay-at-home" would lead to the realization of African ambitions, but considered that a series of them would force the White public, from sheer self-interest, to persuade the Government to enter into negotiation with Africans to see whether their demands could be accommodated. Alternatively, the White electorate would be influenced to change the Government. The P.A.C. decided to support the day of mourning. It was reported by the Press(5) that the "stay-at-home" was about 95 per cent successful among Africans in Cape Town, but that Coloured workers there had ignored it. It was apparently between 85 and 90 per cent successful in Johannesburg, and between 85 and 95 per cent successful in Port Elizabeth. There was a fair response in Pietermaritzburg. Between 20 and 25 per cent of the Africans in Durban stayed away from work, and most of the Indian businesses there were closed for the day. JOHANNESBURG On the evening of the Day of Mourning there was a two-hour eruption of rioting in the African townships to the south-west of Johannesburg, when people who had ignored the call to "stay at home" were assaulted as they returned from work. The assailants seized numbers of reference books from these people and burned them. With the exception of senior officials, the staff of the Municipal Non-European Affairs Department in the townships were temporarily evacuated for that evening. During the rioting an African police constable was killed and a number of residents in the townships were assaulted and injured by elements from the "anti- work" group. Four offices of the Natives Resettlement Board in Meadowlands were set on fire and extensively damaged, as well as a school. A shop in that area was broken into and looted. The only damage done in the Municipal townships was to a Church in Dube. CAPE TOWN The atmosphere in Cape Town remained extremely tense after the Langa riot. As happened also in the Vereeniging area, even before the call for a day of mourning thousands of Africans absented themselves from work, their numbers growing daily. It was alleged('6) that agitators warned people, both in their homes and at (14) Star, 24 March. (15) Ibid. 28 March. (16) eg. Rand Daily Mail, 24, 25 and 26 March

A SURVEY OF RACE their places of employment, that there would be severe reprisals unless they ceased work, and that the police were called to the Epping Industrial Township when about 30 Africans threatened to destroy a factory unless the employees were released. On 23 March about 100 young men are reported to have offered themselves for arrest at Caledon Square, but the police refused to apprehend them. They then went to the central police station, where they were taken into custody but released three days later. On the 25th March, about 2,000 Africans from Langa, led by Mr. Philip Kgosana, presented themselves at the Caledon Square police station without passes and asked to be arrested. Mr. Kgosana and a companion were put in the cells. The crowd continued to grow, and the senior police officer then decided to talk with the leaders, who expressed their opposition to the pass system. The police officer undertook to see to it that no-one would be asked to produce his pass in Cape Town until conditions returned to normal (this concession was on the following day made general for a short period), and asked the leaders to disperse the crowd. They agreed to do so if Mr. Kgosana and his companion were released, and the police officer then allowed these two out on their own recognizances. About 57,000 men are said to have stayed away from work on 28 March to attend the funerals of Africans who had been shot. The police used tear gas and baton charges to disperse a crowd that assembled on the Grand Parade. SUBSEQUENT DISTURBANCES 30 MARCH- 11 APRIL DECLARATION OF A STATE OF EMERGENCY As will be described later, on 24 March the Government banned public meetings of all races in a large number of magisterial districts. On 28 March legislation was introduced to ban the A.N.C. and the P.A.C. Then, on 30 March, a state of emergency was proclaimed. Hundreds of people were arrested before dawn that morning. These events are mentioned at this stage because they, too, preceded fresh disturbances in a large number of towns. The accounts of these disturbances are based on Press reports. CAPE TOWN For more than a week after the day of mourning nearly all of the 50,000 Africans employed in Cape Town stayed away from work. All major building and engineering projects were immobilized, coal, milk, and newspaper deliveries were seriously

RELATIONS: 1959-60 63 impeded, bread and meat were in short supply, hotels and garages were extremely short-staffed, and there was a congestion of shipping at the docks. Large numbers of migratory workers, estimated by the Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development at 1,750,(") returned to their homes in the Transkei or Ciskei to avoid becoming involved in the disturbances. On 30 March, crowds gathered in the African townships when it became known that many of the leaders had been arrested under the emergency regulations. A peaceable column over a mile long, estimated at more than 30,000 people,(8) marched from Langa and Nyanga to the Caledon Square police station, in the centre of the city, to demand the release of these leaders. An Air Force helicopter with police observers circled overhead, and, in a show of strength, saracen armoured cars and wire-screened vans carrying armed police drove through the crowds, which parted to afford them passage. When the procession arrived at Caledon Square its leader, Mr. Philip Kgosana, addressed the people and asked for silence. He asked to see the Minister of Justice, and said later in evidence that he understood the Deputy Commissioner to offer to make an appointment. This official said that he had merely undertaken to convey the request to the Minister. At the request of the police, Mr. Kgosana then spoke to the people through a loud-speaker, asking them to disperse, which they did. The Minister did not grant the interview, but instructed the Secretary for Justice to see a deputation. In the meanwhile Mr. Kgosana had been detained under the emergency regulations. A group of shouting African women gathered outside the Houses of Parliament, which were guarded by police carrying sten guns and armoured cars manned by soldiers. Large crowds collected in the vicinity. They finally dispersed after police officers with loud-speakers had warned them that a baton charge would otherwise be made. Many businesses in the centre of the city were temporarily closed. Troops and police were sent to guard vital installations. About a hundred women marched on the Langa police station. As they failed to obey an order to disperse, tear gas bombs were thrown. During the night of 30 March heavily armed police, troops and sailors threw tight cordons round Langa, Nyanga East and Nyanga West. After 7.30 a.m. no-one was allowed to enter or leave the townships: by that time only about 1,000 people had left for work. Next day the hour was extended to 8 a.m. Several thousand Africans from Nyanga massed in the Klipfontein Road on 2 April, but were halted and ordered back. Traffic was diverted from the main roads passing the African townships. (17) Assembly, 13 May, Hansard 17 col. 7512. (18) Star, 30 March.

A SURVEY OF RACE After the weekend of 2nd and 3rd April, the Africans began returning to work in increasing numbers. The cordons were retained at Langa until 7th April, and at Nyanga for a further day. In the meanwhile, as will be described below, many hundreds of Africans who were suspected of inciting others to stay away from work were arrested. As a large proportion of the inhabitants of the townships had been away from work for a week or more, many of the people were short of cash, and there was considerable hunger and suffering. The Red Cross, the Black Sash, the Liberal Party, S.A. Coloured People's Organization and the Moslem community collected food and milk to help relieve the distress. It was reported(9 that during the disturbances an African policeman was murdered, twelve Africans at least suffered bullet wounds, and more than thirty were injured in other ways. An African baby was accidentally shot and killed by a naval guard at Nyanga. According to the Minister of Justice,(") during the rioting on 21 March and subsequently, one church was destroyed at Langa and another two were damaged, a school at Nyanga was destroyed and three further schools, at Langa, Nyanga and Windermere respectively, were damaged, the library halls at both Nyanga and Langa were destroyed, and the Langa Town Hall damaged. OTHER TOWNS IN THE WESTERN CAPE In on 30 March a large crowd marched from Kaya Mandi township towards the town to demonstrate against passes, but were stopped by the police about a mile outside. When they refused to disperse the police made a baton charge, causing the Africans to flee, many of them dropping their possessions. Their anger increasing, they set alight the administrative buildings inside their township. and according to reports,(1) also a church, a clinic and the homes of two African constables. Cars passing the township were stoned. It was stated that the police accepted an offer from the local skietcommando to assist in patrolling the boundaries of the township to prevent the Africans from again marching out. Numbers of arrests were subsequently made. Trouble commenced in Worcester during the night of 28 March, when buildings in the Zweletemba township, including six churches, one school and the civic centre, valued at more than £30,000, were totally destroyed in rioting. Many Coloured people joined the Africans in staying away from work on 30 March. On that day the police used tear gas to break up a procession that was reported to be marching to the town. At least two shots were fired, but apparently no-one was hurt. According to Press reports (19) Star, 6 April. (ZO) Assembly, 19 April, Hansard 14 cols. 5486-7. (21) Star, 30 March

RELATIONS: 1959-60 65 the police, assisted by skietcommandos, cordoned off the African townships during the night, armed guards patrolled the streets of the town, and all bars and bottle stores were temporarily closed. Also on 30 March the police in Somerset West stopped a procession of Africans that was marching to the town. Municipal property and vital installations were placed under security guard. In Simonstown, on 31 March, about 1,000 Africans are reported to have marched to a square in the centre of the town to invite arrest for not carrying reference books. After the Manager of Native Administration and the police had heard their complaints and had addressed them, they returned home. A church in the African township was set alight and destroyed. A similar procession of between three and four hundred Africans marched into Hermanus on 1 April. The police, who had been reinforced by skietcommandos, ordered the crowd to disperse, and when they failed to do so, charged using batons and rifle butts. The Africans then fled, leaving behind scattered personal belongings. In Paarl, on 2 April, several hundred Africans marched into the town and gathered outside the Magistrate's Court. A large bag of reference books was publicly burned. That evening, a school in an African township was set alight and destroyed. Another school in Muizenburg was burned to the ground. In most of these towns there was large-scale absenteeism during the first week of April. DURBAN The detention of African leaders on 30 March led to a very tense situation in Durban. In the early hours of the next morning buses were stoned at Cato Manor (the service was then temporarily withdrawn), road-blocks were erected, and intimidators deterred African workers from leaving the area. A few hours later, about 5,000 people began marching from Cato Manor to the city to demand the release of the leaders. They were halted by a senior police officer, who persuaded them to go to a nearby sports field where the Chief Magistrate and the Bantu Affairs Commissioner would meet them. This meeting was held, but ended in an uproar. It is reported that on the next day, 1 April, a crowd about double the size started marching along various routes to the city from Cato Manor. One column of about 1,000 was turned back near the Howard College of the University by a detachment of police and navy who made a baton charge. Other processions were halted on the main road to Johannesburg: the majority of the people returned to Cato Manor, but some split into smaller groups and continued along various side roads.

66 A SURVEY OF RACE One procession estimated at about 1,000 succeeded in reaching the centre of the city and proceeded to the gaol, where they demanded the release of the leaders. They were addressed by a senior police official who then warned them that the police would open fire unless they had dispersed within five minutes. They apparently did so. A young Indian is reported(22) to have urged them to remain peaceful. Another group surged up the Berea Road: motorists drove their vehicles over the central island to escape. A detachment of police opened fire, killing one African and wounding several others. Further clashes occurred elsewhere, another two Africans being shot dead. At the subsequent inquest a magistrate found that the police firing had been justified. A comparatively quiet weekend followed. On the Monday leaflets signed by senior officials of the Bantu Affairs Department and the police, urging Africans to maintain law and order, were dropped from the air and distributed by hand. Fresh disturbances broke out that day in other areas. There were scenes of general disorder near the municipal bus depot in Clermont township, near Pinetown, a bus was stoned, and only about 100 persons instead of the usual 1,500 left for work. A serious clash is reported(23) to have taken place between the police, who made three baton charges, and some Africans, armed with kerries, one African being killed and nine injured, and several policemen hurt. Serious rioting occurred at Lamontville location, to the south of Durban, on Monday 4 April and the following day. About onethird of the workers are said to have stayed at home on the Monday, or to have returned after being threatened by intimidators on their arrival in the city. Bus services were withdrawn. On both days crowds gathered in the afternoon to attack those who had been to work. Time and again the police cleared road blocks and dispersed mobs: on at least two occasions they opened fire. It was reported24) that one African was shot dead, thirteen injured during baton charges, and several policemen hurt by blows from stones or kerries. The gravest trouble took place at the large S. J. Smith Hostel for 4,500 unattached men, which is near to Lamontville. Few of the men left for the city on the Monday. Anticipating trouble, the police stood by to try to protect those who had been to work as they returned; but in spite of this eleven Africans were assaulted and taken to hospital. The police opened fire on three occasions, two demonstrators being wounded. The hostel staff of about 60 men was evacuated under police escort. (22) Contact, 18 June. (23) Daily News, 5 April. (24) Daily News and Mercury.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 The situation at the hostel was quieter next day, but remained tense. Again intimidators were at work. An attempt was made to burn the offices, but the fire brigade extinguished the blaze. Large numbers of residents are said to have returned to their rural homes to avoid becoming involved in the troubles. On the Tuesday a strong force of police, supported by Citizen Force units, surrounded the hostel, warning the residents through loud speakers that they intended clearing the buildings and would open fire if necessary. No resistance was encountered. The inmates were screened, about 300 arrests being made, and many hundreds of sticks and other weapons were confiscated. JOHANNESBURG Isolated demonstrations of unrest continued in Johannesburg, although there were no large-scale disturbances. On 31 March the police made a baton charge to disperse a crowd of about 300 Africans in White City, Jabavu, and arrested the man who had been addressing them. Africans from the Western Native Township stoned cars and trams passing nearby on the way to Newlands, and also threw stones at policemen. The police fired several shots, and according to the Press one African was wounded and arrested. The tram service was temporarily suspended. Further shots were fired when the police rescued two Chinese who were attacked while driving through Meadowlands: two Africans were wounded and arrested. GERMISTON Between twenty and thirty per cent of the Africans at Natalspruit, Germiston, stayed at home on 31 March. About 150 of them blocked the road to the township with boulders and, it was reported, loosened a section of the railway line. They were dispersed by a police baton charge. Later, a large crowd gathered and stoned the police, critically wounding an African constable and injuring three White constables. The police fired several shots to disperse the mob: one African is said to have been wounded. PORT ELIZABETH Unrest flared up in Port Elizabeth, too. A church at Walmer and another at Veeplaats were set alight and destroyed, a school at Kwazakele township was burned to the ground, and another four schools were damaged. Numbers of reference books were burned. EAST LONDON AND CRADOCK, A church in Duncan Village, East London, and a school at Cradock, were destroyed by rioters.

A SURVEY OF RACE BLOEMFONTEIN On 1 April a crowd of Africans, which grew to several hundreds, gathered at the bus terminus in the city where men lighted a fire and burned numbers of reference books. The police arrested five of these men, but one escaped during the scuffle. Police reinforcements armed with tear gas bombs and sten guns then arrived, the Africans were ordered to disperse, and they gradually drifted away. PIETERMARITZBURG, BEAUFORT WEST AND ERMELO Attempts were made to set fire to the Bantu Administration Department offices in Pietermaritzburg and a high school for Coloured children in Beaufort West. The beer hall at Ermelo was destroyed. CASUALTY FIGURES According to a Press report 25, which quoted "official sources", 83 Non-White civilians were killed and 365 injured in riots that occurred between 21 March and 9 April. The Minister of Justice said in the Assembly on 19 April26) that three African policemen had been killed, and 33 White, one Coloured and 25 African policemen injured. ACTION TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT BANNING OF PUBLIC MEETINGS On 24 March, after the Langa, Sharpeville, Evaton and Vanderbijl Park riots, but before disturbances had occurred in other areas, the Government banned public meetings of all races in 24 of the Union's 265 magisterial districts. A few days later this ban was extended to numerous other districts. This action was taken under the Riotous Assemblies Act, the ban to be effective until 30 June. According to this Act, the implications were that in the districts concerned no gathering, meeting or procession of twelve or more persons having a common purpose could be held in an open space to which members of the public habitually had access unless permission was obtained from a magistrate. TEMPORARY RELAXATION OF PASS RAIDS On 26 March the Commissioner of Police announced to the Press, "In view of the fact that Bantus. as a result of intimidation, are so gripped by fear to carry reference books and are even afraid (25) Star, 25 April. (26) Hansard 14 col. 5477.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 69 to carry any money, I have decided to relieve this tremendous tension and to prevent innocent and law-abiding Bantus from landing in trouble. "I have instructed that no Bantu male or female is to be asked for his or her reference book or any other documents. No Bantu will be taken into custody because he is not in possession of his reference book. Bantus must not be arrested or detained for all sorts of petty offences. They must be warned or summonsed to appear."(27) Many people concluded that this was the beginning of the end of the pass system. It was announced on 27 March0') that Chief Luthuli had burned his reference book. Many other Africans did so too. Others had their books confiscated and destroyed by demonstrators. Warnings were published in the Press, however, that influx control and labour bureaux regulations were still in force, and that without reference books Africans would not be able to get employment and might experience difficulty in withdrawing money from Post Office savings accounts. On 4 April the Deputy Commissioner of Police for the Witwatersrand announced that normal curfew regulations would be enforced strictly from that evening. Africans out after the curfew hour should carry special passes or, if their reference books showed that they were exempted from curfew regulations, should take these books so as to be able to produce them voluntarily if challenged by the police. During the days that followed, many Africans in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Durban and other centres applied for duplicates of their reference books, being required to pay £1 each for these. On 10 April the Deputy Commissioner of Police for the Witwatersrand announced that from that date country-wide action would be taken against Africans who were not in possession of these books. UNLAWFUL ORGANIZATIONS ACT, No. 34 OF 1960 The Governor-General empowered to ban the A.N.C. and P.A.C. The Unlawful Organizations Bill was introduced in the Assembly on 28 March. In its final form the Act provides that if the Governor-General is satisfied that the safety of the public or the maintenance of public order is seriously threatened or likely to be seriously threatened in consequence of the activities of the Pan- African Congress or the African National Congress, he may, without notice to the body concerned, by proclamation in the Gazette declare such body, including all its branches, committees, and local, regional or subsidiary bodies, to be an unlawful organization. (27) Star, 26 March. (1) Vide Sunday Times photograph of that date,

A SURVEY OF RACE Similarly, if he is satisfied that the safety of the public or the maintenance of public order is seriously threatened or is likely to be seriously threatened by the activities of any organization which in his opinion has been established for the purpose of carrying on directly or indirectly any of the activities of any body declared unlawful, he may declare this new organization to be unlawful. Any proclamation issued in terms of the provision described above may be withdrawn by proclamation. Two provisions introduced as the result of criticism by the United Party were, firstly, that any proclamation will remain in force for a period not exceeding twelve months, but its duration may be extended by proclamation for further periods not exceeding twelve months at a time. Secondly, if an organization is declared unlawful, the Minister must report the circumstances to both Houses of Parliament within fourteen days if Parliament is in session, or otherwise within fourteen days after the commencement of the next session. Certain of the provisions of the Suppression of Communism Act (No. 44 of 1950) will apply to any organization declared unlawful. The more important of these follow. No-one may become or continue to be an office-bearer or member, or carry or display anything indicating that he is or was a member, or contribute or solicit subscriptions, or carry on any activity in which the organization was engaged. All property, rights and documents of the organization shall vest in a liquidator to be appointed by the Minister of Justice, who will be paid, should the Minister so decide, out of the assets of the organization. Any balance of assets after this, and after all debts have been paid, will be distributed to one or more charitable or scientific organizations designated by the Minister. After a period of fourteen days from the date of the proclamation, no court proceedings may be instituted for an order declaring the proclamation invalid. Anyone who performs any act calculated to further the aims or activities of an organization declared unlawful or who continues as a member or contributes or solicits subscriptions, shall be guilty of an offence and liable upon conviction to a term of imprisonment not exceeding ten years. Anyone who refuses or fails to answer to the best of his knowledge any question put to him by the liquidator, or who destroys or removes any property of the organization, shall be guilty of an offence and liable upon conviction to a maximum sentence of a £200 fine or one year's imprisonment or both. The Minister is empowered to forbid any person who has been convicted of an offence under the Act to became an office-bearer or member of any organization specified, or any public body, or to order him while he remains an office-bearer or member to comply with prescribed conditions.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Increased penalties for certain offences under the Riotous Assemblies Act The Riotous Assemblies Act, No. 17 of 1956, provided. inter alia, that persons found guilty of intimidating others to stay away from work or to join any association or society, or of jeering at people or blacklisting them for working, or of breaking a contract of employment in an essential service, will be liable to a maximum penalty of £50 fine or six months' imprisonment or both. In terms of the Unlawful Organizations Act, these maximum penalties are increased to a fine of £500, or five years' imprisonment, or ten strokes, or a combination of any two of these. In the case of a second or subsequent conviction a fine may not be imposed except in conjunction with a sentence of whipping or imprisonment. These are the penalties imposed in terms of the Criminal Law Amendment Act, No. 8 of 1953, and, under this Act, apply also to persons convicted of advising, encouraging or inciting anyone to commit an offence by way of protest against a law or in support of any campaign against any law. Brief notes on the Parliamentary Debate When introducing the second reading of the Bill, the Minister of Justice said2) that the Government "has decided to call a halt to the reign of terror which the Pan-African Congress and the African National Congress have been conducting recently among the of South Africa, to call a halt to the activities of the terrorists, White and Non-White, who act as instigators behind the scenes without taking an active part themselves." The combined membership of the two organizations was only about 70,000, he continued: they were not at all representative of the Bantu in South Africa. Their activities bordered on revolution. They wanted to force the State to capitulate or comply with their demands. He outlined the Government's reasons for increasing tenfold the penalties for intimidation. Cruel and barbaric victimization had been in progress, he said. Freedom volunteers went from house to house ordering people to stay away from work. Those who did not obey their orders were threatened with assault. Their pay packets might be stolen, or members of their families were detained as hostages, or the sjambok was used. Threats were made to burn down their houses or to stab them. Law-abiding Bantu had been forced to burn their reference books. Intimidators visited places of work and threatened workers with murder and (2) Assembly, 28 March 1960. Hansard 11 cola. 4302-7.

A SURVEY OF RACE arson if they did not leave immediately. Shop-owners who sold listed products were threatened, and if such products were sold they were confiscated from the purchasers. All the Opposition Parties opposed the Bill at its first reading; but in view of the amendments introduced by the Minister (described above) and of the need to restore law and order, the United Party thereafter supported it. Sir de Villiers Graaff said, however,(' that the Minister had "painted a shocking picture of the reign of terror that is carried out in certain of the Native townships, but perhaps he (the Minister) did not realise that at the same time he was painting a shocking picture of the break-down of the administration of the Government and of the complete inability of this Government to give protection to the law-abiding loyal Natives." Banning of the A.N.C. and P.A.C. On 8 April, immediately after the Act had been promulgated, the Governor- General signed a proclamation (No. 119), to have effect until 6 April 1961, declaring the A.N.C. and the P.A.C. to be unlawful organizations. Before this, the organizations had closed their offices and removed documents and furniture. Action taken by these bodies since April Since April, the two bodies have gone underground. In view of the general fear of Government reprisals and of the prolonged detention of many of the leaders they have naturally experienced very considerable difficulties; but they have not been dormant. As is mentioned earlier, the A.N.C. had planned that 15 April would be "Freedom Day", and that on this occasion numerous public meetings would be convened to arrange anti-pass demonstrations which would be held at the time of the Union Festival. This plan had to be abandoned. Instead, the A.N.C. and P.A.C. together arranged for many thousands of circulars to be distributed in the townships. calling upon Africans to stay away from work on 19 April (the day after the Easter weekend), in protest against recent Government action. This demonstration was an almost complete failure. Probable reasons were three- fold. Firstly, the initial emotional impact of the Sharpeville and Langa shootings and the arrests of leaders had dissolved. Secondly, few of the Africans could afford to sacrifice a further day's pay, so soon after the demonstrations only about a fortnight previously. And thirdly, many potential intimidators from the out-of- work and irresponsible elements had been arrested during the police raids on the townships. The fear of intimidation (3) Cols. 4316-20.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 still remained, however, and people tended to remain in their homes early in the morning until the word got around that everything was quiet. June 26, the next "culminating point" in the campaign planned earlier by the A.N.C., passed quietly and without incident throughout the Union. During the weeks that followed, at least thirteen former P.A.C. members were arrested and charged with taking part in the activities of an unlawful organization. Towards the end of September the "emergency committee" of the A.N.C. distributed leaflets referring to 1 October as a significant date in the campaign against the pass laws. On 27 September the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development issued a statement appealing to Africans not to associate with people or organizations who were trying to persuade them to stage demonstrations and protests before and on referendum day (5 October). No demonstrations were reported. MOBILIZATION OF THE CITIZEN FORCE We return, now, to the action taken by the Government at the time of the disturbances. Between 30 March and 2 April the entire Citizen Force, Permanent Force Reserve, Citizen Force Reserve and Reserve of Officers, and the whole of the Commandos, were placed on stand-by, the regiments, squadrons and other units being mobilized as their services were required. DECLARATION OF STATE OF EMERGENCY In Proclamation No. 90 published on 30 March, the GovernorGeneral said, "Whereas in my opinion it appears that circumstances have arisen in the areas specified in the attached schedule which seriously threaten the safety of the public and the maintenance of public order, and the ordinary law of the land is inadequate to enable the Government to ensure the safety of the public and to maintain order; "Now therefore, acting under the powers vested in me by section two of the Public Safety Act, 1953 (Act No. 3 of 1953), I hereby declare that a state of emergency exists within the areas specified in the attached Schedule as from the 29th March, 1960." The schedule listed 83 of the Union's 265 magisterial districts, a further 39 districts being added in terms of proclamations issued on 1st and l1th April. These districts included all the large towns. EMERGENCY REGULATIONS Proclamation 91 of 30 March set out the emergency regulations to apply in the specified districts. A summary follows of these regulations, as amended by subsequent proclamations.

A SURVEY OF RACE Prohibition of gatherings A magistrate or commissioned officer in the forces might prohibit the holding in any area of any particular gathering or procession of more than a number of persons determined by him. or of all such gatherings, except those held for purposes of divine worship in a building ordinarily used for that purpose, or for the purpose of instruction imparted under any law, or in connection with the funeral of a person who had died from causes other than violence committed during a state of emergency, or meetings of statutory bodies, industrial councils, employers' organizations or registered trade unions held for the purpose of transacting any business of that body, or gatherings held for the purpose of theatrical or cinematographic entertainment or a wedding. Orders which might be made by the Commissioner of Police The Commissioner of Police might make orders, not inconsistent with the regulations, for the control of traffic, the closing of any private or public place or business, the removal of the public from particular areas, the control of essential services, or the periods during which persons might be in the streets or in public places. He might prescribe a fine not exceeding £25 for the contravention of any order issued by him. Maintenance of order If a magistrate or commissioned or non-commissioned officer was of the opinion that the presence or conduct of any person or persons at any place endangered or might endanger the public safety or the maintenance of public order, or exposed or might expose life or property to danger, he might in a loud voice order such person or persons to stop, or to proceed to any indicated place, or to desist from such conduct, and give warning that force would be used if the order was not obeyed forthwith. If the order was not obeyed, the magistrate or officer might authorize the application of force (including force resulting in death) in order to remove or prevent the suspected danger. Detention of persons (a) Section four The Minister or a magistrate or commissioned officer might order the arrest without warrant and detention of any person if in his opinion this was desirable in the interest of the public order or of the person concerned. The Minister would determine the period of detention, and might make rules for the administration of any place where persons were being detained. Sanctions for the enforcement of these rules might be laid down. He might

RELATIONS: 1959-60 impose such conditions as he saw fit upon the release of a detained person. A detainee who was not a South African citizen by birth or descent might be declared to be an undesirable inhabitant of the Union, and then deported. Such an order would not be subject to appeal or to review by any court of law. Naturalized citizens might be issued with such orders. Certificates of exemption from detention might be issued to persons whose activities, in the opinion of the Minister or a magistrate, should be controlled. These certificates would set forth the conditions for such exemption. (b) Sections nineteen and twenty Any peace officer might without warrant arrest anyone who had committed an offence against the emergency regulations. The Minister, a magistrate or a commissioned officer might order the arrest of anyone who committed, or was suspected of having the intention to commit, any offence with intent to hamper the maintenance of public order, or who had any information relating to such an offence or intended offence. Such a person would be detained until the official concerned was satisfied that he had fully and truthfully answered all questions put to him, and the Minister might impose conditions upon his release. (c) Further provisions It was an offence without the Minister's permission to disclose the name of anyone arrested or detained under the regulations, or to assist a detainee to escape, or to harbour anyone who had escaped, or to deliver or transmit any unauthorized article to or from a detainee. An amendment to the regulations stated that no one who was detained in the public interest, or in his own interest, or because he had committed or intended to commit an offence with the intention of hampering the maintenance of public order, would be allowed to consult with a legal adviser in connection with any matter relating to his arrest and detention, unless permission was given by the Minister or someone acting under the Minister's authority. Arrest of Africans in certain circumstances (Regulation 4 bis.) Another amendment to the emergency regulations provided that if it was alleged that an African detainee was at the time of his arrest not in possession of a reference book, or was illegally in an urban area, or, being in an urban area had no fixed place

A SURVEY OF RACE of employment or inadequate honest means of livelihood, such detainee would be brought before a magistrate for examination. The onus of proof would be on the accused. If the magistrate, after hearing such evidence as he might consider expedient (including any evidence or statement which the accused might desire to tender) found that the allegation was true, the person concerned would be sent to a prison institution until the regulation lapsed or until the Minister of Justice ordered his release. While he was in detention, the provisions of the Prisons Act and regulations would apply to him as if he were a person undergoing a normal sentence of imprisonment. Appeal against a magistrate's decision lay to a board consisting of not more than three persons appointed by the Minister. As in the case of other detained persons, it was an offence to disclose the name of anyone arrested under Regulations 4 bis without the Minister's permission. Subversive statements or publications It was an offence to utter, print, type, display or distribute a subversive statement, which was defined as a statement which was calculated or likely to have the effect: (a) of subverting the authority of the Government or the legislature; or; (b) of inciting the public or any person to resist or oppose the Government or any official or member of the forces in connection with any measure adopted in pursuance of the emergency regulations or relating to the safety or the public; or (c) of engendering or aggravating feelings of hostility in the public or any person towards any section of the public or any person; or (d) of causing panic, alarm or fear among the public, or of weakening the confidence of the public in the successful termination of the state of emergency, unless the statement was proved to be a true and complete narrative. A magistrate or commissioned officer might order the seizure of any book, document or recording which in his opinion contained information capable of being used in any attempt to hamper the maintenance of public order, and might order the search of any premises if he suspected that publications of a subversive nature were there. The Minister might specify a newspaper, journal, magazine or other periodical which in his opinion had systematically published matter of a subversive nature. No one might then print, publish, distribute or import such publication, or any publication published in continuation of or substitution fc it.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 77 Evidence given in criminal trials not to be used in prosecutions under the regulations An amendment to the regulations provided that no evidence given by a person in a criminal trial begun before 29 March would be used in evidence against him in a criminal prosecution concerning any alleged contravention of the emergency regulations. Nor would it be taken into account for any purposes of the emergency regulations. (This was designed to protect witnesses at the Sharpeville and Langa enquiries and the treason trial; but the accused in this trial did not consider that it provided adequate safeguards.) Threats of harm, and incitement It was an offence to threaten anyone, verbally or in writing, that harm, hurt or loss to his person or property would result unless he committed certain acts or took up certain attitudes. It was also an offence to advise, incite or encourage anyone to stay away from or to retard his work, or to refuse to do any work, or to dislocate any industry or undertaking, or to prejudice any person, or to protest against any law with intent to thwart or exact concessions from any lawful authority or for the achievement of any political or economic aim. Subversive associations If the Minister suspected that any association was in any way connected with any matter relating to the state of emergency he might order any person connected with it to be summoned to appear before a magistrate or other official for questioning under oath, and might order him to produce any documents relating to the affairs of the association. Anyone who refused to attend, or to answer any lawful questions, or who knowingly gave a false answer, was guilty of an offence. The Minister might order any association which in his opinion was subversive to discontinue its activities. If in any legal proceedings the question arose of whether any association ordered to discontinue its activities was identical with an association formed after this order was issued, it would be presumed that this was the case if any books or property of the original association had been taken over, or if the majority of members or committee members of the original association had become members or committee members of the new association. Right to search A magistrate or commissioned officer might order any person, vehicle or premises to be searched if he suspected there was on or in it any document ordered to be seized, or relating to an association ordered to discontinue its activities, or any article affording

78 ASURVEYOFRACE evidence of an offence against the regulations. The premises of any person required to give evidence might be searched. Seizure of arms The Minister might make a general order for seizure of arms in the possession of all persons or any class of person. A magistrate or commisioned officer might order the seizure of arms in the possession of any person. It was an offence to fail to take adequate steps for the safe custody of dangerous weapons or drugs. Further offences, and penalties It was also an offence to obstruct anyone in the performance of his duties under the regulations. Maximum penalties for offences against the regulations were a fine of £500, or five years' imprisonment, or five years without the option of a fine, or both such fine and such imprisonment. Indemnity for persons exercising powers under the regulations No proceedings, whether civil or criminal, might be brought in any court of law against a Government or police or Citizen Force officer, or any person acting by their direction or with their consent, by reason of any act advised, ordered or done by them in good faith in the execution of their powers or the performance of their duties under the emergency regulations. It would be presumed that such acts were done in good faith unless the contrary was proved. DURATION OF STATE OF EMERGENCY As from 2 May the strength of the mobilized Citizen Force units was progressively reduced by allowing members to go on indefinite unpaid leave. Parliament was to be prorogued on 20 May, and just before it rose both Houses approved the emergency regulations, which, in terms of the Public Safety Act, would otherwise have lapsed. On 11 May the state of emergency was lifted in 20 mainly rural districts, and within these districts the ban on public meetings in open spaces was removed. The regulation which empowered magistrates to ban gatherings or processions in their areas was repealed throughout the Union on the same day. Some weeks later, the state of emergency was lifted in further districts, and ten more of the emergency regulations were repealed in all areas. Finally, on 31st August, the state of emergency was brought to an end.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 79 PERSONS DETAINED UNDER SECTION FOUR OF THE EMERGENCY REGULATIONS Arrests under Section four (see page 74) Before dawn on 30 March the police arrested large numbers of people of all racial groups under Section four of the emergency regulations-all the treason trial accused, and many of the leaders of the Liberal Party, Congress of Democrats, Indian Congress, A.N.C. and P.A.C. and other organizations. The names of many of them were published in the Press on 30 March: copies of the emergency regulations, which rendered it an offence to disclose their names without the Minister's permission, had not yet been made available to the public. In fact, the arrests were made before the public had been informed that a state of emergency had been proclaimed. Numbers of habeas corpus applications were immediately made in Johannesburg and Durban, the courts ordering the release of some of the people concerned. Several of these were re-arrested later that day, but others quickly fled the country. On 30 March and during the days that followed numerous further arrests were made, while people who feared that they might be included and wished to preserve their liberty of action left South Africa: amongst these were the Anglican Bishop of Johannesburg, the Rt. Rev. Ambrose Reeves, and Mr. Oliver Tambo, Deputy President of the A.N.C. The Public Safety Act provides that if persons are detained for longer than 30 days without trial during a state of emergency, both Houses of Parliament must be notified. Lists of names of detainees were, thus, tabled in Parliament from time to time; but Parliament was prorogued before the full period had elapsed in some cases, thus the names of such persons were not disclosed and, at the time of writing, the full total of persons detained was not known. On 16 May, however, the Minister of Justice said in the Assembly(4) that 94 White and 1,813 Non-White persons had by then been detained. They included 35 women, 33 of whom had children under the age of sixteen years. Rules governing the detention of these persons On 11 April, rules were gazetted () "for the administration and good government and the maintenance of order at any place where persons are being detained pursuant to the Public Safety Act or the Emergency Regulations". (4) Hansard 18, Cols. 7702, 7772, 8244. (5) Government Notice 551.

A SURVEY OF RACE The Provisions of the Prisons Act and Regulations were to apply unless inconsistent with the rules summarized below. These rules stated that no detainee might receive a visit from any person, including a legal adviser, except with the permission of the officer in command of the place of detention in consultation with the local police authorities. Except also with such permission, no detainee might communicate with anyone outside his place of detention, or receive from anyone outside any newspapers or other literature (except Bibles), or any toilet or smoking requisites, food or drink. Reasonable amounts of money and supplies of clothing might be sent to the place of detention on his behalf, and out of this money he might through official agencies buy approved magazines and books, toilet requisites, food and unfermented drink, and tobacco, cigarettes and matches within reasonable limits. If a library was available at the place of detention its facilities might be placed at his disposal. Private clothing must be washed at the place of detention. Prison chaplains would perform the necessary religious duties in respect of detainees, additional chaplains being temporarily appointed where necessary. However, local police authorities might debar individual chaplains from having access to detainees. The detainees would be medically examined on arrival, and subsequently visited, by medical officers appointed in terms of the Prisons Act. Should such an officer, in consultation with the local police authorities, so recommend, medical, dental or hospital treatment outside the place of detention might be permitted. Detainees would be guilty of a contravention of the rules if they failed to comply with the conditions listed above, or wilfully furnished false information, disobeyed lawful commands, were disrespectful to officials, caused unnecessary trouble, without the necessary permission conversed with other detainees or persons or left their places of sleeping, eating or recreation, had unauthorized articles in their possession, caused discontent or excitement, committed an act with the intention of injuring their health, or if they attempted to commit any of these acts. Upon conviction the magistrate or an officer of the prisons service might impose the duty to perform certain specified work for a period not exceeding fourteen days, or a fine not exceeding £10, or in default of payment confinement in a specified room or building for a period not exceeding ten days, or confinement in a specified place in company with others or alone for a period not exceeding thirty days. The accused might be legally represented at his trial only if the officer in command of the place of detention in consultation with the police so agreed.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Further information about the conditions of detention The Commissioner of Prisons said in a Press interview") that detainees would not come into contact with any convicted or awaiting-trial prisoners. Should a prison medical officer so prescribe, special diets, protective clothing or additional bedding would be provided. The Minister of the Interior added7) that the same type of accommodation and diet was provided for detainees as for awaiting-trial prisoners of the racial group concerned. The conditions of detention were at first very strict. Some of the detainees were locked for a time in solitary cells. In the early stages no visitors or letter-writing were allowed (this condition was relaxed later), and relatives were permitted to send only one letter a week, its contents to be confined strictly to domestic matters. The letters were handed to detainees at the discretion of the Commissioner of Prisons. The accommodation and food provided for those who were taken to the Johannesburg and Cape Town gaols were unsatisfactory; but these people were later moved, to the Pretoria and Worcester prisons respectively, where conditions were somewhat better. Subsequently a few of the women were transferred to the modern prison at Nylstroom. Many of the families of the detainees experienced very considerable financial distress. In reply to a question in the House on 19 April, the Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions said8) that dependants of persons detained, if they were in needy circumstances, could apply for public assistance. Benefits consisted mainly of rations, but might be supplemented by assistance in respect of household requirements and rent. In exceptional cases cash grants might be made in lieu of benefits in kind. So far as Africans were concerned, the public assistance scheme was administered by the Department of Bantu Administration and Development. Various voluntary bodies and persons set up funds to assist the detainees and their families. A national organization, the Defence and Aid Fund, came into being to uphold, maintain and promote human rights and civil liberties, to provide relief and to assist with the legal defence of persons charged or convicted under certain categories of laws restricting human rights, and to assist the dependants of such persons. Later the Red Cross took over family assistance in some areas, leaving the specially formed relief funds to care for the welfare of the detainees themselves. (6) Star, 5 April. (7) Hansard 15 cols. 6318, 6322. (8) Assembly, Hansard 14 cols. 5480-1.

A SURVEY OF RACE It was announced on 24 May that the Government had decided to pay maintenance grants to the dependants of detainees who qualified in terms of a means test, on the following basis: Coloured and Africans in Per month. Whites Asians. urban areas. Maximum grant per adult ...... El. 10. 0. £3. 0. 0. £1. 0. 0. Additional maximum amount for each of the first two children £3. 0. 0. £1. 10. 0. 12. 6. Maximum amount each for additional children ...... £2. 0. 0. £1. 0. 0. 7. 6. Total maximum ...... - £7.10.0. £3.0.0. Free income allowed (the grant being proportionately reduced where the income exceeded these amounts): Per adult ...... £7. 10. 0. £3.15. 0. £1. 0. 0. Per each child ...... £1. 0. 0. 10. 0. 5. 0. No grants were made to African dependants in rural areas. It is understood that, in practice, officials of the Department of Bantu Administration in Johannesburg and Pretoria refused to give allowances or rations to African families unless the wives produced their refetence books (possession of which was not compulsory). Representations were made to the Minister, who denied the allegation but added that the women had been advised to take out these books. Representations made by detainees and their families Twenty-one White women who had initially been held in the Johannesburg Fort sent a petition to the Minister early in May pointing out that they had not been informed of the reasons for their arrest, and had been denied the right of discussing their detention with their legal advisers. They were fully prepared to meet in open court any charges that might be preferred against them. Seven of them, whose husbands were also detained, had left 19 parentless children. The others had between them 15 children. Unless they were released on or before 12 May they would engage in a hunger strike as from that date. As they were not released, they did stage a hunger strike for eight days, which was terminated for medical reasons. Fourteen White men from Cape Town also went on a hunger strike which ended after two days when the head of the local Security Branch undertook to obtain answers to questions relating to their detention. On 14 May, twenty-four White, Asian and African children staged a demonstration in Johannesburg pleading for the release of their parents. While a small deputation was delivering an appeal to the Mayor the rest were detained by the police and taken to the central police station, where they were kept for about an hour.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 83 The Minister of Justice subsequently said(9) that the police had removed the children because a crowd had gathered, opinions were divided, and an outbreak of violence was not impossible. Groups of children in Cape Town went to the Houses of Parliament on 16 May, taking a petition to the Minister of Justice asking for the release of their parents. A demonstration of White, Indian and African women and children took place in Durban on 19 May. While on their way to keep an appointment with the Mayor the women were stopped by the police and warned to appear in court to face a charge of participating in an illegal procession. Finding them guilty, a magistrate subsequently cautioned and discharged them. They appealed against this decision and succeeded on a technicality. Release of the detainees A few of the detainees were released during May, and on the 31st of that month (Union Day), as a "gesture of goodwill" 154 were set free. Some of the releases were unconditional, but in numbers of cases strict conditions were imposed, such as that the person concerned was restricted to the magisterial district in which he lived, must not go out between 8 p.m. and 7 a.m. unless with the magistrate's permission, must report daily to the police, must not attend gatherings or communicate with the Press or with anyone else who had been detained or with anyone who had ever been a member of a banned organization, must engage in no political activities, and must divulge no information about the places of detention. Such conditions lapsed when the state of emergency was terminated. Miss Hannah Stanton, a British subject who had been detained, was deported. She had been working with the Anglican Mission at Lady Selborne, Pretoria. About 1,200 detainees were released during the fortnight commencing on 28 June, the 400 who were then left being held until the state of emergency ended on 31 August. A few of the Africans appeared before the courts on charges such as inciting others to burn reference books, but no charges were laid against the vast majority of the detainees. During October some of the detainees submitted claims for damages for alleged illegal detention, but later that month the Minister of Justice announced that the Government intended introducing legislation to indemnify itself and its officials against claims resulting from action taken during the emergency, (9) Assembly. 16 May, Hansard 18 cols. 7700-1.

A SURVEY OF RACE OTHER ARRESTS DURING THE PERIOD OF EMERGENCY Numbers of arrests From the second week in April until the beginning of June the police, assisted by troops, made very numerous raids on African townships throughout the Union. In most cases the troops sealed off the township concerned and patrolled the streets, while the police made house-to-house searches. Thousands of Africans were arrested for serious offences such as participation in the rioting, incitement, possession of dangerous weapons, etc., or for statutory offences such as vagrancy, non-compliance with influx control regulations, being in the township without a permit, not being in possession of a reference book, failing to register as a worker, or being in arrears with tax. At the same time the police confiscated many hundreds of weapons-kerries, iron bars, choppers, long knives, bicycle chains attached to sticks, and also a few firearms. Illicit liquor and illegally brewed beer was destroyed. As well as making these raids on the African townships, the police made an intensive drive to check the credentials of Africans walking in the streets of the towns. According to the Minister of Justice,(I'° by 6 May, 18,011 arrests had been made (excluding the persons detained under Section four, as described above). Large numbers were released after screening. The Minister gave further information on 16 May,(") stating that: (a) 689 persons had so far been detained under Section four bis. Of these, 316 had been committed to institutions designated by the Commissioner of Prisons, and 284 had still to be interrogated. (The remaining 89 had presumably been released.) (b) 8,454 other persons had been detained in urban areas since the commencement of the emergency. The charges against 176 had been withdrawn, 987 had been discharged, 1,022 had been sent home or to institutions or deported, 5,351 had been found guilty and their cases disposed of, and action was pending against 897. (The remaining 21 were not accounted for.) Treatment of Africans by the police In many towns, particularly Durban, Germiston and Johannesburg, the authorities expressed their gratitude to the police for the calmness and restraint they had shown under great provocation during the rioting. (10) Assembly, 6 May. Hansard 16 col. 6818. (11) Assembly, Hansard 18. cols. 7702-3.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 It is alleged, however, ') that after the promulgation of an amendment to the emergency regulations which empowered the police to use force in the maintenance of public order, young policemen in Cape Town, engaged in clearing the streets of "agitators", beat up many innocent Africans, and in some cases also Coloured people, who were merely walking in the streets and, in numbers of cases, had come to work in spite of the disturbances. Numerous severe injuries were caused. The President of the Cape Chamber of Industries and fourteen Anglican clergymen made strong statements of protest. There were reports of similar assaults between 4 and 7 April on Africans in Nyanga (Cape Town), where there had been a 90 per cent "stay-at-home". On 4 April alone the only African doctor in the township is reported to have treated 35 people for injuries inflicted by the police. It was alleged that during the house- tohouse search for dangerous weapons, members of the police removed valuables and money from certain homes. In a statement issued on 6 April, the Minister of Justice is reported to have said(3 that reports of undue force used by the police in dealing with intimidators and rioters were unsubstantiated. Two days later, however, when asked in the Assembly whether any such incidents had been brought to his notice and, if so, what steps were being taken, he replied,('") "Yes. Steps will be taken after a full investigation, should the Attorney-General so decide." Trials of Africans accused of offences against the law of the land or the emergency regulations (other than Sections four and four bis) After the disturbances, numbers of Africans appeared before the courts on serious charges. Mr. R. M. Sobukwe and 18 other leaders of the P.A.C. were convicted on 4 May of inciting others to support a campaign for the repeal of the pass laws, Mr. Sobukwe being sentenced to three years' imprisonment, Mr. P. K. Leballo and three others to two years each, and Mr. J. Madzunyana and thirteen others to eighteen months. Another extremely harsh sentence, of £300 or three years, was passed on 142 Johannesburg Africans, led by Mr. Matthew Nkoana of the P.A.C., who had been found guilty of working in concord against the reference book system and failing or refusing to produce their books on demand. At both trials the accused refused to plead to the charges, and stated that they felt no moral obligation to obey laws made by a White minority. Later notices of appeal were lodged and applications for bail were made. In the latter case the Supreme Court confirmed the sentences but suspended half for three years. (12) Co~tact. 16 April and Rand Daily Mail, 10 May, (13) Rand Daily Mail, 6 April. (14) 8 April. Hansard 12 col. 5121.

86 ASURVEYOFRACE The appeal of Mr. Sobukwe and his co-accused was dismissed. Ex-Chief A. J. Luthuli, President-General of the A.N.C., was acquitted on a charge of incitement but found guilty of burning his reference book, and was sentenced to £100 or twelve months' imprisonment, plus six months suspended for three years. Other severe sentences were £300 or three years for Mr. Isiah Tsabalala of Johannesburg for destroying reference books, two years (half suspended for three years) for thirteen Africans of Durban for taking part in an unlawful procession constituting a danger to public safety, £200 or twelve months (half suspended) for Dr. M. B. Zondi at Umzinto for destroying his reference book and inciting others to do so, and £100 or six months, plus eighteen months, plus six strokes, for Mr. J. Itholeng of Kimberley, found guilty of similar offences. There were numerous sentences, in widely distributed centres, of £150 or eighteen months, or two years' imprisonment (half suspended), or £100 or twelve months, and many hundreds of lesser sentences. For various reasons numbers of the accused were remanded on several occasions, so that months elapsed before their cases were decided. It was, for example, not until September that four Pretoria Africans were eventually found guilty of destroying reference books and inciting others to do so. They were given comparatively light sentences, of £50 or four months, plus nine months suspended for two years, and electing to pay the fines, were allowed to do so in instalments. Two others were acquitted, but had had to wait nearly six months before this decision was reached. Seventy-seven Africans were originally arrested after the Sharpeville disturbances, in some cases while they were patients in hospital. One died after a motor accident on the way to the gaol, and the cases against 53 were withdrawn. At the time of writing the trial of the rest was still in progress, as also were the prosecutions of Africans accused of public violence arising out of incidents at Vanderbijl Park, Meadowlands and other places. Treatment of Africans arrested under Section four bis As is mentioned above, Section four bis of the emergency regulations empowered the police to arrest without warrant Africans found without reference books, or illegally in an urban area, or in an urban area without fixed places of employment or adequate means of livelihood. The full number was not disclosed; but thousands of Africans were detained under this provision. Many of them disappeared suddenly, leaving their families in a state of acute anxiety and, often, financial distress. The prisons officials were frequently unable or unwilling to disclose the whereabouts of the arrested persons.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 87 It is reported that magistrates visited the gaols and held sittings there, the public being excluded and legal representation being denied to the accused. A matter that gave particular cause for concern was that, particularly in the Cape Town area, numbers of juveniles were arrested, taken home in custody to collect their clothes, and then sent off by train, handcuffed in pairs, to an unknown destination. Numbers of distressed mothers came for help to the Cape Western office of the Institute of Race Relations, where affidavits were taken. It appeared that numbers of the lads had been arrested without just cause: some were attending school, or in employment, or registered as workseekers with the labour bureau, and they had been born in Cape Town and thus were entitled to stay there. One boy was the sole support of a widowed mother. Protracted negotiations followed-the affidavits were sent to the authorities, local and then senior officials were approached, questions were asked in Parliament, letters were sent to Cabinet Ministers, and two mothers brought habeas corpus actions. Eventually 27 boys were released, 25 of them being lads on whose behalf the Institute had made representations. It transpired that some of them had been sent to a prison institution at East London. Large numbers of the arrested men were sent to Modder B near Brakpan on the East Rand, a disused mine compound that had been converted into a prison institution intended for short-term prisoners. Largely because of overcrowding, the conditions there apparently were highly unsatisfactory at first. In reply to questions put by the Press, officials of the Department of Prisons are reported(") to have stated that at one stage 4,760 "Section four bis" detainees as well as 1,506 other prisoners were accommodated there. Relatives were allowed no communication with them. They spent their days in barbed wire enclosures, and at night were locked into cells where, at first, the younger men seized blankets from the older, weaker ones to protect themselves from the bitter cold. The younger detainees were later separated from the rest. Shower-baths were available but, at first, no towels were provided. The Acting Commissioner of Prisons admitted that eighteen men had died of pneumonia and "quite a number" of others had been treated for this-he was uncertain how many. Some of the men had concealed the fact that they were ill in case they missed their turn for release. Those who became ill were given proper medical care and special food, and the diet for all the detainees was improved. According to a later Press report,SA) a hospital official at Modder B said in evidence given in court that between December (15) Rand Daily Mail, 12 August. (15A) Star, 2 November 1960.

88 ASURVEYOFRACE 1959 and July 1960, 42 prisoners had died at this prison, mainly from pneumonia. Cases were reported where men who had been released, or men accused of criminal offences who were out on bail, were rearrested by the police under Section four bis. This happened for example, to Mr. Alan Bula, who had been allowed bail while facing a charge of incitement.6) A deputation headed by Mrs. Helen Suzman, M.P., and including a representative of the Institute of Race Relations, met the Secretary for Justice and the Acting Commissioner of Prisons and made representations in regard to the reported conditions of imprisonment of detainees, especially those at Modder B. Great stress was laid on the need to inform relatives of their whereabouts, and the necessity for providing prisoners with suitable discharge documents to protect them from rearrest. Forty-three detainees in Durban refused to do work assigned to them by the prison authorities. They were tried at the prison and had no legal representation. The magistrate found them guilty and sentenced two to solitary confinement and spare diet, and the rest to whippings of five strokes each. The reviewing judge referred the matter to a full sitting of the Natal Division of the Supreme Court, where it was ruled that in terms of the emergency regulations the proceedings had been legally in order. The sentences were, however, reduced to three strokes each, suspended for six weeks.(7) After the termination of the state of emergency an African in Cape Town was accused under the emergency regulations of making a subversive statement, but was acquitted.(8) Numbers of Africans who were detained and subsequently released without any charges having been preferred against them found that their previous jobs had been filled by others. If no alternative employment opportunities were available they were endorsed out of the urban areas where they had previously lived. Many of them had lost all touch with their original homes in the Reserves. There were numerous cases of this in the Western Cape. where the "Eiselen line" policy is being very strictly enforced (i.e. all Africans who are considered "surplus" to requirements are being required to leave the area, with the object of gradually replacing African by Coloured labour). SUSPENSION OF CERTAIN PUBLICATIONS, AND PROSECUTIONS OF EDITORS Government Notice No. 521 of 5 April stated that, on examination of the publications The Torch and New Age, the Minister of Justice was satisfied that there was in them a systematic (16) Rand Daily Mail report, 10 June. (17) Rand Daily Mail, 28 June. (18) Star, 7 September.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 89 publishing of matter which, in his opinion, was of a subversive nature. He applied the relevant provisions of the emergency regulations to them, which meant that their publication had to cease until the state of emergency was terminated. The editor of Africa South fled the country, but continued publishing his journal overseas under the title Africa South in Exile. The editors of the Port Elizabeth Evening Post, of New Age and of Contact were prosecuted under the emergency regulations for allegedly publishing subversive statements within the meaning of these regulations. The publishers of Contact were included in the prosecution. These cases were still proceeding at the time of writing. The editor of Contact, Mr. Patrick Duncan, was gaoled for three weeks for refusing to disclose the source of his information for an article in his journal. ATTEMPTED ASSASSINATION OF THE PRIME MINISTER Mr. David Pratt is alleged to have tried to assassinate the Prime Minister at the Union Exposition in Johannesburg on 9 April. One revolver shot penetrated the Prime Minister's ear, and another his cheek. When Mr. Pratt appeared before the court he was found to be mentally disordered. REACTIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA TO THE CRISIS PARLIAMENTARY DEBATE ON THE DISTURBANCES On behalf of the United Party, Sir de Villiers Graaff moved in the Assembly on 22 March() that once law and order had been restored, a strong judicial commission should be appointed to enquire not only into the disturbances, but also into their underlying causes. The Progressive Party and the Natives' Representatives supported this motion. During the course of the debate the Prime Minister stated,2 "the Government is sympathetically inclined in that direction, but it must first consider the technical problems before coming to a final decision." One of the technical problems was that such a commission "will possibly also partly cover the court inquiry which is now taking place" (the treason trial). No commission had been appointed at the time of writing (October 1960). (1) Hansard 10 col. 3853. (2) Col. 3915.

90 A SURVEY OF RACE REACTIONS OF LEADERS OF INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE Chairman of the Wool Board Towards the end of March Dr. J. H. Moolman, Chairman of the Wool Board, called upon the leaders of primary and secondary industry to make a joint approach to the Government, urging it to amend its policies. (As a result of political pressure, Dr. Moolman was during October removed from the chairmanship of this Board, which he had held since its inception.) Cape Chamber of Industries During the first week in April a delegation from the Cape Chamber of Industries was granted an interview with the Prime Minister to discuss ways of easing the situation arising from the disturbances, and of safe-guarding law-abiding Africans who wished to work but were being threatened by intimidators. In a memorandum subsequently handed to the Government(') the Cape Chamber of Industries stated, "The disturbances that occurred on March 21, and the subsequent events, have had, and are continuing to have, serious ill effects on South Africa's economy." The Government was urged to appoint a commission of inquiry forthwith, its members to include Non-White representatives of Non- White urban groups as well as representatives of the main sectors of the economy, to investigate the nature of grievances among Non-White workers and to formulate recommendations. The Afrikaanse Handelsinstitum The Chairman of the executive committee of the Handelsinstituut is reported(') to have said that his organization, too, had been in touch with the Government. S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries A deputation from the S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries presented a memorandum to five Cabinet Ministers on 3 May. According to the Press,(,) the Chamber stated its strong conviction that the recent wave of lawlessness had a genuine basis of grievance and dissatisfaction which agitators had been able to exploit, and that the only alternative to a continuance of riotous outbursts was a new approach based on consultation as the key to a peaceful solution. The Government was urged to consult with leaders acceptable to the urban African people. The Chamber considered that all industrialists should review the wages of lower- paid workers on a voluntary basis. At the same (3) Star report, 12 April. (4) Rand Daily Mail, 8 April. (5) Ibid, 4 May.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 91 time the Government was requested to improve the machinery for wage fixation to make it possible for the Wage Board to review unskilled wages at more regular intervals, and to allow African workers a more active part in wage negotiations. Association of Trust Companies A Press report6) stated that at its meeting in Paarl the Association of Trust Companies unanimously accepted a resolution expressing grave concern over the situation, and called for a united effort by organized business to help the Government to solve the country's problems. Trust companies, it was said, were only too well aware of the withdrawal of funds by overseas clients, and these withdrawals, unless reversed, would have a disastrous effect on the economy. Major employers' organizations On 12 May a delegation representing the Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut, the Association of Chambers of Commerce of S.A., the S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries, the Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of S.A. and the Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber of Mines handed a joint statement to the Prime Minister. Between them these bodies represent the employers of 1 - million African workers-two-thirds of the Union's male African labour force. Their memorandum contained practical suggestions, within a limited field, having as their object the easing of tensions. The suggestions were based on the observations that in large cities there was a settled urban Bantu population which should in certain respects be treated differently from those in the Reserves; that there was a wide diversity amongst the Bantu in class, education and social standards; and that the unrestricted influx of rural Bantu to the towns was undesirable. They were of the view, these organizations stated, that while agitators had fomented unrest, their actions had been aided by the existence of genuine grievances, and amongst these were grievances under the headings of the pass laws, influx control and curfew regulations, and the liquor laws. Suggestions were made for changes considered necessary in these laws and regulations.0 In a statement subsequently handed to the Press"8) the President of the Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut is reported to have said that his organization supported the broad principle of separate development and considered that its realization had not been speedy (6) Star, 3 May. (7) These suggestions are summarized in the Institute's Fact Papers "The 'Pass Laws' and "The Liquor Laws". (8) e.g. Transvaler, 29 May.

92 A SURVEY OF RACE enough. South Africa should, however, be developed as an economic whole. The discussions held with other organizations had been on the subject of points of friction in the application of separate development. Cape Chamber of Industries and Cape Town Chamber of Commerce Also on 12 May the Cape Chamber of Yndustries and Cape Town Chamber of Commerce made a joint statement in which they urged that conditions should be created for large-scale economic development to ensure a rising standard of living for all in South Africa. The country could not realize its economic potential, it was stated, while four-fifths of its population were seriously lacking in economic opportunity as compared with the remaining fifth. One of a number of recommendations made by the two chambers was that the laws relating to reference books, influx control and liquor, as well as their administration, must be modified to reduce statutory offences to a minimum, and to dispense with police searches and arrests. The chambers denounced job reservation, with particular reference to the Coloured people in the Western Cape, and the splitting off of Coloured workers into separate trade unions. The Stock Exchange During the disturbances there had been a very rapid drop in the capitalization value of shares quoted on the Stock Exchange. Commenting on this, the President of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange said on 13 May,09) "There is no doubt that this unprecedented fall has been largely occasioned by the present situation in our country . . . Confidence in the future of South Africa is ebbing, and unless immediate and positive steps are taken to restore it, the economic effects of recent events must soon be felt by everybody in the country." Association of Chambers of Commerce of South Africa The executive committee of the Association of Chambers of Commerce of South Africa issued a far-reaching statement on 19 May. All the people of the country, it said, must be allowed and encouraged to make the maximum contribution to the economy of which they were individually capable if an expanding economy was to be achieved. Although every effort should be made to extend the country's export trade, expansion of industrial output must be based mainly upon enlargement of the domestic market. To help achieve this (9) Star, 14 May.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 93 purpose, large-scale State-aided immigration would be necessary in order to provide skills and enterprise. The Reserves should be developed immediately as an integral part of the Union's economy. A large proportion of the new industrial workers required in the industrial centres as well as in the Reserves would be provided by the persons displaced by agricultural development in the Bantu areas. Restrictions which prevented members of any race from conducting business or other economic operations in any part of the Union should be progressively relaxed with a view to their ultimate withdrawal. No barriers should be placed in the way of persons of any race utilizing present skills or acquiring and employing new ones. Increased amounts should be spent on providing general and vocational educational facilities for Non-Whites. The work reservation provisions of the Industrial Conciliation Act should be repealed, and trade unons should with the effluxion of time and wtih suitable safeguards become representative of workers of all races. Restrictions on the mobility of labour should be progressively relaxed, and Africans should be permitted to acquire freehold title in urban townships. Views of some individual business leaders Speaking as chairman of the Bonus Investment Corporation towards the end of May,") Dr. M. S. Louw (who is also chairman of Sanlam and other Afrikaans financial concerns) said it was clear that many overseas investors had lost faith in South Africa and that the country must face the fact that its economic future was partly dependent upon the "know-how," the goodwill and the capital of overseas countries. "We will have to convince overseas countries that we are able to solve our racial problems satisfactorily," he is reported to have said. A review of the operations of the Anglo American Corporation of S.A., Limited, was published by its chairman, Mr. H. F. Oppenheimer, at the beginning of June. In the course of this review Mr. Oppenheimer said that the recent disturbances had affected overseas capital markets to a degree which was not generally appreciated in South Africa, and had made it more difficult to attract skilled specialist personnel and to obtain essential expert "knowhow". It appeared that law and order had been restored, but this was only an essential preliminary to the restoration of confidence. Steps must be taken to regain the goodwill of the Africans and to create conditions in which agitators would be ineffective. Eventually White and Black would be forced to work together, and the sooner this was accepted the better for all concerned. Mr. Oppenheimer drew attention to the "entirely unrealistic assumption that the (10) Star report, 2 June.

94 A SURVEY OF RACE Africans in the towns are only there temporarily" and to some of the frustrations that resulted. In an interim report to share-holders of the American-South African Investment Company, Mr. C. W. Engelhard said(") that the South African Government would have to recognize the need to develop a world-accepted policy of co-existence among the races in the Union if it wished to restore the full confidence of the foreign investor. Sir Charles Hambro, chairman of Union Corporation and a director of the Bank of England, is reported(12) to have said early in June that confidence had been seriously shaken in financial circles in London by recent South African events. "The situation is being watched with interest and concern, and I believe that confidence would begin to return should any specific measures be taken to promote more harmonious relations with the urban Native population." Similar warnings about loss of confidence by investors were voiced by other financial leaders. REACTIONS BY THE CHURCHES Dutch Reformed Churches It was announced on 27 March(3) that at a meeting with Mr. J. D. du P. Basson, leader of the National Union, twelve influential ministers of the three Dutch Reformed Churches had rejected the Government's enforced apartheid policy as unethical, unbiblical and without any foundation in the Scriptures; had expressed their alarm at the way in which this policy was causing hatred, increasing racial tension and widening the rift between the races; and had agreed as individuals that they would speak out openly in the interests of right and justice, even if this did mean entering the political field. The Moderators of the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerke of South Africa called upon all the congregations of the mother churches, the mission churches and the Bantu churches to observe Sunday 10 April as a day of humiliation and prayer, in view of the serious crisis in South Africa. Nine leading members of this Church signed a public statement which was released on 1 April. They appealed to churches overseas and locally to show a great sense of responsibility in comments made in the crisis situation. As Christian citizens, they said, they accepted the shortcomings and the mistakes made by the Church, the people, and successive governments in the handling of great and extraordinarily complicated national problems. Their Church had made it clear that it (11) Ibid. 29 July. (12) Ibid, 2 June. (13) e.g. Sunday Times of that date.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 95 could justify and approve of the policy of independent, distinctive development, provided this was carried out in a just and honourable way, without impairing or offending human dignity. It had also accepted that this policy, especially in the initial stages, would necessarily cause a certain amount of disruption and personal discomfort and hardship, for example in connection with the clearing of slums. The whole pass system should be seen in this light. Mutual attitudes and relationships were, however, of primary importance. The Government was urged to do everything in its power to carry out its policy in such a manner that human relationships were not disturbed and that friction was reduced to a minimum. Statement by the Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town The Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town, the Most Rev. Dr. Joost de Blank, is reported('") to have stated that the events of 21 March had confronted the Church in South Africa with the gravest crisis in its history. On that day the Africans turned not only against those whom they considered to be their White oppressors, but also against the Christian Church as being identified with them. Unless the Church openly and publicly repudiated the doctrine and practice of compulsory segregation it was condemning itself to extermination-and the whole of would be wide open to secularism and other non-Christian creeds. After Sharpeville, almost every church had issued a statement condemning policies that could lead to such a shocking state of affairs and calling for active co-operation between the races. But until the Dutch Reformed Churches identified themselves with this repudiation the Christian faith was unable to make much progress. He (the Archbishop) had appealed to the World Council of Churches to send out a fact-finding team to investigate the racial situation in South Africa. Effects of this statement The Moderature of the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk of the Cape issued a statement(") saying that it would heartily welcome a visit to South Africa by a leading member of the World Council of Churches. The statement continued by saying that at a time when co-operation between the churches was more necessary than ever, the Moderature was compelled to reply to the Archbishop's challenge. Reference was made to an agreement reached in May 1959 between the N.G. Kerk and the Anglican Church in which these churches undertook to enlighten one another on the basic principles (14) Star, 11 April. (15) e.g. Rand Daily Mall, 14 April.

A SURVEY OF RACE of their policy and action, to do everything in their power to obviate unfounded conclusions, and to admit each church's autonomy and responsibility to act as it believed it must. The Anglican Church had on several occasions broken this agreement, the Moderature maintained. Further co-operation with the Archbishop had become impossible. On the following day the Moderature of the N.G. Kerk in the Transvaal released a letter it had sent to the Secretary of the World Council of Churches in which it stated(6 that the time had arrived for a neutral church commission to find out how world opinion against South Africa was deliberately poisoned with false and mendacious reports which were continually sent abroad by people who knew they were untrue. The N.G. Kerk denied a few bishops the right to demand for themselves a monopoly over South Africa's Christian conscience. It would be pleased if a commission of the World Council could come to the Union to ascertain whether the voices of the Archbishop and the Bishop of Johannesburg really represented the views of their Church. The N.G. Church would gladly furnish such a commission with the full facts of all the occasions on which it had approached the authorities on aspects in connection with its principles. It was, however, not the task of this Church to submit a political programme or pattern to the Government. The Moderature of the Hervormde Kerk in the Transvaal stated on the same day it was convinced that separate development was the only fair policy for South Africa. It granted the Bantu that which it claimed for itself-"that he shall serve God in his own, independent church where he can be ministered by his own preachers and glorify God in accordance with his own national outlook and in his own language." It ill behoved the Archbishop "as responsible head of a Church to talk in such a challenging, presumptious and condemnatory manner to another church." According to the Sunday Times of 17 April, the Archbishop of Cape Town replied to this criticism by saying that as long as the Christian belief that all men are equal in the eyes of God was recognized, he was prepared to co-operate with all churches. And if effective agreement was reached for its practise and his presence retarded co-operation, he was prepared to retire from the scene and let someone else take over. He had made it clear in previous statements that all churches stood condemned, and the Church of the Province was no exception. There was ample evidence that the Bantu had lost his faith not in one church or another, but in all churches. "We have no illusion and are deeply penitent for our failures", the Archbishop continued. A service of penitence had been held in (16) Ibid, 15 April.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 97 St. George's Cathedral that week. "But as a church we have repudiated apartheid at the highest level, and we are seeking to eradicate it in all our churches and institutions." Action taken by the World Council of Churches The Archdeacon of Cape Town visited Geneva to meet leaders of the World Council of Churches, bringing a message from the Archbishop asking the Council to reaffirm its resolution of 1954 that segregation based on race, colour or ethnic origin was contrary to the Gospel and was incompatible with the Christian doctrine of man and with the nature of the Church of Christ. (No dissenting voice was raised in 1954 when this resolution was adopted, although there were some abstentions from voting. The World Council recognized that many churches found themselves confronted by historical, political, social and economic circumstances which might make the immediate achievement of non-segregation extremely difficult, but expressed confidence in their strength and courage to overcome such difficulties.) Dr. Robert Bilheimer, the World Council's Director of the Division of Studies and an Associate General Secretary, visited South Africa during April to consult personally with the leaders of the eight member churches in South Africa. His itinerary in the Union was arranged by Mr. F. J. van Wyk, Assistant Director of the Institute of Race Relations, in his capacity as honorary secretary of the Continuation Committee of the South African Churches' Conferences. After Dr. Bilheimer's return it was announced that the World Council of Churches had proposed to its member churches that it take the initiative in convening a fully representative consultation of their leaders and W.C.C. representatives to seek measures towards reconciliation in the current emergency. Various "levels" were suggested as the "most urgent for ecumenical discussion at this present time". Amongst these were the levels of factual understanding of the situation in South Africa, action being taken by the Churches, understanding of the meaning of the Gospel for relationships among races, seeking a clearer understanding of contemporary history from a Christian viewpoint, and interpretation of the meaning of the current emergency. The W.C.C. said that it would welcome an arrangement whereby specific plans for the consultation would be made by a group consisting of the leaders of the member churches and a representative of the W.C.C. A second letter was sent to the Anglican Church and to the three Dutch Reformed Churches in which the W.C.C. noted that during Dr. Bilheimer's visit the desire was expressed that it should invite representatives of these churches to a consultation concerning their relationship with each other and with the W.C.C.

A SURVEY OF RACE It was glad about this initiative, and responded by issuing an invitation to such a consultation, suggesting that it be held prior to but at the same time as the larger consultation. All these proposals and invitations were accepted, and an inter-church committee, of which Mr. F. J. van Wyk was honorary secretary, was set up to plan the conferences, to be held from 7 to 14 December. The World Council and several memberchurches announced the names of their delegates. Deportation of Bishop Reeves One of the leaders of the Anglican delegation was to be the Bishop of Johannesburg, the Rt. Rev. A. Reeves, who left South Africa to avoid possible arrest upon the declaration of a state of emergency, and remained in England on long leave. He returned to the Union on 10 September (after the ending of the emergency). Two days later he was arrested and immediately deported by air, without being given an opportunity to consult his legal advisers or to make representations on his own behalf. Among numerous other bodies the Institute of Race Relations, of which the Bishop was a Vice-President, protested against the Government's summary eviction of an important spiritual leader of one of the major churches of the country. Whether or not so intended, this action "will be viewed by a great many as a steD towards stifling views on the burning question of the day, namely, the relationship between White and Non-White, if such views are opposed to those of the Government," the Institute said.(7) Effects on the arrangements for the inter-church conferences At a religious rally held in Natal on 13 September, the Archbishop is reported(") to have said he had cabled the World Council of Churches, stating that, because of the deportation of Bishop Reeves, the conferences planned for December would now have to be held, not in Johannesburg as had been the intention, but in a place near but outside the Union where both the Bishop and Non-White clergy would be allowed freedom to come and go as they pleased. The Archbishop subsequently qualified this statement, saying that an acceptable alternative arrangement would be for the Government to allow Bishop Reeves to return to South Africa for the purpose of attending the conferences. Two days after the deportation of the Bishop, the Rev. Dr. F. O'B. Geldenhuys of the Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk waited on the Minister of the Interior, asking whether he might be furnished with the reasons for the Government's action in order that he might inform his co-members of the World Council of (17) R.R. 165/60. (1s) Rand Daily Mail, 14 September.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Churches. The Minister stated that he was convinced that the serious step taken had been necessary; but he declined to give reasons for it, on the ground that if he did so, his sources of information would dry up. Dr. Geldenhuys then asked whether it would not have been reasonable to inform Bishop Reeves, while he was still overseas, that such a step would be taken against him if he returned to the Union. The Minister replied that, in terms of the relevant Act, he was empowered to issue deportation orders only against persons who were actually present in South Africa at the time that the orders were served. All the seven other member-churches of the W.C.C. found themselves unable to accept the Anglican Archbishop's suggestion that the conferences be held outside the Union; but they were greatly concerned over the possible break-down of relations between the Anglican and the Afrikaans churches. For this reason Dr. Geldenhuys, and the Rev. C. F. B. Naud6 in his capacity as a member of the conference planning committee, again saw the Minister, asking, firstly, whether it would be possible confidentially to give the planning committee the reasons for the deportation order, and secondly, whether the Government would agree to grant Bishop Reeves a safe-conduct to attend the conference. Both requests were refused. Two members of the planning committee-the Rev. Mr. Naud6 of the N.G. Kerk and the Rev. Dr. J. B. Webb of the Methodist Church-then flew to Cape Town to see the Archbishop and put it to him that the question of Bishop Reeves' attendance was not an issue between the churches. It was subsequently announced that the Archbishop had been in touch with the World Council of Churches, stipulating further conditions for Anglican representation at the conferences. Dr. Robert Bilheimer of the World Council of Churches again flew to South Africa from Geneva, and succeeded in resolving the difficulties in the way of holding the conferences. Informal discussions took place between Dr. Bilheimer, the executive of the planning committee and representatives of the Anglican Church, including the Archbishop; and Dr. Bilheimer took the chair at a meeting of the conference planning committee held on 25 October. This meeting issued a re-affirmation of the purpose of the consultations to be held from 7 - 14 December 1960, in which it was stated, "The consultation will include those of widely differing convictions. It is not our purpose to convert one another to our own opinions, but as Christians to seek together the guidance of God in achieving a more profound understanding of His Purpose in South Africa and for our witness in this land". A statement which, like the other document, had been unanimously adopted, was issued to the Press. It read, "We are agreed that this consultation . . . should be held in the Union of

A SURVEY OF RACE South Africa as the discussion and worship of such an inter-racial and interdenominational meeting will have a greater impact if it is held within the Union . . . From the beginning, it has been planned that it be inter-racial in character . . . Such a gathering ... constitutes in itself a Christian witness of importance, although it is recognized that as yet there is no common mind on the issues which form the subject of the consultation. We meet, therefore, amid disagreement, to seek the guidance of God . . ." Mention was made of the difficulties that had been created by the Government's decision that Bishop Reeves would not be permitted to attend, and of the unsuccessful representations made by representatives of the planning committee. It was stated that even though these representations had failed, the planning committee adhered to the dates previously decided upon for the consultations. On the day after this meeting, the Archbishop announced that Anglican delegates would not attend consultations held in Johannesburg unless they were invited by the Bishop of Johannesburg (who had been deported). A cable was sent to the Bishop, who agreed to issue the invitations. Discussion group of ministers of various churches An informal discussion group of ministers of various Protestant churches, including all three Dutch Reformed churches, has been formed in Johannesburg to increase inter-church fellowship and to discuss mutual problems. Non-White church leaders, originally asked as guest speakers, were subsequently invited to continue attending the discussions. Joint Pastoral Letter by the Catholic Bishops It was announced on 21 May19' that the Catholic Bishops of South Africa had issued a joint pastoral letter, and had enjoined the members of their Church to observe the principles therein laid down. The practice of a social colour-bar must cease, they said. Positive steps must be taken to ensure rapid racial integration in parochial activities. While the Bishops conceded that it would be wrong to allow those with a more advanced culture to be deprived at the present stage of an effective part in government, and to have their economic status reduced, this must not operate oppressively on other sections. In the political field this could be achieved by the operation of a (19) Sunday Times of that date. 100

RELATIONS: 1959-60 101 qualified franchise, the qualification being the ability to exercise the vote in a responsible manner. In the economic sphere, the common good demanded that those who had the skill and ability and the desire to advance should not be denied the opportunity for such advancement. The Bishops demanded that all peaceful methods be tried and tried again, and condemned the unlawful use of force and violence. Statement by the Transvaal Region of the Presbyterian Church The Transvaal Region of the Presbyterian Church of Southern Africa issued a statement on 31 May to coincide with a "day of prayer and self-examination" called by its church. Members were asked to recognise their own part in "causing or condoning frustration". Individual congregations were asked to ensure that every African employed by the church earned enough to feed, clothe and house himself and his family adequately.Y-° ACTION BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS AT THE TIME OF THE EMERGENCY On 22 March the Institute of Race Relations issued a statement in which it pointed out that the pass laws had been a long-standing source of bitter grievance amongst Africans, which sooner or later would lead to an explosive situation. The position had been aggravated by the fact that moderate leaders had been put out of action. Although the demonstration of the previous day had taken the form of a call to non-violent passive resistance, the situation had been conducive to undisciplined emotional outbursts. As long as counsels of moderation brought no substantial redress of grievances, and no effective methods of consultation existed, it was inevitable that extra- parliamentary methods, to which Non-Whites would more and more have recourse, would take on an increasingly violent character. A point had been reached in national affairs where a broad enquiry was called for to determine what should be done to remedy burning grievances in connection with the pass laws, to establish where other points of possible racial explosion existed, and to ascertain upon what methods the Government should rely to restore peace and harmony other than methods of force and intimidation. The Institute's President, Professor the Hon. Edgar H. Brookes, issued a Press statement on 13 April(") in which he said, "The tragic events of these last weeks have caused deep pain and even anguish of spirit in many of us. It is too early to pronounce judgment on these events ... but one thing is clear: that no solution of our problems is in sight until free and frank consultation has taken place between leaders possessing the confidence of the Europeans and those possessing the confidence of the Non-Europeans." (20) Star report, 1 June. (21) e.g. Star of that date.

There was no choice as to whether reasonable aspirations of Non-Whites should be satisfied, Professor Brookes continued. Sooner or later this would have to be done. "But is it to be done early by mutual goodwill, or only after recurring crises?" he asked. The Institute had always stood for mutual consultation on the basis of goodwill, and of respect for proved facts, and appealed to the Government to follow this policy. During the period of the emergency the Institute continued its normal work of bringing together members of various sections of the population for an exchange of views. The Director, Mr. Quintin Whyte, had discussions with numerous political, business and other leaders in Cape Town and Johannesburg. A special meeting of the Institute's Executive Committee was convened to consider what action the Institute might usefully take. It was decided that the main topic for discussion at the 1961 Council meeting should be the laws and regulations affecting urban Africans, and that during the preceding months conferences on the position of urban Africans should be held in Natal (as had already been planned) and, if possible, in other Regions too. The Institute would continue and extend its fact finding work, the publication of the results of this, and its efforts to bring together members of different groups and backgrounds for discussions on a personal level as well as at meetings and conferences. A Press statement issued by the Executive Committee is set out on page 21. ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF SABRA The annual conference of SABRA was held in Stellenbosch. commencing on 19 April. After the introductory speeches there followed a closed session of members to discuss the current situation. In a statement issued at the conclusion of the conference, SABRA'S Council said that recent events had compellingly brought home a realization of the critical urgency of the racial problem, particularly in connection with the implementation of the policy of separate development. Profound indignation was expressed at the distorted picture of South Africa constantly being presented by the world Press. Note was taken of the large-scale intimidation employed by irresponsible elements among the Bantu, and hope expressed that effective steps would be taken to prevent this in future. The Council noted with appreciation the large measure of self-control shown under difficult circumstances by the White and Coloured and the greater part of the Bantu population, and the measures to maintain law and order that had been taken by the authorities. Council was deeply convinced, it stated, of the necessity and extreme urgency of providing opportunities for self expression in the political and economic fields in the Bantu areas. It considered 102 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 103 that the consolidation of these areas into larger political units was essential; that their balanced economic development should be effected as soon as possible and undertaken in co-operation with organized agriculture, commerce and industry; that the utilization of White private capital and initiative should be considered; and that the finances required should be advanced, if necessary by way of increased taxation. Effective consultation with responsible Bantu was regarded as essential. The Council pointed to its own activities in this connection, and instructed the Executive Committee to give further special attention to the matter. A thorough investigation was advocated of aspects of policy and administration which caused unnecessary friction and discontent among the urban Bantu population, in particular the supply of liquor, control of movement, the share of the Bantu in the management of their own townships, and their wages and productivity. SABRA called upon everyone-White and Non-White-to avoid giving offence, to promote mutual respect, and to refrain from any conduct that conflicted with the principle of human dignity. PROPOSAL BY PROF. J. L. SADIE According to a Press report,(") Professor J. L. Sadie of the University of Stellenbosch suggested during August that a Cabinet drawn from all White political parties be formed to restore overseas confidence in South Africa. OVERSEAS REACTIONS TO THE CRISIS IN SOUTH AFRICA Overseas reactions to the crisis in South Africa are described in the last chapter of this Survey. STATEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTER A statement was read for the Prime Minister, Dr. H. F. Verwoerd, by the Minister of Finance in the Assembly on 20 May.(23) A summary follows. No departure from Government policy The recent disturbances had given cause for general reflection, Dr. Verwoerd said. Certain authorities had submitted ideas and proposals to the Government; but, however good their intentions, the authors often did not have sufficient facts at their disposal to test the effects of their proposals. It remained the task of the Government to make the necessary decisions. (22) Star, 25 August. (23) Hansard 18 cols. 8337-43.

A SURVEY OF RACE The Government saw no reason to depart from the policy of separate development and the underlying good this held for all in the future. It was regrettable that the Government was being hindered by misrepresentation in South Africa and abroad. It was significant that the disturbances had taken place mainly in areas where the local authorities were controlled by opponents of Government policy. The principles of this policy were not always applied in the good spirit of the Government's aims, or with sufficient information to make it understandable. Incitement The Government had decided, firstly, that it would have to take steps to prevent incitement from continuing. Supervision by the Government of urban Bantu administration Secondly, the Department of Bantu Administration would be equipped to enable it, in every city with a large urban Bantu residential area, to supervise the administration of the Bantu through the municipal authorities concerned. While the disturbances had not affected the policy of separate development, they had affected public opinion in such a way that the Government would now be able to apply certain aspects of policy which had been under consideration for some time but which previously did not have the necessary support. Urban Bantu Authorities Firstly, the "practically useless Native Advisory Boards" would be replaced by urban Bantu authorities with limited, though real, authority over the Bantu residential areas, under the supervision of the municipalities concerned. They would also have a measure of judicial authority. Provision would be made for the necessary connection with the broader Bantu authorities, and, where necessary, for consultation with the Commissioners-General to be appointed for the various ethnic groups. Increased police protection Secondly, it was clear that protection of law-abiding Bantu by a greatly increased police force within the residential areas was essential. Methods would be devised to integrate the proposed urban Bantu authorities and their auxiliary services with this police protection service. Liquor Thirdly, in spite of certain doubts it still felt, and certain difficulties expected, the Government intended bringing about certain changes to remove the necessity for liquor raids. At the same time it would guard against crime, including the illegal liquor trade and the manufacture of dangerous concoctions.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 105 Reference books and influx control The Government was unable to abandon the reference book or the influx control systems. Nor could exemptions be considered. The size of the reference book would, however, be reduced, and the Department was trying to introduce methods to make this document what it was originally intended to be-a means to facilitate Bantu administration-and to make the system such that the Bantu would experience all the advantages and privileges, instead of the disadvantages, which were never intended. Wages It had been said that the cost of living for the urban Bantu was such that they had difficulty in making ends meet and were, therefore, liable to be incited. Nobody wished them to exist on starvation wages. A rise in wages could not, however, be brought about by one sector alone. The Government fixed only minimum wages, and any employer was free to increase these. While it was undesirable for the Government to exercise compulsion, it wanted to encourage employers to pay more by rationalisation of their trades and by improving the productivity of their workers. The Government would see to it that the machinery which existed for Bantu workers to negotiate with their employers was implemented to a greater extent. Protection of Coloured labour in the Western Cape In parts of the country where the Coloured community was the natural source of labour, it was wrong to allow the Bantu to enter in great numbers. The Government's policy for industries in these areas to make the best use of Coloured labour would be implemented more strictly. Bantu homelands The Bantu homelands must be enabled to provide for both their increase in population and the returning flow of Bantu. The Government had decided to concentrate immediately on the development of industries on the borders of the Reserves: details would soon be made known in a separate statement. Inquiries into disturbances At this stage the Government did not intend appointing a broader commission of inquiry into the causes of the disturbances. It was essential that the reports of the two existing commissions should first become available, and that the treason trial be concluded since this "in part has the character of an inquiry into the causes of the disurbances." Furthermore, the effects of the measures mentioned above should first be determined.

FURTHER DECISIONS IN REGARD TO THE "PASS LAWS" Reference books to be compulsory for African women Government Notice No. 1135 of 29 July 1960 stated that 1 December 1960 would be the "fixed date" for African women, after which it would be compulsory for all women of the age of 16 years and over to be in possession of reference books. According to a Press report,24) the Department of Bantu Administration and Development has given the assurance that there will be no summary arrests of women and no summary demands for their reference books. It would appear that nearly three-quarters of the African women were in possession of these books by March 1960: the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said2') that up to the end of February 4,154,898 had been issued to men and 3,020,281 to women. But many of the women who had not obtained reference books were strenuously opposed to the system and, when the relevant Government Notice was published, fears were expressed that it would lead to unrest. Statement by the Commissioner of the S.A. Police According to the Press,026) the Commissioner of the S.A. Police said on 12 August 1960, "The police have to refer to reference books in the ordinary course of criminal investigation, including checks on persons regarded as idlers or won't works. But I have said before that the reference book system is to be so administered that the law-abiding Bantu have nothing to fear, and should in no way be prejudiced." "The police no longer conduct specific reference book raids, and arrests are no longer made merely for non-possession of reference books, provided satisfactory explanations are given that reference books were in fact issued to the Bantu concerned, or some alternative credential, such as the address of their employers, is offered and substantiated." Recent announcement by the Minister On 7 October the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development expressed his appreciation of the way the Bantu had "decisively refused to allow themselves to be misled" by agitators during the republican referendum. Because of this behaviour, and as an earnest of the Government's intention to administer the laws with the utmost reasonableness, he had decided that the date upon which it was to have been compulsory for women to possess reference books (1 December 1960) would be postponed to coincide more or less with the date on which the possession of identity cards by the Whites would become obligatory. (24) Star, 2 August. (25) Assembly, 30 March 1960. Hansard 7 col. 1524. (26) Rand Daily Mail, 13 August. 106 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 THE AFRICAN RESERVES APPOINTMENT OF COMMISSIONERS-GENERAL The five Commissioners-General, whose appointment was provided for in the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959,(1) were nominated by the Governor-General during June 1960. They are: Dr. W. W. M. Eiselen, retiring Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development, for the Northern Sotho group, with headquarters at Turfloop; Mr. S. F. Papenfus, ex-M.P. for Harrismith and previously a member of the Native Affairs Commission, for the Southern Sotho group, with headquarters at Witzieshoek; Ex-Senator Dr. I. S. Kloppers for the Tswana group, with headquarters at Mafeking; Ex-Senator C. G. Nel for the Zulu and Swazi groups, with headquarters at Nongoma; Mr. J. H. Abraham, ex-M.P. for Groblersdal, for the Xhosa group, with headquarters at Umtata. BANTU AUTHORITIES SO FAR ESTABLISHED A full account of the constitution and powers of territorial, regional, district and tribal Bantu authorities and of remaining local councils was given in last year's Survey,(2' together with an analysis of the development of the Bantu authorities system up to the end of November 1959. During the ensuing twelve months no new territorial authorities were created: the only one so far in existence is that for the Transkeian Territories. At the time of writing, however, a territorial board was being constituted for the of the and Western Transvaal, to serve until such time as the regional authorities system has been fully developed in this area. Ten further regional authorities were established in the Union, making a total of 33, the new ones being: Ngqushwa regional authority in the Peddie area (Xhosa). Nongoma regional authority (Zulu). Ingwavuma regional authority (Zulu). (1) See 1958-59 Survey, page 52. (2) Pages 54 et seq, 107

A SURVEY OF RACE Ukukanyakufikile regional authority, Port Shepstone district (Zulu). regional authority in the Pietersburg district (Northern Sotho). Balobedu-Pedi regional authority in the Letaba district (Northern Sotho). Naphuno regional authority in the Letaba district (Northern Sotho and Tsonga). Bakgatla-Ndebele regional authority in the area (Tswana and Ndebele). Nkomazi regional authority in the Barberton district (Swazi). Ndlopfu-Shangaan regional authority in the Letaba district (Tsonga). Thirteen local councils remain in existence. Seventeen new tribal authorities were established during the year under review, in the areas of the Xhosa, Zulu and Tswana groups, making a total of 373. According to the Chief Information Officer of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development") about another 145 tribal authorities are still required-mainly in Natal, where the people have been opposed to the system. No further Bantu authorities were established during the past year in the areas of the Southern Sotho group. On June 1960 a series of amendments to the Transkeian Bantu Authorities Proclamation, No. 180 of 1956, were gazetted as Proclamation 118 of 1960, the powers and functions of the Transkeian Territorial Authority being set out in detail. ALLOWANCES TO CHIEFS AND HEADMEN According to the official estimates of expenditure for the year ending 31 March 1961,(') the following amounts have been set aside for payments to chiefs and headmen during the current year (the amounts for the previous year being shown in brackets): Allowances to 550 chiefs and 1,200 headmen-L£127,900 (E84,150) Promotion of efficiency of chiefs and headmen-£5,000 (E2,500) Presents and rations for chiefs- and headmen-£9,000 (£1,000) In reply to questions in the Assembly on 22 March 1960,0) the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said that (3) Statement as published in the Rand Daily Mail, 8 February 1960. (4) Estimates of Expenditure to be Defrayed from the Revenue Account, U.G. 1/1960. (5) Hansard 10 cols. 3839-41.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 109 allowances for chiefs were divided into a basic allowance and a bonus. The basic allowance, to be increased by about 25 per cent during the current year, was determined by the number of taxpayers in the chief's tribe. The bonus, to be increased by 100 per cent, was assessed at the end of each financial year by the Chief Bantu Affairs Commissioner on the basis of a report by the Bantu Affairs Commissioner of the district on the manner in which the chief had performed his duties. The new scales would be: Basic Allowance Maximum Bonus Number of taxpayers per annum per annum Up to 1,000 £40 £48 1,001 to 1,500 £48 £48 1,501 to 2,000 £56 £48 2,001 to 2,500 £64 £48 2,501 to 3,000 £72 £48 3,001 to 4,000 £80 £60 4,001 to 5,000 £88 £60 5,001 to 6,000 £96 £72 6,001 to 7,000 £104 £72 7,001 to 8,000 £112 £84 8,001 to 9,000 £120 £84 9,001 to 10,000 £128 £96 Higher amounts than these were paid to the Paramount Chiefs of the Usutu, Eastern Pondo, Thembu and Western Pondo tribes, and to the chiefs of the , Emigrant Tembu, Basotho, Mandhlakazi, Baca and Tembe tribes. Cyprian Bhekezulu, Paramount Chief of the Usutu tribe, received additional sums for the salary of his deputy and the maintenance of certain dependants for whom the traditional Zulu paramountcy was responsible. The allowances paid during 1958-59 to the twelve senior chiefs were detailed by the Minister. These ranged from £100 a year to £1,200 a year in Cyprian Bhekezulu's case. Besides their allowances, headmen received bonuses for tax collecting, the Minister added, up to a maximum of £8 during 1958-59, but this amount was now to be doubled. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AFRICAN RESERVES THE EXTENT OF THE RESERVES An analysis of the area of the Reserves was given in last year's Survey.(6) In the paragraphs that follow, the information given last year is combined with new factual material that has since become available. (6) Page 83.

110 A SURVEY OF RACE The Reserves consist, firstly, of the scheduled areas which are, in the main, the areas occupied by Africans at the time that the Natives Land Act of 1913 was passed (there have been certain changes). The exact extent of these areas is not accurately known because much of the land has never been properly surveyed, but they measure approximately 10,729,435 morgen(') Secondly, between 1913 and 1936 Africans acquired about 1,440,137 morgen in areas recommended by various commissions for "release" to them. The Native Trust and Land Act of 1936 provided that a "quota" of 7- million morgen of land should gradually be added to the Reserves, but only 6,729,853 morgen of this land (the released areas) was demarcated in a schedule to the 1936 Act. According to the Report of the Controller and AuditorGeneral for 1958-59,(') of the 71 million morgen, 4,775,099 morgen had been acquired as at 31 March 1959, made up as follows: Morgen. Land owned by the Crown and since vested in the S.A. Native Trust ...... 1,786,250 Land purchased by the Trust ...... 2,604,047 Land purchased by Africans ...... 384,802 As at 31 March 1959, then, there were 2,474,901 morgen still to be acquired. Further land, apparently amounting to 20,613 morgen, was bought between April and December 1959: the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said in the Assembly on 22 January 1960(') that 2,454,288 morgen were then still outstanding, as follows: Morgen. Transvaal ...... 1,194,545 Cape ...... 950,007 Natal ...... 308,678 Orange Free State ...... 1,058 In terms of a speech made by the Minister in Maclear on 5 October 1959,(") the Government intends making up the Natal quota partly by handing over to the S.A. Native Trust certain Crown land and little-used game reserves in that province. Further land, besides the full 71 million morgen promised in 1936, should in justice be acquired for the re-settlement of Africans who are being removed from "Black spots" - farms (7) 3021} morgen = 1 square mile. (8) U.G. 53/59. Part III of Report. (9) Hansard 1 col. 212. (to) Star of that dato,

RELATIONS: 1959-60 111 owned by Africans in predominantly White farming areas. The Tomlinson Commission calculated(") that an additional 188,660 morgen should be purchased for this purpose. In the Supplementary Estimates for 1960-61") further amounts were provided for the purchase and reclamation of land for Africans, with the result that the totals for that year were considerably more than the amounts voted in 1959-60: 1959-60 1960-61 Purchase of land ...... £500,000 £1,250,000 Reclamation work, development of rural villages, etc ...... £750,350 £1,900,000 £1,250,350 £3,150,000 THE FUTURE OF THE TRANSKEI The Deputy Minister of the Interior said in the Assembly on 12 April 1960,("a) "It is the policy of the Department of Bantu Administration gradually to move the Coloured people and the White people from the Transkei. . . There is an inter- departmental committee which is investigating the whole question." PROPOSED PONGOLA POORT IRRIGATION SCHEME It was announced by the Minister of Water Affairs in the Assembly on 12 May 1960 ') that the Government had decided to make a start during the current year with the construction of a dam at Pongola Poort-that is, the narrow valley where the Pongola River cuts through the Lebombo Mountains in Northern Zululand, on the Transvaal border and just to the south of Swaziland. Such a dam would make it possible to irrigate nearly 70,000 morgen of land on the Makatini Flats of Northern Zululand, which would be used for fibre production. The cost of the dam and of irrigation canals on both sides of the Pongola River would be about £19-million. Supplementary canals would be built later to irrigate land to the north of the Mkuzi River. The history of this project has been told in previous issues of this Survey. To recapitulate briefly, Northern Zululand, made up of the magisterial districts of Ingwavuma and Ubombo, was never conquered by Whites: in 1897 treaties were concluded in terms of which the African people there entrusted their interests to the guardianship of Natal. (11) U.G. 6111955 pages 45-46. (12) U.G. 34/1960. (13) Hansard 13 col. 5365. (14) Hansard 17 cols. 7468-9, 7558.

112 A SURVEY OF RACE The 1951 census showed that there were 61,769 Africans in the two districts, and only 236 Whites, the latter being mostly Government officials, missionaries, traders and their families. Judging from Map No. 32 in the Tomlinson Report,('5 about 62 per cent of the Africans live in scattered Reserves, one of which lies along the eastern slopes of the Lebombo Mountains, another in a wide belt along the coast, and the other much smaller ones lying between or to the south of these. The remaining 38 per cent of the Africans-or about 24,000 persons-live as so- called squatters on Crown land outside these Reserves which, until recently, has never been occupied by anyone except Africans. In 1951 the Institute of Race Relations suggested to the Tomlinson Commission that the Government could prove that the then newly-announced apartheid policy had its positive aspects by irrigating the Makatini Flats and developing there an African resettlement scheme in the form of a profit-sharing sugar production project. During the same year, on hearing rumours that certain surveyed farms on Crown land in the irrigable area were to be disposed of to Whites, the Institute made representations to the Prime Minister and the Ministers of Lands and Water Affairs, urging that the Makatini Flats be earmarked for a development scheme for Africans. From time to time(")0 it has been said that certain Crown lands on parts of the Flats that are not suitable for irrigation may be added to the African Reserves. The then Minister of Lands and Water Affairs pointed out during 19561") that several of these Reserves were isolated, forming islands within the area that would be irrigable. "The Department", he continued, "is discussing the question of exchanging certain of these Reserves so that we can get the Natives on one side and the Whites on the other. But when the Pongola Poort dam is built the intention is to have a certain irrigable area for the Natives." In the recent statement quoted above, the Minister of Water Affairs said that, in terms of the scheme as now envisaged, between 10,000 and 11,000 morgen of Native Trust land in scattered Reserves would fall within the area to be irrigated, but that the remainder of this area, between 58,000 and 59,000 morgen in extent, would be a White area. The Pongola scheme would provide an assured future for 25,000 Whites and 75,000 Non-Whites, he added. (15) U.G. 61/1955. (16) e.g. Minister of Native Affairs, Assembly 13 June 1955. (17) Senate, 9 March and Assembly, 25 May 1956.

On 23 June 1960 the Director of the Institute of Race Relations wrote to the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development again urging that scheme should be undertaken for the benefit of Africans. The further suggestion was made that technical and planning help should be sought from Mr. David E. Lilienthal who, after making a success of the American Tennessee Valley, became head of a private company set up to provide managerial, technical and business services in the development of natural resources. SOIL CONSERVATION AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE RESERVES, In the Senate on 30 March 1960(18) the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development gave detailed information about the progress of rehabilitation and agricultural schemes in the Reserves during the preceding twelve months. He said that 22,150 miles of grass strips had been planted, 61 miles of contour banks constructed, 623 miles of training banks made, and 1,252 miles of fencing erected. Four hundred dams had been built, and 189 boreholes equipped. Four irrigation schemes had been laid out or extended, bringing 510 morgen of land under irrigation, and 300 morgen covered with drift sand had been reclaimed. Seventeen new co-operative dairy schemes had been started, the participants in all such schemes earning an income of £49,934. Five hundred stud animals had been sold to Africans, while at stock sales Africans had sold 43,000 cattle, realizing £820,000. Afforestation schemes were making good progress. During the preceding twelve months 5,730,000 trees had been planted, and 894,750 cubic feet of saw logs exploited, the income derived from afforestation being £77,955. Five hundred and twelve morgen of sisal, 760 morgen of New Zealand hemp, 170 morgen of Mauritius hemp and 438 morgen of sugar cane had been planted, and 200,000 tons of sugar produced. The Minister added on another occasion"'9) that in the year 1958-59 Africans in the Reserves produced 28,485 bales of wool, to a value of £821,604. Wool improvement schemes were being launched. A supplement to the official Digest of South African Affairs for 13 May 1960 gave a summary of the progress so far achieved. It stated that: 5-million acres("°) had by then been stabilized, and 42,000 acres irrigated; (18) Senate Hansard 7 cols. 1527-8. (19) Assembly, 13 May 1960, Hansard 17 col. 7502. (20) 1 morgen = 2.1/9th acres. RELATIONS: 1959-60 113

114 A SURVEY OF RACE 20,000 acres were under sugar cane, with 3,200 African growers; 5,000 acres were under fibres; there were 72,000 acres of plantations, and 6,000 acres of orchards; 12,000 acres were under vegetables; 162 co-operative dairy schemes, with 3,176 members, were in existence. In reply to a question in the Assembly on 15 March 1960(21") the Minister said it was estimated that during 1959-60, £5,000 would be spent on the development of rural villages, £700,000 on afforestation schemes, £140,000 on soil reclamation, £250,000 on irrigation schemes and £53,930 on secondary and tertiary development. On 10 May(2) the Minister mentioned the incentive presents he was giving to Bantu authorities. The Regional Authority in the Zoutpansberg area, he said, had taken pains to buy good bulls, and to encourage this stock improvement he had presented a pedigree Afrikaner bull to each of the chiefs. This Regional Authority had itself bought roadmaking machinery costing more than £4,000 and constructed roads on which it was possible to travel at 60 miles an hour. He (the Minister) had then given them further machinery. Similar presents had been made to Bantu authorities at Eshowe and Potgietersrus. A tilapia (kurper) and black bass fish farm has been established at Tsolo in the Transkei, yielding 1,500 lbs. of fish per acre of water. From this farm dams in the area are stocked, the fish harvested being sold as food. There are similar projects in other areas.(23) The retiring Chief Agricultural Officer of the Ciskei contributed an article on agricultural progress there to the March 1960 number of Bantu. He said that holders of irrigation allotments in the Keiskammahoek district had been growing sweetcom, cauliflowers and peas, which were marketed with a frozen foods factory in East London. A thriving poultry industry had been started in a location in the Middledrift district. According to an article entitled "Agricultural Education" in a supplement to the Fortnightly Digest of South African Affairs for 18 March 1960, the agricultural diploma courses conducted for Africans at Tsolo in the Transkei and Fort Cox in the Ciskei provide training in the following subjects: Animal husbandry, including cattle, horses, pigs and dairying -a two-year course; (21) Hansard 9 cols. 3376-7. (22) Assembly, Hansard 17 cols. 7109-10. (23) Report in Bantu, October 1959.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 115 Field husbandry, including dryland, cropping, irrigation farming and veld management-a two-year course; Farm management, including agricultural economics and elementary statistics-a one-year course; Soil conservation-a one-year course; Horticulture-vegetable gardening and fruit growing-a oneyear course; Sheep and wool-a one-year course; Poultry keeping-a one-year course; Farm handicrafts-a one-year course; Veterinary science-a half-year course; Forestry-a half-year course. Altogether, 532 qualified African agricultural instructors and demonstrators and 33 veterinary field assistants were employed in the Reserves, it was stated. During April 1960 the Research Officer of the Institute of Race Relations visited the new Arabie agricultural school in the Nebo district and irrigation schemes along the Oliphants River in the same area. One of these is the recently-developed Coetzeesdraai scheme, catering for about a hundred African farmers on 150 morgen of land. For a start the settlers were permitted to grow maize and pumpkins, using their own seed. It is planned that, later, as the farmers became more efficient, better seed will be supplied and they will be encouraged to plant wheat, vegetables and fodder crops as well as maize. These irrigation schemes are expensive to establish, costing between £100 and £200 per morgen. Partly for this reason and partly because of the conservatism of the people, progress must be slow. In her report(2") the Research Officer wrote, "One concludes such visits very much impressed by the work that the Department is doing, but even more impressed by the amount that remains to be done before the Reserves can hope to support even their existing population at an adequate standard of living". INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE BORDERS OF THE RESERVES Interim decision in regard to wages in the clothing industry in Northern Natal It was mentioned in the previous issue of this Survey"') that during 1959 an acute slackness developed in the clothing industry, especially on the Reef and in the Cape, areas where wages were (24) R.R. 76/60. (25) Pages 90-2.

116 A SURVEY OF RACE controlled in terms of industrial council agreements. The workers expressed the view that competition from factories in the uncontrolled areas of Northern Natal and elsewhere, where lower wages were paid, was largely to blame. Many of these factories employed Africans from nearby Reserves. The Minister of Labour disputed this conclusion, but eventually said that he would give the factories in the uncontrolled areas a period of twelve months in which so to regulate their activities that they would not compete with the older concerns. This period elapsed at the end of March 1960. The Minister said in the Senate on 30 March26) that these factories had not succeeded in arranging their production in such a way as to eliminate all unfair competition. "As has become increasingly clear", he continued, "wages will play an important part in the implementation of the Government's policy concerning the establishment of industries in the border areas." The Government accordingly considered it essential that there should be an early and searching enquiry into the whole question of this broad policy, including wage regulation, and had set up a committee under the chairmanship of Dr. J. H. Steyn for the purpose. Meanwhile, however, as an interim measure, subject to reconsideration, the question of unfair competition in the clothing industry, especially from Northern Natal, would have to be dealt with, the Minister said. He pointed out that "the clothing factories located there are to a large extent not situated in what is to be regarded as border areas". It had been decided that the Transvaal industrial agreement for the clothing industry should be extended for one year to Northern Natal.(26A) Wage scales paid on the Witwatersrand would not apply: lower scales had been decided upon by the Transvaal industrial council "bearing in mind the productivity and the affinity for training of the Non-European worker in those areas." The Minister gave illustrations of the rates of pay that would apply. Minimum commencing wages for machinists would be £1 14s. a week for women and £1 16s. 6d. a week for men. The general secretary of the Garment Workers' Union said in a Press statement(7 that this arrangement did not go far enough: there were still several factories in uncontrolled areas such as Parys, Villiers, George, Umtata and Port Shepstone in which wages were as low as 15s. a week, and which thus competed unfairly with establishments on the Rand. (26) Senate Hansard 7 cols. 1516-7. (26A) This was done in terms of Government Notice 759 of 27 May 1960. (27) Sunday Times, 5 June 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 117 Government's plan for border industries On 2 June 1960 the Prime Minister issued a lengthy statement on plans for the siting of industries on the borders of the Reserves.(") The decentralization of industry was urgent, he said: according to the 1956-57 industrial census 81 per cent of the gross production of private secondary industry took place in the four main industrial areas. Forty-six per cent of the total number of factory workers were employed in the Southern Transvaal complex. This over-concentration of population gave rise to social and even moral problems. Some of the main areas which could be developed industrially were in the vicinity of the Reserves. There were eight suitable regions-central Natal, the Natal coastal area, the Eastern Transvaal lowveld, the area to the north of Pretoria, the Northern Transvaal, the Ciskei, the Western Transvaal and Northern Cape, and an area falling within the Transkei, Southern Natal and Eastern Free State. The term "border area" meant a region which would be developed through White initiative and control, but was situated near a Bantu area so that the Bantu workers could maintain their homes and family life there. The ideal border areas were those where the Bantu could live in their own areas, and travel daily to work; but as the situation of basic services would also have to be taken into account provision would in some cases also have to be made for the housing of workers on a weekly basis. Regions within about thirty miles of the Bantu areas might be regarded as being border areas. The development of border industries could succeed only in a climate of general industrial development. The programme did not involve the large-scale transfer of existing factories to the border areas. What was envisaged was that a greater proportion of the new factories should be located there, particularly those employing large numbers of Africans. Industries which employed a high proportion of White labour would generally not find it profitable to establish themselves in border areas. A permanent committee was to be set up to implement the border industry plan and to assist industrialists who wished to set up concerns in these areas. It would have a chairman nominated by the Government (Dr. S. P. du Toit Viljoen was later appointed), the other members being senior officials from the departments of Commerce and Industry, Bantu Administration and Development, Labour and Finance, and representatives of the Railways, the Industrial Development Corporation and the National Resources Development Council. (A representative of the Economic Advisory Council was added after the establishment of this body.) (28) Published in Rand Daily Mail, 3 June.

118 A SURVEY OF RACE The financing of industries in border areas would be undertaken privately or by existing financial institutions, the Prime Minister continued. One of these was the Industrial Development Corporation, which would be provided with the necessary funds from time to time by the Treasury, for investment on special terms. The Government would assist in providing basic services such as power, water and transport, and would also consider constructing and leasing factory buildings and providing houses for White workers. The housing of the Bantu workers in Bantu areas would be the task of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development in consultation with the permanent committee. The principle of wage differentation in border areas would be maintained in so far as this was justified by the lower productivity of labour and the lower cost of living in these areas. Minimum wages would be determined by industrial councils with jurisdiction in the areas, or otherwise on the recommendation of the Wage Board. Possible concessions in regard to rail tariffs would be discussed by the permanent committee with the Railways Administration. The Government proposed granting higher depreciation allowances in respect of factory buildings and plant in border areas, on the recommendation of the permanent committee, and allowing industrialists to add the cost of transferring a factory, as calculated by the committee, to capital for purposes of depreciation allowances. After an entrepreneur had been operating on the new location for a year he would be compensated up to a maximum of 75 per cent of the difference between the cost of establishing his factory in a border area and its sales value on the open market. Vocational schools would be established in Bantu areas to raise the productivity of Bantu labour. First meeting of the Economic Advisory Council The Economic Advisory Council was established during July 1960, to advise the Government on the co-ordination of State policy from an economic point of view and to assist in co-ordinating Government policy and the economic development of the country in general. Details of its composition and functions are given in a later chapter of this Survey. The council met on 26 July to advise on the implementation of the Government's plan for border industries. As this plan had already been announced councillors were unable to discuss its merits. According to a statement issued by the Prime Minister's office,(2') Dr. Verwoerd told the members that the Government recognized the importance of advice, but in reaching its final decision had to consider wider political and social aspects which usually fell outside the responsibility of business organizations. (29) See Rand Daily Mail of 27 July RELATIONS: 1959-60 119 Even in such instances, however, economic advice was still needed to ensure that the Government made its decisions with full knowledge of the economic implications. "Dr. Verwoerd drew a clear distinction between this kind of advice and the practice of publicly advocating a political programme fundamentally opposed to that of the government of the day", the statement said. Statement issued after the meeting On 12 September the Prime Minister issued a statement reiterating the Government's intention to encourage the establishment of industries in border areas. None of the concessions to industrialists would be automatic, he said, as this might mean unfair competition with existing industries. Manufacturers wanting concessions to be made to them should apply to the Permanent Committee for the Location of Industries. Besides the kinds of possible assistance mentioned in the earlier statement, subsidies might be made available of up to 20 per cent of the cost of building factories in border areas, or 10-year guarantees of up to 40 per cent of the costs of construction might be provided, to make it easier for manufacturers to raise mortgages. The Government planned, after investigation by the Board of Trade and Industries. to extend to prospective industrialists advance assurances in regard to the level of tariff protection that would be granted to them. The funds required for the plan would have to be decided from year to year, the Prime Minister said. Memorandum by the S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries Towards the end of 1959 the S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries presented a memorandum to the Cabinet on industrial development in the Bantu areas and on their perimeters.3") Current estimates suggested, the Chamber stated, that the Union's total population might double itself before the end of the century. Maintenance of present living standards, let alone their improvement, would require a considerable expansion of secondary industry because there was no other sector of the economy that was likely to provide adequate additional employment opportunities. Substantial industrial development required that the Government should create a favourable economic climate and thereafter leave the initiative to private enterprise. The individual businessman should be free to decide, inter alia, where he would site his business, what he would buy, what he would make, where he would sell his products and whom he would employ. (30) Subsequently published in The Manufacturer, November 1959.

120 A SURVEY OF RACE The Chamber believed that, if economic forces and considerations were given free play, the development of industry in established areas would continue for some considerable time to come, and that this trend would be in the best interests of the country as a whole. There would, however, at the same time be a certain amount of decentralization for good economic reasons. The Chamber would support the expenditure of money on the provision of essential services in border areas provided the areas concerned offered the possibility of sound industrial development. It pointed out that serious problems could arise if wage rates in the perimeter areas were fixed at substantially lower levels than those paid elsewhere. It stated that it would be strongly opposed to the manipulation of the railway tariff to attract industries to otherwise uneconomic areas, or to the granting of tax concessions. It stated, "The Chamber would fail in its duty if it did not issue a grave warning against artificial and forced development of industries in particular areas involving discrimination against existing industries and the conduct of harmful and expensive experiments in industrial development." INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE RESERVES The Bantu Investment Corporation By the beginning of May 1960, the Bantu Investment Corporation31) had received 266 applications from Africans in the Reserves for loans and other assistance, and had granted eleven applications for loans totalling £42,625(32) According to various Press reports,(") this total had risen to £98,000 bythe end of August. Loans had been made for the establishment of wholesale firms, furniture factories and a number of bus services. They ranged from between £50 and £60 for the purchase of stock to between £10,000 and £15,000 for larger enterprises. Bantu Affairs Commissioners are asked for reports on the applicants, and interest rates are fixed according to the risks involved in each case. Applications have been received from Africans in urban areas who are anxious to start businesses in the Reserves, but have had to be refused because assistance to urban Africans is precluded in terms of the Bantu Investment Corporation Act (No. 34 of 1959). (31) See 1958-59 Survey, page 92. (32) Deputy Minister of Bantu Administration and Development, Assembly 6 May 1960, Hansard 16 col. 6830. (33) e.g. Rand Daily Mail, 20 June and 7 September.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 121 Businesses in Transkeian Towns The Government is considering granting authority to the S.A. Native Trust to buy businesses in Transkeian towns from Whites wishing to leave, with the object of reselling these to Africans, who would be permitted to trade in the "White" areas although they would have to live in their own zones"3) RURAL VILLAGES In reply to a question in the Assembly on 22 March 1960,"'1 the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development gave a list of the 22 Bantu rural villages that had been established since 1956. Only four of them had more than 1.000 resident families, these being the villages of Soto at Komgha in the Cape, Moetladimo at Letaba, Magabeni at Umbumbulu in Natal, and Xama near East London. Four had no residents as yet, while another seven had fewer than eighty resident families. Workers at the SAICCOR rayon factory lived at Magabeni, and a village called Sundumbili was being laid out to house employees of the S.A. Pulp and Paper Factory at Eshowe. Business undertakings had so far been established by Africans in only ten of the villages: three of these had five businesses each, three had two concerns each, and the remaining four each had one business. The African entrepreneurs included general dealers, butchers, restaurant keepers, a tailor and carpenter. Besides these recently-established villages there are a few older ones - Zwelitsha which serves the Good Hope Textile Factory near King William's Town, Umlazi, and Themba near Hammanskraal. The Minister said(") that additional funds had been voted in 1960-61 for developing villages. Construction gangs were erecting dwellings for families who did not prefer to build for themselves, starting at places such as Empangeni where employment opportunities already existed. The Zwelitsha, Umlazi and Themba villages were to be extended, and new villages established at Uitvalgrond near Pretoria and at . According to The World,37) plots are being sold at three new villages near Pietersburg - Nanedi, and Turfloop. (34) Star, 23 March and Rand Daily Mail, 24 March. (35) Hansard 10 cols. 3825-7. (36) Senate, 30 March 1960, Hansard 7 cols. 1530-1. and Assembly, 10 May, Hansard 17 col. 7107. (37) 28 May 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACE GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING NON-WHITE PEOPLE AFRICANS NO DEVIATION FROM GOVERNMENT POLICY AS A RESULT OF THE DISTURBANCES. In a statement read for him in the Assembly by the Minister of Finance on 20 May 1960, the Prime Minister said,(') "We must guard against . . . the attempts of opponents to try to use the events (i.e. the disturbances that had taken place during the previous month) and the atmosphere to encourage a change to a supposedly altogether new policy, or a revision of policy. This in the end appears to be nothing but an attempt to revitalize the policy of integration which has already failed here and elsewhere in Africa. The Government sees no reason to depart from the policy of separate development because of the disturbances". ADMINISTRATION OF AFRICANS IN URBAN AREAS The Prime Minister continued, "The Government therefore declares, firstly, that it will have to take steps to prevent incitement or agitation, whether direct or indirect, from continuing as in the past. "Secondly, it is announced on behalf of the Government that the Department of Bantu Administration will be equipped so that in every city with a large Bantu residential area it will be able to exercise proper supervision over the administration of the Bantu through the local authority concerned, to ensure that the Bantu are properly informed on the aims of Government policy; and to expand the already existing opportunities available to the urban Bantu for establishing direct contact with the Government or its representatives on matters of policy". Later, on 12 September, the Prime Minister said(A) that, in order to ensure that the aspirations and needs of the urban Bantu population would receive sufficient attention, a special and very senior official of the Department of Bantu Administration was to be appointed in every large urban area. He would, inter alia, keep in close contact with Bantu leaders and recognized Bantu authorities. (1) Hansard 18 cols. 8337-8. QA) Rand Daily Mail, 13 September.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 123 It was announced on 2 September that Mr. M. Smuts had been appointed Chief Urban Areas Commissioner for the Witwatersrand and that special urban areas commissioners under his control would be appointed for Johannesburg, the West Rand and the East Rand. According to a Press report,") Mr. Smuts said he envisaged that meetings of members of different tribal groups would be called at which the implications of legislation would be explained and complaints heard. The procedure of consultation had not been fully worked out, but it was likely that, apart from public meetings, representations would be made to him, through Bantu Affairs Commissioners, by informal committees of influential Bantu in the urban locations and through recognized tribal representatives. Mr. Smuts' duties would also include liaison with municipalities to ensure that Government policy was carried out in a uniform way, it was said. According to a later report in the Sunday Times of 13 November, Mr. Smuts denied that the Government was attempting to usurp the functions of municipalities in regard to African administration. "I shall merely make use of their agencies and modify, by advice, their administration in accordance with Government policy where necessary," he is reported to have said. "We give advice to municipalities by attending meetings where Bantu affairs are discussed. We have asked all Reef municipalities to supply us with agenda so that we can be kept fully informed. Quite a number have agreed to do so." (It was reported that Johannesburg was one of these.) "I and my assistants attend meetings of advisory boards, chiefs' representatives and others to learn on the Government's behalf about Native grievances and aspirations. We also attempt to explain Government policy and laws and how these will benefit the Bantu. Unfortunately we find that the Bantu often oppose Government policy through misunderstanding. This we wish to avoid." A "Bantu in European Areas Draft Bill" was circulated confidentially to municipalities for comment towards the end of 1960. PARTICIPATION OF URBAN AFRICANS IN LOCAL GOVERNMENT Proposed Bantu urban authorities At a meeting held in Bloemfontein in September 1960, the Minister of Finance announced(') that during the next Session of Parliament legislation would be introduced to replace urban African advisory boards by urban Bantu authorities, which would (2) Star, 2 September. (3) Star report, 13 September.

124 A SURVEY OF RACE exercise the actual authority in African residential areas. African home guards would be established to assist the Bantu authorities in maintaining order. This statement was confirmed by the Prime Minister in the speech quoted above; but in neither case were details of the proposals given. A Bantu Urban Authorities Bill was introduced in 1952, but, following wide criticism by the United Municipal Executive, the Union Advisory Boards Congress and others, was not proceeded with.(') The Congress expressed the view that the only effective way in which Africans could share in the responsibilities of local government was by their direct representation on municipal councils. Noteworthy features of this Bill were that representation on Bantu urban authorities was where possible to be on an ethnic basis, that they would have power to levy rates on Africans in their areas, that urban Bantu courts were to be established, and that the effect of the measure would be to increase very greatly the Government's powers of control of urban Africans at the expense of those of local authorities. The Institute of Race Relations is preparing a Fact Paper dealing with the working of the advisory boards system in practice and with the proposals made in 1952. Tribal representation in urban areas Two types of tribal representation in urban areas are being planned by the Government. Firstly, there will be the representatives of territorial authorities, nominated by these bodies in consultation with the Minister and with the Governor-General's approval. Their appointment was provided for in terms of the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959.(') These "ambassadors" may be granted powers to try certain types of civil cases, and, with the Minister's approval, will constitute boards to assist them in affairs of cultural and general ethnic interest. No such representatives have yet been appointed. Secondly, the Government is already nominating semiofficial representatives of chiefs to handle the affairs of tribesmen in the urban areas concerned. There is no legislative authority for these appointments. Residents' associations The Africans of Durban have formed unofficial residents' associations in the various townships to work on lines parallel to the advisory boards in trying to deal with the problems and difficulties of residents. (4) The Institute of Race Relations issued a summary of this Bill (R.R. 6152) and two commentaries (R.R. 36/52 and R.R. 78/52). (5) See 1958-59 Survey, page 33.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 125 Proposals for direct representation of Non-Whites on governing bodies At the Transvaal congress of the United Party, held during August 1960, the Mayor of Johannesburg, Mr. A. Gorshel, introduced a resolution calling for the "adequate representation" of Non-Whites by Whites in Parliament and on Provincial Councils and local government bodies, such representation not to exceed ten per cent of the total membership of these bodies. He suggested that African councils should also be set up in the townships and given a large say in the expenditure of money in their areas, subject to the control of the municipal council. This resolution was referred to the Union Executive of the United Party. Earlier, during May, the Natal Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations presented a memorandum to the Durban City Council, stating that the events of recent months had presented a very real challenge and unique opportunity to local authorities. The City Council was urged to devote its earnest attention to the importance and inevitability of direct Non-White representation on municipal councils, for it was unrealistic to envisage entirely separate systems of local government for NonWhites within the same urban area on a permanent basis. The Institute suggested that as a start the City Council should meet and consult with accredited and recognized leaders of the NonWhite communities to discuss the form such representation could take. This memorandum was submitted without comment by the Durban City Council to the Provincial Council. The Institute's Pietermaritzburg Branch is considering making similar representations to the Pietermaritzburg City Council. CONFERENCES ON URBAN AFRICANS The Natal Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations held a series of four symposia on "The African in the City: the Key to the New South Africa". These symposia dealt, in turn, with: The African in the City: His Family. His Education. His Work. His Share in Government.(" Two days of the Institute's annual Council meeting to be held in January 1961 will be devoted to consideration of the affairs of urban Africans. (6) Copies of the addresses given are obtainable from the Institute's Natal Regional Office.

A SURVEY OF RACE TAXATION OF AFRICANS Normal and provincial income taxes According to the latest Report of the Commissioner for Inland Revenue,7) during the year ended 30 June 1958 income tax assessments were issued to 859,917 Whites, 72,008 Coloured people, 18,404 Asians and 2,221 Africans. (The writer calculates that during that year 21.6 per cent of all the Whites were liable to pay normal and provincial income taxes, as against 5.4 per cent of the Coloured people, 4.2 per cent of the Asians and 0.02 per cent of the Africans. The sizes of families, in addition to the income-levels, are of course taken into account when tax assessments are made). No recent information is available on the amounts paid by Africans in income tax. African general tax The provisions of the Natives Taxation and Development Act, No. 38 of 1958, were summarized in an earlier edition of this Survey.8) Briefly, as from 1 January 1959 every male African of the age of eighteen and over was required to pay basic general tax at the rate of £1 15s. a year, instead of £1 as previously. As from 1 January 1960, men and women earning more than £180 a year were required to pay a further tax, calculated according to a graduated scale, any amounts paid in normal income tax being deductable from this graduated tax. In the case of Africans, the general tax is levied instead of personal taxes payable by other sections of the population. During the year under review the Institute of Race Relations issued a revised edition of its memorandum on African Taxation,(') in which it was pointed out that, in terms of this system, Africans were at a disadvantage in several ways. Africans in the lowest income groups have to pay more in general tax than is payable in personal taxes by persons of other races with equivalent incomes. A married African pays the same as a single one, whereas for other population groups the rates are reduced on marriage. Furthermore, Africans are taxed for eight more years of their lives than are other people. According to the Minister of Finance,(") it is estimated that during the year ending 31 March 1961 Africans will pay £3,810,000 in basic general tax and £190,000 in the new graded tax. (7) U.G. 10/1960. (8) 1957-58, page 77. (9) African Taxation: Its Relation to Social Services. Fact Paper No. 4 - 1960 (10) Assembly, 15 March 1960, Hansard 9 cols. 3378-9.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 127 Local Tax Africans in rural areas (other than on farms of Whites) pay local or hut tax of 10s. per hut per annum up to a maximum of £2, or, alternatively, quitrent or squatting fees. These taxes cannot be said to discriminate against Africans, since they are roughly comparable with rates, etc. payable by householders elsewhere. The total paid in local tax was £280,678 in 1958-59.(") If this figure is subtracted from combined totals given in the latest relevant report of the Controller and Auditor-Genera(") it would appear that about £58,450 was paid in quitrent. General and tribal levies This is a form of taxation that is applied to Africans only. According to the report of the Controller and Auditor-General quoted above, as at the end of March 1959, besides the Transkeian general levy, there were 191 compulsory and 918 voluntary tribal levies in force.03) During the preceding year these levies had yielded £105,707 in the Transkei and £246,500 elsewhere. Since then, new tribal levies have been imposed, and the Bantu authorities have commenced exercising their powers of taxation. The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said during January 1960'") that the revenue and expenditure of Bantu authorities was as follows for the years stated: Year Revenue Expenditure 1958 £438,000 £329,000 1959 £1,014,392 £817,046 (Not all of the revenue was derived from levies: it included, also, charges for services provided, fines and fees collected by the chiefs, stock rates and State grants). The Minister stated that the expenditure of Bantu authorities was on salaries, the erection of buildings, purchase of vehicles, stock improvement, health services, soil reclamation, conservation of water, the maintenance of roads and bridges, etc. Amended regulations for the treasuries of Bantu authorities were published on 29 July 1960 (G.N. 1096). Other taxes paid by Africans Other taxes paid by Africans but not by other members of the population were described in previous issues of this Survey.('") (11) Figure supplied by Dept. of Bantu Administration and Development. (12) For 1958-59, Part III, U.G. 53/59. (13) See 1957-58 Survey, page 82. for the distinction between these. (14) Assembly, Hansard 1 col. 262, and Senate, Hansard 7 col. 1528. (15) 1957-58, page 82. and 1958-59 page 120.

128 A SURVEY OF RACE STATE EXPENDITURE ON BEHALF OF AFRICANS It is calculated by the Controller and Auditor-General(1"' that during the year 1958-59, the State spent £28,374,467 on behalf of Africans, excluding advances and loans from Loan Funds and the National Housing Fund. It should be noted that expenditure under the head of "general administration" includes registration fees and contributions to the Services and Transport Levies that were paid by the various Departments of State as employers of African labour. General administration Dept. of Bantu Administration and Development S.A. Native Trust ...... Dept. of Bantu Education ...... All other Departments ...... Social Services. Dept. of Bantu Education ...... Dept. of Health, including hospitals ...... Dept. of Bantu Administration and Development Dept. of Education, Arts and Science ...... Dept. of Social Welfare ...... All other Departments ...... Capital expenditure S.A. Native Trust ...... Bantu Administration and Development General and Loan Votes ...... Dept. of Bantu Education ...... Dept. of Education, Arts and Science Dept. of Social Welfare ...... £ ... 3,252,807 ... 1,050,263 ... 1,348,896 ... 107,889 £5,759,855 ... 7,572,822 .. 7,161,950 .. 3,695,661 .. 239,294 .. 188,266 .. 237,742 £19,095,735 3,123,118 ...... 314,022 ...... 73,345 ...... 7,135 ...... 1,257 £3,518,877 AFRICAN SEPARATIST CHURCHES It was mentioned in last year's Survey('7) that the Government's general policy is that church sites in urban locations should be allocated only to church bodies that are recognized by the (16) Part II of report for 1958-59. U.G. 52/1959, page 202. (17) Page 33.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Government. In a circular letter sent to the churches by the Department of Bantu Administration and Development on 21 January 1960 it was stated that there were about 2,300 African separatist churches, of which 78 were recognized. As a result of the Government's decision there has been some tendency for unrecognized churches to combine with churches that are acknowledged. It was reported in October 1960, for example,1") that about 30,000 members of a sect called the Ethiopian Church in Zion had decided to join the New Church of God (a church based on the teachings of the Swedish philosopher Swedenborg). Former ministers of the sect were being trained in the Swedenborgian theology. A deputation from the Interdenominational African Ministers' Federation was granted an interview with senior officials of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development on 27 October 1960. The members pleaded for an indefinite extension of the time-limit within which unrecognized churches were required to have relinquished sites in urban townships (this limit was the end of 1960). They stated that their Federation was prepared to assist the unrecognized churches by providing training for their ministers and in other ways. At the time of writing the Government's decision had not been made known. COMPENSATION FOR WIDOWS OF AFRICANS KILLED THROUGH NEGLIGENCE During 1957 the Rev. A. Fonda of Johannesburg was killed in a motor accident, and his widow subsequently claimed £1,000 from the Santam Insurance Co., Ltd., the insurers of the vehicle that struck him. Santam objected, and when the matter came before the Rand Supreme Court in August 1959 argued that Mrs. Fonda's application was bad in law because she had been married by tribal custom. This exception was, however, dismissed by the judge, who held that a woman married according to tribal law was entitled to sue for damages in such a case. Santam appealed against this decision, and in March 1960 the appeal was upheld by the Appellate Division. The effect was that in cases where couples had been married by tribal law, should the husband be killed by negligence the widow was precluded from suing for damages if the death was as the result of a motor accident. If it was due to any other cause she could sue only if the negligent person was an African, and must do so in a Bantu Affairs Commissioner's court under Native law and custom. A considerable number of actions similar to that of Mrs. Fonda which had been delayed pending the outcome of her case (18) Star, 10 Octobcr. 129 then had to be dropped. It was reported(9) during the first nine months of 1960 one Johannesburg attorney had dealt with 38 motor accident cases in which African men had been killed. In only 14 of them had the couples been married under the common law. In the remaining 24 cases claims could be instituted on behalf of the children, but the widows were precluded from claiming against the insurance companies. The attorney had been forced to turn away about 20 other women who had been married according to tribal law. Mr. J. P. Cope, M.P., questioned the Minister of Justice about this whole matter in the Assembly on 22 March.("°) The Minister said that a ruling similar to that of the Appellate Division had been given by the Natal Provincial Division of the Supreme Court in 1956. He had then referred the matter to the Law Revision Committee, the recommendation of which was still awaited. In collaboration with the parliamentary draughtsmen, Mr. Cope then drew up a Bill to amend the Native Administration Act, stating, "Notwithstanding anything to the contrary in any law contained, a customary union between a Native and any woman shall be deemed to be a valid marriage for the purposes of an action for damages instituted by such woman, provided the cause of the action arose during the subsistence of such customary union". Mr. Cope showed this draft Bill to the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development, who offered to take it over and present it to Parliament during 1961 as a Government measure. RIGHTS OF INHERITANCE, The position in regard to the rights of inheritance of African widows was summarized in our last Survey.(") A valuable article on this subject by Dr. A. J. Kerr was published in the issue of The South African Outlook for 1 February 1960. NATURALIZATION OF "FOREIGN" AFRICANS In the Assembly on 13 May 1960(2) the Minister of the Interior stated that, in terms of the S.A. Citizenship Act of 1949, machinery existed for Africans born outside the Union to become South African citizens. There had previously been some doubt on this matter.!"2) (19) Rand Daily Mail, 5 September 1960. (20) Hansard 10 cols. 3824-5. (21) 1958-59 page 113. (22) Hansard 17 col. 7507. (23) See 1958-59 Survey, page 109. 130 A SURVEY OF RACE RELATIONS: 1959-60 131 The term "alien" is deemed to include Africans from the High Commission Territories, Nyasaland, etc. In terms of the Act an alien who wishes to become a South African citizen must give a year's notice to the Department of the Interior of his intention to apply. Before becoming naturalized he must have been a lawful resident of the Union for at least six years, and during this period must have resided continuously in South Africa. He must be able to read and write one of the official languages to the satisfaction of the Minister, and have "an adequate knowledge of the responsibilities and privileges of South African citizenship." COLOURED PEOPLE DEPARTMENT OF COLOURED AFFAIRS Head of the Department It was decided by the Government during September 1960 that the Commissioner for Coloured Affairs should in future be entitled the Secretary for Coloured Affairs. Branch offices of the Department The Deputy Minister of the Interior announced on 12 April(") that branch offices of the Department of Coloured Affairs were to be opened in Johannesburg, Kimberley, Durban and Port Elizabeth. A departmental information officer who toured the major centres during the early part of 1960 said that the Johannesburg office, to be established first, would work for better employment opportunities and housing for the Coloured people, and would promote recreational and cultural facilities.(2") Coloured Mission Stations and Reserves The Coloured Mission Stations and Reserves Amendment Act of 1959 was summarized in last year's Survey."') In terms of this Act, eleven of the sixteen Coloured mission stations and reserves were declared betterment areas on 27 November 1959, and it was stated, in Government Notice No. 1937 of that date, that ten per cent of the costs of betterment works must be refunded to the State by the boards of management concerned, ten per cent of the revenue from rates being payable annually in redemption of these amounts. (24) Assembly, Hansard 13 col. 5390. (25) Star report, 10 March 1960. (26) Page 155.

132 A SURVEY OF RACE Increased sums of money were provided in the State estimates for 1960-61 for the development of these areas.(") £59,900 was allocated for the purchase of land, £48,500 for the development of the reserves, and £100 for advances to settlers. UNION COUNCIL FOR COLOURED AFFAIRS The legislative authority for and the constitution of the Union Council for Coloured Affairs was described in the 1958-59 issue of this Survey,(28) where it was stated that the establishment of the council was gazetted on 22 May 1959, and that the Deputy Minister of the Interior had announced that the election of members would take place after the provincial elections in October of that year. Twelve members were to be elected, all from the Cape, three to represent each of the four electoral divisions there. This council was created at the time when Coloured voters were removed from the common roll. Furthermore, all the major Coloured organizations have in any case been opposed to the setting up of separate machinery to represent their interests, which, they contended, were indivisible from those of the Whites. Consequently these organizations (including, it was reported,2") the moderate Coloured People's National Union) decided to boycott the elections and to put forward no nominations. As the closing date approached twelve names were, however, sent in, one for each of the vacancies, the persons nominated being practically unknown in the community. There was considerable conjecture as to who was behind this move. As no further nominations were received the twelve persons concerned were declared duly elected.(") During the following month the names of the fifteen Government-appointed members were published,(1) eight of them (including a Cape Malay and a Griqua) coming from the Cape, four from the Transvaal, two from Natal and one from the Free State. Shortly thereafter a first meeting of the council was convened, and an executive committee of three appointed and two elected members formed. Official reports(")2 stated that the council regretted the efforts of a "handful of misguided intellectuals" in attempting to "stifle the Union Council of Coloured Affairs at birth". Among the subjects discussed were the need for more housing and the difficulties caused by the Group Areas Act. (27) Estimates of Expenditure to be Defrayed from the Revenue and Loan Accounts, U.G. 1/60 and 8/60. (28) Page 153. (2-9 Sunday Times, 6 December. (30) G.N. 1869 of 1959. (13 November). (31) G.N. 2055 of 1959. (18 December). (32) Fortn!ghtly Digest of S.A. Affairs. 8 January 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 133 THE SENSE OF FRUSTRATION AMONG MANY COLOURED PEOPLE, AND THE GOVERNMENT'S ATTITUDE Particularly in recent months it has been reported that large numbers of skilled, well-educated Coloured people who despair of their future in South Africa have been leaving the country. According to the Press,(") the Government has now decided to give more sympathetic attention to the needs and grievances of this section of the population. It is stated that the Deputy Minister of the Interior has held discussions with Mr. George Golding of the Coloured People's National Union. "Dawie," Die Burger's political commentator, wrote in the issue of this paper on 23 July 1960, "The drive to a forward movement in Nationalist policy for the is becoming more and more strong. The most dramatic idea of course is that the principle of the representation of Coloureds in Parliament must be recognized, or put in other words: that the Coloured voters must be permitted to elect white or brown members. This of course is only one part of the complex of plans which are being discussed by thinking people but it is the most spectacular and the most calculated to stir tongues to speech. My impression is that the Nationalist Party is already more than half-way in agreement with the principle, and can be completely won for it by strong leadership. The time is approaching for a decision". At the first congress of the S.A. Coloured People's Organization held after the ending of the state of emergency it was made clear that members were not prepared to endorse any "new deal" for the Coloured people at the expense of other Non-White groups.(') The proposal that Coloured people should be represented in Parliament by members of their own community, although apparently supported by many members of the National Party, especially in the Cape, was, however, rejected by Dr. Verwoerd in a Press statement made on 24 November. He is reported to have said that this would be a springboard for the integration of the races, leading to biological assimilation. The policy should be one of parallel development. The greatest needs of the Coloured people were economic and educational development, and experience in the local government of their own people and in the control of certain of their country-wide interests. MUNICIPAL REPRESENTATION IN THE CAPE For the first time in its history Kimberley is to be served by two Coloured city councillors, who were elected in preference to (33) e.g. Rand Daily Mail, 27 June 1960. (34) Star report. 10 October 1960.

134 A SURVEY OF RACE White candidates for the seats concerned, and will represent White as well as Coloured voters.""5) Coloured men and women have served on the Cape Town City Council for many years. The question of the Non-White municipal franchise was dealt with in some detail in the 1958-59 issue of this Survey,(6) as was the official suggestion that separate municipal rolls should be created for Coloured voters in the Cape for the election of separate local boards and governing bodies. At the time of writing there had been no further moves in this connection. TRANSVAAL CONFERENCE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE COLOURED COMMUNITY The Southern Transvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relations arranged a conference of the local Coloured community, which took place on 19 March 1960 and was attended by representatives of thirty-two Coloured organizations of various types. The following papers were presented: Coloured Housing in Johannesburg, by Mr. H. le Pere. RR 61/60. Coloured Education, Recreation and Culture in the Transvaal, by Mr. G. L. Carr. RR 57/60. Employment and the Economic Situation, by Mr. D. J. Schultz. RR 64/60. The Need for Unity, by the Rev. W. J. Bergins. RR 58/60. These resolutions were adopted: "1. This conference of the Coloured people, representative of organizations in the Transvaal, wishes to put on record its emphatic opposition to the recent policies pursued by the Government, and wishes to express its belief that no peace will come to South Africa until the rights of all Non-White people to full and free participation in the political, economic and social life of this country are realised; 2. this Conference calls on the Coloured people to continue to oppose all policies of racial discrimination; 3. this Conference urges that a Continuation Committee of the Conference takes steps, in co-operation with the S.A. Institute of Race Relations, to summon a National Conference of the Coloured people of the Union; 4. while totally rejecting the principles of discrimination which apply in South Africa, the Conference is constrained to seek (35) Ibid, 8 September. (36) Page 149. amelioration of the lot of the people. In seeking an improvement in present conditions, the Conference in no way acquiesces in the philosophy which lies behind the principles of segregation." The formulation of detailed proposals to this end was left in the hands of a Continuation Committee which was then elected. It subsequently transpired that there would be insufficient support for a National Conference of Coloured organizations. Particularly in the Cape Western Region it was felt that the views of the political organizations were so divergent that a conference would not succeed in bringing the people together. It was suggested that regional conferences should instead be held in the various centres. Lengthy consideration was given to the nature of the association which it was planned should be set up in the Transvaal. Eventually, at a second conference held on 17 September, the proposed objects were clarified, as follows: "To secure positive co-operation among all the Coloured people of the Transvaal in order to promote their economic, social and political advancement and, in particular, by all lawful means to strive for: 1. the right to elect and be elected to Parliament including the Senate, Provincial Councils, Municipal Councils and any other local authorities; 2. the removal of the industrial colour-bar and the right of all workers to organise freely in all trade unions; 3. the extension of free compulsory education for all, irrespective of colour, race or creed and for the right of any person to enter any University, University College, Training College, Trade School, Technical College or similar institution; 4. the removal of all restrictions based on colour or race in regard to the acquisition, ownership or ocupation of any land or premises; 5. the removal of any restriction based on race or colour in any place of public entertainment, cinema or theatre, cultural, literary or artistic exhibition, show or presentation and to promote the cultural advancement of the people in all spheres; 6. the removal of the colour-bar in all forms of sport and for the right of any individual irrespective of race or colour to participate in any local, provincial or national team in any branch of sport. The Association shall have the right to co-operate with any other organisation or body in any form considered advisable in furthering the aims and objects set out above, provided that the Association shall not identify itself with any political party." RELATIONS: 1959-60 135

ASURVEY OF RACE ASIANS GOVERNMENT OFFICIAL RESPONSIBLE FOR THE INTERESTS OF ASIANS The Deputy Minister of the Interior announced on 23 March 1960(") that as from the beginning of that year the Director of Immigration and Asiatic Affairs had taken over from the Department of Coloured Affairs responsibility for the interests of Asians. This official now ranked as an Under-Secretary. IMMIGRATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 8 OF 1960 In terms of the Immigrants Regulation Act of 1913, Asians may not move from the province in which they are domiciled unless they are granted permits by the Department of the Interior. They are prohibited immigrants in other provinces, and there is a total ban on their residence in the Free State. In the past, although the Minister of the Interior could permit an Asian to visit a province other than the one in which he lived, he had no power to authorize a permanent change of residence. The Immigration Amendment Act of 1960 granted the Minister this power, but stipulated that an Asian who is allowed to settle in another province will automatically lose his right of domicile in the province where he lived originally. Members of the Progressive and Liberal Parties pleaded unsuccessfully for this stipulation to be removed. The time had come, they said, when serious consideration should be given to the question of allowing Asians complete freedom of movement within the Union.(") REVIEW BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS OF A CENTURY OF INDIAN SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT The 1960 Council meeting of the Institute of Race Relations, held in Durban, coincided not only with the fiftieth anniversary of the Union, but also with the hundredth anniversary of the arrival of Indians in South Africa. As has been mentioned earlier, Dr. S. Cooppan presented a paper entitled "The Indian Community of South Africa: Past, Present and Future". (9) The findings of Council were as follows: "Council reviewed a century of Indian settlement and development in South Africa and noted, among others, the following facts and sentiments: 1. "The Indian community is largely derived from the indentured labour imported by the Government of Natal (37) Senate Hansard 6 col. 1229. (38) Assembly, 17 February 1960, Hansard 5 cols. 1689-93. (39) RR 7/60. 136

RELATIONS: 1959-60 137 during 1860-1911 in order to help develop the young and struggling agricultural and industrial enterprises started by Europeans; and has made a major contribution to the established economy of the country. 2. "The legislation regulating the Indian immigration scheme clearly envisaged the prospects of permanent settlement, thereby historically conditioning legitimate Indian expectations of full and free citizenship, to which their initial political status gave support until their subsequent disfranchisement. 3. "A century of Indian life in this country, the last fifty years under Union, reveals the hard upward struggle of a small culture-conscious and traditionally tolerant minority, against a rising tide of racial prejudice and a White resistance, often expressed in discriminatory legislation deliberately aimed at throttling Indian initiative and enterprise. 4. "The response of the Indians to the bright hopes and confidence raised by the Cape Town Agreement of 1927 was a tremendous effort to confirm their qualifications for a full, loyal and responsible South African citizenship in peace and war; and especially in the field of education, great sacrifices were made in order to achieve western standards of living. 5. "But the subsequent imposition, contrary to explicit assurances, of further restrictions by the Union Government on the members of the community already lacking in status and opportunities has caused general despair and a loss of faith by the Indians in the integrity of their White compatriots and Christian government of their country. 6. "The full implementation of the Group Areas Act will inflict upon the community considerable material and spiritual loss, depriving its members of the fruits of their labour and of a reasonable stability in their living. 7. "The restriction imposed on contact at the highest cultural levels by the enforcement of separate university education is a cause for the gravest apprehension. At the very stage of South African national development when intercultural understanding is essential, and a small but growing Indian intellectual leadership has become available and willing to strive for greater tolerance and understanding between races, this unwarranted isolation may well have disastrous results. 8. "While the Indian community enters upon its second century in South Africa with a sense of gloom and frustration, it has not failed to detect the small ray of hope cast by the recent spontaneous actions of its White compatriots in open defence of Indian rights and freedom. If this is a symptom

A SURVEY OF RACE of awakening White conscience, the hope is not entirely lost that the might yet attain their legitimate heritage to grow in peace to the full stature of their manhood like all their fellow citizens . . . no more and no less." THE LIQUOR LAWS AS THESE AFFECT THE NON-WHITE PEOPLE The Institute of Race Relations is shortly to publish a Fact Paper dealing with the liquor laws as they affect the Non-White people of the Union, the inefficacy of these laws, the recommendations of various commissions, including the recent Malan Commission, relevant laws and regulations in other African territories and the effects of the relaxation of the laws in these territories. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE UNION'S PRESENT LAWS Spirits, wines and European-type beer At the time of writing, Coloured people in Natal, and Coloured and Asians in the Cape (excluding the Transkei) were able to buy liquor of any type, subject to any conditions imposed by licensing boards. (A wide variety of conditions had in fact been imposed.) Asians in Natal could obtain liquor for onconsumption only, and the same applied to Coloured persons other than Griquas in the Transkei who were the owners or sole lessees of immovable property worth at least £75. Subject to the exceptions mentioned below, Coloured people and Asians in the Transvaal and Free State, and Africans throughout the Union, were precluded from obtaining liquor (other than beer in the case of Africans). Exceptions A magistrate might, however, issue to a Non-White applicant an annually renewable letter of exemption, entitling him to buy stated quantities of liquor within the district concerned for his personal use only. If the holder of such a letter wished to obtain supplies in another district, his permit had to be endorsed by the magistrate or a senior member of the police there. Magistrates were required to satisfy themselves that applicants were living in accordance with White standards and had adequate incomes. For this purpose, police reports were necessary.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 139 In the Cape, farmers were permitted to supply adult male Non-White farm workers with one free pint of unfortified wine daily, or one-and-a-half pints of kaffir beer (the "tot" system). Any employer in the Free State might give his male adult NonWhite employees a quarter of a pint of spirits or one pint of other liquor per day. Non-White ministers of religion could apply for annually renewable permits entitling them to buy stated quantities of wine for sacramental use; and people who were ill could obtain liquor on doctors' orders, the certificate to be endorsed by the police except in cases of dangerous illness. Kaffir beer Several alternative schemes for the supply to Africans of kaffir beer might be applied in urban areas-domestic brewing, or the exclusive municipal supply of beer, or municipal brewing together with domestic brewing, or (with or without domestic brewing) brewing by licensed Africans. The majority of the larger towns preserved a municipal monopoly; but in a few areas domestic brewing took place side-by-side with municipal sales, the beerhalls catering mainly for unattached men. Permits were required for off-sales from beerhalls. There were some towns, however, where the local authorities did not trade in beer. In such cases domestic brewing was allowed, either by permit or freely, provided that householders did not possess more than four gallons at any one time. Beer might be brewed for domestic consumption only: permits were required if householders wished to offer beer to guests at a function. African farm-workers required their employer's permission to possess kaffir beer. If it was to be offered at a gathering at which three or more visitors were present, the permission of a magistrate or the police had also to be obtained. There were fewer restrictions in the African Reserves. The law stated that, except in certain parts of Natal where individual Africans might be licensed to do so, no- one might sell beer. Those wishing to offer it to guests at a function must give notice of their intention to the headman. Outside the Transkei, only a person in charge of a kraal or homestead might brew or possess beer, and in such quantities only as might reasonably be consumed by himself and his family. Control of other substances The possession by Africans of yeast or methylated spirits was totally prohibited unless these substances were required by entrepreneurs in order to conduct their businesses. At a local authority's request, the Minister might impose restrictions in its area on the possession of sprouted grain.

140 A SURVEY OF RACE INEFFICACY OF THESE LAWS Comments by senior police officials and others on the inefficacy of the liquor laws have been quoted in previous issues of this Survey. During the year now under review the report was published of the (Malan) Commission of Inquiry into the General Distribution and Selling Prices of Alcoholic Liquor. This Commission stated, as many others had done previously, that, although they ran the risk of being arrested, Africans could obtain as much liquor as they wanted. Some witnesses had said it was not impossible that up to 60 per cent of the sales of strong drink in certain areas reached the consumer through illicit channels. But, because the trade was illegal, Africans had to pay high prices for their supplies, and these often reached them in adulterated forms. "The application of the Liquor Act is a question of impossibility in our present era", the Commission concluded. Endeavours by the police to enforce the law have led to very high numbers of arrests, and to great resentment on the part of Non-Whites. Detailed figures showing the rapid increase between 1921 and 1957 in the numbers of convictions for various types of liquor offences are given in the Institute's Fact Paper, where it is shown that in the latter year no less than 16.8 per cent of the total number of convictions of Africans for all offences were for purely statutory liquor offences such as the illegal possession of liquor, unauthorized beer gatherings, etc. The equivalent percentage in the case of Coloured people was 6.2. RECOMMENDATIONS BY THE MALAN COMMISSION Light wines and European-type malt liquors The Malan Commission recommended that all Non-Whites should be permitted to buy light wines and European-type malt liquors for on-consumption, the prices of these liquors to be low in comparison with those of fortified wines and spirits. NonWhite hotels should be licensed to sell wine and beer, which should be available also at beerhalls and beer gardens in municipal African townships. The Commission considered that, except in the cases of Coloured people in the Cape and Natal, Indians in the Cape, and Chinese people (other than those living or trading in Non-White residential areas), all off-sales should be by permit, such permits to be granted more liberally than in the past. Exempted Africans should be able to buy wine and beer by the bottle from beerhalls, or through normal channels if they live in "White" areas.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 141 Fortified wines and spirits For the purpose of the Liquor Act, the Commission said, Chinese people should be treated in the same way as Whites, unless they live or trade in a Non-White residential area, when off-sales should be by permit. Indians in the Transvaal and Free State should be entitled to buy spirits for on-consumption, as those in the other provinces may do; but sales for off-consumption should be by permit. The same arrangement should apply in the cases of Coloured people in the Transvaal and Free State, the Commission considered; while in the Cape and Natal members of this group should continue to be free to buy spirits for on or off consumption without permits. Restrictions imposed by licensing boards should be abolished. Africans holding letters of exemption should continue to be entitled to buy limited quantities of spirits. Letters of exemption The procedure for obtaining letters of exemption should be considerably simplified, the Commission said, and these letters should be valid for three years instead of one. They should be more generously provided. It was recommended that any African who has committed no liquor offence or serious crime during the preceding year, has a reference book and a permanent residential address, and has had fixed employment for at least the preceding six months, should be entitled to a permit, allowing him or her to purchase at least eight bottles of malt, or four bottles of natural wine, or two bottles of fortified wine, or one bottle of spirits a month. "More civilized or educated" Africans should be permitted to buy larger supplies. People living in African townships should purchase liquor at a separate, strengthened section of the beerhall, while others should deal through normal channels. The "tot" system All reference to the "tot" system should be removed from the Liquor Act, the Commission considered, and no-one should be allowed to give free issues of strong drink to labourers on farms. Kaffir beer in urban areas It was recommended that there should be a liberal provision of distribution points for kaffir beer, other malt liquors and wine, say at least one for every 500 families. Conditions at beerhalls should be greatly improved and adequate seating provided: the

142 A SURVEY OF RACE Commission was very much opposed to standing bars for members of any racial group. Adequate provision should be made for the acquisition of kaffir beer for home consumption. STATEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTER, MAY, 1960 In a statement read for him in the House of Assembly on 20 May, the Prime Minister said that, in spite of certain doubts it still felt, and certain difficulties expected, the Government intended bringing about certain changes to remove the necessity for liquor raids. At the same time it would guard against crime, including the illegal liquor trade and the manufacture of dangerous concoctions. ANNOUNCEMENT BY THE COMMISSIONER OF POLICE, AUGUST, 1960 On 13 August 1960 the Commissioner of the S.A. Police announced, "The police have stopped making any organized liquor raids. The only occasion when a raid involving liquor occurs now is when the existence of illicit liquor dens is discovered or reported to be causing crimes of violence - and then the primary object is to stop the violence rather than stop the drinking. "Furthermore the police are, as a matter of policy, being generous in recommending Natives for permits legalizing their purchases of European liquor." GROUP AREAS RECENTLY-ANNOUNCED DECISION ON POLICY ALTERNATIVE ACCOMMODATION MUST BE AVAILABLE BEFORE ANYONE IS REQUIRED TO MOVE In reply to a series of questions in the Assembly on 29 March 1960, the Minister of the Interior said,(') "I have repeatedly given the assurance thatno one who is not in a position to provide a dwelling for himself will be required to move should alternative accommodation not be available. It is naturally expected of wellto-do people to provide housing for themselves in their own areas". Later2) he added, "Where people cannot afford to build their own houses, the Group Areas Development Board or the local authority will provide the necessary housing". (1) Hansard 11 col. 4300. (2) Assembly. 12 April 1960, Hansard 13 col. 5368.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 143 Asked how many people of each racial group would be required to move their homes in terms of proclamations for group areas issued to date, the Minister replied,O) "The furnishing of details ... will entail so much work and time that this cannot be undertaken". He was also asked how many schools for Non-White children would have to be re-sited, what the estimated cost of rebuilding would be, and whether this whole question had been discussed with the provincial administrations, but again said that he could not furnish the information because too much work would be involved in preparing a reply. THE FUTURE OF ASIAN TRADERS Questions were asked, too, about the Government's plans for the future of Asian traders operating in areas now proclaimed for other groups. The Deputy Minister of the Interior replied,O3) "The Indians have arrogated to themselves the right to be the only business men, and there are far too many of them in business. Why cannot some of them also do some work? Why should White people have to use their hands and not they? They think that they alone are entitled to do business. No, we will act fairly, but I am tired of these Indians Who just want postponements all the time and who never make any constructive suggestions as to what quid pro quo should be given. They just want to retain what they have". The Deputy Minister has, however, said,4) "Indian, Coloured and Chinese traders in areas for the White group have, in cases where circumstances have merited such a step and where the evacuation periods have expired, been allowed by permit to remain in occupation of their trading sites. In some cases the evacuation periods have been extended. Since numerous factors must be taken into consideration, each case is treated on its own merits. Once an area has been proclaimed a group area for a particular group, further infiltration of members of other groups cannot be allowed." On another occasion he addedO5) "It is proposed as a first step to resettle the affected persons in their own areas for residential purposes. Those who are dependent for their livelihood on trade or other business enterprise may on expiry of the evacuation period, in so far as it may be necessary, be allowed by means of permits to continue their present businesses until such time as they are able to make a living in their own areas." (3) Assembly. 11 April, Hansard 13 col. 5285. (4) Assembly, 19 February, Hansard 5 cols. 1826-7. (5) Assembly, 12 April, Hansard 13 col. 5351.

144 A SURVEY OF RACE In reply to a further question, the Minister said on 25 March,O6) "The creation of new avenues of employment for Asiatics in the Public Service is not being considered by the Government at present." Asked whether the Government was prepared to reconsider its attitude in regard to the payment of compensation to traders for the loss of goodwill as a result of the implementation of the Group Areas Act, the Minister answered "No".7) REGULATIONS UNDER THE GROUP AREAS DEVELOPMENT ACT Regulations under the Group Areas Development Act were published as Government Notice No. 1693 of 23 October 1959. RECENT COURT CASES S. M. LOCKHAT AND EIGHTEEN OTHERS VS. THE MINISTER' OF THE INTERIOR Nineteen members of the Indian community of Durban, who are owners and/or occupiers of property in areas proclaimed for Whites, were, in terms of the relevant proclamation, required to move before 5 June 1959. They did not do so, and instead instituted an action against the Minister of the Interior for an order setting the proclamation aside and declaring it to be null and void. In their declaration they maintained, inter alia, that: 1. the Group Areas Board had failed to give proper consideration to the availability of suitable accommodation for members of the Non-White groups outside the areas set aside for Whites; 2. before completing the enquiry the Board had already made a decision as to the group areas it was going to recommend, hence failed to give proper consideration to the representations made at the enquiry; 3. the chairman of the Board was prejudiced against Indians and this prejudice improperly influenced his mind; 4. the Act did not authorise discrimination between different races so as to result in partial and unequal treatment to a substantial degree, which would be the effect of the proclamation. The Minister of the Interior made a number of exceptions to the declaration, submitting that it was so vague and embarrassing as to be bad in law, and was insufficient to sustain the action. These exceptions were considered in the Supreme Court, Durban, (6) Assembly Hansard 10 col. 4106. (7) Hansard 11 col. 4300.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 145 on 4 July 1960. The judge dismissed all but two of them, these two having in any case been conceded by the plaintiffs when an amendment to the declaration was made. Commenting on certain of the exceptions, the judge said that in his opinion the terms of the Act indicated that it is necessary for the Board, the Minister and the Governor-Generalin-Council to consider whether or not suitable alternative accommodation, reasonably adequate for the needs of the affected persons, is available for them at the date when a proclamation takes effect, and whether or not the proclamation will have an equitable result. The exercise of power to proclaim group areas, the judge stated, can and should (in the absence of specific authority in the statute to the contrary) be exercised without the result that members of different races are treated on a footing of partiality and inequality to a substantial degree. The question as to whether the Durban proclamation produced such a result could not be decided on the exceptions: the plaintiffs would have to prove not only that there was inequality but that this was substantial. They would also have to prove their allegation of prejudice against the chairman of the Board. If they succeeded, they would be entitled to the relief they claimed, that is, the setting aside of the proclamation. The allegations did constitute a sufficient basis in law for the Court to interfere, the judge ruled. An appeal has been noted by the Government. Evidence in support of the plaintiffs' allegations has, in the meanwhile, not been led. CASSEM EN 'N ANDER VS. OOS-KAAPSE KOMITTEE VAN DIE GROEPSGEBIEDERAAD EN ANDERE The case Ramjee vs. the Eastern Cape Committee of the Group Areas Board and another08) was described in an earlier issue of this Survey.") A full bench of the Eastern Cape Division of the Supreme Court ruled that the Group Areas Board must apply the maxim audi alteram partem, since it acted in a quasi judicial capacity. If it had information which was relevant and prejudicial to the case of an objector it should in fairness communicate this information to the objector so as to give him an opportunity of controverting it. A report explanatory of a plan must be communicated to the objector or lie for inspection. (8) 1958 (2) S.A. 67 (E). (9) 1957-58. page 89.

146 A SURVEY OF RACE This judgment was overruled in Cassem's case.(") PrenticeHall Services (Pty) Ltd. summarise the findings of the Appellate Division as follows: 1. "Proceedings before the Board are not quasi judicial in character. 2. "While Sections 5 and 6 of the Act confer certain powers and impose certain duties on the Board which are of a quasi judicial nature, the intention was to keep the rights which interested parties derived therefrom within limits. 3. "An objector does not have the right to know what the reasons for a proposal are so that he can rebut them, nor has he a right to peruse a report which a Committee has placed before the Board. 4. "An objector has no right to require the Board to subpoena a person to clarify the proposal before the Board." ADMINISTRATORS OF ESTATE MARKS VS. GROUP AREAS DEVELOPMENT BOARD") It was ruled in the Supreme Court, Pretoria, on 18 December 1959 that the definition of an affected property must be construed as not including property occupied partially by members of one racial group and partially by members of another. FIXED PROPERTIES (S.A.) LTD. VS. SAVAGE AND ANOTHER2) Again to quote the summary by Prentice-Hall Services, it was decided that valuators appointed under Section 19 of the Group Areas Development Act "are not obliged prior to the hearing of representations to reveal to the owners of affected properties the grounds upon which any valuation thereof has been made. The valuators are bound, however, to observe the maxim audi alteram partem and to reveal to the owners at any hearing such information which they have concerning the properties which may be prejudicial to the owners' interests." OTHER CASES At least 26 other cases relating to the interpretation of the legislation dealing with group areas have been before the courts during the year under review. FINANCES OF THE GROUP AREAS DEVELOPMENT BOARD According to the 1958-59 report of the Controller and Auditor-General,(3) up to 31 March 1959 the Group Areas Development Board had received £2,649,571 in loans from the State. Since then it has been given two further loans, each of £1,500,000. (10) 1959 (3) S.A. 651. (11) S.A. 514 MT. (12) P.H. 1960 (1) K.43. (13) Part III, U.G. 53159.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 147 During the year 1958-59 it received £9,748 in appreciation contributions and paid out £22,594 in depreciation contributions, as follows: Area Appreciation Sophiatown ...... Newlands ...... Albertville ...... Klipriviersoog ... Athlone ...... Elsies River Rylands ...... Schotsche Kloof ... Duinefontein ... Parow 4 ...... Bellville 1 ...... These figures indicate that areas in Johannesburg and in were less than the basic values f 5,088 741 228 1,834 738 562 50 507 £9,748 Depreciation £ 1,597 311 3,480 492 15,842 872 £22,594 numbers of people in the four Athlone received amounts which ixed for their properties. PUBLICATIONS ON GROUP AREAS Two recently-published books are Handbook on the Group Areas Act by Mr. F. P. Rousseau, Q.C., the law adviser to the Group Areas Board, and Group Areas and their Development, by Mr. Lewis Dison and Mr. Ismail Mohamed. The Institute of Race Relations published a memorandum entitled "Some Hardships Caused by the Group Areas Act" (RR 70/60). DEVELOPMENTS IN CERTAIN TOWNS WHERE GROUP AREAS WERE PROCLAIMED PRIOR TO 1960 JOHANNESBURG Coloured People In the group areas proclamation of August 1956 Bosmot and New Monteleo, to the west of the Coloured areas of Newclare and Coronationville, were set aside for occupation by Coloured people. On 13 November 1959 they were proclaimed as areas for Coloured ownership too.'") These areas, which are outside the Johannesburg municipal boundary, have been acquired by the (14) Proclamation 249159.

148 A SURVEY OF RACE Group Areas Development Board. According to a Press statement by the chairmanW) the Board will soon begin laying out a township, and will require the City Council's assistance with the provision of services. It is willing to enter into an informal agreement in terms of which the development will be controlled by a joint committee of the Board and the City Council. Housing schemes will be provided for people in the lower income groups, while others will be encouraged to build their own dwellings, if necessary with the assistance of loans from the National Housing Commission. A similar part letting and part freehold scheme for Coloured people is to be developed by the municipality at Langlaagte, to the east of Coronationville. This new suburb will be called Riverlea. It is possible that a further Coloured township will be established at Ennerdale, about 20 miles south of Johannesburg, where about 1,200 Coloured people already live on freehold plots. Indians The association representing the Indian waiters of Johannesburg, who are about 600 in number, urged the City Council to provide a housing scheme for them at Langlaagte, since their hours of work made it impossible for them to live in the proclaimed Indian area of Lenasia, between 19 and 22 miles from the centre of the city. The Group Areas Board refused to allow this, however. There is no area allocated for Indian residence within the Johannesburg municipal boundary, hence no municipal housing schemes are planned for this section of the community. The Group Areas Development Board continues to be involved in litigation in regard to Lenasia. As was mentioned in last year's Survey,(6) the township of Lenasia and adjoining land at Lenasia Extension No. 1 were expropriated by the Board from the Lenz Township Company during 1956. As no agreement could be reached as to the amount payable by way of compensation, the matter was referred to arbitration, and during March 1958 compensation was determined in the amount of £205,554. The company then applied successfully to the Supreme Court for the proceedings to be set aside on the ground that the appointment of the arbitrators had been irregular. A new hearing before a different panel of arbitrators commenced during November 1959. The company submitted valuation figures by two sworn appraisers of £619,546 and £614,840 respectively, while the three figures put forward by the Board were £147,733, £150,000 and £208,259. In February 1960 the arbitrators (1-) Star, 27 June 1960. (16) Page 166.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 149 decided on an amount of £326,350, and ordered the Board to pay its own costs, the fees of the arbitrators, and a portion of the company's costs. This amount of £326,350 was considered to be the value of the property on the day of expropriation, 6 September 1956. There has been a further legal action in regard to the basic value of the property as determined by the Board-that is, its value on 2 August 1956, the day before it was proclaimed a group area. If this differs from the amount mentioned above, either appreciation or depreciation contributions will become payable. During August 1960 the Supreme Court set aside this determination, ordering the valuators to pay the costs of the action. A third case was heard in January, when the owners of mineral rights on part of Lenasia Extension No. 2 applied successfully for an interdict restraining the Board for three years from developing a township there, to enable prospecting operations to be undertaken. There are about 80 privately built houses at Lenasia. The Board is planning very shortly to commence a building programme, starting with a hundred houses at Lenasia Extension No. 1 for Indians of the -middle classes, and 400 dwellings in an area to the south of this for those in the lower income groups. Stands are also available for sale. Fifty Indian families, who some five years ago were rendered homeless by advancing industry, have since then been accommodated in old army huts at Lenasia which have each been divided into two sections, rented at £2 a month. During January 1960 about a hundred Indian families in Sophiatown were served with notices to leave the area and to move to Lenasia, into 128 huts in another section of the old army camp to be rented to them at £5 a month. They were required to pay their own transport costs. On the day that the notices expired their Sophiatown homes were demolished. Dissatisfaction was expressed at the conditions in the camp: the huts had no internal partitions and no ceilings, there was block sewerage and communal shower rooms with cold water only. The huts were provided with electricity but water had to be carried from taps outside. Transport charges to town were high, averaging 12/6 per week. These people will when possible be moved to the new housing scheme. The Witwatersrand Central School Board decided during October to move the pupils of the Johannesburg Indian High School from the centre of town to Lenasia, but this decision was later reversed after the parents and pupils had protested. Large numbers of other Indian school-children, however, do have to travel to and from Lenasia.

150 A SURVEY OF RACE The final movement of Africans from Sophiatown It was mentioned in last year's Survey'7) that by the end of 1959 the Natives Resettlement Board had moved to either Meadowlands or Diepkloof all those Africans from Sophiatown whose names were included in a list of legal residents compiled in 1955. More than a thousand Africans remained, however, most of them having been rendered homeless when the dwellings in which they had lived were demolished. The Johannesburg municipality opened a special office to consider applications for housing from those who were not entitled to accommodation from the Resettlement Board but who qualified to be in the Johannesburg area. By mid- November 473 Africans had been found to qualify for municipal accommodation, 56 had been ordered to leave because they were illegally in the city, 707 had been asked to produce proof that they were entitled to housing, and the cases of 205 people, mainly women, who did not appear to qualify, were being investigated. The special office was reopened for this purpose. It was announced in February 1960 that as from the 22nd of that month the municipality would no longer regard Sophiatown residents as priority cases for tenancies in its townships. Those who would like their cases reinvestigated could apply to the office, which would be opened for a third time, but the rest must return to the places from which they came. There were a number of police raids in the ruins of Sophiatown-the Minister of Justice said in the Assembly on 22 March,(8) in reply to a question, that between 1 January and the date on which he was speaking 6,020 prosecutions had resulted from the raids, which were necessary to combat crime. Many of these people, being unable to pay fines, were sent to prison, but on their release again faced the problem of where to go. Those who were left were mainly old men, women and children. Dr. Ellen Hellmann, chairman of the Southern Transvaal Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations, wrote to the Star about them, her letter being featured on 1 March. The human misery could not be left to assuage itself, she said. It was pure fiction to say that all those who had no right to be in Johannesburg had "some place" in the country to which to go. Dr. Hellmann pleaded for some constructive means of dealing with these people, if necessary temporary accommodation in a transit camp. The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development was questioned about the matter in the Assembly on 25 March.!") (17) Page 168. (18) Hansard 10 cols. 3826-8. (19) Hansard 10 cols. 4110-1. RELATIONS: 1959-60 151 When an inspection had been made a week previously, he replied, 47 persons (including 21 children) had been found living in shacks, and two men were sheltering in the ruins of demolished buildings. The Minister announced that the municipality had decided to move these people to temporary accommodation where the sorting out process would continue, individuals being resettled in accordance with the circumstances of their cases. The Johannesburg Manager of Non-European Affairs states that altogether 1,172 African families were moved to the municipal South-Western African townships from Sophiatown, Martindale and Newclare. In terms of a series of proclamations gazetted on 2 September 1960( 2) parts of Sophiatown and Martindale were proclaimed areas for White ownership and occupation, persons of other racial groups to move out within one year or two years respectively. The remainder of Martindale was proclaimed a border strip. As is mentioned above, about a hundred Indian families have been sent to live temporarily in hutments at Lenasia, but there are still Indian, Coloured and Chinese people for whom alternative accommodation will have to be found. PRETORIA As has been mentioned in previous years,21) in terms of a proclamation of 6 June 1958 it is probable that all the Indians of Pretoria will have to move their homes to Claudius, an undeveloped area about eight miles south-west of the city, although some of them may be permitted to continue to trade in a portion of the central Asiatic Bazaar. Part of the Coloured location, adjoining the Bazaar, has not yet been zoned; but about half of the Coloured population was affected by the proclamation, and these people will have to move to Derdepoort, nine to ten miles east of the city, adjoining the African township of Vlakfontein. The policy is that all Africans should move to municipal locations or to an area named Uitvalgrond, about 20 miles north of Pretoria. The proclamation deprived the Africans of Lady Selborne and Claremont where they had freehold rights. The Pretoria City Council has accepted responsibility for the development of Claudius and Derdepoort. According to a statement made by the Minister of the Interior during March,W22) both areas had been planned, and the Council hoped before the end of 1960 to commence building houses for those persons who are unable to build for themselves. About 1,800 African squatters at Mooiplaats, in the future Indian area, were rendered homeless (20) Nos. 304 to 307. (21) See Survey 1957-58, page 105. (22) Assembly, 25 March 1960. Hansard 10 col. 4114.

152 A SURVEY OF RACE during February when their shacks were demolished: according to a Press report(23) few of them qualified for municipal housing. An area between Claudius and the White parts of the city was during May proclaimed a border strip, the four White families who live there being given a year in which to move. Coloured people have again voiced their objections to moving next to the Africans at Vlakfontein; and the Chinese community notified the Group Areas Board of its strong opposition to a municipal proposal that a Chinese group area should be proclaimed to the north of Claudius. African property-owners at Lady Selborne and Claremont are to be given the opportunity of purchasing plots at Uitvalgrond, which is undeveloped land about twenty miles to the north-west of Pretoria. It will be an area primarily for the Sotho group, and, according to a statement by an official of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development,(23A) the schools will provide tuition through the medium of Sotho languages only: there will be no separate schools for other groups. The plots, measuring about 90 by 120 feet, will be sold for £40 each. The Department will build houses for those Africans who do not prefer to build for themselves to an approved plan. The departmental houses will be sold for about £160, this amount being payable over a maximum of 30 years. Uitvalgrond is more than twice as far out of town as are Lady Selborne and Claremont. Furthermore, as has been explained in previous issues of this Survey,23") it is possible that Africans who are forced to sell properties in the latter areas may receive inadequate compensation. Lady Selborne was on 6 June 1958 proclaimed an area for future White occupation. During November 1960 the Group Areas Board held a further public sitting to hear representations about the future of this township. CAPE TOWN There have been few further developments in Cape Town, where the central city area and the Southern Suburbs have not yet been zoned. In the speech quoted above the Minister of the Interior said that the Development Board already possessed two proclaimed townships at Duinefontein on the Cape Flats, and was planning a third. This is the area allocated to the Coloured people who will have to move from parts of the city that have been zoned for Whites. The Board intended to build about 500 houses there, the Minister said, and would shortly call for tenders for the first 150. (23) Star, 9 February. (23A) Pretoria News, 21 May 1960. (23B) e.g. 1958-59. page 159; 1957-58 pages 94 and 95.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 153 The Board was acquiring the necessary land for the purposes of building 107 houses in the future Indian areas of Rylands and Cravenby, which would be sufficient for present requirements, the Minister continued. During the year under review a border strip has been proclaimed in Parow, disqualified persons to move out within two years.(") DURBAN It was stated in last year's Survey(2P) that the large Cato Manor area, inland from the city of Durban, had been zoned for Whites, but that, after several vacillations, the City Council had decided to recommend that a portion of the area, which is almost entirely Indian-occupied, should be allocated to Indians. This recommendation was rejected by the Government. During October 1959 the Natal Committee of the Group Areas Board advertised proposals for the zoning of an area in central Durban. The Natal Regional Committee of the Institute of Race Relations submitted a memorandum to the Board(26) in which it was pointed out that, in terms of these proposals, not a single White person would have to move, but 7,290 Indians, 755 Coloured people, 19 Chinese and an unknown number of Africans would have to do so. The values of the affected properties were: White-4,841; Indian--2,926,720; Coloured- 12,660; Chinese-£82,750; African -f6,770. These figures were based on the 1958 municipal valuation roll, and the actual market values would be very much higher, particularly in the cases of Indian-owned properties where the values had become inflated because there had been so few areas where Indians could own property. Most of the Indian-owned areas which it was proposed should be allocated to Whites were "scheduled" under the 1946 Asiatic Land Tenure Act, the Institute said: that is, they were areas in which Asians could buy without permits and with legislative safeguards. The proposals would, thus, be a breach of trust. Several of the areas proposed for Whites included wellestablished Indian businesses, for the goodwill of which no compensation would be payable. Four Indian schools, two religious schools and a mosque would be affected. It was improbable that White buyers would be found for the Non-White residential properties except at very considerably reduced values, and only partial compensation would be made for such losses. (24) Proclamation 310/1960. (25) Page 172. (26) NR 106/59.

154 A SURVEY OF RACE According to estimates quoted by the Minister of the Interior,(7) in terms of existing proclamations 1,000 Whites, 75,000 Indians and 8,500 Coloured persons would eventually have to move from the areas where they at present resided (83 Non-Whites for every White). The municipality assessed the immediate Indian housing requirements at 23,000 dwellings, plus a further 21,000 to cover normal population increase over fifteen years. The new population displacements envisaged by the Board's proposals would add to what was already an almost insuperable housing problem. The Institute earnestly hoped that these proposals would not be accepted. In terms of the group areas proclamation of 6 June 1958, low-lying land at Wentworth was zoned for Coloured people, and three areas were allocated to Indians; the Wentworth-Merebank area in the south, the Umhlatuzana area inland from this, and a long belt along the south of the Umgeni River in the north, including part of the Springfield housing scheme and Reservoir Hills. The Minister of the Interior said in the Assembly on 25 March 1960(28) that the Durban City Council had accepted responsibility for the erection of 4,000 houses for Indians in the WentworthMerebank area, 200 of them having been completed. It had applied for borrowing powers for the purchase of 5,700 acres of land in the Umhlatuzana area, where 14,000 dwellings would be built. The City Council had also accepted responsibility for the provision of housing for Coloured people in the Wentworth area. Arrangements had been made for the gradual evacuation of the State villages of Austerville and Wentworth, where Coloured people would be resettled. The action instituted against the Minister of the Interior by nineteen Indians, applying for an order to set aside the Durban group areas proclamation, is described above. KIMBERLEY The Kimberley group areas proclamation, and its effects on the Coloured and Indian people, were described in last year's Survey.29) About half the Coloured people, who lived in areas zoned for Whites, were required to move to an area in the north of the city where certain Coloured housing schemes had already been established. During November 1959 the Group Areas Board advertised a border strip in North End to separate the Coloured from the White. Opposition was encountered from a White man who owned land there. Later, in March, the Board announced that there were (27) Hansard 5 of 1958, col. 1472. (28) Hansard 10 cols. 4114-5. (29) Page 174.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 155 unsurmountable difficulties in the way of its original proposal. and advertised a new border strip which would take in much of the Coloured area. According to evidence given at the hearing, Coloured people would have to relinquish property valued at £50,000 and 124 of them would have to move if the proposal were accepted. Their group area, in which they thought they would have security, would have to be deproclaimed and portions of it then proclaimed a White area and a border strip. Some of them had moved into these sections, and built good homes, since the original proclamation was published in July 1959. The municipality suggested that these people should be allowed to remain under permit; but this suggestion was opposed by certain White citizens. No decision had been published at the time of writing. TOWNS IN WHICH GROUP AREAS WERE PROCLAIMED DURING 1960 PIETERMARITZBURG Proclamations 81 and 82 of 1960, dated 1 April, demarcated the group areas for Whites, Indians and Coloured people in Pietermaritzburg. The general pattern is that all the Coloured and Indians who do not already live there will have to move to the north-east of the city, leaving the rest to Whites. At a rough estimate, nearly ten thousand Indians, more than two thousand Coloured but less than a hundred Whites will be required to move. The Non-White people who live in the central suburbs will have to leave within a year of the date of the proclamation. There are three major blows for Indians. Firstly, Woodlands, which was a "scheduled" area under the Asiatic Land Tenure Act of 1946, is allocated to Coloured people, racially disqualified persons to leave within a year. Secondly, the Pentrich-Camps Drift area to the south-west of the city is demarcated for Whites: about 5,000 Indians live there and have four large schools and considerable numbers of trading establishments. They are required to move within five years. And thirdly, within seven years about a thousand Indians will have to leave the Upper Church Street area, near the station. This is one of their main trading areas, the businesses including departmental stores, general dealers, jewellers, outfitters. fruiterers and caf6s. The Indians will retain their other major trading area at the opposite end of Church Street. RUSTENBURG Proclamation 5 of 1960, dated 15 January, dealt with Rustenburg. It, too, will bear heavily on the Indian people. There are between 800 and 900 Indians in Rustenburg, about 55 of them running trading establishments and the rest of the

A SURVEY OF RACE wage-earners being employed in these stores. All except three of the stores are grouped together in a predominantly Indian area at the north-eastern end of the main street, where the Indians have a mosque, a well-built school, a small cinema and a sports ground. In terms of the proclamation, all the Indians will have to move to an area called the Turf, about two miles from the centre of the town, which will be well-nigh use!ess for trading purposes as it is remote from a main road and out-of-the-way for both White and African customers. The owners of the three isolated stores are required to move within two years, and the rest within five years. The Coloured people, who are between 150 and 200 in number, and who now live in the African location, will also have to go to the Turf, where land to the north of the Indian group area has been allocated to them. The Turf is at present occupied by about a hundred White families, many of them small-holders, who will have to leave within three years in some cases, or otherwise at a date still to be determined. The Non-Whites object to having to go to this area since the ground there is liable to subside and building is expensive as exceptionally strong foundations are necessary. A meeting of White citizens, held on 25 March, decided to draw up a petition urging the Minister of the Interior to allow the Indians to continue to trade at their existing premises, even if they are required to move their homes. As is mentioned above, on 12 April the Deputy Minister of the Interior announced that as a first step affected persons would be resettled in their new areas for residential purposes. Those who were dependent for their living on business enterprise might, however, be allowed by means of permits to continue their present businesses until such time as they were able to make a living in their own areas. But it would be very unsatisfactory for a trader to have to operate under an annually-renewable permit. He would be hesitant about renovating or improving his premises (especially as it is unlikely that he would be permitted to bequeath his business to his heirs). Because of the insecurity, wholesalers would be reluctant to grant him normal credit facilities, and bank overdrafts and bonds would be difficult to secure. Even if the already-established traders are allowed to remain under permit, future prospects are bleak for their sons.30) PIETERSBURG Group areas were proclaimed in Pietersburg in terms of Proclamations 36 of 1960, dated 4 March, and 359 of 1960, dated 14 October. The entire built-up area of the town has been allocated (30) A more detailed report on the Rustenburg situation is contained in RR 68/60. 156

RELATIONS: 1959-60 157 to Whites. The Indians, about 900 in number, will have to move within five years to an undeveloped area called Ivydale, the near border of which is about half a mile out of the town. This is an attractive area for residential purposes but again the Indians are concerned because their livelihood will be seriously affected if they are required to move their stores as well as their homes. Eighty-seven per cent of them are dependent on trade. They own 39 properties, the municipal valuation of which was £261,000 in 1956, the present market value being between £350,000 and £400,000. The goodwill is estimated at £125,000. They have a mosque and school in the western part of the town, where they live now. About 237 Coloured people, at present living in scattered premises, wherever they can find accommodation, and often paying exorbitant rents, are to go to an area called Venteria, to the north of the Indian area and further from the centre of the town. Four or five White families will have to move out of this area within two years. Ten more White families, with properties worth about £65,000, will have to move out of a border strip between the Indian area and the main road to Pretoria. About 60 prominent White citizens of Pietersburg signed a petition to the Minister of the Interior protesting about the adverse economic effects which the proclamation would have on the NonWhite communities.31) ESTCOURT The Estcourt proclamation, No. 76 of 1 April 1960, was of a different nature. The north-east part of the town is almost entirely Indian-occupied, their businesses, mosque, school, and the homes of the better-off people being located there. Indians in the lower income groups live in shacks on the farm Zaay Lager, adjoining the predominantly Indian area. In terms of the proclamation the Indians will be permitted to retain their trading area. Housing for Indians and Coloured people will be developed at Zaay Lager. WOLMARANSSTAD Group areas for the Whites and Indians of Wolmaransstad were proclaimed on 17 June (Proclamation 193/60). The Whites will be left undisturbed, but the Indians, who number about a hundred, will have to move within five years to an undeveloped portion of town lands, about 1 miles out. They will have to leave property worth some £30,000.2) (31) A more detailed account of the situation in Pietersburg is given in RR 75160. (32) Sunday Times report, 26 June 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACE OTHER TOWNS A similar pattern to that at Wolmaransstad is apparently being imposed in a large number of other small towns in which group areas have been proclaimed during the year under review. These are Burghersdorp, Ceres, Coligny, Durbanville (Bellville District), Eersterivier, Graaff-Reinet, Humansdorp, Middelburg (Transvaal), Mossel Bay, New Germany (Pinetown District), Prieska, Richmond, Riversonderend (Caledon District), Robertson, Steynsburg, Warmbaths and Wolseley. Fourteen of these towns are in the Cape, thus it is mainly Coloured people who will be affected there. The Transvaal and Natal proclamations affect mainly Indians, but in some cases Coloured as well. In a few other towns the pattern is more complicated and a certain amount of interchange of property will apparently result from recent proclamations, although in most cases it will still be the Non-Whites who will be the main sufferers. These towns are Breidenbach (King William's Town district), George, Molteno, Suurbraak (Swellendam district) and Tulbagh. The Haarlem (Uniondale) proclamation merely defined an area for future Coloured occupation. TOWNS IN WHICH FURTHER AREAS HAVE BEEN "DEFINED" In terms of Section sixteen (3) of the Group Areas Act the Minister of the Interior is able to freeze the development of an area or a specific property. If this section is applied, any building which is erected, extended or completed after the date of the relevant proclamation is deemed to have been unoccupied at that date, unless the Minister makes a determination in favour of a particular racial group or unless a permit was obtained for the constructional work. The effect of this is that occupation which was previously lawful is rendered unlawful. An Indian, for example, who makes extensions to a defined property may lose his right to occupy it. According to Mr. F. P. Rousseau, Q.C., the law adviser to the Group Areas BoardP3) "The object of this provision was ... to prevent development which would, when group areas came to be proclaimed, give greater value to vested interests and so complicate the task of removing those who had penetrated ... to prevent development by persons who are members of groups which will probably have to vacate the areas concerned ... In its objects and application Section 16(3) doubtless does discriminate against Asiatics ..." (33) Vide his book Handbook on the Group Areas Act, pages 12 and 29.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 159 Very large numbers of mainly Indian-owned properties have been so defined in parts of cities which have not yet been zoned. or in towns where no group areas have so far been proclaimed. This process has continued during the year under review in numerous areas, notably Port Elizabeth and East London. Two entire areas of Port Elizabeth which are racially mixed were defined in terms of Proclamation 159/60 of 13 May: these are the predominantly Coloured area along the Baakens River in Fairview, and the mixed area around Kempston Road. The Indians of Port Elizabeth fear that the latter is to be their group area for business and that Asian trading will be limited to this part of the town. The result would be ruinous for most of them.( 4 HOUSING HOUSING FUNDS As at 31 March 1959 the capital of the National Housing Fund amounted to £123,846,458, of which £96,698,289 represented outstanding advances made to local authorities0) During the two years that followed amounts of £6,300,000 and £7,300,000 respectively were added to this capital. 2) In 1958-59 the expenditure included the following amounts: £8,485,195 was advanced to local authorities for economic housing schemes. Of this, £5,086,540 was allocated for the erection of 17,581 dwellings for Africans. £690,469 was advanced to local authorities for assisted housing schemes. Of this £130,947 was allocated for the erection of 252 dwellings for Africans. £995,404 was lent to individual persons.(') Besides these amounts, £48,840 was lent to local authorities on the Department of Bantu Administration and Development's Loan Vote for the purchase of land for the establishment of African locations.(4) Details are given below of the funds of other bodies responsible for housing, for example the Natives Resettlement Board in Johannesburg. (34) Report in Contact, 18 June 1960. (1) From Report of Controller and Auditor-General for 1958-59. Part III. U.G. 53/59. (2) Estimates of Expenditure to be Defrayed from Loan Account, U.G. 8/60. (3) U.G. 53/59, op cit, and Minister of Bantu Administration and Development Assembly 25 March 1960, Hansard 10 cols. 4116-7. (4) Report of Controller and Auditor-General for 1958-59, Part I1 U.G. 52/59.

The Railway Administration spent £272,055 during 1959 on housing for its African employees.5) HOUSING REQUIREMENTS It was mentioned in last year's Survey6) that an interdepartmental committee had been appointed to enquire into the extent of the backlog in housing for the Coloured and Indian groups and into methods of overcoming this backlog. The Minister said in the Assembly on 25 March 196007) that the findings of the committee would not be made available to Parliament. PROVISION OF ALTERNATIVE "ACCOMMODATION" FOR AFRICANS WHO ARE REQUIRED TO MOVE During April 1958 an African named Willie Themba, who has a wife and eight children, was required to move from the Old Location of Roodepoort-Maraisburg, which is being cleared, and was offered a site in Dobsonville with fencing and services. The municipality said it would try to provide a temporary room on this site, for which the monthly charge would be 4/-, if Mr. Themba needed it. He and his family had previously occupied two rooms of a dilapidated house. A second removal notice was served on him sixteen months later, but he refused to move, and instead applied to the court for an order declaring the removal notice to be null and void. His contention was that he should be given the choice of a house or a site on which to build. This application was dismissed with costs in the Rand Supreme Court on 29 February 1960.() HOUSING SCHEMES FOR AFRICANS JOHANNESBURG During the past year 5,571 houses for Africans were erected by the City Council and 42 by private builders. A further 2,507 sites in the site-and-service schemes were occupied: altogether nearly 33,000 of the 35,000 available sites in these schemes have now been allocated. Accommodation for about 9,000 more families can still be provided in the South-Western Townships. (5) Minister of Transport, Assembly 16 February 1960, Hansard 5 cols. 1598-9. (6) Page 165. (7) Hansard 10 cols. 4105-6. (8) Star report of that date. 160 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 161 Altogether, in the locations and townships controlled by the City Council, there are now 351,811 African families living under family conditions and 22,231 single persons in hostels or living as lodgers. About 16,000 families still require housing, including those on the waiting list and the residents of Pimville and Western Native Township, who will have to be moved in terms of Government policy. The Council is planning to build 5,000 houses during the financial year 1960-61. A scheme to provide street lighting in all the townships has been adopted, and the installation of waterborne sewerage is progressing rapidly. There are now 17 beerhalls and gardens with four off-sales depots (including two beerhalls in the city). A new sports stadium to serve the Moroka-Jabavu area is in the final stages of completion; and a dam, paddling pool and open air theatre have been provided at Mofolo during 1960. Thirty-three playgrounds for children are now available: no child lives more than half a mile away from a playground. During the past year the Horticultural Section planted 15,000 fruit trees in the gardens of new houses and 2,000 ornamental trees in suitable places. The Natives Resettlement Board has not furnished the Institute with recent statistics; but according to its annual report for 1958-59(') and the latest report of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development, by September 1959 it had completed 12,252 houses, while a further 1,050 were in various stages of erection. On 31 October 1959 there were 11,879 families, numbering 56,923 persons, settled at Meadowlands, and 1,101 families of 5,219 persons at Diepkloof. Besides these, 63 single women were accommodated in groups in houses, and 1,560 single men in a hostel. Between February 1959, when the scheme started, and October of that year 2,063 families were removed on a voluntary basis from Alexandra Township to Meadowlands. Others had been accommodated by the municipality in its townships. Adult sons who are living with their parents in areas controlled by the Resettlement Board are required to pay fees of 7/6 a month to the Board. As at 31 March 1959 the Board had received State loans totalling £4,988,479. Further amounts of £1,250,000 and £550,000 respectively were made available during the two following years. By the end of March 1959 the Peri-Urban Areas Health Board had been lent £55,450 for purchasing properties and providing services at Alexandra Township, and it received a further £100,000 during (9) U.G. 1511960 and U.G. 51/1960.

A SURVEY OF RACE each of the next two years'0 The Health Board has spent considerable sums on improving roads, installing street lighting, removing rubble and providing ablution blocks with laundry facilities and beerhalls and beer gardens. REEF TOWNS Germiston There are now 55,000 Africans accommodated at Township, Natalspruit, and 16,200 at the Tembisa Regional Township, Kaalfontein, which serves Edendale, Kempton Park and Bedfordview as well as Germiston. The municipality estimates that housing for a further 10,000 people in the former and 18,000 in the latter township will be required over the next ten years. During the past year the municipality built 3,350 dwellings in the two townships, 34 more being privately erected. One school was built, five churches, and ten shops, and recreational facilities were extended. Benoni Benoni completed its necessary African housing programme more than two years ago. Twenty-five owner-built houses are under construction there. During the past year the municipality provided a new clinic, school, shop and library, and constructed a number of internal roads. Altogether, 90,500 Africans are housed in Benoni. Brakpan In the last twelve months 675 dwellings and a block of shops were completed in Brakpan. A thousand further houses to replace single rooms on the site-and- service scheme, three schools and a further block of shops are now to be provided. There are totals of 1,881 houses in the Brakpan Location and 2,175 in the new Tsakane Township. Springs As the housing position is satisfactory, no new dwellings were erected in Springs during the year under review. There are now (10) Reports of the Controller and Auditor-General, 1958-59, Parts II and III, U.G. 52/59 and 53/59; Estimates of Additional Expenditure from the Bantu Administration and Development Loan Vote, U.G. 2/60; Estimates of Expenditure to be Defrayed from Loan Account, U.G. 8/60..

RELATIONS: 1959-60 163 46,756 Africans housed in the municipal townships and 11,393 living in towns or on farms nearby. The municipality has recently built an administrative block, a post office which houses the telephone exchange and two beerhalls with improved arrangements for off-sales. A communal hall, to provide seating accommodation for 1,030 people, is nearing completion at Kwa-Thema. Nigel As plans for a new township are being drawn up, no building operations other than the provision of a new brewery took place in Nigel during the past year. About 1,400 African families are now housed, the estimated shortage being between 700 and 1,000 dwellings. Alberton The Alberton municipality has this year built 850 dwellings and provided a clubhouse, three tennis courts, two soccer fields and a baseball field. There are now 12,262 Africans accommodated in the township, the shortage being 850 dwellings. Roodepoort-Maraisburg During the past year 928 houses were built in RoodepoortMaraisburg, 858 of them being erected on site-and-service plots. There are now 18,500 Africans housed in the area, the remaining shortage being about 3,500 dwellings. A clinic, a milk-depot and a beerhall have been built recently. Krugersdorp In Krugersdorp, 955 houses and two lower primary schools were built during the past twelve months. Altogether, 30,250 Africans are housed in the Council's two townships. OTHER TRANSVAAL TOWNS Pretoria During the last year 1,202 dwellings, a police station, a dry cleaning factory, a milk depot, a creche and cloakrooms at two sportsfields were built in Pretoria. There are now 106,000 Africans housed in the municipal townships. The estimate shortage is 7,500 dwellings.

164 A SURVEY OF RACE Vereeniging Seventy Africans built their own homes in Vereeniging last year. The municipality completed two new schools, has accepted tenders for the erection of 966 dwellings, and has applied for authority to build another 864 houses. There will be no shortage of accommodation when these schemes have been completed. So far, 4,300 families have been housed. Vanderbijlpark In Vanderbijlpark, 14,000 Africans are now accommodated, the remaining shortage being about 850 dwellings. The municipality recently built a creche. Pietersburg There are 21,660 Africans housed in Pietersburg. The municipality has built no new dwellings recently, but provided a cinema and two soccer fields. The people of the African township of New Pietersburg, who have freehold title, are to be removed. Ermelo The Ermelo municipality built no new houses during the past year, but is considering plans for a scheme of about 600 dwellings. There are 1,193 families now housed there, the present shortage of housing being some 550. Africans are to be removed from the freehold township of New Ermelo. THE CAPE Cape Town Towards the end of 1959 building was commenced at Nyanga West, an area which is being developed by the Cape Town City Council for the resettlement of families from the slums of Windermere and Retreat. By October 1960, 834 three- or four-roomed dwellings had been completed, 558 temporary pre-fabricated hutments provided and 1,200 sites serviced. There were 9,634 Africans already living in this township. About 3,500 more houses are needed there. At the time of writing the "hostels" area of Langa accommodated 1,096 African families and 18,000 "single" men, the total population being 24,926. There were 4,519 Africans still living at Windermere, 2,821 in Retreat and 2,982 at Athlone/Welcome Estate.

The Divisional Council of the Cape controls a township at Nyanga East. During the past year it extended the recreational facilities there but built no further houses as there was no shortage of accommodation in its area of jurisdiction. In October 1960 there were 19,446 Africans living at Nyanga East. All the residents of the Simon's Town location are being moved to Nyanga West. They will, in consequence, be involved in considerably increased transport costs. Port Elizabeth Between January and August of 1960 the Port Elizabeth municipality built 1,425 houses, making a total of 10,731 since April 1956. There are now 11,100 families (46,000 persons) living at Kwa-Zakele and 8,600 families (51,000 people) at New Brighton. About 200 more dwellings are needed. East London There were no new houses built in the African townships of East London during the year under review; but a creche for 200 children, a swimming bath with a filtration plant and a new library with reading room facilities were provided. There is housing for 1,985 families at Duncan Village, 476 in West Bank Location and 122 in Cambridge Location, the estimated shortage being about 6,000 dwellings. Paarl A squatter's camp known as Sakkieskamp is being cleared, those families who qualify to remain in the area being moved to a new township near Paarl. It seems likely, however, that as the residents are screened numbers of them will be endorsed out of the Western Cape, where influx control is being very strictly enforced. Many of these people have lost touch with the Reserves, and in any case it is well-nigh impossible to find work in these areas. NATAL Durban During the year ended 30 September 1960 the Durban municipality built 1,950 permanent houses, 2,023 temporary houses, and hostel accommodation for 2,384 men. Except for eleven better type dwellings erected for home owners at Lamont Location, these were all built at Kwa Mashu. A home for the aged, a child welfare home and a bowling green were provided at Lamont, a RELATIONS: 1959-60 '165

166 A SURVEY OF RACE swimming bath at Umlazi Glebe, libraries at Lamont and Chesterville, and a number of bus shelters, shops and other ancillary buildings. It is estimated that Durban's African population of 210,000 is housed as follows: Municipal single accommodation ...... 17,500 Municipal family accommodation (permanent) ... 56,500 Cato Manor Emergency Camp ...... 55,000 Municipal compounds, police barracks, etc ...... 1,000 Railway and Government compounds ...... 8,000 Licensed premises (under Section 9(4) of the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act ...... 31,000 Domestic servants housed on residential premises 31,500 African-owned property ...... 1,000 Shacks and illegal housing ...... 8,500 210,000 The immediate requirements are an additional 15,000 houses and 20,000 beds in hostels. The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development gave details about the new Umlazi Mission Reserve housing scheme in the Assembly on 2 February 1960.(") The Durban City Council is to act as the agent of the S.A. Native Trust in developing a scheme to cater initially for 10,000 African families, he said, and eventually for double that number. The pattern of development will be similar to that at Kwa Mashu, except that Africans will be able to obtain freehold title. A tender for an aerial contour survey of the whole area has already been accepted. During August 1960 the Natal Regional Office of the Institute of Race Relations sent a memorandum(2) to the municipality expressing its concern about the proposal to increase site rentals at the Cato Manor Emergency Camp from £1 to £1 10s. Od. a month, and urging that the shortfall in administrative costs should instead be met by subsidizing the Native Revenue Account from the Borough Fund. There were two minor outbursts of violence at the Cato Mancr squatters' camp on 15 November 1960, when, according to police reports, agitators tried to deter 323 families from complying with the municipality's plan to move them to Kwa Mashu. Pietermaritzburg The Natal Local Health Commission reports that during 1959 ten dwellings were built for Africans and seven for Indians in the Public Health area of Edendale and district, the population (11) Hansard 3 cols. 785-6. (12) NR. 101/60. RELATIONS: 1959-60 167 of which is 35,309 (254 Whites, 891 Coloured, 4,916 Indians and 29,248 Africans). Thirty-one further houses were under construction at the end of the year. No further housing schemes have since been undertaken; but the residents erected 119 new wattleand-daub dwellings, 104 for Africans, 10 for Indians and five for Coloured families, which it is hoped will eventually be replaced by permanent dwellings. Twenty-nine other buildings were erected and the construction of another thirty commenced during 1959, including the £12,000 Doris Goodwin S.A.N.T.A. centre. A third park/playground for Africans is being provided, and extensions to the YMCA youth centre have been made at a cost of £3,100. This centre was built by the Commission and is rented by the YMCA at a nominal figure. The Edendale population has available one enclosed football stadium and three other football grounds. ORANGE FREE STATE Bloemfontein During the year ended 30 September 1960 a further 168 permanent dwellings were built by Africans in the site-and-service village of Bloemfontein. The municipality provided an additional 29 cottage dwelling units at the hostel, thus increasing the number of beds to 1,424, and also built a lower primary school and a clinic for the examination and treatment of African tuberculosis patients. Kroonstad In Kroonstad, 500 dwellings for sale to Africans were built over the past year, and a further 120 Africans erected their own homes. The municipality provided a cycle track, a soccer field and a tennis court. Altogether, 22.000 Africans are now accommodated in separate houses, and there are 3,000 lodgers requiring accommodation. Bethlehem During the twelve months ending on 30 September the Africans of Bethlehem built 153 more dwellings. There are now 1,754 families housed in this town, while a further 1,880 families of lodgers still require accommodation. The municipality has completed an electricity scheme in the old African township, built 805 latrines in the new housing area, installed children's playground equipment, bought cinema equipment, and built a waiting room for Africans at the Superintendent's office.

A SURVEY OF RACE Welkom No new dwellings were erected in Welkom during the past year; but a site-and- service scheme is well under way. A loan for 1,000 houses has been approved, tenders for their erection being under consideration. It is expected that the first batch of houses will be completed early in 1961. There are now 20,000 Africans housed in the Township. The shortage of houses, estimated at 1,000, will be overcome when the new scheme has been completed. HOUSING FOR COLOURED AND INDIAN PEOPLE JOHANNESBURG Of the estimated 39,500 Coloured people in Johannesburg, 10.509 live in Council-controlled areas; but large numbers of these will have to be moved in terms of group areas proclamations and plans. The rest are living wherever they can find accommodation. Extensive housing schemes are, thus, required. During 1960 the City Council built 60 flats for Coloured families. Plans for the provision of dwellings in the Coloured group areas are described in the previous chapter. A swimming bath will probably become available for use at Coronationville during 1961. It is estimated by the municipality that there are 28.000 Asians in the city. Only about a thousand of them are so far living in the proclaimed Indian group area at Lenasia. There is a large concentration, of about 8,600, in the Diagonal Street/Burghersdorp area, where it is hoped that they will be able to retain trading and residential rights. This area has not yet been zoned. The rest live in areas zoned for Whites, Coloured or industry, many of them in slum dwellings. The Natives Resettlement Board has been renovating houses vacated by Africans at Newclare for letting to Coloured families. CAPE TOWN The Cape Town City Council built 822 houses for Coloured families during the year under review, having by October 1960 provided accommodation for 8,500 Coloured people. There is a shortage of about 12,000 dwellings. Provided that the necessary funds are made available, the Council plans to build 2,000 houses a year. In the area controlled by the Divisional Council of the Cape there are 3,729 dwellings accommodating 20,037 Coloured, Indian and Malay people. Another 2,836 homes are needed for about 14,700 who are unsuitably housed.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 169 It was mentioned earlier that the Group Areas Development Board plans to provide dwellings for Coloured people at Duinefontein and for Indians at Rylands and Cravenby. It is catering for some of those who will be displaced in terms of group areas proclamations. OTHER TOWNS Plans for the provision of housing schemes for Indians and Coloured in Pretoria and Durban were described in the previous chapter, under the heading of group areas. Judging from replies received to a circular letter sent out by the Institute of Race Relations, it seems that during the past year very little has been done in other towns in this regard. In numbers of cases this is because of the continued uncertainty about the areas where members of the different racial groups are to be permitted to live. In Germiston, for example, the Coloured and Indian citizens are still living in the Old Location, from which the African residents have been removed. Benoni reports a shortage of about 500 houses for the Coloured section; and the Springs municipality states that the housing position is most unsatisfactory as far as the Asians are concerned. As the situation in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Cape Town and Durban indicates, even after the proclamation of group areas months, if not years, elapse before the necessary housing schemes are planned and erected. In various parts of these cities the periods during which disqualified groups were required to move have elapsed, but because no alternative housing is ready the persons concerned have had to be issued wtih temporary permits to remain where they are. Within the next four to five years the time limit will have expired in other parts of the towns mentioned and in numerous other areas such as Pietermaritzburg, Kimberley, Carolina, Lydenburg, Ermelo, White River, Klerksdorp, Rustenburg, Pietersburg, Wolmaransstad and many others. Vast sums of money and supplies of labour and materials will be needed if these removal schemes are to be undertaken within the periods originally determined by the Government. And if this is not done, vast numbers of people will be left in a state of great insecurity, as their presence in the areas where they live will be legal only by virtue of temporary permits to remain. In some towns where the residential areas for various groups have been determined progress has been made during the past year with the provision of necessary amenities. In Kroonstad, for example, the municipality has completed an electricity reticulation scheme in the Coloured township, has extended the school, and has provided a creche, a soccer field and netball field.

A SURVEY OF RACE TRANSPORT SERVICES RAIL AND AIR TRANSPORT RAIL TRANSPORT In a Press statement made on 12 September 1960 the Prime Minister said01) that the provision of better transport for NonWhites to and from work was receiving special attention. In most cases adequate railway services for people in the Bantu townships would be available by the end of 1962. Meanwhile, these services continue to be very inadequate in many areas. Trains are seriously overcrowded, and Africans have to undertake the long daily journeys in much discomfort. In the Estimates of Additional Expenditure for 1959-60(2) a sum of £2-million was voted from the consolidated revenue fund to meet the loss incurred by the Railways Administration in operating passenger services to and from African townships. A further sum of the same amount was voted in the estimates for 1960-613) AIR TRANSPORT A special airways service between Durban and Johannesburg was introduced for Non-White passengers during December 1959. On other routes Non-Whites occupy the front seats of the aircraft. BUS SERVICES APARTHEID IN BUS SERVICES An account was given in last year's Survey4) of the Supreme Court action in which the Pietermaritzburg Local Transportion Board was ordered to grant transport certificates to the municipality without the stipulation that separate vehicles must be provided for the different racial groups. After losing this action the Board recused itself, and was reconstituted. The new chairman said(') that previous policy directives were still effective, in spite of the judgment: the Board was required to impose bus apartheid "as far as possible". Nevertheless the Pietermaritzburg City Council asked the Board to renew its bus certificates for 1960 without imposing total apartheid, which would add £33,000 to the annual loss of £40,000 already incurred. (1) Rand Daily Mail, 13 September. (2) U.G. 211960. (3) U.G. 1/60. (4) Page 195. (5) Rand Daily Mail report, 13 January 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 171 During March the Board granted the certificates without such restrictions, but ordered the Council to keep a record for the rest of the year of the race group of every passenger carried.(') NATIVE TRANSPORT SERVICES ACCOUNT The terms of the Native Transport Services Act, No. 53 of 1957, were summarized in an earlier edition of this Survey.(') Details of the amounts collected and spent from the date the services levy was first introduced until the end of March 1959 were given in the Report of the Department of Transport for the year 1958-59.(8 ) They were as follows: Rate per adult male African employee per Amount Area 6 days worked. collected. Payments. £ £ Benoni ...... 6d. 30,604 Durban ...... 6d. 447,977 44,594 Edenvale ...... 6d. 1,983 Germiston ...... 6d. 111,260 559 Johannesburg 1/- 1,206,633 1,002,135 Cape Town - Divisional Council ... 6d. 82,293 10,313 Cape Town - City Council ...... 6d. 42,805 Kimberley ...... 6d. 22,235 147 Klerksdorp ...... 6d. 1,008 Kroonstad ...... 3d. 18,026 7,514 Krugersdorp ... 6d. 10,975 Pietermaritzburg ... 6d. 65,590 43,779 Pinetown ...... 6d. 892 Port Elizabeth ... 6d. 190,622 33,662 Pretoria ...... 1/- 352,662 328,923 Welkom ...... 6d. 33 28 As is clear from this table, it is only in Johannesburg, Pretoria and Pietermaritzburg that the money collected was put to effective use in subsidizing companies running bus services for Africans to enable them to keep fares at lower amounts than would otherwise have been necessary. During the year under review the rate of the subsidy was reduced from 1/ - to 9d. in Johannesburg, from 1/ to 6d. in Pretoria, and from 6d. to 3d. in Benoni and Durban. Employers in Cape Town, the area of the Divisional Council of the Cape and Krugersdorp were exempted from paying further contributions. The bus company PUTCO, which operates in Johannesburg, Pretoria and Durban, has been debarred from running services in (6) Star report, 10 March 1960. (7) 1956-7, page 137. (8) U.G. 50/1959.

A SURVEY OF RACE competition with the Railways, and is restricted to running feeder buses between railway stations and outlying parts of the African townships (except that, in Johannesburg, an inter-township service is permitted during the "valley" period between 8 a.m. and 4 p.m.). All routes require the approval of the local Road Transportation Board. As a result, many Africans have been involved in additional transport costs. In Pretoria, for example, an African travelling from Vlakfontein to town by bus previously paid between 6d. and 10d., depending on the points at which he mounted and alighted. If he lives in an outlying part of Vlakfontein he now has to pay 3d. for the feeder bus, 8d. train fare, and generally 4d. for another bus from the station: a total of 1/3. A woman carrying a bundle of washing has to pay another 6d. on the train. Regular users of the train service can reduce the fare from 8d. to 6d. or 5d. if they buy weekly or monthly tickets respectively, but these are of no use to washerwomen or casual workers, and few unskilled workers are able to save the amount necessary for a monthly ticketY) EMPLOYMENT THE ECONOMIC SITUATION THE ECONOMIC RECESSION The downward trend in the rate of growth of economic activity during 1958 and the first half of 1959 was described in last year's Survey.") Mr. T. W. de Jongh, head of the Department of Economic Research and Statistics of the S.A. Reserve Bank, wrote early in 1960,(Y) "Expansionary tendencies were coming to the fore by the middle of the (previous) year. For the second half of the year, the available evidence points towards a gradual but distinct recovery, although it would seem that manufacturing activity was still lagging behind in this respect". But then came Sharpeville and the state of emergency. In his annual address to stockholders of the Reserve Bank on 10 August3) the Governor of the Bank, Dr. M. H. de Kock, said that the revival in the tempo of economic expansion had continued during 1959-60, as reflected by an estimated increase of 5.9 per cent in the gross national product over that of the previous year. But, he continued, "The country's monetary resources, however, after increasing by (9) Information furnished by a Pretoria member of the Institute. (1) Page 197. (2) Quarterly Bulletin of Statistics, S.A. Reserve Bank, March 1960. "3) The full address was published in the Rand Daily Mail, 11 August 1960.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 173 £29-million during the second half of 1959, showed a decline of £39-million during the first half of 1960 ... This sharp reversal in the balance of payments can be attributed primarily to the repercussions of the riots ... which caused the Government to declare a state of emergency ... An element of uncertainty was evidently created abroad which was, in various ways, reflected in a decline in confidence on the part of foreign investors, and in a substantial net outflow of capital". This decline in confidence, Dr. de Kock said, "can, no doubt, be ascribed mainly to a widespread misunderstanding of the political and economic position in the Union". However, he continued, "we must face the fact not only that the net outflow of capital ... has already had an appreciable adverse effect on the country's monetary reserves and financial markets, but also that a continuation of the outflow will exercise a restraining influence on the economy as a whole ... The Union still needs a moderate net annual amount of foreign capital to help in the financing of all the new private and public development projects which would be necessary not only to maintain but also to increase the standard of living of the population as a whole". "We should exert ourselves to revive the confidence of foreign investors", Dr. de Kock maintained. It should be brought home to them that the political and economic position in the Union is different from that in most other parts of Africa, and that "various steps have been taken or are contemplated to remove causes of friction and dissatisfaction as far as the Bantu ... are concerned." Dr. de Kock announced that the Bank rate was to be raised from 4 to 4- per cent. BOYCOTTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN PRODUCTS The decisions by various other countries to boycott South African products are dealt with in the last chapter of this Survey. It is important at this stage, however, to make mention of their general effects to date. When addressing the annual general meeting of the Federal Consultative Council of the Railway Staff Associations on 7 June 1960, the Minister of Transport said4) that he would like to give concessions to the Railway staff, but it would be foolish to incur any increase in expenditure in view of the very serious position in which South Africa found herself. "If these boycott movements gain momentum and get more support," he added, "South Africa can be placed in a very bad way economically". The Minister of Economic Affairs said on 2 September(') that he realized that certain individual producers who had concentrated on the African market were being affected by the boycotts. He (4) Star report of that date. (5) Rand Daily Mail report, 3 September 1960.

174 A SURVEY OF RACE added, however, that only a small dent had been made in the country's total export trade. His department was planning the composition of three trade missions which would look for new markets in the Far East, United States and Europe. Later, in a statement published in the Star of 8 November, the Director of the Exporters' Association, Colonel R. Jones, said that during the first six months of 1960 South African exports had increased by £22-million. He had, since then, noticed no slackening, and expected that for the whole year there would be an increase of £40-million on the £438-million total of 1959. UNEMPLOYMENT The way in which the unemployment statistics maintained by the Department of Labour are compiled, and the extent to which they may be regarded as being comprehensive, were described in last year's Survey.06) It was mentioned that the number of registered White, Coloured and Asian unemployed (including a few African women) increased from about 14.000 in December 1957 to 27,018 at the end of April 1959. This figure constituted 2.06 per cent of the total number of workers of these racial groups-slightly above the 2 per cent accepted internationally as indicating full employment. The number of unemployed continued to increase until about August, and then began to decline. By 31 December 1959 it was 25,019-13,104 Whites, 9.244 Coloured people and 2,671 Asiansf The percentages these figures constituted of the total number of workers were 1.31 per cent in the case of Whites and 3.86 per cent in the cases of Coloured and Asians. It will be noted that according to these figures there was certainly not full employment among the two latter groups; but. for reasons given in last year's Survey, it would appear that in fact there were many more unemployed Coloured and Asian people than the numbers given above. These numbers include only the work-seekers who had registered with the Department of Labour. Asked, later, what the position was in the larger centres, the Minister of Labour replied8) that on 30 April 1960 there were 4,376 Coloured and Indian unemployed in Durban, 3,839 in Cape Town, 2,069 in Johannesburg and 573 in Port Elizabeth. But the situation particularly in Natal demonstrates how misleading the cfficial figures may sometimes be. During July 1959 (6) Page 198. (7) Minister of Labour, Assembly 8 March 1960, Hansard 8 col. 2921. (8) Assembly. 17 May 1960. Hansard 18 col. 7806.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 175 there were 2,500 unemployed Indians registered with the Department of Labour in that province. In fact, however, there were probably between 13,000 and 15,000 Indians out of work in Durban. The Deputy Divisional Inspector of Labour for Natal is reported to have saidV9) that, on an average, only one Indian in an adult family of five was in regular employment. Many men of the age of 30 or over, who were able and eager to work, had never obtained a regular job since they left school. During December 1959 the Deputy Minister of Labour called for a report from departmental officials in Natal on the situation as affecting the Indians, in view of increasing unemployment amongst their ranks. The powers that the Government has taken to reserve work for members of a specified racial group threaten further NonWhite workers with unemployment. This matter is dealt with below. Statistics in regard to African unemployment in the towns are too misleading to be worth quoting, as they indicate merely the number of registered workseekers who are legally in the urban areas concerned, and do not include those who have been "endorsed out" because they cannot find work, nor those who would have migrated to the towns to seek employment had the system of influx control not been in operation. It was mentioned in last year's Survey(1) that during 1959 the Unemployment Insurance Act was amended to make it possible for unemployment benefits to be paid for longer periods than usual during a time of depression. The Minister of Labour was empowered to suspend the normal provisions of the Act in his discretion at such times. On 17 March 1960 the Minister said(") that about 800 contributors had benefitted from such action taken by him, the amount of money disbursed being £19,300. IMMIGRATION The Government has decided to adopt a less restrictive immigration policy. The Minister of the Interior announced on 12 April 1960,(2) "We are now reorganizing our entire immigration machinery ... The time has perhaps come when we need no longer be so strict in screening immigrants. To-day we can accept people who in the past might have been rejected, because we can find employment for them here". (9) Star, 23 January 1959. (10) Page 204. (11) Senate, Hansard 5 col. 991. (12) Assembly, Hansard 13 cols. 5338-9.

176 A SURVEY OF RACE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ECONOMIC ADVISORY COUNCIL The Economic Advisory Council was established during July 1960, to advise the Government on the co-ordination of State policy from an economic point of view, and to assist in coordinating Government policy and the economic development of the country in general. Its chairman is Dr. D. H. Steyn, who will vacate his post as Secretary for Finance in March 1961. He was also appointed as economic adviser to the Cabinet. The deputy chairman is Dr. J. A. Lombard, formerly professional adviser to the Treasury. Certain of the members were appointed by the Prime Minister for periods of two years because of their particular knowledge of economic and financial matters. These are Mr. Vernon Atkinson, Mr. P. Frame, Mr. Harry Goldberg, Professor D. Hobart Houghton, Dr. M. S. Louw, Dr. M. D. Marais, Professor C. G. W. Schumann and Mr. J. G. van der Merwe. Other members were appointed for two years to represent organizations selected by the Government which have an interest in the co-ordination of economic activities. These bodies, which were each asked to nominate two representatives, are the Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut, the Association of Chambers of Commerce of S.A., the Confederation of Employers' Organizations, the S.A. Agricultural Union, the S.A. Confederation of Labour, the S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries, the S.A. Trade Union Council and the Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber of Mines. Others who will serve on the council are the Chairman of the Public Service Commission, the Secretary for Labour, the Secretary for Agricultural Economics and Marketing, the Secretary for Commerce and Industries, the Secretary for Finance, the Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development, the Secretary for Mines, the General Manager of the S.A. Railways and Harbours, the Chairman of the Board of Trade and Industries, the Chairman of the Wage Board, the Chairman of the Industrial Tribunal, the Registrar of Financial Institutions, and the head of the Economic Section, Department of External Affairs. The Prime Minister announced(3) that the full council would be convened from time to time to discuss problems submitted to it by the chairman, and would meet at least once a year to discuss the chairman's report. The councillors would also serve as a panel from which the chairman might in his discretion select persons for consultation in regard to specific problems referred to him by the Government. Working committees would in this way be formed, on which other persons with intimate knowledge of (13) Assembly, 22 March 1960, Hansard 10 cols. 3885-6. the relevant subject might also be asked to serve. Reports of such committees would be submitted to the chairman, and considered by co-ordinating committees of officials responsible for the implementation of policy in the particular sphere concerned. After this, the reports would be submitted to the Prime Minister. The first meeting of the council, which was summoned to consider the implementation of the Government's plan for the establishment of industries in border areas, is described in an earlier chapter of this Survey. THE SOUTH AFRICAN FOUNDATION The South African Foundation was launched by a group of eminent South Africans during December 1959. It is a nonpolitical body, the aims of which are to "promote international understanding of South Africa, her people, their way of life, achievements and aspirations", to present a true picture of the country, illustrate the opportunities for investment, and help in stimulating the export of South African products and services. RESERVATION OF WORK NOTE ON TRENDS SO FAR EVIDENT Discussing a determination dealing with a section of the iron, steel, engineering and metallurgical industry, Miss M. V. Piercy recently said(4 that the original request for this came from Die Yster en Staalbedryfsvereniging (a White trade union), which claimed that employers who had been using Whites in certain lowly-paid operative jobs were finding it difficult to compete successfully in the open market, and that in consequence a trend of displacement by Non-Whites was developing. The Minister of Labour has confirmed that this was the reason5) This particular determination, he said, was introduced because one of the biggest employers of White labour in the industry found it difficult to compete with others who were employing Non-Whites at lower rates of pay, and was considering displacing about 400 Whites by Non-Whites. (The Non-Whites were apparently being paid at or near the minimum rates laid down for the jobs concerned, while the Whites received larger amounts). The majority of the determinations so far made, Miss Piercy continued, relate to work in the semi-skilled to unskilled categories, and were made to protect small groups of White workers, (14) Article entitled "Statutory Work Reservation in the Union of South Africa", S.A. Journal of Economics, Vol. 28 No. 3, September 1960. (15) Assembly, 6 May 1960, Hansard 16 cols. 6900-1. RELATIONS: 1959-60 177

178 A SURVEY OF RACE often in one area only. But, she said, "the results have been. in most cases, out of all proportion to the small domestic field at first concerned; reservations have been made covering the entire breadth, or a large portion, of the Union. In the absence of work reservation legislation, the settlement of local displacement complaints was made through the normal local channel of negotiation, and the scope of settlements thus corresponded to the need of local circumstances. This channel is, indeed, still used. To demand more for domestic purposes is to challenge the seasoned principle of collective negotiation". DEVELOPMENTS IN REGARD TO DETERMINATIONS MADE BEFORE 1960 Passenger lift attendants As was described in last year's Survey,00) Determination No. 5 reserved for Whites the work of operating passenger lifts in numerous categories of establishments in the municipal areas of Johannesburg, Pretoria and Bloemfontein. This became operative early in 1960. Numbers of Africans were replaced by Whites in large stores and other undertakings. Some of the smaller concerns adopted the use of automatic devices in lifts, thus doing away with the necessity for attendants. No information is available about the number of Non-Whites who were displaced. The Minister of Labour has merely said(7) that applications for exemption from the determination were received from three employers in respect of eleven Coloured persons in Johannesburg. All were refused. The building industry in the Transvaal and Free State Determination No. 6, also described in last year's Survey,(' reserved for Whites the skilled and much of the semi-skilled work in the building industry in urban areas of the Transvaal and Free State (other than in African townships). This became effective as from 18 March 1960. Coloured employers were not affected, but were debarred from employing Coloured artisans after existing contracts had been completed. Authority was delegated to Divisional Inspectors of Labour to exempt from the reservation Coloured artisans working in proclaimed Coloured group areas.(") The Coloured, Malay and Asiatic Building Workers' Union, formed during 1959, sent a memorandum protesting against this determination to all Members of Parliament and to numerous other (16) 1958-59. page 234. (17) Assembly, 19 April 1960, Hansard 14 col. 5489 (18) Stated by Miss Piercy in the article op Cit.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 trade unions. It estimated that there were only about 500 Coloured and Asian building artisans in the Transvaal and a potential of about 50 Coloured ones in the Free State (some of them apparently migrate between the Cape and the Free State in accordance with the availability of work). Their numbers were so small that they were not a threat to the Whites. (According to a Press report(9) there are some 12,000 White building employees in the provinces concerned). The Minister of Labour said2") during April that applications for the exemption of Coloured artisans who were employed in the building industry when the determination was made were considered on their merits and granted when White workers were unobtainable. Exemptions were widely granted, and it appears that few Coloured artisans have, in fact, been prohibited from continuing in their trades. But they are naturally experiencing a sense of great insecurity. The determination also affected considerable numbers of NonWhites, mainly Africans, who had been employed in the building trade as drivers of power operated cranes or mechanical vehicles of an unladen weight of more than three tons. These jobs were reserved for Whites. Domestic appliances Determination No. 7, again set out in more detail in last year's Survey, reserved for Whites 27 listed categories of work (except in the Cape, where 23 categories were listed) in the section of the iron. steel, engineering and metallurgical industry that is concerned with the manufacture of certain types of kitchen and electrical equipment and hollowware. It applied throughout the Union, and came into force at the end of April 1960. It was stated in the Star of 2 May that, as a result, employers on the Witwatersrand would be forced to replace 2,450 African and 100 Coloured semi- skilled workers. These figures were challenged by the Minister of Labour, who said(21) that three employers' organizations, which employed about 80 per cent of all workers in the industry concerned, had stated in an application for exemption that 413 Africans and 178 Coloured persons would be affected. The Star continued to maintain, however, that its figures were more accurate than the Minister's.(22) According to the Rand Daily Mail of 24 May, employers asked for blanket exemptions, stating that the determination would force more than 2,500 African and Coloured workers out of employment. Wages would have to be (19) Star, 14 April 1960. (20) Assembly, 6 May 1960, Hansard 16 cols. 6902-3. (21) Assembly. 6 May 1960, Hansard 16 cols. 6900-1. (22) Issue of 9 May.

A SURVEY OF RACE raised to attract White replacements, which would mean that the prices of the domestic appliances would have to be increased. They would then not be able to compete with the prices of imported articles. During July the Minister granted a reprieve until the end of October to employers who were members of the Sheet Metal Industries Association, the Electrical Engineering and Allied Industries Association, and the Radio, Refrigeration and Electrical Appliances Association. At the time of writing this period had just elapsed, and it was too early to state what the effects had been. It seems that some employers were possibly able to divert displaced Non-White workers to unreserved work. NEW DETERMINATION FOR THE CLOTHING INDUSTRY A very complicated new Determination, No. 8, was gazetted on 6 May in terms of Government Notice No. 651 of 1960. Its provisions vary in different parts of the Union, but the basic object is to prevent the percentage of Whites employed by any employer, or the percentage of Whites and Coloured together, from falling below the percentages existing on 28 August 1959 (a point of average employment in the industry) or on the date of the determination, whichever was the higher. The effect will be to check the employment of increasing proportions of Africans in established factories and in most urban areas. This provision applied as from 6 July 1960. and throughout the Union. Other provisions deal with the major urban areas of the Cape and Natal, and with the whole of the Transvaal. Cape and Natal (urban areas) If on the dates mentioned more than ten per cent of the employees in any factory were White, this proportion may be decreased as long as it does not fall below ten per cent and as long as the actual number of White employees is not reduced. Any vacancies or new posts must be filled by White or Coloured employees. This applied to the posts of machinists from 6 May 1960 and to other categories of work from 6 November 1960. Transvaal If on the dates mentioned more than 25 per cent of the employees in any factory were White, this proportion may be decreased as long as it does not fall below 25 per cent and as long as the actual number of White employees is not reduced.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 181 If the proportion of White workers was less than 25 per cent, whenever the total number of employees is increased at least half of the new workers must be White and half of the balance Coloured. New employers must employ at least 25 per cent Whites, and half of the balance of the workers must be Coloured. As from the date of the proclamation, no White machinist may be replaced by a Non-White, nor may a Coloured machinist be replaced by an African. (The work of machinist is numerically the most important in the industry). No employer who employs both White and Non-White machinists may reduce the number of Whites. Similarly, no employer who employs both Coloured and African machinists may reduce the number of Coloured. Whenever posts of supervisors, foremen, choppers-out or markers-in are vacated or created, the work must be reserved for Whites. General notes and comments Except in cases where an employer had reduced the proportions of White or Coloured workers between 28 August 1959 and the date of the proclamation, this determination did not affect workers already employed. As time goes by, however, more and more of the work in clothing factories in the Transvaal and major urban areas of the Cape and Natal will be reserved in the first place for Whites and in the second place for Coloured. It would appear that new factories in other areas will be allowed to employ as many Africans as they wish. The Minister of Labour is reported'23I to have said he expected that, as a result of the determination, between 200 and 300 posts would shortly become available for Whites in the clothing industry in the Transvaal. This number would increase as time went by. Interim interdict The Garment Workers' Industrial Union (Natal) and the African Garment Workers' Union (Natal) applied to the Supreme Court for an interim interdict preventing the Industrial Tribunal from implementing this determination, for an order calling upon the Tribunal to show cause why its recommendations in regard to the reservation of work in the clothing industry should not be set aside, and for an order calling upon the Minister of Labour to show cause why his determination, based on these recommendations, should not also be set aside. This application was granted on 5 November 1960. (23) Star, 4 May 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACE PROPOSED WORK RESERVATION DETERMINATIONS Certain disputes about Non-White "penetration" into previously White spheres of work have been settled by negotiation, without the use of a determination. This was the case in regard to motor transport driving in the municipal undertaking of Pietermaritzburg. According to the latest report of the Department of Labour,("' during 1959 the Industrial Tribunal sent letters inviting proposals for work reservation to two individual employers. Three investigations which were referred to the Tribunal during 1959 have not yet resulted in determinations: these are the building industry in Natal and the Cape, the trades of welding, painting and crane driving in the iron, steel, engineering and metallurgical industry, and motor transport driving on the Free State goldfields. The Tribunal has, since, been asked to investigate the desirability of instituting protection against inter-racial competition in motor transport driving in Durban, the furniture and footwear industries in the Union, abattoirs and the wholesale meat trade on the Witwatersrand and in Pretoria, the liquor and catering trade in Durban, Pietermaritzburg and along the Natal Coast (this would include the posts of barmen, etc.), and the driving or operation of vehicles in the manganese industry on the West Rand. It is also investigating the general labour position in the Western Cape and the application of wage incentive schemes. According to a Press report,}"- the Cape Chamber of Industries has urged the Secretary for Coloured Affairs to recommend that Coloured workers in the Western Cape should be excluded from all work reservation determinations. FACTORIES, MACHINERY AND BUILDING WORK AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 31 OF 1960 TERMS OF THE ACT The Factories, Machinery and Building Work Act, No. 22 of 1941 as amended, empowered the Governor-General to make regulations dealing with safety, cleanliness, ventilation, lighting, etc., in factories. Included in the relevant Section(") were two paragraphs, Nos. (1) (b) and (h), enabling him to make regulations as to: (b) the accommodation, facilities and conveniences to be provided in factories by occupiers for employees while they are working, resting or eating therein; (24) For the year 1959. U.G. 59/60. (25) Rand Daily Mail, 18 October 1960, (25) Section fifty-one of the Act.

(h) conditions of work of employees in any factory where in the opinion of the Minister special provision is necessary to safeguard the physical, moral or social welfare of such employees. A proviso(2') read, "Provided that in making such regulations the Governor- General shall not discriminate on the basis of race or colour except in respect of regulations framed under paragraphs (b) and (h) of sub-section (1)". The Amendment Act of 1960 deleted this proviso and added a new paragraph (h) bis enabling regulations to be made governing "the separation in or at any factory of persons of different sexes, races or classes, and the making of separate provision in or at any factory for persons of different sexes, races or classes in regard to any matter." It also widened the scope of paragraph (b) by amending it to read: "the accommodation, facilities and conveniences for employees in or at factories". It contained a large number of other amendments designed to improve general administration and procedure. PARLIAMENTARY DEBATE During the speech made when introducing the Bill at its Second Reading, the Deputy Minister of Labour said28) that in terms of the principal Act the Governor-General could make regulations requiring the provision of separate sanitary conveniences, washrooms, changing rooms, rest rooms and dining rooms, and separate places of work where employees of different races worked in the same room. He had, however, not been able to require the provision of separate entrances, clocking-in devices, pay offices, first-aid rooms, protective clothing, crockery and cutlery, or separate places of work (i.e. separate rooms). The United Party did not oppose the Second Reading, but attacked the new clauses quoted above during the Committee stage. -The Progressive Party, Liberal Party and Natives' and Coloured representatives did, however, oppose the Second Reading. Reasons advanced by the Progressive Party were that the measure extended the principle of racial segregation in factories in a manner calculated to interfere with their economic operation, and to endanger the security of workers, by opening the way to further job reservation.(29) (27) Included in Sub-section (3). (28) Assembly, 26 January 1960, Hansard 2 cols. 438, 566. (29) Cols. 455, 457. RELATIONS: 1959-60 183

184 A SURVEY OF RACE Opposition speakers maintained(3") that the new provisions could constitute "a back-door method of applying job reservation," without the cumbersome procedure, involving publicity, necessary in terms of Section seventy-seven of the Industrial Conciliation Act. If they were applied, the employers concerned would either be forced to make expensive structural alterations to their premises, or else might decide to employ workers of one racial group only, dismissing minorities of other groups. If Whites were dismissed for this reason, the Minister might then complain that Non-Whites were ousting Whites from their jobs, and he might then reserve the work for Whites in terms of Section seventy-seven. The Minister of Labour said3') that in the past, the maximum demands in regard to separate facilities had not been made immediately of any factory owner who would otherwise have been placed in financial difficulties. "One starts off with the most primary requirements and gradually, as that factory becomes stronger financially and can afford it, those conditions are imposed". He gave the assurance that the new provisions would be imposed in the same way and that employers would not be forced to close or to dismiss minorities of workers of racial groups different from the rest. But subsequent Opposition speakers continued to voice suspicion of the Government's motives and to oppose the amendment. THE POVERTY OF URBAN AFRICANS NEW SURVEY IN JOHANNESBURG BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS Average wages and family income A new study of African incomes and essential expenditure was carried out in Johannesburg by Mrs. Joy de Gruchy under the auspices of the Institute of Race Relations during 1959.32) She made an extensive investigation of the average wages paid in a large variety of industries and occupations, and the starting wages paid to all workers placed by the Johannesburg labour bureau over a period of six months, comparing the results with those of various income surveys conducted by the municipality. (30) Cols. 500, 453-4, 450, 510-1. (31) Cols. 480-1. (32) See The Cost of Living for Urban Africans, by Mrs. J. de Gruchy, published by the Institute.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 185 Her conclusion was that the average wages paid to African men in Johannesburg in 1958 were £9 ils. Od. a month if either food or quarters or both were provided, and £15 if the entire wages were paid in cash. In its Western Areas survey conducted in 1950, the municipality found that there was an average of 1.3 wage-earners per family. Assuming that this figure applied generally, the average income of a family dependent on cash earnings would work out at £ 19 10s. Od. a month. Minimum essential expenditure As in other similar studies, in calculating the theoretical minimum essential expenditure Mrs. de Gruchy took into account only the essential irreducible items of rent, transport and tax, and added scientifically computed estimates of what should be spent on food, clothing, fuel and light and cleaning materials to achieve minimum acceptable standards of health and decency. The figures quoted below refer to an average family of five; but Mrs. de Gruchy included tables which make it possible to calculate the essential monthly expenditure for households of varying composition. The minimum budget for the average family, she concluded, was (per month): £ s. d. Food ...... 13 12 8 Clothing ...... 4 13 0 Rent ...... 2 5 0 Fuel and light ...... 1 9 8 Cleaning materials ...... 16 6 Transport ...... 1 3 5 Tax ...... 2 11 Total ...... £24 3 2 Monthly shortfall The monthly shortfall, thus, was £4 13s. 2d., taking the theoretical minimum essential expenditure only into account. Expenditure patterns Mrs. de Gruchy then compared the pattern of expenditure given above with the actual expenditure incurred by 53 sample African families according to a municipal investigation conducted in December 1956 and January 1957, and with the expenditure of 17 White families with incomes under £750 a year (the lowest

A SURVEY OF RACE income bracket included) in a survey conducted in 1955 by the Bureau of Census and Statistics. The following figures show the percentage distribution of monthly family expenditure: Theoretical minimum 53 African 17 White Item essential expenditure families families Food ...... 56.4 51.2 37.9 Clothing ...... 19.2 15.6 11.2 Rent ...... 9.4 6.1 11.2 Fuel and light ...... 6.1 9.3 3.6 Cleaning materials ... 3.4 4.2 3.3 Transport ...... 4.8 6.1 4.2 Other ...... 0.7 (tax) 7.5 28.6 She pointed out that the White families, on average, spent more on "other" items (except for tax, not taken into account in the theoretical minimum budget) than the average Johannesburg African received in wages, and more on food than the average African family received in income. These "other" items include furniture, household equipment, insurance, education, such medical and dental services as are not available free, church dues, personal care, recreation, reading and writing materials, assistance to relatives living away from home, etc. The 53 African families spent, on average, about £1 1ls. Od. a month on such items, some of which are, in fact, essentials. This means that the monthly average shortfall is in fact considerably more than the £4 13s. 2d. mentioned above. Effective minimum income Mrs. de Gruchy quoted Professor E. Batson's conclusion that the standards of consumption provided by the datum line are only reached in practice when the available income is equal to about 150 per cent of the datum line. In other words, if the poverty datum line for a family of five in Johannesburg is £24 3s. 2d. a month, in accordance with the calculation given above, then, in order to allow for "other" items and unforeseen circumstances, the family income should be about 1 times this, or just over £36 a month. In fact, as has been mentioned, the average African family of this size had £19 10s. Od. SURVEY BY THE DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS OF NATAL UNIVERSITY A more comprehensive study of African incomes and expenditure is being undertaken by the Department of Economics of Natal University, under Professor 0. P. F. Horwood. Information about the conclusions so far reached was given by Professor

Horwood in a paper entitled "The African in the City - His Work", given at a symposium on this subject arranged by the Natal Region of the Institute of Race Relations.(33) This survey, Profesor Horwood said, is covering 10,400 African households of two or more persons, in which there have been found to be 11,300 actual wage- earners. The average size of the African household in Durban is four persons. Eighty per cent of the men earned between £5 and £15 a month, and 86 per cent of them were doing unskilled manual work. These people were not newcomers to Durban: the average period of residence there of the householders was 14 years. Average wages were £10 10s. Od. for men, and just on £4 for women. The effect of a new unskilled wage determination, gazetted after the actual wages paid had been investigated, would be very slight, Profesor Horwood said, mainly because most employers had been paying higher wages than the previous minima. Eighty-five per cent of the householders had less than £15 a month in cash wages - and the position was little improved if other forms of income were also taken into account, since 73 per cent of the households relied on wage incomes only. The poverty datum line, for people living in the least expensive municipal dwellings, was £13 6s. Od. a month for a household of two, £18 6s. Od. for one of four, and £25 13s. Od. for one of six. A summary picture of the relative sufficiency of household incomes was afforded by a comparison of average (wage) income with the poverty datum line for an average-sized family of four persons. The median average monthly household income was found to be £10 8s. Od., and the corresponding minimum living cost was estimated at £16 16s. 5d. Thus, on the average, there would appear to be a shortfall in wage income of more than £6 a month. A survey of actual family expenditures was in progress. So far, on the average, these were tending to exceed incomes quite considerably. Two of the best enumerators, sent to try to find explanations for this, obtained evasive replies. It would appear that the persons questioned were always in debt, and/or supplemented their incomes by illicit means. THE NECESSITY FOR INCREASES IN THE WAGES OF AFRICANS Conference in Port Elizabeth During December 1959 a conference, attended by about 200 persons, was held in Port Elizabeth under the auspices of the Distressed Areas Council. The opening address, entitled "X-ray (33) Copies of the paper are available from the Institute's Durban Office. RELATIONS: 1959-60 187 on Poverty" was given by Professor J. T. Irving, whose cost-ofliving studies in Grahamstown have been described in previous issues of this Survey.(34) Resolutions were passed calling for, inter alia, a national minimum wage determination, the progressive increase in wages of unskilled workers up to at least £25 a month, and the removal of legislation which restricted Non-White economic advancement. Meeting in East London The Mayor of East London, Mr. P. Osmond, convened a multi-racial meeting there in April 1960, at a time when the citizens had been shocked, not only by the nation-wide disturbances, but also by the findings on poverty contained in the first volume of the Border Regional Survey being conducted at Rhodes University. The meeting appointed an action committee, representative of all races, to investigate the low level of local wages. Representations made following the disturbances The representations made to the Government following the disturbances by leaders of commerce and industry are described in an earlier chapter. Briefly, the S.A. Federated Chamber of Industries called, inter alia, for improved machinery for wage fixation in order that the Wage Board might review unskilled wages at more regular intervals, and urged that African workers should play a more active part in wage negotiation. The Association of Chambers of Commerce of S.A. stated that no barriers should be placed in the way of persons of any race utilizing present skills or acquiring and employing new ones. The work reservation provisions of the Industrial Conciliation Act should be repealed, and trade unions should gradually and with suitable safeguards become representative of workers of all races. Restrictions on the mobility of labour should be progressively relaxed. It is reported(.' that later, during June, it was agreed at a representative meeting of employers from all the major urban centres to ask the Government to legislate for a minimum monthly wage of £15 for all African workers in towns with total populations of more than 25,000. This would not apply to domestic, mine or farm workers. The employers fully appreciated that £15 was too low, but such action would be a first step, would in practice mean increased wages for two-fifths of the Africans, and, in industries where competition was keen, would overcome the difficulty that employers were afraid to raise wages to this amount in case, as a result, they were undercut by others. (34) e.g. 1958-59, page 211. (35) Rand Daily Mail, 20 June 1960. 188 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 189 RECENT WAGE DETERMINATIONS During the year under review, as a result of Wage Board recommendations, new determinations have been made governing the minimum wages payable to unskilled workers employed by local authorities and private employers in Bloemfontein, Durban and Pietermaritzburg, and by private employers on the Rand and Pretoria. The Wage Board has dealt, too, with the wages payable in numbers of specific industries and undertakings. In the Assembly on 6 and 9 May 1960(36) the Minister of Labour gave details of some of the wage increases that had resulted. The determination dealing with unskilled labour on the Witwatersrand, for example, affected thirty industries and would result in wage increases ranging from 16.5 per cent to 22.5 per cent. The wages of unskilled workers in East London had been improved by 38 per cent, and those of municipal employees in Bloemfontein by 30.1 per cent. Mrs. V. M. L. Ballinger pointed out that(") the determinations which had been revised were, in some cases, 17 years old, and that the new minimum wages were very inadequate. According to the Report of the Department of Labour for 19590'8) during that year, by making representations at meetings of industrial councils, conciliation boards or the Wage Board, members of the Central Native Labour Board had succeeded in obtaining improvements in the wages and other conditions of employment of more than 183,000 African workers. This report gives details of the numbers of employers and employees whose wages were governed by agreements, awards or determinations in force at the end of 1959, as follows: Number of such Employers Employees instruments in force affected affected Industrial council agreements ... 79 20,190 572,880 Conciliation board agreements ...... 10 197 18,261 Awards ...... 6 42 10,011 Wage determinations ... 141 25,143 415,457 236 45,572 1,016,609 VOLUNTARY INCREASES IN PAY Relative lack of incentives for employers to improve productivity At a recent symposium on "The African in the City- His Work", arranged by the Natal Region of the Institute of Race (36) Hansard 16 col. 6898 and Hansard 17 col. 6936. (37) Col. 6959. (38) U.G. 59/60. pages 8, 7. 10

190 A SURVEY OF RACE Relations, Mr. Norman Mould said3" that if one compared the output per man- hour of most of South Africa's major industries with that in Europe or America, one found that the Union rated unfavourably. In order to obtain increased productivity so that a higher general standard of living could be achieved, three things were necessary - better management, greater mechanization and increased individual output. If the target for higher productivity were set at 100 per cent, he would rate the contributions that might be expected from these three factors at 50 per cent, 35 per cent and 15 per cent respectively, Mr. Mould said. Because, in practice, Whites filled all managerial posts in South Africa, he continued, the White community was called upon to produce something like four to six times as high a proportion of men of superior leadership calibre as was required in most of the other Western countries. There was the danger that the country might accept a low standard of management personnel, dictated by what was conveniently available. In no country, however, did any major gain in productivity take place unless management were given the incentive to make that gain. The usual incentives were spiralling labour costs through trade union pressure, the law of supply and demand operating in labour, and, (a poor third), Government action to raise minimum wage levels. Confidence in the future of the country was also necessary. These incentives were less effective in South Africa than in other Western countries in so far as they stimulated employers to raise the productivity of African workers. Recent increases granted There are, however, other incentives at work in South Africa. As Mr. Mould indicated, many employers appreciate the desirability of an improvement in the standard of living of all the citizens of the country in which they operate to make their profits. But, in any case, attention has unavoidably been focussed of late on the need to develop internal markets, for which increased purchasing power is required. And the disturbances have brought a growing awareness of the necessity for having a contented labour force. Numbers of further firms and other employing bodies have during the past year made voluntary increases in the wages of their Non-White employees - among these are the municipalities of Benoni, Heidelberg and Durban, the Argus Group, the O.K. Bazaars (a second general increase within twelve months), the Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of S.A. and numerous others. The National Federation of Building Trade Employers (39) Copies of this paper are obtainable from the Institute's Durban Office.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 191 is precluded from making sudden improvements because of the necessity for making tenders in advance, but has promised substantial increases during 196104o) The Association for the Improvement of Bantu Wages and Productivity The Association for the Improvement of Bantu Wages and Productivity now has a full-time director, stationed in Johannesburg, and branches in Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East London, Durban and Kimberley. Mr. Vernon R. Atkinson has been elected president. The director, Mr. E. R. Silberbauer, said recently(41) it was estimated that Non- White workers in South Africa were now earning £20-million a year more than they did in 1957, when the wage bill was £365-million. But wages were still inadequate and there were thousands of workers whose pay had not been raised for some years. He had set a £20-million-a-year target for the improvement of African wages. LITTLE CHANGE IN THE BASIC PATTERN OF INEQUALITY BETWEEN THE WAGES OF WHITE AND BLACK Speaking at a conference sponsored by the National Development Foundation in July 1960, Mr. L. H. Samuels, Senior Lecturer in Economics at the University of the Witwatersrand. said(42) that although the real wages of Africans had risen in recent years. the basic pattern of inequality in the incomes of African and White workers had changed little in the last quarter of a century. Since 1938 the average wage of Africans in industry had increased by 351 per cent, as against 381 per cent for Whites. But when the rise in prices was taken into account, the discrepancy became much greater since food, which bulked so largely in the African worker's budget, had become so much more expensive. Allowing for this factor, the increases in real wages were about 72 per cent for Whites and only 46 per cent for Africans. RECENT ANNOUNCEMENT BY THE MINISTER OF LABOUR The Minister of Labour is reported to have said on 15 November 1960 that the Government was opposed to the introduction of a general minimum wage, for this would cause the country's cost structure to soar, and inflation or unemployment or both (40) Rand Daily Mail report, 25 August 1960. (41) Ibid, 6 and 13 October 1960. (42) Rand Daily Mail report, 23 July 1960.

A SURVEY OF RACE would follow. The standard of living of the low-paid worker should be improved gradually by selective wage increases, the Government considered. To assist in this process, wage determinations for unskilled labour in certain trades would be reviewed at intervals of not less than five years, instead of ten years or longer. The new minimum wages for unskilled workers would be incorporated in Industrial Conciliation agreements or Wage Board determinations every time these were revised. In referring other matters to the Wage Board for investigation, the Minister would give priority to industries where large numbers of unskilled workers were employed. From 1918 to 1958 the average annual increase in wages earned by the whole population was 2.4 per cent per head, the Minister said. It was three per cent in the developed "White" areas, where Africans had shared in the improved living conditions. During the past three years substantial increases had been prescribed in the minimum wages of the unskilled worker, amounting to as much as £1 3s. 6d. a week. The Government was anxious to see an even larger improvement, and would welcome the co-operation of private employers. It was convinced that planned wage increases would bring an increase in labour productivity, not only because this would increase the work potential of the worker, but also because it would encourage the employer to utilize his labour force more effectively. STRIKES AND LABOUR DISPUTES THE SEPARATE INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION MACHINERY PROVIDED FOR AFRICANS The terms of the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act were described in an earlier issue of this Survey.43) This Act did not prohibit African trade unions, but, as in earlier legislation, denied them official recognition, and rer,dered strikes by Africans illegal. It provided for the establishment of: (a) Regional Native Labour Committees with African members appointed by the Minister of Labour sitting under White chairmen (the Native Labour Officers for the region), to maintain contact with employers and employees, to receive representations, and to assist in settling disputes; (b) a Central Native Labour Board consisting of White members appointed by the Minister; (c) elected works committees in establishments employing not less than 20 Africans. (43) 1952-53. page 79.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 193 In the Assembly on 18 March 1960014) the Minister of Labour gave details of the composition of the regional committees and the board. The chairman of the Central Native Labour Board was Mr. S. D. Mentz, he said, and there were five other members. He gave their names and the salaries they received. He also provided the names of all the African members of the Regional Native Labour Committees which had been set up in Johannesburg, Germiston, Benoni, Krugersdorp, Vereeniging, Pretoria, Durban, East London, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town. Later, on 9 May,(4") the Minister said that only ten works committees were functioning. The Pan-African Congress and the African National Congress had "incited workers not to make use of such channels", he added. DISPUTES WITHOUT STOPPAGES OF WORK In the Annual Report of the Department of Labour for 195909') it is stated, "during the year there were 61 Bantu labour disputes which were settled by implementing the provisions of the Act (referred to above) without the workers resorting to strike action. The number of Bantus involved in these disputes was 10,130. Several of the disputes were of such a nature that they might have resulted in strikes and consequent dislocation in the industries concerned had it not been for the timeous intervention of the Central Native Labour Board and its subsidiary bodies. The settlement of disputes was in many instances facilitated by co- operation on the employers' part." STRIKES Statistics for 1959 In the same report it is stated(47) that during 1959 White persons participated in three strikes, while Non-Whites (including Africans) were involved in 43. Only two of these were serious-a strike of White workers at the Winkelhaak mine, and one of 1,457 Africans in the explosives and chemical industry at Somerset West. Altogether, 3,497 Africans had been involved in strikes, 25,600 man-hours having been lost as a result. "There were sixteen disputes which caused a stoppage of work but which were due (44) Hansard 9 cols. 3639-40. (45) Hansard 17 cols. 6938-9. (46) U.G. 59/60. page 8. (47) Pages 6 and 8.

A SURVEY OF RACE to misunderstanding and were settled after explanation." The average duration of all work stoppages by Africans was 7 hours 13 minutes. The Minister of Labour gave slightly different figures in the Assembly on 5 February and 29 January 1960.(48") During 1959, he said, there had been 36 strikes by Africans, involving 3,462 workers. In 27 cases the employees had been prosecuted and in eight cases convicted. One case was pending. Totals of 822 persons had been charged and 221 convicted. In 27 cases increased wages or improved working conditions had been granted. Langeberg Kooperasie strike A new wage determination for the canning industry was published towards the end of 1959. It laid down a new minimum wage for the Port Elizabeth area which, although higher than the previous minimum, was actually less than what the Langeberg Kooperasie was already paying its 615 African workers there. According to Press reports49) the South African canned fruit industry, which is largely dependent on overseas markets, was falling behind Australia and other countries in the race for sales. Many Eastern Cape pineapple farmers were facing bankruptcy. The Langeberg chain of factories, responsible for 60 per cent of the country's fruit exports, was going through grave financial difficulties. It was consequently decided to prune the wages paid in the Port Elizabeth factory to the new statutory minimum. The Trade Union Council stated that workers earning £2. 16. 6d. a week would, in terms of this decision, be deprived of more than eight shillings a week. On 8 December 1959, 450 Coloured and Africans walked out in protest, bringing work to a standstill. The factory engaged other workers in their place; but then a general strike in the company's eight canneries, which would have involved 12,000 workers, was threatened by the Food and Canning Workers' Union, also the Congress Alliance threatened a general boycott of Langeberg products. The chairman of the company announced a few days later that the Port Elizabeth workers would be re-engaged and given (-') Hansard 3 col. 994; Hansard 2 col. 602 (49) e.g. Evening Post, 12 December 1959.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 195 bonuses to bring their pay back to the previous rates. This decision, he said, had been taken because it was desirable to have a contented labour force. Hammarsdale strike Mr. M. Glazer, manager and part-owner of a clothing factory. had originally operated in Durban, but dismissed his Indian, Coloured and African employees there, moved to Hammarsdale (an area where wages were uncontrolled), and engaged about 450 untrained Africans at lower rates of pay. During January 1960 a dispute took place about wages and the recognition of elected representatives of the African Garment Workers' Union. All the African workers came out on strike. About 40 White and Non-White policemen, some of the former armed with sten guns, then arrived from Pietermaritzburg and arrested about 20 workers who were picketing the factory and about 150 others who were attending a meeting. About 50 employees returned to work, but these were insufficient to permit production to be continued. As so many were awaiting trial, the factory had to close down and Mr. Glazer returned to Durban. On 11 April, 202 workers were found guilty on charges arising from the strike. Their sentences ranged from £15 or six weeks (£10 or four weeks being suspended for three years) to £5 or three weeks suspended for three years.("°) Emco Strike African workers at the Emco Chemical and Cosmetics Factory in Durban came out on strike during July 1960. Forty-two of them were subsequently cautioned and discharged when they appeared in the magistrate's court. TRADE UNIONISM RACIAL COMPOSITION OF TRADE UNIONS According to the 1959 report of the Department of Labour, quoted above, and to replies by the Minister of Labour to a series (50) From reports in Rand Daily Mail, 2 February and 12 April, Star, 2 February, and New Age, 4 and 11 February.

196 A SURVEY OF RACE of questions in the Assembly,00 at the end of 1959 there were 183 registered trade unions and 221 registered employers' organizations. Eleven more trade unions had applied for registration. Of the registered unions, 95 had White members only, 36 had Coloured and Asian members only, and 52 were open to both White and Coloured persons. Of the 52, twenty-four had established separate branches for their White and their Coloured members, 25 had been granted exemption partially or entirely from this requirement of the Act of 1956,("1 and "the other three unions were unable to function constitutionally and at the close of the year the cancellation of their certificates of registration was under consideration".53' Of the eleven unions not yet registered, six catered for Whites only and the remaining five for Coloured and/or Asians only. DEVELOPMENTS IN REGARD TO CO-ORDINATING BODIES As was described in some detail in last year's Survey(5" the main co-ordinating trade union bodies are the S.A. Confederation of Labour, which is furthest to the right; the centre body, which is the largest-the Trade Union Council; and, to the left of this, the S.A. Congress of Trade Unions (SACTU). Towards the end of 1959 a new group, the Federation of Free African Trade Unions of S.A. (FOFATUSA), was formed in Johannesburg with nine member unions which had previously maintained a loose liaison with the T.U.C., and continue to be associated with that body. FOFATUSA claimed about 17,000 members. African trade unions are divided, some being affiliated to FOFATUSA and others to SACTU. The T.U.C. is associated with the anti-Communist International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), which has been anxious to extend its influence in Africa. During November 1959, however, at a conference held in Accra, a new organization called the All-African Trade Union Federation was formed, which will not have direct ties either with ICFTU or with the Communist-dominated World Federation of Trade Unions. SACTU became a senior affiliated member of this new body. (51) 15 March, Hansard 9 cols. 3390-1. (52) See 1957-58 Survey, page 176. (53) Report of Deparment of Labour, op cit, page 6. (54) 1958-59, pages 221-2. RELATIONS: 1959-60 EMPLOYMENT IN VARIOUS BRANCHES OF THE ECONOMY OCCUPATIONS IN 1951 The recently-issued publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years gave details of the occupations of the population in 1951. Given in summary form this information is as follows (the percentages having been calculated by the writer). Economically active persons Number of persons aged 15 years and over ...... Of these, number who were economically active ... Percentage of age groups concerned who were economically active ...... Percentages of each racial group employed in various occupations Peasants ...... Other forms of agriculture, hunting, fishing ...... Mining and quarrying ... Manufacturing ...... Construction ...... Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services ...... Commerce and finance ... Transport, storage, communication ...... Domestic services ...... Governmental services ... Other community and recreational services, hotels and restaurants ...... Unemployed, or activities not adequately described Whites Coloured Asians Africans 1,803,601 630,301 192,478 5,218,407 983,568 404,524 94,481 3,110,014 54.6 64.2 49.1 59.6 - 14.4 14.8 5.8 18.6 6.8 0.7 18.2 11.5 0.4 7.0 13.4 2.8 100.0 24.1 0.9 17.4 9.6 0.4 6.2 3.5 18.9 2.1 6.6 10.3 100.0 13.7 0.6 23.3 2.4 0.2 24.5 25.9 14.4 7.3 4.3 0.5 3.2 2.6 2.4 2.0 18.2 2.2 1.8 13.6 14.9 100.0 3.8 3.8 100.0 AGRICULTURE Numbers employed The same publication gave the numbers of persons employed in agriculture on the farms of Whites, Coloured and Asians during

198 A SURVEY OF RACE the month of June 1957. The occupiers of the farms and their wives and other relations are not included: Farm employees, excluding seasonal Domestic servants. and occasional workers. Whites: Men ...... 10,575 Women 418 78 Coloured and Asian: Men ...... 95,548 1,018 Women ...... 7,087 21,318 Africans: Men ...... 612,054 11,283 Women ...... 90,188 114,055 Cash wages paid to these workers during the month of June 1957, and the estimated cash value of payments in kind during the preceding year, are given for both men and women in the report of the Agricultural Census for 1956-57.(") It is, however, impossible to arrive at accurate average figures, since in this report the wages of adults and juveniles are combined and, furthermore, wages vary at different times of the year. White occupancy of rural areas The report of the (du Toit) Commission of Inquiry into European Occupancy of the Rural Areas was published during the year under review. It states that in the rural areas (excluding small country towns) the White population decreased from 673,000 in 1931, to 571,000 in 1951, to an estimated 552,000 in 1958. (Yet in physical volume the farmers produced 76 per cent more in 1958 than they did twenty years earlier). In these "White" rural areas the Africans had doubled their numbers during the past three decades. By 1951 there were 2,337,000 Africans on the farms of Whites and 587,000 in the rest of the platteland (rural areas). The preponderance of Africans on the "White" platteland was proceeding apace, especially in the south and south-west parts of the Free State and in Natal. If the existing process continued, by 1971 there would be only 515,000 Whites but more than four million Africans in the "White" rural areas. It was in the best future interests of South Africa to maintain on the platteland the maximum number of Whites who could be assured of a worthy and safe existence there, the Commission said. The White platteland was largely the pivot of Western civilization, and should it collapse, "White" civilization in the cities, too, would in the long run not be able to hold its own. (55) U.G. 56159. The Commission recommended that only the absolute essential numbers of Africans should be employed, and that Chapter IV of the Native Trust and Land Act(56) should be very strictly enforced. It was suggested that a progressive tax should be imposed on farms that were not occupied by Whites, that share- cropping by Africans should be forbidden, and that educational and social amenities for Whites should be improved on the platteland. Appointment of new Inter-Departmental Committee It was announced on 6 November 1959, in terms of Government Notice 691, that the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development had appointed an inter- departmental committee to enquire into: (a) "the nature and extent of the residence of Bantu on land of landowners in the European areas; (b) the efficiency or otherwise of existing labour systems, especially the farm labour tenant system in so far as it concerns farming and the land; (c) the implications of the abolition of the farm labour tenant system and the institution of a system of full-time employment in so far as it concerns the following: (i) the farmers who are at present using the farm labour tenant system; (ii) the Bantu families who will become redundant in the European rural areas; (iii) the land known as labour farms; (iv) the resettlement in the Bantu areas of surplus Natives; (d) the effective canalisation of Bantu labour to agriculture; (e) the squatter problem on mission farms, State-owned land and company land; (f) the revision of laws to facilitate the supply of labour for farmers in the most useful and effective way; (g) any other relative matters." Course of training for Coloured farm workers The Deputy Minister of the Interior said on 12 April 1960("7) that an agricultural gymnasium for Coloured farm workers was shortly to be established on the farm Kromme Rhee near Stellenbosch. A course lasting a year would be conducted, providing training in such things as driving tractors, keeping milk records, supervising dairies, gardening and sheep shearing. (56) See 1953-54 Survey, page 85. (57) Assembly, Hansard 13 col. 5390. RELATIONS: 1959-60 199

The S.A. Agricultural Union's "Native Policy for Agriculture" During August 1960 the S.A. Agricultural Union published its "Native policy for Agriculture." It accepted that the African must be afforded the opportunity "of fully developing his personality within the framework of an orderly community." The relationship between employer and African employees was closer on farms than in towns, it was stated, and in the former areas would "continue to be the traditional one of guardian and protdgd." The more proficient a farm labourer could become, the greater would be his value to his employer and the higher would be the wage which he could command on an economic basis. A higher standard of performance generally followed when an employer understood his employees not only as workers but also as human beings. To improve such understanding farmers should learn an appropriate African language. The system of labour tenants was obsolete and should be replaced with the least possible delay by a system of full-time farm labour. Farmers should employ only the number of workers who could be kept fully occupied, this regular working force being supplemented by properly organized seasonal labour and by teams of trained workers who would go from farm to farm undertaking such tasks as erecting fences or sawing timber. Dealing with educational policy, the Agricultural Union expressed the view that in the Reserves, training facilities should be provided up to the highest possible level. In the White areas, however, only such education as is required by labourers, semiskilled workers and artisans should be available to Africans. Those on farms should receive their initial education in small farm schools, provided on a fairly liberal scale, and giving training through the medium of the mother tongue in the three R's, and, on a practical basis, in nature study, agriculture and horticulture. The language of the Whites in the neighbourhood concerned should also be studied. Boys who wished to work on farms should then proceed to take a two-year course of training for agricultural labourers. Detailed recommendations followed for the improvement of health services, housing and nutrition. The Union had obtained the concession from the Government that the costs of houses for farm labourers might be deducted from a farmer's taxable income. Farmers should organize their labour in such a manner that the worker had certain free hours during the week for his own affairs or for recreation, the Union stated. Permanent workers should be granted at least ten days' annual leave with full pay. Christianity, humanity and justice should always be the mainspring of the farmer's dealings with his labourer, the Union concluded. In this respect every citizen, including the farmer, could make a great contribution to the creation of better racial relations. 200 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 201 MANUFACTURING A preliminary report on the 1955-56 industrial Census was issued during the year under review.(8) There were, at the time of the census, 3,797 White and 611 Non- White working proprietors in the private manufacturing industry. The paid employees numbered 159,599 Whites, 86,596 Coloured, 26,379 Asians and 336,591 Africans. Average salaries and wages were £815 a year for the Whites, £215 for the Coloured, £269 for the Asians and £153 for the Africans. The average salaries and wages paid during 1958 in the manufacturing industry (including private construction) were given by the Deputy Minister of the Interior in reply to a question in the Assembly on 29 January 1960.9() They were £868 for Whites, he said, £282 for Coloured and Asians and £156 for Africans. CONSTRUCTION AND POWER The Industrial Census report also provided information about employment in construction and in the generation and distribution of electricity, gas and steam in 1955-56. There were 1,898 White and 156 Non-White working proprietors in the former industry. Information given about the paid employees is: Whites Coloured Asians Africans Construction Number of employees Average salaries and Number Average ... 24,196 wages £805 Power of employees ... salaries and wages 6,636 £856 11,987 734 73,889 £320 £432 £140 337 £264 60 11,054£183 £103 The Report of the Department of Labour for 195 9(6°) gives the following information about African building workers: Number registered during 1959 Blocklaying ...... 16 Electrical Wiring ...... Plumbing ...... 23 Bricklaying ...... 147 Bricklaying/Plastering .. 50 Plastering ...... 24 Painting ...... 24 Carpentry ...... 62 Total number registered at end of 1959 56 2 84 1,390 170 118 133 420 2,373 Learners receiving training at the end of 1959 70 2 92 689 8 31 95 86 1,073 (58) Special Report No. 227. (59) Hansard 2 cols. 598-9. (60) U.G. 59/60. page 15.

202 A SURVEY OF RACE A new wage determination for African building workers was published during the year under review,(6"' increases of from 2d. to 31d. an hour being given. The new wage rates for registered workers range from 1/6 in Queenstown and Albany to 1/10 an hour in the Western Cape. On the Reef, 1/8 an hour is payable. Cost-of- living allowances, overtime pay and incentive bonuses are paid in addition to the basic rates. COMMERCE African Traders in Johannesburg Early in 1960 Mr. Lawrence Reyburn, Research Assistant on the staff of the Institute of Race Relations, obtained detailed information about their problems and difficulties from 47 African traders in Johannesburg's South-Western Townships("). This was a sample of approximately one in twenty-five, those interviewed being chosen on the basis of the type of trade in which they were engaged and the townships in which their businesses were situated. In his conclusions, Mr. Reyburn pointed out that for as long as Africans were denied freehold tenure of land, African commerce was doomed to inferior status relative to that of the Whites. He pleaded that, failing freehold tenure, 30-year leases with as few restrictive conditions as possible should be granted, the lessee to be allowed the right of renewal on the expiry of this period. There was hesitation on the part of investors to advance money to traders on the strength of notarial bonds (taken out over the moveables on a property), Mr. Reyburn found, because the municipality would not register such bonds against the trading site permit of the owner of the buildings concerned. He recommended that they should be so registered in order to help to alleviate the capital shortage with which most African traders had to contend. Centralized trading areas were preferable to the wide dispersal of shops throughout a township, Mr. Reyburn suggested. If traders erected their own buildings, rather than renting premises built by a local authority (as was the case at Meadowlands), they would be able to draw up plans which would best meet their needs. In spite of the successful courses that had been conducted by the Johannesburg Junior Chamber of Commerce, the vast bulk of the traders and their assistants remained ignorant of efficient trading methods. Suggestions were made for the establishment of a commercial school to provide such training. (61) G.N. 130 of 29 January 1960 and G.N. 556 of 22 April. (62) The results of this study were published by the Institute as Fact Paper No. 6-1960, African Traders: Their position and problems in Johannesburg's SouthWestern Townships. RELATIONS: 1959-60 203 Mr. Reyburn drew attention to the unease and confusion that had been caused by a statement by the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development to the effect that African traders were only temporarily being allowed to carry on business in urban townships.(63) He pleaded for increased police protection in the townships, stricter enforcement of regulations prohibiting illegal trading, and the lifting of restrictions on the establishment of agencies of banks in urban African areas. (Each of the four leading banking institutions is still allowed a quota of only four agencies in townships throughout the Union.) Courses of training for African traders Following the publication of this study, plans were made. by the Institute of Race Relations to organize a training course for African traders. Mr. Reyburn was responsible for drawing up the syllabuses. At the time of writing the necessary preliminary work had been practically completed. The University College of the North has established a Lower Diploma course for traders who have passed the Junior Certificate, and intends introducing a Higher Diploma course, the entrance qualification for which will be either the Lower Diploma or the Senior Certificate. Traders' organizations In his survey Mr. Reyburn described the African Chamber of Commerce, the Bantoe Winkelierse Helpnekaar Vereeniging, the Johannesburg and District Traders' Association and the Ikaheng Finance Corporation Limited, which are all African organizations. It was announced during October 196064) that a group of Coloured business men in the Cape Peninsula had decided to establish a retailers' organization which they hoped would eventually become a Coloured Chamber of Commerce. MINING According to the publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, there were averages of 64,690 Whites, 3,374 Coloured, 407 Asians and 518,018 Africans employed in mining during 1959. The large majority of these (e.g. 398,127 of the Africans(6")) were engaged in gold mining. (63) See 1958-59 Survey, page 249. (64) Rand Daily Mail, 13 October 1960. (65) Statement by the Minister of Mines, Assembly 19 April 1960, Hansard 14 col. 5800.

Both the actual number and the percentage of Africans employed by the members and contractors of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association that were drawn from within the borders of the Union again increased from 1958 to 1959. Statistics as at 31 December 1959 were: Country of origin Numbers Percentage of total Union ...... 135,667 35.20 Three High Commission Territories 72,915 18.92 East Coast and Tropical Territories 176,821 45.88 The Deputy Minister of the Interior said on 29 January 1960(06) that the average salaries and wages paid in cash to mining employees during 1958 were £1,095 for Whites, £236 for Coloured and Asians, and £68 for Africans. In reply to a series of questions in the Assembly on 15 March 19606') the Minister of Mines said that during 1959 the wages for Africans working in gold and coal mines which were members of the Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber of Mines were: Per shift Underground Surface workers workers Minimum wages ...... 3/- 2/3 Average wages: Gold mines ...... 4/8 3/5 Coal mines ...... 4/3 3/6 The rate of overtime was one-and-a-half times the daily wage. Various types of protective clothing were issued free, such as hard hats, boots, knee guards and shin guards. The Minister was also asked what the estimated costs per shift to the employers were of food, medical services, housing, clothing and other benefits in kind supplied to African mineworkers. He replied that these costs differed from mine to mine, and the information was not available. According to a recent publication by the International Labour Office(8) the average cost of food and accommodation in 1957 was 3/ 1- per shift. Two Africans from Nyasaland who had served in a mine at Welkom-Everson Wilson and Monahang Phutheho-were during December 1959 awarded the coveted Golden Helmet and also bronze medals for outstanding first aid services rendered at th,2 scene of an accident.(69) Another bronze medal and an inscribed watch were presented in November 1960 to Mokgosi Muthuso for saving the life of a White miner during blasting operations. (66) Assembly Hansard 2 cols. 598-9. (67) Hansard 9 cols. 3385-7. (68) Africa Labour Survey, page 281. (69) Rand Daily Mail report, 11 December 1959. A SURVEY OF RACE 204

RELATIONS: 1959-60 205 THE PUBLIC SERVICE As at 31 March 1959 the employees in the Public Service, excluding the Railways and the Provincial Administrations, and their average annual salaries and wages, were: (7) Average salaries Numbers and wages Whites ...... 102,842 £724.8 Coloured and Asians ...... 10,894 £220.0 Africans ...... 107,604 £166.8 Africans were employed in the largest numbers in the Departments of Bantu Education, Forestry, Police, Water Affairs, Bantu Affairs and Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones. The largest numbers of Asians and Coloured were employed in the Departments of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones, Police, Defence, Public Works, Forestry, Health and Education, Arts and Science. Detailed information about the posts for Non-White employees in the Department of Posts, Telegraphs and Telephones, and the rates of pay, was given by the Minister of this Department in the Assembly on 9 February 1960.(7") The highest salaries, paid to 29 Coloured and Indian Grade 1 postal assistants and 24 Coloured overseer postmen were £330 x 30 - £690, and £420 x 30 - £690, respectively (excluding cost-of-living allowances). African Grade I postal assistants were paid on the scale £260 x 20 - £300 x 30 £540: there were 78 such posts. The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development provided information about posts for Africans in his department.(12) The highest-paid post was for a Bantu sub-editor, with a salary of £360 x 30 - £720. According to the Minister of Justice,73) the strength of the Police Force during April 1960 was: Strength Shortage W hites ...... 12,850 921 Coloured ...... 1,012 128 Indians ...... 333 44 Africans ...... 11,976 900 Second Class Sergeant Johannes Meno, together with four White policemen, was awarded the Queen's Medal during December 1959. His award was for bravery and skill in arresting dangerous criminals. (70) From official Bullet.'n of Statistics, July 1960. (71) Hansard 4 col. 1151. (72) Assembly, 11 March 1960, Hansard 8 cols. 3196-7. (73) Assembly, 8 April, Hansard 12 cols. 5119-20.

206 A SURVEY OF RACE THE RAILWAYS During 1959 the S.A. Railways and Harbours Administration employed averages of 123,684 Whites, 9,839 Coloured, 654 Asians and 101,303 Africans!") These totals had decreased by February 1960: on the 16th of that month the Minister of Transport said that 110,720 Whites and 107,994 Non-Whites were then employed.(71) On 4 March the Minister gave details of gratuities paid to Non-White railway workers who had served for at least five years, and annuities paid to those who completed at least fifteen years' service.76) He gave information on another occasion"71) about the separate machinery that had been set up to deal with African labour disputes, similar to that provided for in terms of the Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act. A Central Labour Board had been established, also, in each system area, a regional committee consisting of the head or sub-head of the department concerned, the Inspector of Native Labour, and five appointed African members. Besides this, at centres where there were concentrations of African labour workers' representatives were elected, a maximum of twenty such representatives in each system area being permitted to meet the regional committee at least once a year. It was announced at a Press conference on 11 November 1960 that schools had been established to train Non-White supervisors, who, on completion of their training, would instruct foremen and indunas in charge of labourers in harbours and goods yards. This scheme was gradually to be extended. MUNICIPAL SERVICE Two Africans employed by municipalities were given awards for courage during the year under review. In December 1959 the Mayor of Barberton presented a bicycle to Mr. Sambok Manize in recognition of his bravery in dragging a municipal electrician clear of a live wire. Two months later the Mayor of Johannesburg presented a watch and £5 to Mr. Simon Gaba, the watch being a gift from the White driver of a municipal truck who was saved from being crushed by a collapsing concrete slab by Mr. Gaba's action in wedging poles underneath it. i4) Union Statistics for Fifty Years, Table G 15. (- ) Assembly, Hansard 5 col. 1597. (76) Assembly, Hansard 7 cols. 2719-20. (77 Assembly, 9 February 1960. Hansard 4 cols. 1141-2.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 207 PERSONAL SERVICES New hotels for Non-Whites have been opened in Kimberley and Bloemfontein. The 1955-56 Industrial Census report') stated that in the laundry and dry-cleaning trade there were 105 White and 81 NonWhite working proprietors. The paid employees were 2,612 Whites, 2,481 Coloured, 1,633 Asians and 8,234 Africans, their average annual salaries and wages being £486, £169, £192 and £168 respectively. According to a Press report79) the Maternal and Child Welfare Officer of the Cape Town City Health Department said during July 1960 that during the previous year about 200 babies born to Coloured domestic servants had died as a result of neglect or unhygienic conditions in the homes of foster parents. In many cases, in order to avoid losing their jobs in private households, the mothers had left the babies within ten days of their birth. This death-rate was almost twice as high as the overall Coloured infant mortality rate. THE PROFESSIONS Medical Profession The Minister of Health said early in 196080) that there were 7,789 medical practitioners, 416 interns and 1,371 medical students registered in the Union. The Government employed 61 full-time and 389 part-time district surgeons. Included in the totals were 67 African medical practitioners, 18 African interns, 108 African medical students, and about 93 Coloured and Indian doctors.81) Dr. J. Rex Tatane was during April appointed ophthalmic registrar at Baragwanath Hospital, and was also awarded a twoyear bursary by the S.A. National Council for the Blind to enable him to specialize in ophthalmology in London. Law An Advocates Admission Bill was drafted by the Government, and during the early months of 1960 was circulated in legal circles for comment. It provided for the establishment of an Advocates Admission Board to make rules for the admission, suspension and (78) Special Report No. 227. (79) Star, 9 July 1960. (80) Assembly, 29 January, Hansard 2 col. 589. and 26 February, Hansard 6 col. 2268. (81) Race Relations News, November 1959, and article by Miss M. C. E. Vegtel in the Bantu Education Journal, May 1960. removal of advocates, and to make recommendations to the Minister of Justice in regard to qualifications for admission. The Board would consist of the Chief Justice as chairman, the Secretary for Justice or his nominee, two practising barristers selected by the Minister from a panel of four names submitted by the General Council of the Bar in each province, and two academic persons selected by the Minister from a panel of names submitted by the University Law Faculties. The Minister of Justice said in the Senate on 25 April,8') "South Africa will in the future, particularly with a view to the growing threats of Communism, have to be more selective than in the past in respect of the admission of attorneys . ..A definition of who a suitable and proper person is who can become an attorney will have to be more strictly interpreted." According to a Press report,8') the President of the Association of Law Societies said that, after seeing the Bill, members of the legal profession gave this Association an overwhelming majority mandate to seek an interview with the Minister and make every effort to combat the suggestions outlined above. This interview was granted. The Minister is reported to have given the assurance that no legislation on the matter would be introduced during the 1961 Session of Parliament, and in any case any such measure would be discussed with the legal profession before its introduction. It was found in a survey conducted by the Department of Labour in 1959(4) that there were then 49 African attorneys. As was mentioned in an earlier issue of this Survey,8") during 1958 Mr. C. M. Kobus, a Cape Town attorney, was ordered to leave his chambers in the central area of the city and to move to Langa Township or some other African area. Appeals were unsuccessfully made on his behalf by the Law Society of the Cape and the Institute of Race Relations. Mr. Kobus moved to Langa, but his practice was ruined because his African clients were away in town all day and his Coloured clients needed permits to visit him and were not allowed into the township at the weekends. During 1960 Mr. Kobus was forced to give up his own practice. He is now again at work in the city, but as an assistant to an Indian attorney. Other professions The Minister of Health said on 12 February 1960,00 in reply to a question in the Assembly, that there were 17,154 White nurses, 903 Coloured or Indian nurses and 4,633 African nurses registered with the S.A. Nursing Council. (82) Hansard 10 cols. 2329-31. (83) Rand Daily Mail, 22 October 1960. (84) Quoted by Miss M. C. E. Vegter in the article op cit. (85) 1957-58, page 177. (86) Assembly, Hansard 4 cols. 1395-6. A SURVEY OF RACE 208

RELATIONS: 1959-60 209 It was mentioned in the 1957-58 issue of this Survey(7) that during August 1958, in terms of a notice published in the Gazette, all practising nurses were required to send a form to the Nursing Council stating their racial groups and identity numbers. Many of them voiced strong objections. In reply to a further question the Minister said that the names of large numbers of nurses were removed from the register because they failed to comply with this requirement. The exact number was unknown: some women had not replied because they objected to doing so, but others had not submitted forms because they had ceased to practice. However, about 700 nurses subsequently applied for their names to be restored to the register. They were required to pay the basic registration fee of £4. Advisory Boards and Advisory Committees for Coloured and for African nurses were set up during the year under review.050 According to an article by Miss M. C. E. Vegter in the Bantu Education Journal of May 1960, in 1959 there were, in South Africa: 2,779 African student nurses; 504 agricultural demonstrators; 19 university lecturers; 67 librarians; 33 journalists; 73 accountants; 61 chemical assayers or metallurgists; 188 laboratory technicians or assistants; and 3 scientists. During 1960 the Natal University honoured Mr. Arthur D. Lazarus, the principal of Sastri College, by conferring on him the honorary degree of D.Phil. The Coloured poet Mr. S. V. Petersen was awarded a bursary of £1,000 by the Department of Coloured Affairs to enable him to study educational methods in Germany. EDUCATION CONTROL OF EDUCATION On 25 April 1960 the Minister of Education, Arts and Science moved for leave to introduce the Union Education Advisory Council Bill, which provided for the establishment of such a (87) Page 180. (88) See 1956-57 Survey, page 159, for terms of the Nursing Act of 1957 under which provision was made for the establishment of these bodies. council, to consist of seven to twelve members appointed by the Minister for a period not exceeding five years. The Provinces would, in terms of the Bill, each be represented by one educationalist recommended by the Administrator. The function of the council would be "to advise the Minister generally in regard to the policy to be adopted in connection with the education of White persons." Its activities would be closely controlled by the Minister. The Bill stated that no province might introduce draft legislation on education without the prior approval of the Minister. It provided, also, that the Minister might appoint a committee consisting of a member of the council as chairman and two other persons to carry out at any State or State-aided school any investigation ordered by the Minister "in connection with any matter affecting the basic principles of education". These principles were not defined. Despite the opposition of the United and Progressive Parties the Bill was introduced, but was not proceeded with during the second sitting of the 1960 Session of Parliament. EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATIONAL SERVICES EXPENDITURE PER PUPIL AND PER HEAD OF POPULATION The latest year for which the Department of Education, Arts and Science has calculated the expenditure on education per pupil and per head of population is 1953. The expenditure during that year was: Whites Coloured and Asians Africans £ Per head of Per pupil population 63.18.5. £13.9.5.20.4.3. £3.19.7. E8. 19. 11. 17. 10. The National Bureau of Educational and Social Research states that the estimated expenditure on education in 1957-58 was: Provinces: W hites ...... Coloured ...... A sians ...... Bantu Education Department: Africans ...... Department of Education, Arts and Science: Whites, Coloured and Asians ...... Africans ...... £33,348,000 £6,378,800 £2,571,500 £9,500,000 £8,793,808 £184,815 210 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 211 BANTU EDUCATION ACCOUNT Receipts, 1958-59 According to reports by the Controller and Auditor-General,O) the following amounts were paid into the Bantu Education Account during the year 1958-59: Fixed amount paid from general revenue ...... £6,500,000 Four-fifths of proceeds of African general tax ...... £2,160,827 Receipts from schools, sale of land, etc ...... £163,220 Amount transferred from loan account ...... £356,787 £9,180,834 Extension of University Education Amendment Act, No. 32 of 1960 This Act contained two clauses only, to amend the Extension of University Education Act (No. 45 of 1959) and the University College of Fort Hare Transfer Act (No. 64 of 1959) by providing that moneys required for capital expenditure in connection with Bantu university c6lleges may be advanced by the Loan Account to the Bantu Education Account upon such terms and conditions as the Minister of Bantu Education, in consultation with the Minister of Finance, may determine. When introducing the Bill, the Minister of Bantu Education said(') that loans would be free of interest and repayable over a period of thirty years. In opposing the Bill the United Party maintained that when money was to be appropriated from the Loan Account the proper' authority was Parliament. It reiterated its view that there should not be a separate account for Bantu education. In the reports quoted above the Controller and AuditorGeneral stated that as at 31 March 1959 the Bantu Education Account was £989,425 in debt to the Loan Account. (1) U.G. 51/1959 page 28 and U.G. 5211959 page 268. (2) Assembly, 10 February 1960, Hansard 4 col. 1206.

A SURVEY OF RACE Estimated expenditure for the year ending 30 March 1961 The estimated expenditure from the Bantu Education Account for the year ending 31 March 1961 is:"3) £ Salaries, wages and allowances ...... Other administrative costs, including expenses ...... Supplies and services ...... Bursaries and loans to pupils ...... Vacation courses and teachers' classes Subsidies: Community schools ...... State-aided schools ...... Night and continuation classes School feeding ...... 1,495,500 examination ...... 413,650 ...... 335.050 ...... 11,500 ...... 1,000 ...... 6,427,810 ...... 930,240 ...... 10,000 ...... 50,000 Financial assistance to community schools for capital expenditure ...... Maintenance of university colleges: Fort H are ...... University College of Zululand ...... University College of the North ...... Redemption of loans for capital expenditure ...... 120,000 175,000 87,000 94,000 41,250 £10, 192,000 Besides this, it was expected that £470,000 would be spent from loan funds, £199,800 of this amount on the erection or purchase of school buildings, £50,000 on Fort Hare (presumably for the purchase of the hostels and of houses for new White members of staff) and the remaining £220,200 on continuing the building programmes at the two new university colleges. The estimated total capital cost of these new colleges is £400,000 each. Adequacy of funds for Bantu education In reply to a question in the Assembly on 15 March 1960, the Minister of Finance said4) it was estimated that during the year ending 31 March 1961 Africans would pay £3,810,000 in basic general tax and £190,000 in the tax calculated on income: a total of £4,000,000. If fcur-fifths of this is paid to the Bantu Education Account the amount concerned would be £3,200,000, as against £2,160,827 in 1958-59, before the rate of taxation was increased. (3) U.G. 9/1960 and U.G. 8/1960. (4) Hansard 9 cols. 3378-9.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 213 The total sum derived from African taxation will increase gradually as average salaries and wages are raised and as the population grows, but no further sudden expansion is likely unless the rate of taxation is again increased. The contribution from general revenue to the Bantu Education Account is pegged at £61-million a year. It thus appears probable that for some considerable time the funds available for Bantu education are unlikely to exceed the present amount of about £10- million per annum. It will, however, be necessary to spend more on salaries for additional members of staff for the university colleges. Furthermore, the introduction of the double- session system in the substandards has led to a large increase in the number of pupils in these classes; and as each year passes a proportion of these additional children will proceed further upwards in the schools, and consequently more teachers, with higher qualifications and thus higher pay, will be needed. Only about 52 per cent of the African children in the Union are as yet at school,(5) so that many more schools are required and many additional teachers to staff them. It would accordingly seem essential that the decision to peg the State contribution should be rescinded. NUMBER OF SCHOOL PUPILS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION BETWEEN THE STANDARDS In the recently-issued publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, details are given of the number of pupils of each racial group, boys and girls, who attended public and private schools in the different provinces in various years. To summarize the latest available figures, the school population in 1958 was as follows: Numbers of pupils Whites-Public schools 614,178 Private schools 45,762 659,940 Coloured and AsiansPublic schools 381,190 Private schools 6,872 388,062 AfricansPublic schools 1,243,088 Private schools 95,335 1,338,423 2,386,425 According to the State Information Office(6) the number of African pupils had risen to 1,428,000 by 1959. (5) Estimate by Bantu Education Department. (6) Supplement to Fortnightly Digest of S.A. Affairs, 18 March 1960.

214 A SURVEY OF RACE The distribution of pupils in 1958 between the various standards can be summarized as follows: Percentages of total number of pupils in the standards indicated. Coloured Whites and Asians Africans Sub A and B 19.6 34.6 45.5 Stds I and II 20.0 28.3 28.5 Stds III and IV 19.7 20.6 14.9 StdsVandVI 18.0 11.7 7.9 Stds VII and VIII 14.0 3.6 2.9 Stds IX and X 6.2 1.0 0.2 Std not stated (Special classes etc.) 2.5 0.1 0.1 100.0 99.9 100.0 It will be noted that the percentage of pupils in senior secondary classes (Stds. IX and X) were 6.2 in the case of Whites, 1.0 for Coloured and Asians, and 0.2 for Africans. Speaking of conditions on the Reef, from Nigel to Randfontein, Dr. J. E. Mathewson said recently7) that out of a total Bantu population of 912,947 (excluding mine employees), 123,189 children were attending school there. Only 306 of them were in senior secondary classes. This meant that facilities existed for only one out of every 400 children to qualify for university training, Dr. Mathewson pointed out. Apart from the possible shortage of qualified teachers, the main reason for this was the policy of financing the erection of schools. Only lower primary schools (up to Std. II) could be built from the compulsory schools levy fund. Other schools could be provided only if the Bantu themselves raised half the necessary money, and then only would the Department consider contributing on a £ for £ basis. The Benoni Municipality had suggested that it should build higher primary or secondary schools from either the schools levy or the Native Revenue Account (in both cases money contributed by the Bantu themselves), but the Department had refused permission. In reply to a question in the Assembly on 9 February 1960, the Minister of Bantu Education said(') that there were 7,138 Bantu schools in the Union, of which 241 were secondary schools and 36 high schools. (7) In a paper entitled 'The Role of Urban Bantu Administration as a Basic Component of the Policy of Separate Development," given at the 9th Annual Conference of the Administrators of Non-European Affairs, August 1960. (8) Hansard 4 cols. 1153-4.

TEACHERS NUMBERS The Minister also said that 22,601 full-time teachers were employed in these Bantu schools. More recent figures were not available, but in December 1958 there were only 148 White and 426 Bantu teachers with university degrees employed in teaching Africans. According to the publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, during 1958 the students attending training colleges for teachers included 6,389 Whites, 2,168 Coloured and Asians and 6,330 Africans. (With a few exceptions, of course, only the African students would later be employed in schools for Africans.) There are still more Africans enrolled for the Lower Primary Teachers' course (Std. VI plus 3 years) than for more advanced courses. PENSION SCHEMES FOR AFRICAN TEACHERS The Minister was also questioned about pension schemes for African teachers, and replied that his Department made no provision for these. Teachers who had been appointed in the Cape Province before 1 April 1955, and whose services had remained continuous since their appointment, contributed to the Cape Teachers' Pension Fund, from which they received benefits upon retirement. Similarly, teachers in Natal who contributed to the Natal Teachers' Provident Fund before the Government took over the control of Bantu education remained members of this fund. African teachers in Government Bantu schools who did not contribute to either of the funds mentioned above were provided for in Section 69 of the Government Service Pensions Act of 1955 (Act No. 58). No other Bantu teachers contributed to any pension fund or were eligible for benefits. The section quoted by the Minister provides for gratuities to be paid to Non- White Government servants who retire between the ages of 55 and 65 years after a period of service of between five and fifteen years, for annuities for those who have served for more than fifteen years, and for gratuities for the dependants of those who die after the completion of five years' service. COST-OF-LIVING ALLOWANCES FOR AFRICAN TEACHERS Brief details were given in last year's Survey 9) of the revised salary scales, incorporating cost-of-living allowances, that have been introduced for White, Coloured and Asian teachers. The previous year's Survey(") contained short notes on the salary scales (9) 1958-59 page 253. (10) 1957-58, page 187. For details see Bantu Education Journal Vol. IV No. 5. June 1958. RELATIONS: 1959-60 215 for African teachers. In the Assembly on 10 May 1960 the Minister of Bantu Education(") gave the scales of cost-of-living allowances for African teachers whose salaries are fully subsidized by the State: Salary per annum Married Single Over £84 to £90 £62. 12. 0. £34. 16. 0. £90 ,, £100 £76 £38 S£100,,£110 £84 £42 S£110 ,, £120 £92 £46 £120 ,, £130 £100 £50 £130 ,, £150 £120 £60 S£150 ,, £200 £160 £80 £200 ,, £300 £240 £100 £300 ,, £350 £280 £100 S£350 £320 £100 NUMBERS OF NON-WHITES WITH VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS During 1960 the Institute of Race Relations attempted2 to estimate how many living Non-White persons had passed various school examinations or their equivalents. Although all available sources were explored, it was not possible, on the basis of obtainable information, to do more than hazard rough guesses, and in the cases of Coloured people and Asians it was not feasible to do so beyond Std. VI. It appeared that about 141,000 Coloured, 54,000 Asians and 284,000 Africans then alive in South Africa might be in possession of Std. VI certificates, and that possibly 62,000 Africans might have passed Std. VIII or equivalent, and 14,000 Std. X or equivalent. The Department of Bantu Education intimated later, however, that it had supplied an incorrect figure for the number of Std. X passes in 1959. As some reliance had been placed on this figure in making the estimates, it is probable that the number of Africans with Std. X or equivalent certificate is, in fact, lower than 14,000. AFRICAN EXAMINATION RESULTS At the end of 1959, 44,082 Africans wrote the Department's Std. VI examination, and of these, 12.835 failed.(13) (11) Hansard 17 col. 7086. (12) RR. 91 and 107 of 1960. (13) Letter No. E 70/19 dated 17 March 1960 from the Secretary for Bantu Education. A SURVEY OF RACE 216

RELATIONS: 1959-60 217 At the end of 1958, 7,982 Africans wrote the Junior Certificate examinations of the Transvaal, Cape or University of South Africa. Of these, 3,452, or 43 per cent, failed. In addition, 1,888 candidates were entered by the Department of Education, Arts and Science, and of these, 431 obtained National J.C. passes. The rest, 1,457, do not necessarily represent failures as the certificate can be obtained by instalments.(13A) The matriculation results have been particularly poor. African students write the same matriculation examinations as do members of other racial groups: the Department is not issuing special syllabuses, as it has done for classes up to the Std. VIII level.1") According to information furnished by the Department of Bantu Education, 630 African candidates from State and Stateaided schools entered for the matriculation examination conducted by the Joint Matriculation Board at the end of 1959. Of these, 38 obtained matriculation passes qualifying them for entrance to universities, 79 obtained school leaving certificates, and 513 failed. The percentage of failures was 81.4. The proportion of failures was lowest in the Ciskei (74 per cent) and highest in the Orange Free State (95 per cent). Besides these pupils, 531 candidates from private schools and students who had studied by means of correspondence courses also entered for the examination. Of these, 72 obtained matriculation passes, 73 school leaving certificates, and 386 failed, the percentage of failures being 72.7. If all the entrants are considered together, the combined proportion of failures was 77.4 per cent. The results in 1958 were as follows:14A) of 660 candidates from State and State- aided schools, 113 obtained matriculation passes. 135 obtained school leaving certificates and 412 failed. The percentage of failures was 62.4. The proportion of failures was lowest in the Ciskei (36 per cent) and highest in the Orange Free State (90 per cent). Besides these pupils, a further 269 candidates entered for the examination. Of these, 114 passed (the number of matriculation passes is not stated). For interest, the Institute's Research Assistant extracted earlier figures from the Report of the Commission on Native Education (13A) Bantu Education Journal, February 1960. Vol. VI No. 1. "The Objectives, Nature and Standard of Secondary School Education", by A. A. Allison. (14) See 1956-57 Survey, page 187, and earlier issues. (14A) Article by Mr. A. A. Allison op cit..

218 A SURVEY OF RACE (1949-51)."'5) The proportions of African failures in the matriculation or equivalent examinations were 45.2 per cent in 1947 and 47.2 per cent in 1948. The Minister is reported by the Star to have said on 14 May 1960 that the percentage of passes at schools where there were White teachers was much higher than at those where there were exclusively African teachers. In the 14 schools where Whites were included on the teaching staff, 205 out of 391 pupils passed. The largest numbers of failures were in the subjects English higher, mathematics and commerce. The requirements of English higher were unnecessarily high for Bantu students, the Minister added. African students have to write either English or Afrikaans on the higher grade to qualify for the full matriculation certificate. The Joint Matriculation Board announced during July()6 that it had decided in principle to recognize an African language on the higher grade in the place of English or Afrikaans for admission to universities; but the date when this decision would come into effect had not been fixed. African students would then be able, if they wished, to write their home language on the higher grade and one or both of the official languages on the lower grade. It appears to be doubtful whether this will provide a satisfactory solution, however. Africans will need to be proficient in one of the official languages if they are to proceed to a university college. Possibly, in view of the Minister's remarks, a reason for the high percentage of failures in English and mathematics is that the Department was too hasty in replacing White teachers with Africans who did not possess the necessary qualifications or experience for handling these subjects. It would seem, too, that poor teaching in the lower standards is largely to blame for the high proportion of matriculation failures. If this is the case, there is additional cause for concern over the fact, mentioned above, that the Department is still training more Africans for the Lower Primary Teachers' course than for more advanced courses. EXAMINATION FEES Until 1959 African students paid £1 15. 0. in examination fees for writing the matriculation examination, and lesser amounts for more junior examinations. But these fees were recently raised, with (15) Para. 488. (16) Star report, 5 July 1960. the result that Africans will now have to pay more than do most members of other racial groups. The Institute of Race Relations investigated the fees payable to various examining authorities, and found that the position is as follows: Examination and examining body Matriculation Joint Matriculation Board Cape and Transvaal ... Natal Free State ...... Junior Certificate (Std. VIII) Bantu Education Dept ... Joint Matriculation Board Cape ...... Transvaal ...... N atal ...... Free State ...... Std. VI Bantu Education Dept ... Provinces ...... Africans £4. 10 0 N/A* N'A N/A N/A ... N/A ... N/A ... N/A ... N/A 10/ ... N/A NA-Not applicable. SCHOOL BOARDS AND COMMIT] COMMUNITY SCHO Fees payable by: Whites, Coloured and Asians £4. 10. 0 £3 £3 & 10/- registration £3. 10. 0 N/A £4-but examination to be discontinued £1. 5. 0 Internal examination only £1. 15. 0&5/-registration £1. 10. 0 N/A Internal examinations only, except for Coloured and Asians in Natal, who pay 2/6 FEES FOR BANTU OLS New regulations for school boards and committees for Bantu community schools were published during the year under review.(") FARM SCHOOLS FOR AFRICANS According to a circular letter sent out by the Inspector of Bantu Education at Ermelo on 2 February 1960, it is Departmental policy that farm schools catering for African children from more than one farm should not be bigger than one- teacher schools, providing education up to the Std. II level. Schools providing additional classes may, however, be approved if all the pupils are resident on the owner's farm. DISTURBANCES AT AFRICAN SCHOOLS There have been several disturbances at African schools during the year under review. (17) R. 1177 of 5 August 1960. RELATIONS: 1959-60 219

220 A SURVEY OF RACE In March 1960 some of the boys attending the Pax Institution near Pietersburg apparently became restive and discussed staying away from their classes because they were dissatisfied with their breakfast. The Principal met them to hear their grievances. Next day the student who was considered to be the ringleader was expelled. According to a letter sent to parents by the Principal, the friends of this student then planned to persuade numbers of others to leave, and to set fire to the school. The police were summoned and arrested eight boys. The Principal announced that any pupil who wished to leave was free to do so, and out of 367 boarders about 60 did go, many of them stating that they were taking this action because of their fear of the ringleaders. There were at least three incidents during May. About 50 students of the Amanzimtoti Zulu Training School (formerly Adams College) are reported("' to have left as a result of various complaints about the tuition. Serious trouble occurred at the Kilnerton High School, near Pretoria, after relatives and friends of the students had been refused admission to the annual drama night. Classes were boycotted, an attempt was made to set the buildings on fire, and the Matron of the girls' hostel was attacked. Two boys were suspended by the Regional Inspector. Unrest continued, however, the Inspector being shouted down when he attempted to address a meeting. Finally it was decided that all the senior boys, about 122 in number, would be suspended, but could apply for re-admission. The police were summoned to escort them from the premises. The third disturbance during that same month was at the Moroka Training Institution at Thaba 'Nchu. Following complaints about the food the boys stoned the house of the Assistant Boarding Master, who was responsible for the catering, and subsequently refused a hearing to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner and boycotted the dining hall. About 240 of the older students were then sent home. The Acting Principal sent out questionnaires which had to be signed before a commissioner of oaths by those boys who wished to apply for re-admission, and by their parents. The boys were required to name the ringleaders and to state the means of intimidation that had been employed. These statements, the questionnaire declared, would not be used in evidence against the scholars who made them, but might be used in evidence against other pupils in any civil or criminal actions which might be preferred. The parents had to agree to the boys undergoing such punishment as might be decided upon, and to accept that if the lads again gave cause for dissatisfaction they might be sent home for good and excluded from all Government Bantu schools. (18) Star, 8 June.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 221 There was trouble, too, at Tigerkloof in the Cape, where the carpentry pupils apparently refused to do some painting and were sent home. Next day the carpentry block was burnt down. All the boys were then arrested and charged, but were released after about nine days in gaol. Some of them appeared in court later, one being found guilty of arson and seven of malicious damage to property. Twelve pupils in receipt of bursaries from the Isaacson Foundation Bursary Fund, administered by the Institute of Race Relations, were among those expelled from various schools. The Director of the Institute wrote to the Secretary for Bantu Education stating that, while he did not wish to condone unruly behaviour, he was anxious about the future of the boys concerned. Some of them appeared to have been caught up in a mass situation for which it was difficult to allocate responsibility. He asked for information about the Department's policy in the matter. The Secretary replied, "I have to inform you that students who have been expelled from a school other than a teacher training school may apply for admission to any other public school." Because of the shortage of accommodation in the high schools, however, it is doubtful whether such applications would be favourably considered by other principals. Of the twelve Isaacson Foundation bursars, only one was accepted at another school. EDUCATION OF COLOURED CHILDREN At a conference of the Transvaal Coloured community convened by the Southern Transvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relations on 19 March 1960, Mr. G. L. Carr gave a useful paper entitled "Coloured Education, Recreation and Culture in the Transvaal."("9) In the course of his address Mr. Carr pointed out that the Coloured people in the Western Province and Orange Free State are predominantly Afrikaans-speaking at home, while those from the Eastern Province and Natal are largely English- speaking. Some of the Coloured people in the Transvaal speak English and others Afrikaans, but, because most of them live in the towns, the Transvaal Coloured have been surrounded by environmental influences that are largely English. Even in the Western Province, however, where there is a strong Afrikaans cultural background, there has in the past been a tendency for Coloured students to adopt the English medium for purposes of higher education, especially at the matriculation and university levels. One of several reasons for this has been that (19) RR 57/60.

A SURVEY OF RACE Coloured student teachers who wished to take full-time academic courses, thus qualifying for high school work, had to attend Englishspeaking universities since the Afrikaans universities were closed to them. They are, thus, better able to teach in English than in Afrikaans. In recent years the principle of mother tongue education has been increasingly enforced, and a majority of Coloured pupils in the Transvaal are now receiving their education through the medium of Afrikaans. Of the 222 Transvaal Coloured pupils in Stds. VI to X in 1955, Mr. Carr said, Ill were in English-medium and Ill in Afrikaans-medium schools. By 1960, of 433 pupils in these classes, 129 were in English and 304 in Afrikaans schools. While he agreed that a child learns best through the medium of his mother tongue, Mr. Carr said, necessary prerequisites are that the environmental influences should be sufficiently strong in that language or culture, and that the teachers should be adequately qualified to teach through the medium concerned. With some few exceptions, neither of these prerequisites obtained in the Transvaal. It appeared that there had been a degree of unseemly haste in switching to the Afrikaans medium. Whereas, some thirty years previously, results obtained by Coloured pupils in external examinations compared favourably with those of pupils in White schools, to-day Coloured students were at least one year retarded. There appeared to be a definite link between standards of attainment, the language medium and the quality of the teaching. Between 1955 and 1959, 57 Coloured pupils in Transvaal Afrikaans-medium schools entered for the Std. IX (internal) examination and only 16 passed. Of 29 entries for Std. X, no candidates passed. There would be no matriculation entries for 1960, and, allowing for the usual falling-off, about twelve would form the 1961 matriculation class. Mr. Carr dealt, also, with the fear amongst the Coloured community that they, like the Africans, were to receive their "peculiar" brand of education, the type deemed suitable being determined "more by political considerations of maintaining baasskap than by a desire to raise the Coloured educational standard to the highest level in the shortest possible time." THE TEACHING OF HISTORY Mr. F. E. Auerbach of Johannesburg has recently completed a thesis entitled "An Inquiry into History Text-Books and Syllabuses for Transvaal High Schools." He is reportedP2°O to have found 427 (20) Sunday Times, 25 September 1960. 222 examples of divergences between the English and Afrikaans versions of text- books. There is a measure of race prejudice in the books used by both language groups, but to a far lesser extent in the English versions. Mr. Auerbach concludes that there has been a drastic reduction in the knowledge imparted to primary school children about the world outside South Africa. The past savagery of Africans and their primitive tribalism is emphasized rather than their modern mode of life, especially in the towns. SCHOOL FEEDING A short review of school feeding schemes was given in the 1957-58 issue of this Survey. (21) During the year now under review the Transvaal Provincial Administration decided to abolish the existing scheme as from July 1960 in schools for White, Coloured and Asian children, and again to reduce the financial allocation. Only special schools for backward or problem children, and schools where over half of the pupils came from less privileged homes, would continue to receive feeding grants, up to an increased maximum of I/- per pupil per day. "Less privileged" homes were to be those where the income of the parents did not exceed the following amounts:22) Whites I child ... 2 children 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Coloured Irrespective Asians Irrespective Income level per annum ...... £372 ...... £... 420 ...... £456 ...... £492 ...... £528 ...... £564 ...... £... 600 ...... £636 ...... £... £672 ...... £... £708 of number of children ...... £174 of number of children ...... £138 (21) Page 190. (22) Information furnished by Southern Relations. Transvaal Region of Institute of Race RELATIONS: 1959-60 223

Members of the Southern Transvaal Region of the Institute of Race Relations pointed out that the present income level below which sub-economic rentals were payable by Coloured people (a level generally regarded as being much too low) was £20 a month, yet the Transvaal Provincial Administration was fixing the "less privileged" level at £14 10s. The Asian level was even lower, and in both these cases, in contrast to the rule applicable to Whites, the number of children in the family was ignored. A strong letter of protest was sent to the Transvaal Education Department. SPECIAL SCHOOLS SPECIAL SCHOOLS AND THEIR ENROLMENT According to the Report of the Department of Education, Arts and Science for 1959,(23) the enrolment at State and State-aided special schools during that year was: Whites Coloured Asians Africans Schools of industries ...... 2,223 611 -State-aided vocational schools 160 469 5 Reformatory schools ...... 289 811 46 922 Schools for the handicapped: Epileptics ...... 143 - - Blind ...... 196 58 23 197 Deaf ...... 651 293 22 374 Cerebral palsied ...... 226 ... Questioned about special schools for Non-White physically handicapped persons, the Minister of Education, Arts and Science said in the Assembly on 17 February 1960(24) that there were eight of these, each providing general education besides training in the crafts listed: Dominican School for Coloured, Asian and African Deaf, at Witteboom. Boys-agriculture and shoemaking. Girls-cooking and needlework. Worcester School for Non-White Deaf. Subjects as above. Kutlwanong School for African Deaf. at Roodepoort. Plastering and agriculture. Athlone School for Non-White Blind, Cape. Boys-cane-work. girls--spinning, weaving, knitting. Arthur Blaxall School for Indian Blind, Durban. Siloe School for African Blind, , Pietersburg. Basketwork, weaving, knitting. (23) U.G. 11/1960. (24) Hansard 5 cols. 1660-2. 224 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 225 Bosele School for African Blind in Sekhukhuneland. Weaving and knitting. Efata School for African Blind, Umtata. Weaving and knitting. Asked about existing training facilities for teachers, the Minister replied(2") that speech therapeutists were trained at the Universities of the Witwatersrand, Cape Town and Pretoria, vocational therapeutists at the Witwatersrand, teachers for the mentally retarded at Pretoria and Stellenbosch, and teachers for the deaf at Cape Town University. (These courses at the open universities will, of course, in future be available only to Whites). In-service training courses for qualified White and Non-White teachers were arranged to instruct them in special methods for teaching particular types of handicapped children. SPECIAL EDUCATION AMENDMENT ACT, No. 45 OF 1960 The Amendment Act of 1960 stated that the provisions of the Special Education Act may be administered partly by one Cabinet Minister and partly by others. (Similar arrangements have been made in the cases of the Children's Act(26) and the Vocational Education Amendment Act.(27)) When introducing the Bill, the Minister of Education, Arts and Science said(28) that special schools for Africans would fall under the Department of Bantu Administration and Development. African children at present attending mixed Non-White schools in the Western Province would gradually be transferred to schools for Africans as accommodation became available. Special schools for Coloured children would fall under the Department of Coloured Affairs, and those for Whites under the Department of Education, Arts and Science. The Amendment Act also lowered the age for the admission of children to special schools, provided for a system of inspection, amended the conditions under which the State may take over schools from voluntary bodies, and made various other changes. One new provision to which the Progressive Party objected(2") was that which stated that children admitted to special schools must remain there until they have complied with the requirements in (25) 5 February 1960, Hansard 3 cols. 984-5. (26) See chapter entitled "Welfare." (27) See 1957-58 Survey, page 192. (28) Assembly. 11 February 1960. Hansard 4 col. 1337. '29) Col 1374, respect of compulsory school attendance in the province in which they are resident. Previously, they had to remain until they were sixteen years of age. The Progressive Party pointed out that the amendment would leave the position unchanged so far as White children were concerned, but, because of the fact that there was no compulsory education for Non-White children, would remove the onus on the State to care for Non-White children until they reached the age of sixteen years. The United Party and the Progressive Party opposed the Bill(3") because it divided the control of special education between different departments of State on a racial basis. A further objection voiced by the United Party was that the measure affected private interests and required further study. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION TRAINING OF AFRICAN SOCIAL WORKERS As was mentioned in earlier issues of this Survey, the management committee of the Jan H. Hofmeyr School of Social Work in Johannesburg was given the choice of ceasing operations after the end of 1959, when its subsidy was terminated, or of continuing to run the school as a private institution. It was forced on financial grounds to accept the former alternative. The Department of Bantu Education continued the training of those students only who had already enrolled and were due to complete their courses at the end of 1960. It has provided social science courses, which commenced in 1960, at the new university colleges. No new African social science students were admitted to the open universities as from the date these colleges opened. The result will be that from the end of 1960 (or later in the cases only of African students already enrolled at the open universities before that year) until the first students qualify at the new colleges, there will be a gap in the production of new African social workers. PROPOSED TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR COLOURED STUDENTS The Minister of the Interior announced(31) during March that the Department of Coloured Affairs had been entrusted with the (30) Cols. 1345, 1352, 1371. (31) Senate, 23 March 1960, Hansard 6 col. 1221. A SURVEY OF RACE 226

RELATIONS: 1959-60 227 planning of a technical high school for Coloured students, to be built at Athlone, near Cape Town. STUDENTS ATTENDING TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL CLASSES According to the Annual Report of the Department of Education, Arts and Science for 1959,(12) during the previous year 590 full-time and 3,714 part-time Non-White students were attending the M.L. Sultan Technical College in Durban. The other technical colleges, catering mainly for Whites, had 7,856 full-time and 41,271 part-time students, and 11,366 enrolled for correspondence classes. Altogether there were 726 persons taking preparatory classes (Std. VI and below), 26,851 technical students, 13,087 commercial students, and 4,429 studying domestic science. THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGES ENROLMENT AT UNIVERSITIES IN 1958 It is stated in the report quoted above that in June 1958 the enrolment at South African universities was as follows: University of Cape Town ...... N atal ...... Orange Free State Potchefstroom ... Pretoria ...... Rhodes ...... Stellenbosch ...... Witwatersrand ... University College of Fort Hare University of South Africa ...... (correspondence courses) Whites Coloured Asians Africans 4,408 388 127 37 2,530 31 373 188 1.709 - - _ 1,474 6,324 1,098 3,694 4,756 6,144 73 320 1,179 32,137 704 1,318 1,797 The homes of 314 of these students (251 of them enrolled with the University of South Africa) were outside the Union or SouthWest Africa. (32) U.G. 11/1960.

228 A SURVEY OF RACE DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS AWARDED TO NON-WHITE STUDENTS IN 1958 According to the same report, the degrees and diplomas awarded to Non-White students in 1958 were: Coloured B.A ...... 20 B .Sc ...... 13 B.Comm ...... B.Ed ...... 1 B. Electrical Engineering B. Civil Engineering ...... B. Social Science ...... M.B. Ch.B ...... 6 B.A. (Hons.) ...... M.A ...... M .Sc._ .__ ...... 1 M. Electrical Engineering LL.B. LL 1 ...... *. ' . ... Diplomas and certificates: Theology ...... 2 Agriculture ...... Librarianship ...... 2 Secondary school teachers 15 Primary school teachers 1 Asians 26 7 4 1 1 20 4 1 Africans 98 21 1 3 1 8 3 1 1 1 -- 10 -- 5 4 39 61 68 192 ADMISSION OF NON-WHITE STUDENTS TO UNIVERSITY COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN 1960 Admissions to the new university colleges At the beginning of the year under review the University College of the Western Cape was opened at Bellville South to cater for Coloured students, and two new university colleges were opened for Africans - the University College of the North at Turfloop, near Pietersburg, which is mainly for Sotho students, and the University College of Zululand at Ngoya for the Zulu and Swazi groups. New African students admitted to Fort Hare were selected mainly from the Xhosa group. Descriptions of the new colleges are given on page 237. In mid-1960 the University College of the Western Cape had one Asian and 169 Coloured students, studying for degrees in arts, science, commerce, or diplomas in education or librarianship. One student was doing post-graduate work.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 229 The University College of the North had 88 students taking arts or science courses, or studying for diplomas in education, social work or commerce, or a diploma for traders. Forty-one students had been enrolled at the University College of Zululand, and were studying for degrees in arts or social science, or for diplomas in education or commerce. The Minister of Education, Arts and Science said in the Assembly on 9 February33) that the Government intended establishing a university college in Durban for Asians by 1961. According to a later statement, this college is to be temporarily housed in buildings formerly used by the Navy on Salisbury Island. Professor S. P. Olivier of the University of Cape Town has been appointed Rector. Admissions to the Natal Medical School and the University of South Africa All the suitably qualified students who could be accommodated were admitted to the Natal Medical School for NonWhites, and there were naturally no restrictions on Non-White students enrolling for correspondence courses with the University of South Africa. Admission of Non-White students to the open universities Non-White students who had commenced studying at the open universities in 1959 or earlier were permitted to continue their courses, provided that they qualified on academic grounds for re-admission. According to the Minister of Education, Arts and Science3') the numbers of Coloured and Asian students who were re-admitted were: Coloured Asian University of Cape Town ...... 361 70 Natal ...... 39 355 the Witwatersrand 1 32 No statistics relating to Africans were given. As will be indicated below, the Minister's figures do not tally with those supplied to the Institute of Race Relations by the universities concerned. He also said(5) that 127 Coloured and 562 Asians had applied to him for permission to enrol for the first time at one or other of the open universities. He had granted all the applications from Asians because no university college for them had as yet been established, but had refused permission to 48 of the Coloured (33) Hansard 4 cols. 1136-7. (34) Assembly, 12 April 1960, Hansard 13 cols. 5328-9. (35) Speech quoted above, also Assembly 22 March, Hansard 10 cols. 3823-4. students because alternative facilities existed. Of those whose applications were refused, 38 wished to attend Cape Town University, four the University of Natal and six the University of the Witwatersrand. The universities themselves, for academic reasons, refused admission to numbers of the students whose applications had been approved by the Minister. According to the Minister 32 Coloured and 395 Asian students were enrolled for the first time at open universities in 1960, but it appears that these figures are incorrect. He said, for example, that 22 Coloured and 26 Asian students had been admitted to Cape Town University, but the University itself informed the Institute that these numbers were 43 and 71 respectively (it included Malays in the Asian group). The Universities state that the total numbers of Coloured and Asian students enrolled in mid-1960, including both new and previous enrolments, were: Coloured Asian University of Cape Town ...... 326 139 . . Natal ...... 46 561 . . the Witwatersrand 30 184 University College of Fort Hare ... 49 66 The Minister of Bantu Education pursued a far less liberal policy than did his colleague. He said on 26 April36) that he had received 190 applications from Africans for permission to enrol at open universities, and had approved four of them only. Five further cases had not then been decided. His reasons for refusing the rest were that the courses for which the students wished to enrol were available at a Bantu university college, or the Natal Non-White Medical School, or, by means of correspondence, at the University of South Africa. The Institute of Race Relations and others pointed out that students who were forced to study through correspondence classes were having unnecessary difficulties placed in their way. In particular, attention was drawn to the difficulties that law students who had obtained B.A. degrees at Fort Hare would experience in attempting LL.B. degrees through correspondence classes. Seven of the unsuccessful applicants had wished to study engineering at the University of the Witwatersrand: permission was refused because, in the Minister's opinion, there were as yet "no prospects of employment for qualified Bantu engineers"37) (in spite of all the development work in progress in urban African townships). The Johannesburg City Council was forced to cancel a bursary it had decided to award for this course. (36) Assembly, Hansard 15 col. 6015. 437) Statement by the Department's Chief Information Officer as reported in the Sunday Times, 7 February 1960. 230 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 231 Again, it would appear that for academic reasons some of the successful applicants were refused by the universities themselves. So far as can be ascertained by the Institute, only two new African students were accepted - one to study music at the University of Cape Town, and the other to do a post-graduate arts course at the University of the Witwatersrand. In 1960 there were 82 African students at the University of Natal who were continuing courses commenced prior to 1960 (excluding the students at the Natal Medical School), 51 at the University of the Witwatersrand, and 26 at Cape Town University. Besides these, there were the two newly-admitted Africans. REGULATIONS FOR THE BANTU UNIVERSITY COLLEGES Senates, Boards, etc. In terms of Government Notices 25 to 27 of 8 January 1960, African advisory boards were constituted for the three university colleges. Their duties and functions, and the allowances payable to members, were set out in R 311 of 4 March. R 1445 of 23 September dealt with the powers and duties of the Senate of the University College of the North, and R 1446 of the same date set out regulations for faculty boards at the two new colleges. Admission, control and dismissal of students Rules have been gazetted, too, for the admission, control and dismissal of students at the three Bantu university colleges38 Some of these rules are normal ones, with which students at any institution must comply, for example those relating to the payment of fees, production of certificates serving as entrance requirements, regular attendance at lectures, payment for damage caused to college property, etc. Other regulations are less usual, for example: 1. Students may not leave the college precincts without permission from the Hostel Superintendent or a representative duly authorized by the Rector. 2 Any student organization or organizational work in which students are concerned is subject to the prior approval of the Rector. 13b) e.g. G.N. 2049 of 18 December 1959 in respect of the University College of the North, and R. 59 of 15 February 1960 in respect of the University College of Zululand.

A SURVEY OF RACE 3. No meetings may be held in the grounds of the College without permission from the Rector. Approved student committees may meet in accordance with the rules of the constitution of the body concerned. 4. No magazine, publication or pamphlet for which students are wholly or partly responsible may be circulated without the permission of the Rector in consultation with the Advisory Senate and the Senate. 5. No statement may be given to the Press by or on behalf of the students without the Rector's permission. 6. The Rector may, after consultation with the Advisory Senate and the Senate, suspend or dismiss a student who, in the opinion of the Rector, infringes these regulations or any particular regulation or is guilty of misconduct. In case of serious irregularity which in the opinion of the Rector justifies immediate action he may, in his discretion, take such action and thereafter report to the Council. Additional regulations for Fort Hare students As will be described below there was unrest among the students of Fort Hare during 1960. Thereafter, revised and very detailed regulations were gazetted. incorporating new provisions.39' Students are now required each year to apply for permission to report for registration, and with the application form must be sent a testimonial of good conduct by a minister of religion, a Bantu Affairs Commissioner or a magistrate. (Students at the other Bantu colleges are required to send "testimonials of good conduct to the satisfaction of the college authorities"). The application for admission form, in the case of Fort Hare students, states, "If I qualify for such registration I solemnly undertake and promise that I will strictly comply with all the rules and regulations of the college. and that I will submit to any disciplinary measures that may be taken against me in accordance with the said regulations". The applicant's signature must be witnessed by his parent or guardian and by a commissioner of oaths. A section of the form must be completed by the parent or guardian, who is required to undertake to pay the fees in advance, to accept liability for any damage the applicant may cause to college property, and to agree that the applicant will be subject to the disciplinary regulations of the college and will be expected to perform such duties in the hostel as may be allocated to him by (39) R 1444 of 23 September 1960. the staff. The parent or guardian is also required to accept liability for the full fees for any semester during which his child or may be expelled. Some of the new regulations are: 1. If in the opinion of the Minister it is not in the interests of the institution to register a candidate, he may refuse registration even if the candidate complies with all the other conditions of registration. 2. The Fort Hare regulations published towards the end of 1959 stated that no student or person not under the jurisdiction of the college may be upon the college grounds as a visitor without the permission of the Rector or his duly authorized representative, and then only on such conditions as may be determined. The new regulations repeat this provision, and add that no Fort Hare student or group of students may visit any other institution without the permission of the Rector and of the institution concerned, and then only on such conditions as may be determined. 3. Students who contravene the regulations, or are guilty of misconduct or disobedience or insubordination are to be brought before a college discipline committee of which the Rector is chairman. Legal representation will not be allowed at the enquiry, and the procedure will be as determined by the Rector. Should the student admit his guilt or be found guilty, the Rector may: (a) expel him permanently or for a specified period; (b) suspend him from stated activities or privileges for a specified period; (c) limit his freedom of movement; (d) if the student is a bursary holder, recommend the cancellation or reduction of his bursary; (e) demand payment of such sum as is calculated to compensate for any damage or costs wilfully or negligently caused to college property or to any person as a result of an offence. Should a student be expelled, the Rector must report to the Executive Committee of the Council and to the Minister. If the expelled student considers he has been wronged, he must nevertheless leave the college within 24 hours. He has the right within 14 days to make such representations to the Minister as he deems fit, sending a copy to the Rector. In the event of any serious irregularity which in the opinion of the Rector requires immediate action, he may take such steps as he considers necessary, as soon as possible RELATIONS: 1959-60 233

234 A SURVEY OF RACE thereafter submitting a report to the Executive committee and the Minister. The Minister, after consultation with the Executive Committee, may confirm or set aside the expulsion or impose lesser punishment. 4. As is mentioned later, a dispute arose during 1960 about the constitution of the Students' Representative Council, which was then dissolved by the students. The new regulations state that after consultation with the Senate and approval by the Council, the Rector may establish student or hostel committees, nominate primarii or student officers, or cause them to be elected. Regulations in respect of fees at the Bantu university colleges R 1447 of 23 September 1960 set out the fees payable at the three university colleges, including tuition and board and lodging, but excluding the cost of books and stationery, fees for any subjects taken in addition to the minimum requirements for the course, fees for supplementary examinations, and registration and examination fees payable to the University of South Africa for any courses taken on a correspondence basis with that University (i.e. courses as yet not available at the Bantu university college concerned). The fees payable per annum are: Fort Hare Other colleges B.A., B.Sc ...... £90 £90 U.E.D...... £92 N/A B.Ed ...... £80 £80 Hons. degrees, M.A., M.Sc. ... £804) £80(40) Bantu Education Diploma ... £55 £55 Other diploma courses instituted by Dept. of Bantu Administration and Development ... £60 £60 Regulations in respect of study loans R 1447 of 23 September also dealt with study loans, stating that applications must be made to the Registrar of the college concerned, and will be considered by the Council and forwarded with a recommendation to the Secretary for Bantu Education. The amounts of the loans were not stated, but, according to information furnished by the University College of the North. these are: Degree courses ... £50 a year, or in exceptional cases £60. Diploma courses in commerce and for traders - £50 p.a. Diploma course for teachers-in-service - £40 p.a. Bantu Education Diploma - £40 p.a. (40) Plus £10 if laboratory facilities are used.

The applicant must sign an agreement form. If he is training to be a teacher he must undertake after leaving college to serve for five years in a school controlled or approved by the Department. If he is taking any other course he must agree, if his qualification is considered to render him suitable for employment by the Bantu Education Department, the Department of Bantu Administration and Development, the S.A. Native Trust or a Bantu authority, to accept such employment and to serve for five years. Should he not be offered such a post within six months after qualifying, he may enter other employment. Loans are repayable six months after assuming duty or entering employment; but the Department may agree to repayment in instalments over a longer period. If it does, then interest at the rate of five per cent per annum must be paid on outstanding balances. If the student is employed by one of the departments or authorities mentioned above, this body has the right to recover the loan in instalments from the employee's salary. Should the recipient of a loan fail to attend classes regularly or to pursue his studies conscientiously, or to make satisfactory progress, or to accept a post offered or to render uninterrupted service in it, or should he behave in a manner which in the Minister's opinion is unbecoming to the profession he desires to follow, the Department may cancel the agreement. If this should be done the loan is repayable immediately, together with interest at ten per cent per annum from the date the loan was made. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF FORT HARE TRANSFER AMENDMENT ACT, No. 62 OF 1960 The University College of Fort Hare Transfer Act, No. 64 of 1959, provided that students registered during the year preceding the date when the college was transferred to the control of the Bantu Education Department (1 January 1960) might write the examinations of Rhodes University, for which they were preparing. Students subsequently registered would write the examinations of the University of South Africa or, in the case of certain diploma courses, the examinations of the college itself. The wording of this provision had an unintended effect, preventing students who had attended Fort Hare previously but who for some reason were not registered during 1959 from continuing to prepare themselves for the examinations of Rhodes University. The Minister of Bantu Education said in the Assembly(1) that some African students after a year or two at college were forced to leave for a time to earn the money for (41) 13 May 1960, Hansard 17 cols. 7536-7. RELATIONS: 1959-60 235

A SURVEY OF RACE continuing. Four such students had returned to Fort Hare in 1960, one of them needing only one subject to complete his B.A. degree. The Amendment Act of 1960 provided that not only students registered in 1959, but also previously-registered students, may write the examinations and obtain the degrees of Rhodes University. DEVELOPMENTS AT FORT HARE DURING 1960 It was mentioned in last year's Survey 42) that Professor H. R. Burrows was not re-appointed as Principal of Fort Hare when the Bantu Education Department took over control, being replaced by Professor J. J. Ross from the University of the Orange Free State. Two other members of staff were not re-appointed - Professor L. Blackwell (Law) and Lady Agnew (senior lecturer in Geography). Two professors (English and History), a senior lecturer, a lecturer, the registrar and the librarian were dismissed by the Department. being deemed to have retired on superannuation. They received their provident and pension benefits. Other members of staff resigned, among them Professor Z. K. Matthews, Dr. M. Webb, Mr. S. B. Ngcobo, Mr. C. L. C. S. Nyembezi and Mr. A. M. Phahle (all Professors or Senior Lecturers). They were paid gratuities, but forfeited their pension rights!")3 Eleven students were not re-admitted in 1960. The Minister of Bantu Education said(") that their re-admission "was not considered by me to be in the best interest of the college because of their activities in 1959". Two of these were post- graduate students, one had completed eight university courses, two had completed seven courses, one had completed six courses, and the rest had passed four courses or less. The Students' Representative Council continued in being, but its old constitution was inappropriate and members were uncertain of their standing. The S.R.C. was not permitted to continue its affiliation to the National Union of S.A. Students (NUSAS). All this caused dissatisfaction. During September 1960 the President and President-Elect of NUSAS visited Fort Hare to discuss the matter. The Rector would not allow them to address a mass meeting of students on the campus, but eventually agreed to their meeting the S.R.C. That evening a public meeting, attended mainly by students, was held away from the college premises, in Alice. Indignation was expressed at the ban on affiliation with NUSAS and the ambiguous (42) Page 276. (43) Minister of Bantu Education, Assembly 12 February 1960, Hansard 4 cols. 1403-4. (44) Assembly, 8 March, Hansard 8 col. 2927. and 3 May. Hansard 16 cols. 6530- 1. status of the S.R.C. Next day there was a near-revolt at the college, meetings of protest being held and demonstrations staged in the dining halls. The students decided to dissolve the S.R.C. pending the drawing up of a new constitution. The college authorities quelled the disturbance by demanding, on a penalty of dismissal, that every student should sign a declaration reaffirming his acceptance of the college regulations. A few days later the revised and more stringent regulations, described above, were gazetted. THE TWO NEW BANTU UNIVERSITY COLLEGES A brief description of the buildings to be provided at the new university colleges, at a final cost of about £400,000 in each case, was given in last year's Survey.4) Representatives of the Institute of Race Relations visited the colleges in April and June 1960, respectively, and reported favourably on the lecture halls, hostels and dining halls, which are of attractive design, and on the equipment being provided. At the time of these visits, the building programme was incomplete at the University College of the North (at Turfloop), and in the early stages only at the University College of Zululand. Eventually each college will have an administrative building, eight blocks of lecture halls and offices, a very large dining hall also used as a recreational centre, a library, a students' union building, and 25 hostels, each accommodating twenty students. Playing fields are being laid out. The college at Turfloop had 88 students during 1960, of the Sotho, Venda and Tsonga groups. Both official languages are used by lecturers. The students were taking first-year arts or science courses, or studying for diplomas in social work, commerce (a course for teachers-in-service) or a diploma course for traders. A few of the arts and science students intended eventually taking their degrees, but during 1960 the majority were studying for the Bantu Education Diploma (five degree courses plus professional training), designed to prepare teachers for working in the first three classes of secondary schools. The post-graduate Union Education Diploma course will be introduced later. The Zululand college had only 41 students in 1960, seven of them intending to take degrees in arts or social science, and the rest studying for the Bantu Education Diploma or the teachers' diploma in commerce. A science course will be introduced in 1961. The medium of instruction is English. (45) Page 278, RELATIONS: 1959-60 237

238 A SURVEY OF RACE The fees at these colleges are low in comparison with those at the open universities, but on the other hand generous remissions of fees were granted to needy Non-White students particularly at the University of Natal. Furthermore, the large majority of the students at the new colleges will have to live in and pay hostel fees, whereas Non-White students attending the open universities could live at home or with friends, and could take part-time jobs to help cover their expenses. The college regulations, providing for strict control of the activities of students, are summarized on page 231. Both Rectors state that S.R.C.'s will be formed at a later stage. During 1960 the Zululand college had a student council, composed of a nominated primarius and two elected students from each hostel. The college at Turfloop had merely a nominated primarius at each hostel. Affiliation to NUSAS or other student bodies was not permitted in either case. The Zululand college is isolated from other higher educational institutions. At neither college is intellectual contact with students of other ethnic groups possible. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF PIUS XII, BASUTOLAND Members of the Institute of Race Relations also visited the University College of Pius XII in the Roma Valley in Basutoland, run by the Catholic Church, at which 76 African students from South Africa were studying. A description of this college was issued as RR 160/60. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF THE WESTERN CAPE The University College of the Western Cape, catering for Coloured, Malay, Griqua and Cape Asian students, was opened in March 1960 at Bellville-South near Cape Town in temporary premises formerly occupied by a school. A large site has been set aside nearby on which permanent buildings are to be erected. By mid-1960 there were one Asian and 169 Coloured and Malay students, one taking a post-graduate course, 34 studying for a B.A., 70 for a B.Sc., 1 for a B.Comm., 58 for teachers' diplomas, and 6 for a diploma in librarianship. Both official languages are used by lecturers. Courses in law, social science and pharmacy are to be introduced in 1961. Pending the erection of hostels, a Coloured teacher has opened a hostel in two large dwelling houses where about 50 male students are living. The regulations for students&460 are similar to those at the two new Bantu university colleges (see page 231). (4) R, 239 of 19 February 1960.

BURSARIES AND STUDY LOANS FOR NON-WHITE STUDENTS In the State Estimates of Expenditure for the year ending 31 March 1961(4") the Bantu Education Department has set aside £11,500 for bursaries and loans to African students, and the Department of Education, Arts and Science has allocated £5,975 for bursaries to Non-White medical students. Several new types of bursaries have been announced during the year under review. Ten bursaries for higher education have, for example, been awarded by the Hajee Suliman Ebrahim Charitable Trust. The World University Service offered scholarships tenable at the open universities; but, as is described above, the admission of new Non-White students to these universities in 1960 was strictly controlled. Between its inception in 1955 and early 1960 the Isaacson Foundation Bursary Fund, administered by the Institute of Race Relations, awarded 309 loans or grants for matriculation, university or specialist vocational courses, amounting to £18,320. Forty-one new bursaries for study at universities and 67 for general schooling were granted at the beginning of 1960. NIGHT SCHOOLS AND CONTINUATION CLASSES During the year ending 31 March 1960, the State set aside £156,500 for subsidizing continuation classes for Whites, £4,800 for subsidies for Coloured continuation classes, and £10,000 for African night schools and continuation classes48 (Night schools provide primary education, and continuation classes post-primary education.) The new and cumbersome regulations introduced for African schools and classes were described in an earlier issue of this Survey.(") As a result, all those in the Durban area closed down (except for courses conducted in the M. L. Sultan Technical College). Inter alia, all schools and classes with ten or more pupils were required to register with the Department of Bantu Education, and it was decided that those permitted to operate in the "White" areas of towns would have to be financed privately, no subsidies being payable. There were extremely long delays before the Department replied to applications for registration and, in the cases of schools in African areas, for subsidies. As a result, many of the latter (47) U.G. 1/1960, 8/1960, 9/1960. (48) U.G. 1/1960 and 9/1960. (49) 1957-58, Page 204. RELATIONS: 1959-60 239 schools closed down because of financial difficulties. Some schools and classes in the Cape Town and Witwatersrand areas have now been granted registration, but the organizers of eight schools in White suburbs of Pretoria obtained no reply. Then, during February 1960, a Departmental official ruled that these schools must close until further notice. They catered for domestic servants and other Africans accommodated in the "White" areas, who found it impractical to travel out to the African townships in the evenings to attend classes. The Indian Women's Literacy Association in the Natal coastal area, which is privately financed, was running 26 groups, catering for 139 pupils, during 1959. The assistance given by the then Adult Education Department of the Institute of Race Relations with the preparation of specialized literacy material has been described in previous years. This Department later became independent of the Institute, and has worked with the Continuation Committee of the South African Churches Conferences in setting up a Bureau of Literacy and Literature. AFRICAN LITERACY RATE According to the 1951 census, only 32.5 per cent of the Africans in the Union could then read or write in English, Afrikaans or an African language. The Department of Bantu Education estimates that by 1958 this literacy rate had risen to 35 per cent.("°) HEALTH AND NUTRITION VITAL STATISTICS Vital statistics for the White, Coloured and Asian sections of the population in 1958 are given in the official publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, together with international comparisons and the expectation of life for newly born children of the three racial groups mentioned. There are no equivalent official figures relating to Africans because so many of them fail to register births and deaths, especially in rural areas. Registration is more complete in the towns, but even there large numbers of births are not recorded. (50) Bantu Education Journal, May 1960, article by Miss M. C. E. Vegter. 240 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 241 For purposes of comparison with other groups average figures for seven of the larger towns are given in the table that follows; but it is likely that because not all the births are registered the birth rate given is too low and the infant mortality rate is inflated. Birth and death rates Whites Birth rate per 1,000 of the population 24.5 Ex-nuptial births as a percentage of the total births ...... 1.6 )eath rate per 1,000 of the population 8.6 Infant death rate per 1,000 live births 29.4 United Kingdor United States of Sweden ...... Canada ...... Japan ...... Portugal ...... Coloured Asians Africans 47.0 30.8 36.8 36.8 16.9 132.3 Some International comparisons (1955-57) Birth rate Death rate n ...... 16.0 11.6 America ...... 24.8 9.4 ...... 14.7 9.7 ...... 24.9 8.2 ...... 18.4 8.0 ...... I...... 23.4 11.6 Expectation of life for a Whites ...... Coloured ...... Asians ...... newly-born child in South Male ...... 64.57 ...... 44.82 ...... 55,77 Afj Fe 7C 47 54 2.8 36.1 8.2 16.3 65.1 180.8 Infant death rate 24.7 26.2 17.4 31.4 40.2 88.7 rica, 1950-52 nale .08 .77 .72 MEDICAL SERVICES COMMISSION OF ENQUIRY INTO COSTS It was announced during January 1960) that the Minister of Health had appointed a commission to enquire into the high costs of medical services and medicines, and to investigate means by which these costs could be reduced. The chairman was Professor H. W. Snyman, dean of the Medical Faculty of the University of Pretoria. MEDICAL SERVICES AVAILABLE The publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years gave information about the medical personnel and hospital beds in the Union in (1) Star, 5 January 1960.

242 A SURVEY OF RACE 1958 or 1957, as follows (more recent figures having been substituted in the cases of medical practitioners and students, and nurses): 1959 1958 - 7,789 416 1,371 22,690 - 1,433 1,072 1,306 191 2,847 435 1957 - 11,791 1,176 438 medical practitioners interns medical students trained nurses medical specialists (included in number of medical practitioners given above) medical auxiliaries dentists dental students chemists and druggists chemists' apprentices midwives mental nurses male nurses The Bureau of Census and Statistics stated that its information in regard to hospital beds was not necessarily exhaustive, and did not include mental hospitals. Available information, relating to the year 1958, was: Public hospitals ...... Mission hospitals ...... Mine and industrial hospitals Infectious diseases hospitals ... Private nursing homes ...... Maternity homes ...... These hospitals were staffed by: Matrons and trained nurses ... Probationer nurses ...... Hospital beds for: Whites Non-Whites 11,547 17,255 158 8,960 340 11,171 2,118 10,067 5,568 1,434 1,804 856 21,535 49,743 Whites 6,197' 9,232 15,429 Non-Whites 2,766 10,616 13,382 Since 1958 the hospital facilities have been considerably extended. In the Transvaal alone, for example, a new hospital for Non-Whites was recently opened at Nylstroom, and new hospitals, also for Non-Whites, are to be provided at Natalspruit (Germiston) and on the West Rand near Krugersdorp.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 243 CLINICS During May 1960 the Transvaal Provincial Administration decided to charge fees for treatment at curative clinics. Depending on the patient's means, amounts ranging from 5/- to 15/- were to be paid by Whites, and sums varying from 2/6 to 10/- by NonWhites. Patients who produced documentary evidence from a magistrate to the effect that they had no incomes would continue to be entitled to free treatment; and clinic doctors would be empowered to waive full payment in cases where lengthy treatment was required. During June the attendance at such clinics in the Johannesburg African townships dropped to one-third of the figures for the corresponding period during the previous year. Although treatment at the municipal child welfare and ante-natal clinics continued to be free, there was some falling off in attendance due to fear that fees might be imposed there too. The Rand Daily Mail pointed out in a leading article(') that most Africans who paid the fee would in consequence have to reduce their budgets for food. If the people stayed away because they could not afford the charge, epidemics might result. In either case there was a hidden cost to the community that might outweigh the fees collected, that were expected to amount to £14,000 a year. According to a reported statement by the Johannesburg Medical Officer of Health,() the attendance increased during July to 36 per cent of the previous figure. It would probably stabilize at a higher level, but there was as yet no indication of what that level would be. The control of clinics in the African Reserves is increasingly being handed over to Bantu Regional Authorities. In a statement made in the Senate on 30 March 1960(4) the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said that during the previous year these authorities had taken over 68 existing clinics and had established six new ones. They were planning to establish 36 additional clinics during the next twelve months. TREATMENT OF SPECIFIC DISEASES Tuberculosis During the financial year 1960-61 the State voted £3,772,000 for anti-tuberculosis work, including subsidies to SANTA and other bodies. According to a Press report,() planned extensions to the Dr. Henry Bernstein Chest Hospital at Sharpeville, although (2) Issue of 16 June. (3) Rand Daily Mail, 9 September 1960. (4) Hansard 7 col. 1532. (2) Rand Daily Mall, 8 June 1960. approved in principle by the Department of Health, were vetoed by the Department of Bantu Administration and Development, which stated that wherever possible African TB cases should be treated in hospitals in African Reserves. Dr. Bernstein, the Vereeniging Medical Officer of Health, is reported to have commented that to send an African even ten miles away from his home imposed hardships both on him and his family. During the past year 330 new cases of TB had been reported in the area-"a formidable figure". More cases than ever before were being treated, but they were being sent back to the same unsatisfactory home conditions and relapses were inevitable. In the attempt to avoid such relapses and to prevent the families of patients from contracting the disease, feeding schemes have been introduced at some centres. The Alexandra AntiTuberculosis Association, for example, provides each contact family with a weekly food-parcel. The Peri-Urban Areas Health Board has recently decided to assist by supplying out-patients with rations. Eye diseases The S.A. Bureau for the Prevention of Blindness is continuing to treat about 60,000 Africans in the Northern and North-Western Transvaal who are suffering from trachoma. Ointments are being used, but it is hoped to develop a vaccine which will be more effective. The Bureau is planning to extend its work to the Transkei and Ciskei, where one of the major causes of blindness is cataract56) Other diseases During 1960 the S.A. National Cancer Association undertook an intensive campaign to make the public aware that most forms of cancer are curable if caught in the early stages. The Polio Research Foundation has developed an oral polio vaccine which, at the time of writing, was being made available for general use. A first clinic for Non-White patients has been opened in Johannesburg by the Cerebral Palsy Association of S.A. As a result of improved methods of treatment, there has been a marked decline in the number of sufferers from leprosy. The Minister of Health said during January 106007 that there were only 32 White patients, and slightly more ihan 1,600 NonWhites, in South African leper institutions. (6) Ibid, 23 December 1959. (7) Senate, 28 January 1960. Hansard 2 col. 239. 244 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 245 BLOOD TRANSFUSION SERVICES Lengthy regulations for blood transfusion services were gazetted on 20 May 1960, in terms of R 699. It was laid down, inter alia, that blood donor societies or branches which recruit both White and Non-White blood donors must be organized into separate racial divisions so that Whites and Non-Whites are bled separately and separate records are kept. The race of the donor must be printed on labels attached to containers of blood. It was not, however, made compulsory for a patient to be given the blood of a donor of his own race. NUTRITION VOLUNTARY FEEDING SCHEMES As has been mentioned in previous years, school feeding schemes have been very considerably curtailed, especially so far as Africans are concerned. This matter is dealt with in the previous chapter. Numerous voluntary feeding schemes continue in being, for example the Cape Peninsula School Feeding Association, which caters for children of all racial groups, and the African Children's Feeding Scheme in Johannesburg. During 1959 the latter organization spent an average of £2,220 a month. It operated thirteen feeding centres at which approximately 3,000 children a day received two slices of brown bread spread with enriched peanut butter, and a pint of skimmed milk. Each child who could afford it paid Id., the balance of the costs, amounting to 2d. or 3d., being met by the Scheme. A mobile van had been purchased, which travelled along set routes and fed about 900 more children daily. Besides this, the diet of more than 1,700 children in 25 creches was supplemented, and 17,500 children in 39 schools were given puzamandhla to drink -this is a fermented product based on mealie meal and fortified with special reference to the protein, vitamin and calorific content. A Malnutrition Relief Committee has been set up in Durban to buy milk for undernourished African babies. The Bloemfontein Joint Council raised money for an African school feeding scheme, but was not permitted to operate this. Instead it has established two distribution centres in the African township at which, at the end of 1959, about a thousand children of indigent parents were being given some addition to their diet on every school day.

ANNOUNCEMENT BY THE PRIME MINISTER The Prime Minister announced on 12 September 19608) that attention was being given to the provision of more nutritious food for Africans. This would not only contribute towards raising their standard of health, but would increase the country's productivity. Apart from the possibility of employers themselves providing at least one nutritious meal a day, an intensive propaganda campaign among the Africans could result in a better-balanced diet for them. Discussions with this in view were taking place. Special attention was being given to the possibility of making better use of available protein foods. WELFARE THE CHILDREN'S ACT, NO. 33 OF 1960 GENERAL PROVISIONS The Children's Act of 1960 is a consolidating and amendment measure, drafted with the assistance of several Government departments and welfare organizations. In general, it improved the machinery for the care of children. A children's court, for example, may now impose such requirements as it may determine on a child brought before it and the child's parents or guardian. Children of fourteen years or over may be ordered to go to attendance centres for treatment in order that they may be disciplined or rehabilitated. The object, according to the Deputy Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions(') is to ensure that a child remains with its parents wherever possible, rather than being sent to an institution. The salary of a parent may be attached for the maintenance of a child. Mothers, as well as fathers, may be deprived of their parental powers if they desert or habitually ill-treat or neglect to maintain their children. New provisions are included designed to prevent the "black market" in illegitimate children. The medical superintendent of a hospital is empowered to consent to an operation on a minor in cases of extreme urgency if. after consultation with another medical practitioner, he is of the opinion that the operation should not be deferred for the purpose (8) Rand Daily Mail report, 13 September. (1) Assembly. 4 February 1960, Hansard 3 cols. 959-975. A SURVEY OF RACE 246 of obtaining the consent of the parent or guardian. The law relating t,, the adoption of children is simplified in cases where one or both parents are dead, or have deserted the child, or have been declared habitual criminals, or are mentally defective. ADMINISTRATION OF THE ACT, AS IT AFFECTS AFRICANS, TO BE TRANSFERRED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BANTU ADMINISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENT The Minister of Bantu Administration and Development is empowered to establish Bantu children's courts. In areas where this has not been done, the Bantu Affairs Commissioner's court will automatically be a Bantu children's court. This Minister may also appoint officials to undertake the duties of commissioners of child welfare in respect of African children. Where Africans are concerned, reference in any provision of the Act to a division of the Supreme Court is to be construed as a reference to the appropriate Native Appeal Court; but there will still be the right of appeal from a decision of the latter to the Supreme Court2) ETHNOLOGICAL GROUPING OF A CHILD IN NEED OF CARE TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT Under the earlier Act, a child's religious denomination had to be taken into account when he was placed in the custody of foster parents or sent to a children's home (other than a statutory home). In terms of the new measure, regard must also be paid to the child's cultural background, ethnological background and nationality.3' Regulations made by the competent Minister under the Act may now differ in respect of persons belonging to different classes or races.") No such provision existed in the earlier Act. PROPOSAL THAT CHILDREN CLASSIFIED IN A DIFFERENT RACIAL GROUP FROM THAT OF THEIR PARENTS MIGHT BE DEEMED "IN NEED OF CARE" As read a first time, the Bill defined a child in need of care as being, inter alia, "a child who has, in terms of the Population Registration Act, 1950 (Act No. 30 of 1950), been classified as belonging to a race other than the race of his parents or guardian if there is in the family a child who belongs to the same race as the parents or guardian". (2) Sections two and six. (3) Sections thirty-five, forty-eight, seventy-one and forty-four. (4) Section ninety-one. RELATIONS: 1959-60 247

Introducing the Bill at its Second Reading, the Deputy Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions announced that he would move the deletion of this sub-section in the committee stage, since it might be misinterpreted. It was a fact, however, he said, "that sometimes one finds a White child and a Coloured child in the same house". The problem was practically confined to one part of the country, "and in order to give me and the people interested in the matter the opportunity to study the problem further, in order to see whether we cannot find other ways and means of coping with this position. I have decided not to go on with this provision"!" NOTES ON THE PARLIAMENTARY DEBATE During his Second Reading speech, the Deputy Minister said that there were between 5,000 and 6,000 children in institutions in South Africa. A survey had revealed that only 1.5 per cent of these children were orphans and only 16.5 per cent were semi-orphans (with one parent alive). Thus 82 per cent still had both parents. The main reason why children came to be in institutions was the breaking up of their homes. Fully 50 per cent of the parents of children in institutions were either divorced or living apart. The second most important reason was the abuse of liquor. If this situation continued, more stringent measures would be introduced. Seventy per cent of the parents of children in institutions were in good health mentally and physically. Worst of all was the fact that 35 per cent of the parents were fully capable physically, financially and mentally, of taking care of their children themselves if they wished to do so. The survey had furthermore discredited the theory that working mothers were the cause of children being in need of care or of ending up in institutions. Only ten per cent of the mothers of children in institutions were working mothers, and even then it could not be said that this was the only reason why the child was in the institution. Bantu children's courts would be more fitted to deal with African children than the ordinary children's courts, the Deputy Minister said, "because they understand their background, language, morals and tradition".") In reply to a question in the Assembly on 17 May 1960, the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development said(7) that with the introduction of Bantu children's courts, his departmental officers would establish direct close contact with social problems arising out of the delinquent and deviate conduct of urban Bantu youth, and the experience thus gained would be of assistance in planning satisfactory solutions. (5) Assembly, 4 February 1960, Hansard 3 cols. 973-4. (6) Col. 974. (7) Hansard 18 cols. 7810-1. 248 A SURVEY OF RACE

When his department took over, on 1 July 1960, eight probation officers would be transferred to it from the Department of Social Welfare, which department would render any necessary professional assistance until the new organization had been developed. Dr. D. L. Smit of the United Party pointed out(') that in the Transkei, Zululand and parts of the Ciskei Bantu Affairs Commissioners already carried out the work in respect of African children that was done by children's courts elsewhere. He felt that the new system would be an improvement. Bantu Affairs Commissioners possessed the same legal qualifications as magistrates, and had far wider experience of the needs of Africans. On behalf of the Progressive Party, Mr. J. P. Cope(') questioned the wisdom of making urban Bantu Affairs Commissioners responsible for this work. Their courts were overloaded and, through no fault of the officials, had an extremely bad name among Africans. Furthermore, Mr. Cope said, he doubted whether child welfare for Africans could be separated from that for Whites. The problem was a scientific and social rather than a penal one. The Progressive Party also pointed out<'O that the Bill made no provision for the protection of young Coloured or African children brought from the rural areas to the cities for domestic employment. BOARDS OF MANAGEMENT OF AFRICAN CHILDREN'S INSTITUTIONS In terms of R 1480 of 30 September 1960 the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development published regulations for boards of management of institutions for African children established in terms of the Children's Act (i.e. government children's homes, schools of industries and reform schools). These are in future to consist of the Bantu Affairs Commissioner as chairman, and between two and eight other members appointed by the Minister, with the principal of the institution as secretary. THE BLIND PERSONS' AMENDMENT ACT, NO. 46 OF 1960 The Blind Persons' Amendment Act of 1960 added a new Section twelve bis to the principal Act empowering the GovernorGeneral to divide the responsibility for the administration of this Act as it affects members of different racial groups between various Departments of State. (8) Hansard 4 cols. 1168-9. (9) Cols. 1188-93. (10) Cols. 1115-7. RELATIONS: 1959-60 249

In terms of Proclamation No. 252 of 29 July 1960 the administration of the provisions of the Act which affect Africans was assigned to the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development. When introducing the Bill at its Second Reading(") the Deputy Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions pointed out that, in practice, the Department of Bantu Administration and Development had administered pensions for blind Africans since 1944. The necessary funds had been provided on the Pensions Vote and then handed over. In future it would appear on the Bantu Administration and Development Vote. The Deputy Minister hinted that the administration of services for the Coloured blind might be separated from that of White persons. One of the Coloured representatives asked, if this were done, whether voluntary committees with mixed White and Coloured membership which worked among both groups would have to divide into separate bodies. The Deputy Minister replied,(2) "It will not be done at this stage, although the Act empowers us to do so. It may be done in future." CONTROL OF SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES FOR AFRICANS The Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions said in the Senate on 29 January 1960,(") "It is self-evident that the welfare of the Bantu cannot be gauged according to standards which are of application to Europeans. A specialized approach is needed in this respect which will fit in with the general Bantu policy of the State. The Department of Bantu Administration and Development is the appointed body to do this work." He added that this Department had already assumed the responsibility for children's institutions for Africans, including hostels and Places of Safety, for sending children to such institutions, for maintenance grants, adoption, the care of the blind, experimental services, the subsidizing of social workers employed by local authorities, community centres, homes for the aged, detention schools, work classes and feeding services. CONTROL AND SITING OF INSTITUTIONS CONTROL It has been mentioned in previous issues of this Survey14) that during 1957 the then Native Affairs Department sent a circular letter to local authorities and welfare organizations stating that it (11) Assembly, 4 April 1960, Hansard 12 col. 4825. (12) Col. 4831. (13) Hansard 2 col. 269. (14) 1958-59 page 288, 1956-7 page 36. 250 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 251 could not approve of the control of social, social welfare or recreational services for Africans by voluntary White bodies or by mixed committees. White persons who were interested in assisting could serve on separate advisory or separate fund-raising comruittees, but the activities must be conducted by committees consisting only of Africans. Sites or buildings in the African townships that were needed for these activities must be leased only to allAfrican committees. The Department had no objection to White officials of the State or of the local authority being co-opted by the African committees in an advisory capacity. It suggested that all payments by these committees should be by cheques which should be countersigned by a responsible White official. At a meeting held on 8 December 1959 the Johannesburg Planning Council for Non-European Social Welfare adopted the following resolutions: (1) "that this Council is of opinion that it is to the detriment of South Africa as a whole, to attempt to deal with the social welfare problems of one racial group in seclusion from the other groups; (2) that this Council considers that the Africans are fully capable of assuming the full range of responsibility connected with social welfare work. A number of Africans are already successfully fulfilling responsible positions, but it is of opinion that it would be unwise to force such a changeover too quickly. Therefore it asks the Department of Bantu Administration and Development to reconsider the policy with a view to allowing sufficient time, possibly something in the nature of a set number of years, to enable suitably qualified successors to take over. The agencies should forthwith make it a priority to speed this changeover; (3) that this Council is of the opinion that the provision for counter-signing of cheques by an official might lead to a feeling that undue interference will take place and considers that it may not always be possible for officials to give the detailed attention necessary to these matters. It therefore considers that the agency concerned should be permitted to choose an official or any other suitable person to carry out this function; (4) that this Council considers that control and co-operation should not be limited to officials but should be extended to suitable Europeans who have proved their capacity in this regard, particularly with a view to maintaining the essential link between the agency and the European fund-raising bodies;

(5) that this Council draws attention to the need for providing for practical training of social workers in urban areas, which will be the main field of their future activities; (6) that this Council places on record its conviction that the problems of the urban Africans cannot be solved in the rural areas". During the year under review the Non-European Association of Boys' Clubs, the Alexandra Anti-Tuberculosis Association, and the Mofolo Youth Centre and Jabavu Creche run by the Salvation Army in Johannesburg have appointed all- African Executive Committees. In most cases White people are assisting with general advice and with book-keeping. Numerous organizations such as institutions run by Child Welfare Societies, the Fred Clarke Training Institute conducted by the Salvation Army in Johannesburg. and the Entokozweni Welfare Centre in Alexandra Township, have asked for extensions of time during which African organizers and committee members will be trained to take over the work. A further stipulation by the Government is that no resident White members of staff will be permitted in institutions in African areas. The Salvation Army has withdrawn six Whites who previously lived at the Bethany Home in Johannesburg and has appointed an African Superintendent and Matron; but, as was mentioned in last year's Survey, the Mtutuzele Home had to be closed because no suitably qualified African woman could be found to take over the onerous duties of the White supervisor. SITING OF INSTITUTIONS It was also mentioned last year that the organizers of institutions for Africans which are established in areas zoned for members of other racial groups have been informed that these projects will have to be re-sited in African areas. The effect of this ruling on various institutions was described. Since then a SANTA tuberculosis settlement and the new clinic for Africans suffering from cerebral palsy have been granted 30-year leasehold sites in a "buffer strip" near the Baragwanath Hospital. The Bridgman Memorial Hospital is being allowed to continue to function until adequate maternity services are available at the Baragwanath Hospital. An alternative site in an African rural area has been offered. The future of the Margaret Ballinger Home for crippled and convalescent African children is still undecided, negotiations for an alternative site being in progress. 252 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 253 PENSIONS AND GRANTS ESTIMATED STATE EXPENDITURE, 1960-61 Detailed information about the anticipated State expenditure during the year 1960-61 on pensions, grants and subsidies for various sections of the population is contained in the official estinates. ',) A summary follows: Pensions and grants Blind, old age, disability and war veterans' pensions Maintenance of children, family and confinement allowances ...... Assistance to semi-fit and disabled persons ...... Relief of distress ...... Welfare services by Bantu authorities (State grantin-aid) ... .. State contributions to workmen's compensation, unemployment insurance and pneumoconiosis compensation funds ...... £ 25,310,000 1,652,500 285,300 418,900 400,000 946,800 £29,013,500 Subsidies Children's institutions ...... 815,900 Schools for handicapped children ...... 478,860 Homes for the aged and infirm ...... 229,510 Sheltered employment, work centres and workers' hostels ...... 437,000 Social centres and salaries of social workers ...... 224,100 Grants-in-aid to voluntary welfare societies ...... 151,200 £2,336,570 Besides these sums, an amount of £166,980 is allocated for State institutions for children and aged or infirm people. INCREASE IN SOCIAL PENSIONS The Minister of Finance announced in his Budget speech16) that as from 1 April 1960 the bonuses granted to social pensioners would be increased by £6 a year for Whites and £1 10s. a year in the case of Coloured people and Asians. An additional amount W)1' Estimates of Expenditure to be defrayed from the Revenue Account, U.G. 1/60, and Supplementary Estimates, U.G. 34/60. 0) Aisembly, 2 March 1960. Hansard 7 cols. 2504-5.

254 A SURVEY OF RACE representing a five per cent increase would be paid to the S.A. Native Trust to promote African welfare. (A sum of £200,000 was subsequently voted for this purpose in the Additional Estimates). The Minister also said that in future all White pensioners would be paid at city rates. There continue to be two rates - city and non-city - for Coloured people and Asians, while for Africans there are three rates - city, town and rural. These alterations were brought into effect by means of the Pensions Law Amendment Act, No. 61 of 1960. RATES OF OLD AGE, BLIND AND DISABILITY PENSIONS Including the increased bonuses, the maximum rates of old age, blind and disability pensions are now: Pension plus Basic Free bonus plus free Pension Bonus means means Whites ...... £114 £24 £90 £228 Coloured City ...... £49100 £6 £45 £100100 Non-city ... £37100 £6 £39 £82100 Asians City ...... £43 10 0 £6 £36 £85 10 0 Non-city ... £31100 £6 £30 £67100 Africans City ...... £12 £8 5 0 £12 £32 5 0 Town ...... £9 £8 5 0 £9 £26 5 0 Rural ...£... 6 £8 5 0 £6 £20 5 0 The earnings of a blind person are halved to determine his means. Since 1 April 1955 veterans of the South African war have not been subjected to a means test. The free means for other White war veterans who have reached the age of 70 years is £250.7) An example is given to show how the means test operates. An African old-age pensioner in a city who has an income of £12 a year or less is entitled to the full pension of £12 plus the bonus of £8 5s. a year. If his income is £24 a year (equal to the pension plus the free means) he is not entitled to any pension. Should his income be between £12 and £24 he is paid a reduced pension. If, for instance, it is £18, this figure is deducted from £24, giving £6, which is his basic pension. In addition he receives the bonus of £8 5s., and together with his own income of £18 he would have £32 5s. a year. The rates given above for Coloured and Asian pensioners are, in fact, available only to such persons as are certified by the District Pensions Officer to be "of a superior class". In practice, very few (17) Information from Social Development Since Union by Professor Hansi Pollak, published by the Institute of Race Relations in 1960. Page 29.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 255 indeed receive these amounts. In the absence of any such certification the maximum rates paid during 1960 to Coloured people in cities were £46 10s. basic pension plus a bonus of £6. Maximum rates for Asians in cities were £40 10s. plus a bonus of £6. Similarly, the non-city rates were in each case £3 lower than the amounts shown in the table. The percentages shown in the table that follows should be read in this light. In the case of Africans the ability of an applicant's family to contribute towards his support is taken into account, and also the ability and opportunities of the applicant to support himself, partially or wholly. AMOUNTS PAID IN PENSIONS AND GRANTS Old age, war veterans' and blind pensions and disability grants The information contained in the table that follows was given by the Minister of Social Welfare and Pensions and the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development in the Assembly on 22 January 1960.("S Number of Old age pensions: pensioners Whites ...... 87,124 Coloured and Asians ...... 50,840 Africans ...... 214,011 War veterans' pensions: Whites ...... 28,738 Coloured and Asians ...... 1,217 Africans ...... 909 Blind pensions: Whites ...... Coloured and Asians ...... Africans ...... Disability grants: Whites ...... Coloured and Asians ...... Africans ...... 1,115 1,658 15,618 10,799 10,403 50,729 Total amount paid £ 9,973,007 2,081,339 2,781,956 4,693,814 54,409 12,323 126,254 71,991 210,493 1,307,597 420,767 675,277 Average amount per head £114 9 4 40 18 9 13 0 11 Percentage of persons receiving maximum pension 36% 32% Coloured 68% Asians Nearly all 38% 38% Coloured 67% Asians Nearly all 26% 33% Coloured 66% Asians Nearly all 37% 38% Coloured 70% Asians Nearly all Unemployment benefits According to the report of the Department of Labour for 1959P) during that year 90,237 contributors received ordinary (18) Hansard 1 cols. 215-8. (19) U.G. 59/60. unemployment benefits, 22,274 received illness allowances, 22,364 received maternity benefits, and payments were made to 2,162 dependants of deceased contributors. The Minister of Labour said in the Assembly(2°I that the estimated amounts paid by the Fund during 1959 were £4.308,000 to Whites. £1284.000 to Coloured persons, £466,000 to Asians and £95,000 to Africans. It was recently stated in a Press report(") that "foreign" Africans who have contributed to the Unemployment Insurance Fund (having salaries of £273 a year or more) are refused benefits when they become unemployed and are instructed to return to their countries of origin. Pneumoconiosis benefits The Minister of Mines and the Minister of Bantu Administration and Development were questioned in the Assembly about pneumoconiosis benefits paid to Africans during the year 1958-59.('2) It appears that £925,076 was paid to 4,639 African workers, and a further £919,724 was handed by the Fund to the Department of Bantu Administration and Development for transmission to pneumoconiosis sufferers and their dependants. Accidents to African mine-workers In reply to a further question 23) the Minister of Mines said that during 1959 there were 733 Non-Whites killed in mine accidents. The maximum compensation that was paid to persons totally dependent on such workers was £758 3s. 6d., the minimum amount was £120, and the average £248 7s. 9d. COMMITTEE OF ENQUIRY INTO FAMILY ALLOWANCES FOR WHITES It was announced on 20 November 1959, in terms of Government Notice No. 1892, that a committee of enquiry, headed by Dr. H. J. Piek, had been appointed to investigate the advisability of introducing an extensive family allowance scheme for Whites in order to bring about an increase in the White birth rate and an improvement in the standard of care and education of children from less privileged homes. The committee was also instructed to examine whether, on the other hand, it would be preferable to extend the range of free or subsidized services available to Whites. (20) 22 January 1960, Hansard 1 col. 218. (21) Rand Daily Mail, 24 September 1960. (22) 29 January, Hansard 2 col. 605; and 23 February, Hansard 6 col. 2006. (23) Assembly. 29 January 1960, Hansard 2 col. 584. A SURVEY OF RACE 256

257 RELATIONS: 1959-60 SHELTERED EMPLOYMENT SERVICES The Minister of Labour said in the Assembly during May-24) that Whites were admitted to sheltered employment projects if they suffered from mental or physical disabilities which rendered them unfit for employment in the open labour market, but were capable of doing remunerative work and earning at least half of the amount paid to them. Only Non-White ex-volunteers were adinitted. There were sheltered employment factories in Cape Town, Johannesburg (two in this city), Bloemfontein, East London and Potchefstroom, and two farms in the Johannesburg area, that catered for Whites. Factories in Cape Town, Johannesburg and Grahamstown provided sheltered employment for Non-Whites; and undertakings in Durban, Kimberley, Pietermaritzburg. Port Elizabeth and Pretoria catered for both Whites and Non-Whites. As at 31 March 1960 there were 1,400 Whites, 414 Coloured. 9 Indians and 21 Africans employed in these projects. The Johannesburg Non-European Affairs Department conducts a sheltered employment project for Africans, at Orlando. RECREATION THE ARTS LITERATURE At a conference of African authors held in Pretoria in 19590) a committee was set up to investigate the feasibility of establishing a Bantu academy in order to have independent and authoritative opinion in matters of orthography and vocabulary in the field of African languages. This committee was given power to act. It is planning the establishment of three inter-linked organizations: a Bantu Language Society, with membership open to all interested persons; a Bantu Authors' Society, with membership restricted to those who have had works published in an African language; and some organization comparable with a language and literature academy, with membership on a merit basis. This last body would deal with matters such as orthography and vocabulary. (:4) 17 May 1960, Hansard 18 cols. 7805-6. (1) See 1958-59 Survey, page 291.

258 A SURVEY OF RACE The first novel by a South African Indian, entitled Behold, the Earth Mourns, was published during November 1960. The author is a Durban woman, Dr. Ansuyah R. Singh, who is a graduate in medicine of the University of Edinburgh. Mr. Peter J. Philander, a Coloured poet, won the second and only prize awarded by the Department of Education, Arts and Science in a national competition for Afrikaans poets, which was open to persons of all races. His entry was the only one considered good enough to merit a prize. Mr. Philander is a teacher. His first volume of poetry, Uurglas, was published in 1955. Mr. D. M. Malcolm of Natal University is compiling an anthology of Zulu literature. A new bilingual monthly newspaper called Die Banier was started in Cape Town during December 1959, with the aim of providing a mouth-piece for Coloured and White people and of initiating and strengthening as many contacts as possible between the two groups. INDIAN ARTS An exhibition of Indian paintings and musical instruments and of photographs of Indian life was held in Johannesburg during January 1960. PAINTING Numbers of Non-White painters continue to make excellent progress, notably Mr. S. M. Lekgetho of Lady Selborne, Pretoria. Both the S.A. Tourist Corporation and the Pretoria Municipality commissioned paintings from him during the year under review. MUSIC One of the main interests of the late Mr. Edward Joseph of Johannesburg was to encourage the study of music by Africans. Shortly after his death in 1959 a memorial concert was arranged, with African artists, who gave their services free. The proceeds were used to found a College of Music for Non-Whites. which opened in March 1960 under the direction of Mr. Joseph Friedland. with twenty full-time and thirty part-time students. It is hoped to introduce a three-year course in 1961. The Eoan Group of Cape Town undertook a highly successful tour of the Union during 1960, presenting, in Italian, the operas La Boheme, Rigoletto, La Traviata and Cavelleria Rusticana, also the ballets Invitation to the Waltz and Golden Goose. The company, whose musical director is Mr. Joseph Manca, represents a crosssection of the Cape Coloured community. The members receive no pay for their performances but, if necessary, while they are on tour

R ELATIONS: 1959-60 259 the company pays them the salaries they would have received in their normal occupations. Their visit to Johannesburg inspired the formation of a cultural society at Alexandra Township. Four leading Johannesburg African choirs again combined to present Handel's Messiah during the Christmas Season, arrangenients for this being made by the MOTH. The Pietermaritzburg Philharmonic Society decided to forego its Government subsidy on learning that, if this subsidy was to be renewed, it would not be permitted to present the Messiah to a mixed audience.2) The Bothner Memorial Scholarship for music teachers has for the first time been awarded to a Non-White person - Mr. Frank Petersen, a Coloured teacher at the Athlone Teacher Training College, Paarl. This enabled him to visit Britain and the Continent to study school music education and choral conducting. An Indian printer from Durban, Mr. Eric Tithoo, was awarded an italian Government scholarship to study operatic singing, the pianoforte, theory and languages at the Academy of St. Cecilia in Rome. ENTERTAINMENT I'HE THEATRE The musical play Mkumbane (The Valley in the Gulley), which deals with life at Cato Manor, had a very successful six-day run in Durban early in 1960, the proceeds being in aid of the Institute of Race Relations. The play was by Alan Paton, the music by Todd Matshikiza, the producer was Malcolm Woolfson; and there was an all-African amateur cast of more than 100. This group of Africans has decided to maintain its identity and develop its talents. During January 1960 the Union of Southern African Artists presented Eugene O'Neill's play The Emperor. Jones, with Leon Gluckman as producer and a cast of Africans. It ran for two weeks in Johannesburg and was subsequently staged in Pretoria. The triumphant run in Johannesburg of the jazz opera King Kong was described in last year's Survey.Y3) This is now to be staged in London under the auspices of Jack Hylton Promotions. Leon Gluckman will again be the producer. Most of the original stars and 60 members of the original cast, who have been granted passports for the purpose, will play in it. The book is being streamlined and the lyrics re-written. The leading woman's part will not be taken this time by Miriam Makeba. Since the Johannesburg production she has been making highly successful appearances in night clubs and on television in the United States, and is at present heavily committed there. (2) See statement by the Minister of Education, Arts and Science, Assembly, 22 January 1960, Hansard 1 col. 244. (3) Page 294.

The South African National Theatre Board has in principle decided to establish a Non-White theatrical company.(" When it visited the Union early in 1960 the Royal Ballet Company decided not to bring its South African Malay member, Johaar Mosaval, in case he might be subjected to embarrassment. The company gave special performances for Non- White audiences. A little later, however, the Swedish Folk Dancing Association decided to cancel a planned tour of the Union as a protest against the racial policy of the country. The British Musicians' Union has placed a total ban on appearances by its members in South Africa. CINEMAS It has been mentioned in previous issues of this Survey50 that Proclamation No. 164 of 1958 provided, inter alia, that, except under permit, no racially disqualified person may attend a public cinema except as a representative or guest of the State or a statutory body. Early in 1959 Mr. I. Barenblatt, the managing director of a cinema at Somerset West in the Cape, was prosecuted for admitting Coloured people to the gallery of his cinema. He was found guilty in the magistrate's court of contravening provisions of the Group Areas Act, and was given a suspended sentence. The Cape Supreme Court set aside his conviction and sentence, however, on the ground that the relevant section of the Act did not make it an offence for a member of the Coloured group to attend a cinema which was attended by members of the Coloured group at the time that the Act came into force. The Attorney-General of the Cape appealed against this judgment, but during March 1960 his appeal was dismissed by the Appellate Division.0) RADIO Broadcasting Amendment Act, No. 49 of 1960 In terms of the Broadcasting Amendment Act of 1960, the Board of Governors of the S.A. Broadcasting Corporation is given increased powers of control of its affairs and of the interpretation of its functions. The Act provides, inter alia, that the Governor-General will appoint a Bantu Programme Control Board, consisting of the chairman of the Board of Governors and between three and seven other persons. This board will approve the broadcasting of programmes for reception by Africans and the appointment of employees of the S.A.B.C. for service exclusively in connection (4) Star report, 19 August 1960. (5) 1957-58, page 91; 1958-59 pages 295-6. (6) Star report. 14 March 1960. 260 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 261 with the functions of the board and the compiling of African programmes. The board may appoint advisory councils at such places as it may deem fit, which may in turn appoint advisory subcommittees. When introducing the Bill at its Second Reading,7) the Minister of Posts and Telegraphs said that at the present stage the Bantu Programme Control Board would consist exclusively of Whites, but there was nothing to prevent Africans from being members of advisory committees. The Act also provides that the expenditure in connection with the compiling or broadcasting of programmes for reception by Africans shall, without the approval of the Minister, not exceed the total of the amounts received by the corporation: (i) in respect of listeners' licences issued to Africans, which amount will be determined by the Postmaster-General in the manner he deems most suitable; (ii) from any other source in connection with the broadcasting of such programmes. The expenditure to be met from these sources will include amounts needed for the remuneration of members of the Bantu Programme Control Board. The Minister explained(') that most of the overhead costs for the Bantu programmes would be met by the corporation, but that revenue from licences issued to Africans would be used to cover running costs. Interim broadcasting service for Africans Mr. C. D. Fuchs was during December 1959 appointed head of the Bantu broadcasting service which came into operation in June 1960. As an interim arrangement, the English and Afrikaans transmitters are being used during certain hours of the early morning to broadcast programmes in Zulu, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho and Xhosa. These programmes are prepared at the regional headquarters in Johannesburg, Durban and Grahamstown, and are relayed from stations throughout South Africa according to the geographical distribution of people of these language groups. There is now a total of 10 hours' broadcasting for Africans a week as compared with 3- hours prior to June; but the morning hours are, of course, inconvenient for most African workers. The expansion of the service has created new opportunities for African announcers, entertainers, writers and musicians. (7) Assembly, 6 April 1960, Hansard 12 cols. 5070-2. (8) Col. 5074.

A SURVEY OF RACE Plans for the future Mr. Fuchs is reported to have said on 15 July 9) that a separate service, with its own studios and transmitters, was being planned to provide full daily programmes for African listeners. There have been numerous Press forecasts'10) that the African service will be on the rediffused high frequency modulation system, which channels are used by modern television services. This would avoid interference: the medium and short- wave bands are becoming very congested. The range is, however, very limited, and most receiving sets now in use in South Africa cannot operate on it. Africans wishing to listen to the Bantu programmes would probably have to buy short- wave transistor receiving sets, which would be inexpensive, but would enable them to hear only the programme arranged for them by a Government-appointed Board.* Broadcasts during the State of Emergency As has been mentioned in an earlier chapter, during the state of emergency in South Africa numerous business, church and other leaders urged the Government to consult with responsible African leaders. In a programme entitled "The South African Scene," the S.A.B.C.'s "cultural adviser," Mr. J. J. Kruger, described such suggestions as being "childish and superficial." There were numerous complaints from listeners that he was using his broadcasts to defend the Government's apartheid policy. The Rand Daily Mail submitted a series of questions on the matter to the S.A.B.C. Replying to certain of these questions the Director-General said,(1) "In normal times, as you know, the corporation, while not avoiding matters of controversy, ensures that both points of view are put in one and the same broadcast. At present, however, times are not normal, for our country finds itself in a state of emergency. That being the case the S.A.B.C. feels, just as it did in World War II, that the duty to support authority transcends the confines of party politics . . . We, therefore, trust that, if you view the matter in this light, you will feel that the S.A.B.C. is not involving itself in party politics, but is doing what is undoubtedly a duty." Other questions, relating to the fact that apartheid was the policy of only one political party, were left unanswered. (9) Rand Daily Mail of that date. (0) e.g. Star, 26 December, 8 January and 23 February. It was subsequently announced that the high frequency modulation system is gradually to be introduced throughout South Africa for all transmissions. Listeners wishing to hear other broadcasts will need receiving sets inc'uding the V.H.F. band as well as conventional wave lengths, or else their existing receivers will have to be modified. This will be out of the question for the poorer sections of the population. (11) As quoted in the Rand Daily Mail, 26 May 1960. 262

RELATIONS: 1959-60 263 SPORTS BATHING Reservation of Separate Amenities Amendment Act, No. 10 of 1960 Official plans for apartheid on the beaches have been held up because it was found that the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act of 1953 did not empower local authorities to bring about such apartheid. They might reserve public premises or land or portions thereof for the exclusive use of persons of a particular race, but the term "land" included only land above the high-water mark.12) The Amendment Act of 1960 had one clause only, containing a definition of "land" as including the sea and sea-shore as defined in the Sea-Shore Act of 1935. This latter Act stated that the sea is "the sea and the bed of the sea within the three miles limit," and that the sea-shore is "the land situated between low-water mark and high-water mark." S.A. SPORTS ASSOCIATION As was mentioned in the previous issue of this Survey, the S.A. Sports Association has been set up, with headquarters in Port Elizabeth, to work for the full and direct international recognition of all South African sportsmen. During the year under review this Association protested against the exclusion of Maoris and Non-White South Africans from the All-Blacks Rugby tour, and made unsuccessful representations for the tour to be abandoned. It wrote to the International Olympic Committee, sending a copy to the S.A. Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association, charging the latter body with having exercised racial discrimination, and requested that this charge be placed on the agenda for the Olympic Games committee meeting to be held in Rome. In no type of sport had an open, non-racial trial been conducted to determine the composition of the South African team, the Sports Association stated. Not one of the national bodies affiliated to the S.A. Olympic Association had been prepared to admit all South Africans as members without racial discrimination. All offers of affiliation had been made on condition that racial discrimination was accepted by Non-Whites in the administration of the sport. (The Government's attitude in this regard is set out on page 227 of the 1955-56 issue of this Survey.) (12) Statement by Minister of Lands, Assembly 28 January 1960. Hansard 2 cols. 520-1.

264 A SURVEY OF RACE Mr. Dennis Brutus, the secretary of the Sports Association, hoped to go to Rome to express the views of his organization, but was denied a passport. Mr. Nelson Mahono (a former member of the Pan-African Congress) therefore went to Rome from Ghana for the purpose. This Association also cabled the Imperial Cricket Conference held at Lords during July, asking that consideration should be given to racial discrimination in the national cricket association of South Africa. It sent letters to all the players in the trials held to select a cricket team to tour England, asking them to withdraw because of the exclusion of Non-White cricketers. SOCCER There are three controlling bodies in the soccer world in South Africa. The Football Association of S.A. (FASA) is a White body, and represents South Africa on the Federation of International Football Associations (FIFA). It has offered affiliation without voting rights to the other two bodies. One of these, the S.A. Bantu Soccer Federation, accepted the offer; but the other, the Soccer Federation of Southern Africa (SFSA) aims at achieving full recognition by FIFA rather than accepting subservient associate membership through the White body. Until recently SFSA was composed of three separate organizations-the Indian, Coloured and African Football Associations (the Africans are divided between this body and the Bantu Soccer Federation). During October 1960, however, these three organizations decided to merge. At a congress of FIFA held during August it was decided by 52 votes to ten to give FASA twelve months within which to comply with the non-discriminatory international soccer policy, failing which the latter body would lose its international recognition. Subsequently, however, it was reported that the British Football Association is to sponsor a move to enable both FASA and SFSA to enjoy status within FIFA. CRICKET As is mentioned above, no Non-White players were considered for inclusion in the South African cricket team which toured England in 1960. It was common talk that several Non-White cricketers, especially the Coloured player Mr. Basil D'Oliviera, qualified for such consideration. During March Mr. D'Oliviera accepted an invitation to join the British Middleton Club in the Lancashire League as a professional. He captained a Non-White team in a benefit match held for him before his departure, the opposing team of Whites being, with one exception, the same as that which represented the Western Province in a Currie Cup match held shortly beforehand. This bmnefit match ended in a draw. TABLE TENNIS It has been mentioned in previous years that the international federation which controls table tennis recognises the S.A. Table Tennis Board rather than the (White) S.A. Table Tennis Union. The Board has a non-racial constitution, although its membership is predominantly Non-White. During 1960 the Table Tennis Union invited the associations of England, Wales and Scotland to tour South Africa. These associations accepted on the understanding that they would wish also to play against the Board and that no arrangements should be made which would cause harm to the Board or its interests. However, the international federation vetoed the tour because of the racial situation in South Africa. BOXING The chairman of the (White) S.A. Amateur Boxing Association stated during February that the constitution of this body provided for affiliation by a Non-White association, but that this provision had not been put into effect because there appeared to be several Non-White boxing associations independent of one another. Until they united to form a really representative body no action could be taken. New boxing regulations were gazetted in January 1960. They provide, inter alia, that no boxing contracts or tournaments may take place between Whites and Non- Whites in South Africa. White persons are prohibited from acting as promoters, managers, seconds or advisers at any Non-White tournament, nor may they be directly or indirectly interested in any such tournament or in any Coloured boxer participating in it. A tournament between South African White and Non-White boxers was, however, staged in Basutoland during September, with judges from Portuguese East Africa. One of the bouts was won by the European Bennie Nieuwenhuizen and another by the African Elias Tshabalala. In a third, the African Enoch Nhlapo beat a European from Lourenqo Marques. GOLF The South African Indian golfer, Sewsunker "Papwa" Sewgolum, retained the Dutch Open golf title at a match held in Eindhoven in July 1960. RELATIONS: 1959-60 265 A SURVEY OF RACE JUSTICE CRIMINAL STATISTICS Criminal statistics for 1958, as given in the publication Union Statistics for Fifty Years, are: Whites Coloured Asians Africans Total number of convictions ... 162,776 158,615 31,062 1,122,081 Conviction of juveniles (included in previous figures) ...... 13,326 27,104 3,546 144,083 The percentages of the total number of convictions of each racial group that were for offences against the liquor laws and the laws and regulations for control of Africans were: Whites Coloured Asians Africans Liquor laws ...... 8.9 37.1 7.5 20.8 Control of Africans ...... 2.6 2.9 2.9 35.4 In reply to questions in the Assembly on 19 January 1960,0) the Minister of Justice gave the following figures relating to the year ended 30 June 1959: Whites Coloured Asians Africans Admissions to penal institutions ... 13,382 60,424 2,074 325,715 Average daily total of prisoners ... 2,856 * 373 * * The combined figure for Coloured and Africans was 46,657. NOTES ON THE PRISONS SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION OF LONG-TERM PRISONERS According to information made available by the Commissioner of Prisons, long- term prisoners are sent as soon as possible to observation centres where their potentialities and the dominant reasons for their lapse into crime are assessed. They are then assigned to the most suitable form of corrective training. USE OF PRISON LABOUR Organized workers in most Western countries support the principle of equal pay for equal work, and are thus opposed to the use of prison labour in competition with ordinary paid labour. Mainly for this reason, prison labour is as far as possible used for the production of food, uniforms, footwear, sleeping mats, bags, brushes and other articles required by the Prisons Department itself, and for building work, stone-dressing, welding, carpentry, etc., in (I) Hansard 1 cols. 12-13. 266

RELATIONS: 1959-60 267 connection with prison buildings. The Director of Prisons considers that the number of builders trained by his department is too small to offer any threat to free workers. In South Africa, prison labour is also used on extra-mural activities for State purposes, such as the construction of dams, farming operations, the maintenance bf public buildings and grounds, etc. THE PRISON FARM SYSTEM The Commissioner of Prisons informed the Institute of Race Relations on 16 February 1960(2) that there were then 24 farm gaols, situated as follows: (i) thirteen in the Cape Province at Soete Inval and Koelenhof (Stellenbosch district), Staart van Paardeberg, Simondium and Klein Drakenstein (Paarl district), Rawsonville (Worcester district), Obiqua (Tulbagh district), Dwarsrivier (Wolseley district), Riebeekkasteel (Riebeek West district), Warm Bokveld (Ceres district), De Dooms, Bien Donne and Hawequa (last in Wellington district); (ii) one in the Orange Free State at Geneva (Kroonstad district); (iii) ten in the Transvaal at Leslie, Kinross, Trichardt, Ongesien and Geluk (Bethal district); Davel (Ermlo district),Hendrina (Hendrina district), Woestalleen and Bultfontein (Middelburg district), and Driehoek (Witbank district). The average number of prisoners then accommodated in each of these institutions was 255. Only long-term prisoners serving sentences of two years and more (the majority being recidivists) are, in general, allocated to these institutions. In their classification the intelligence, aptitudes and interests of the prisoners as well as the employment opportunities in the areas where they will finally go when discharged are taken into consideration. The costs of constructing the prisons and the housing for prison personnel are borne by the farmers, but on completion these buildings are handed over to the Department. The farmers have no say whatsoever in the control of the institution or the care and maintenance of the prisoners. Twenty prison warders, eight White and the rest Non-White, are stationed at each farm prison. All the provisions of the Prisons Act of 1959 and the regulations framed thereunder apply to these institutions. The Department of Prisons supplies the prisoners' food, and medical attention is given by full-time medical officers of the Department of Health. The institutions are also subject to inspection by lcal authority health and sanitation officers. '2) Letter Ref. No. C.T. 2/60.

The prisons are semi-open ones, the prisoners being employed extra-murally. Farmers pay the Department one shilling and ninepence per prisoner per day. With incidental expenses such as transport, interest on the capital cost, etc., it is estimated that the cost to the farmer is about ten shillings a day. Departmental inspectors visit the institutions and working spans at least three times a week. In addition, medical officers must see each prisoner at least once a week. Periodic visits are paid by magistrates, when all prisoners are interviewed on parade. Visiting prison boards must interview all prisoners at least once a year. Prison visitors and ministers of religion are given full facilities to meet the prisoners on Sundays. THE PROBATIONARY RELEASE OF PRISONERS The Commissioner of Prisons also informed the Institute that the system of parole or the probationary release of prisoners has been substituted for the old 9d. a day scheme. This is a purely voluntary system, the prisoner's written consent and his acquiescence with stipulated conditions being required. The prisoners are selected by prison boards, and must be medically fit. Those who, because of the nature of their offences, may constitute a danger to the public may not participate. The aim is to afford a prisoner who might be adversely affected by further imprisonment an opportunity of integrating himself with a free life and of providing for his own needs and those of his family. Prisoners of both sexes and all races may be released on parole. Short-term prisoners who wish to participate in the scheme are released as soon as possible after conviction. Long-term prisoners are first required to serve a reasonable portion of their sentences, during which time their general conduct and attitude to life are assessed. Prisoners are as far as possible placed in occupations or trades in which they have received training or are qualified: some are, thus, allowed to work in urban areas. In placing those who lack special qualifications, preference is given to activities where their labour can be used for the production of food or other requirements of national importance. Those who are out on parole may be placed under the supervision of any suitable person. They are regarded as free workers, and are paid in accordance with their abilities, payment being made in the presence of a member of the Prisons Department. Part of the money earned may be used for personal needs, part may be sent to the prisoners' families, and the rest is saved for use after discharge. 268 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 269 The employer is held responsible for the provision of food of a stipulated nutritive value, and of accommodation and working clothes. Free medical attention is given by district surgeons. Members of the Prisons Department visit the prisoners periodically. If the conditions of their release are infringed they are returned to prison. On the expiry of their periods of probationary release the prisoners are examined by Departmental medical officers. Should a prisoner be working in an urban area where it is inconvenient for a private employer to provide accommodation, arrangements may be made for the former to return to prison each evening. In certain circumstances a prisoner may be granted leave at a reasonable stage before his discharge, to enable him to arrange his private affairs, to restore family relationships and, where necessary, to meet his prospective employer. The Minister of Justice said in the Senate on 25 April 1960) that during the past year 107,000 short-term and 250 longer-term prisoners had been allowed out on parole or probationary release. PROMISES OF SIMPLIFIED COURT PROCEDURE AND BETTER POLICE PROTECTION FOR AFRICANS COURT PROCEDURE In a statement published on 13 September 1960 the Prime Minister announced4) that consultations were taking place between the Department of Bantu Administration and Development and the Department of Justice on the elimination of anomalies and the simplification of court procedures involving Africans. POLICE PROTECTION The Commissioner of Police is reported5) to have said on 12 August that it had not yet been possible to provide more police patrols in all African townships, as the Government intended. But in the meantime extra police were being concentrated at points where frequent crimes were reported and expected, such as in the vicinity of railway stations and bus terminii on the evening of payday. (3) Hansard 10 cols. 2237-8. (4) Rand Daily Mail of that date. (5) Ibid, 13 August 1960,

JUVENILES YOUTH CAMPS Information received from the Department of Bantu Administration and Development The Secretary for Bantu Administration and Development informed the Institute of Race Relations on 20 April 1960'6) that, in terms of the powers granted to the Minister by paragraph (b) of Proclamation No. 194 of 1958, four Bantu youth camps have been established. They are situated on S.A. Native Trust land, and are administered on a basis of ethnic grouping "to ensure that youths belonging to the various major ethnic groups in the Union are rehabilitated in their own spheres of environment." The Elandsdoorn Youth Camp (at Enkeldoorn, near Groblersdal) is used for youths of the Sotho and other Northern and NorthEastern Transvaal tribes. A second camp has been established on the Trust farm Mooifontein, district Lichtenburg, for the Tswana, Free State Sotho and other Western Transvaal tribes. The Bekruipkop camp (near Mount Coke Mission, ten miles south-east of King William's Town) serves the Xhosa group, and the Vuma camp (Eshowe district) is used for the Zulu group. Each camp provides for a total of 300 youths. The number committed during 1959 was not known at the time the letter was sent because certain statistics were outstanding. The minimum period of detention is usually two years. Most of the youths committed to these institutions were at the time of their arrest residing in urban locations, although many were not legally domiciled in those areas. The youth camps are not educational institutions in the sense that normal school facilities are provided. Illiterates are, however, given elementary education on a part-time basis. The training of the youths is mainly directed towards the acquisition of manual ability in agriculture and horticulture. In replying to this letter the Institute of Race Relations emphasized the need for training which would be of value to the youths when they returned to the urban communities where their parents were domiciled, and stressed the importance of re-integrating them into the lives of their families. Report on Elandsdoorn Youth Camp According to a report in the Sunday Times of 10 July 1960, there are 200 youths in the Elandsdoorn camp, who come mainly from the Witwatersrand and are all under the age of eighteen. The (6) Letter ref. B.A. 117 No. 761276. A SURVEY OF RACE 270

R-LATIONS: 1959-60 271 camp is unfenced. The boys live in groups of seven in split-pole rondavels under thatch. They sleep on thick mats, and have enough blankets. The initial practice of sending the lads out to work for White farmers has been abandoned. They now work in teams on the Trust land, some of them growing food for the camp, a neighbouring Dutch Reformed Church mission hospital and a home for aged and disabled Africans associated with it. Other teams work on construction jobs about the property. Voluntary night classes are arranged for the more advanced and ambitious boys. The youths are paid 2/- a day, and have a shop where they can buy anything from cigarettes to clothing and guitars. The camp account books reflect credits of up to £34 against the names of boys who have saved their money. Parents are encouraged to visit the camp. Because of the distance from Johannesburg they can stay overnight. Youths who shape well may be released on probation to their parents' care before the expiration of the two-year period for which they are committed. These releases are at the discretion of the board of control, which consists of members of the Bantu authority for the area under the chairmanship of the Bantu Affairs Commissioner. PROVISION OF WORK FOR URBAN YOUTHS The Johannesburg municipality has set up a youth employment bureau within its Non-European Affairs Department. It was reported in the Star of 12 August 1960 that in the two months since its establishment the bureau had found work for about 230 young men and women. Hardest to place satisfactorily were those with a Junior Certificate or matriculation qualification, some of whom had studied typing and shorthand. The social worker in charge of the bureau also did follow- up work, visiting the young people at their places of employment. The youth training scheme introduced by the Boksburg municipality was described in last year's Survey.7) Training schemes for young Africans have also been launched in Germiston and Vanderbijlpark. In a paper read at a symposium arranged by the Natal Region of the Institute of Race Relations, Mr. Martin Dhlamini gave a vivid description of the difficulties and frustrations encountered by a young African seeking work in a city.8) (7) Page 305. (8) Copies of his paper are obtainable from the Institute's Durban Office.

A SURVEY OF RACE Mr. Paul Mosaka of Johannesburg is advocating the wide introduction of an African Parent-Child scheme, in terms of which townships would be divided into wards, each having a committee which would work to bring about neighbourhood cohesion, to re-establish family bonds where necessary, and to assist parents to assert responsible parental discipline. TREATMENT OF FARM LABOURERS The scheme for offering petty offenders work on farms as an alternative to prosecution, the abuses of this scheme and its abandonment during June 1959 were described in last year's Survey.0 It was mentioned that two committees had been appointed to investigate the scheme and to enquire into all the different methods of recruiting farm labour: their reports have not been made public. During the year now under review there have been several court cases arising from abuses of the system outlined above. A farmer named Mr. F. Joseph made a successful habeas corpus application to the Rand Supreme Court for the return of his employee Simon Legodi from a farm in the Bronkhorstspruit area. It was stated in court that Mr. Joseph left Legodi to do some work in Johannesburg. At lunch-time Legodi crossed the road to buy some food, leaving his reference book behind in his jacket pocket, and was arrested and taken to the Bantu Affairs Commissioner's court at Fordsburg. On returning and finding that Legodi had disappeared Mr. Joseph made extensive enquiries and found out what had happened. He sent another employee to take Legodi's reference book to him. This man reported that Legodi had been found guilty of not carrying a reference book, and sentenced to £5 or five weeks. Mr. Joseph made attempts to pay the fine, and with some difficulty ascertained that Legodi had been sent to the Modder B prison and from there to a farm. On the return day of the habeas corpus application it was reported that Legodi had been returned to his employer, who had paid his fine.(")0 Mr. G. H. Pistorius, a farmer from the Springs area, was during March found guilty of assault on a farm labourer, was sentenced to a fine of £30 or one month, plus a month's imprisonment suspended for two years, and was ordered to pay the complainant, Alfred Maseko, £10 as compensation. On his own admission Pistorius had been present while his foreman assaulted Maseko. The judge said that assaults by employers on their employees just must not happen. The ordinary citizen had no right to take the law into his own hands."') (9) Pages 311-317. (o0) Star reports. 19 and 23 February 1960. (11) Ibid, 26 March 1960. 272

R ELATIONS: 1959-60 273 During October 1960 Mr. D. A. Kwala brought an action for t750 damages against Mr. J. F. du Plessis, a farmer of the Delmas district, and his former foreman, C. L. S. Botha. He complained that Botha had assaulted him and other employees on several occasions during 1958, and had prevented the workers from going to report his actions to the police. (Mr. du Plessis was not present during the assaults.) It was reported that four other Supreme Court actions had been instituted arising from these incidents, for a total sum of £11,500 damages, and that seven further actions were pending or contemplated. Counsel for Mr. du Plessis announced that these matters had been settled out of court, his client having decided to pay £3,750 to the complainants. The case was postponed sine die."2 A considerable volume of recruited labour is still flowing to the farms, but it is reported13) that inspectors of the Department of Bantu Administration and Development are making every effort to ensure that the workers are housed, fed, paid and treated in confornmity with stipulated standards. LEGAL AID BUREAUX It was reported in last year's Survey'4) that the Department of Justice has been conducting an investigation of the present legal aid system, and had sent a memorandum expressing the views of prominent Departmental officials to the Association of Law Societies. According to an editorial in the October 1959 issue of de Rebus Procuratoriis the Department recommends the complete repeal of legal aid in criminal matters, except that pro Deo defences (on an improved basis) should be retained for accused on capital charges. It considers legal aid necessary in civil matters, but excludes all Africans, stating that sufficient provision is made for them by the Bantu courts and commissioners. It recommends that all cases of family disputes should be excluded. Enquiries offices should be set up at magistrates' courts, from which applicants who appear to qualify for legal aid should be referred to one of a panel of voluntary attorneys in accordance with the in forma pauperis procedure, which would be made simpler and more effective. The Department consulted the law societies, not on the principle of the suggested scheme, but on minor details of its operation. During 1959 the Institute of Race Relations drew up a memorandum1") stressing the need for legal aid, in criminal as well as civil cases, and for Africans as well as others. Suggestions were made for an improved scheme. Copies of this memorandum were (12) Ibid, 27 and 30 October 1960. (13) Ibid. 3 October. (14) Page 324. (15) RR 247/59. sent to the Secretary for Justice and to members of law societies and of the Bar Council. In acknowledging receipt, the Secretary of the Association of Law Societies said that although it appeared that the Department had already made up its mind as to the way legal aid was to be conducted in the future, the Societies were nevertheless making strong representations in regard to their various requirements. No announcement has been made as to the Government's decision in the matter. An amount of only £5,500 was again voted for subsidies to legal aid bureaux during the financial year 1960-61. These bureaux are finding it ever increasingly difficult to maintain the necessary volume of work with their available financial resources. At the annual meeting of the Johannesburg bureau in June 1960 its chairman, Mr. H. J. B. Vieyra, Q.C., said that during the previous year the bureau had conducted 7,955 interviews and accepted 1,073 new cases. In civil matters attorneys were instructed in 409 cases, in 174 of these cases counsel being briefed. In 59 criminal cases attorneys and counsel were engaged and 46 of the accused were discharged36) EXTERNAL AFFAIRS BOYCOTTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN GOODS CALLS FOR ACTION At a conference held during November 1959, the newly-formed All-Africa Trade Union Federation appealed to all African peoples, the international free labour movement and all democratic governments to use their influence and power to refuse markets for South African goods. All unions representing seamen and dockworkers were urged to withdraw their services from firms importing or exporting goods to South Africa. Further support for a boycott was given at the second AllAfrica People's Conference held in Tunis during January 1960 and at the Pan-African Federation conference that took place at Addis Ababa in June, where it was decided to employ commercial, diplomatic and political sanctions against South Africa. It was also suggested that petroleum companies should be approached with the object of preventing the sale of oil to the Union. (16) Star report, 15 June 1960. 274 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 275 WEST INDIES AND CENTRAL AMERICA The first countries to state that they intended banning imports from South Africa were Jamaica and Antigua. They were later joined by Barbados and British Guiana. During April 1960 dockworkers in Trinidad refused to handle a cargo of South African merchandise or to refuel the ship carrying these goods. A consignment of hardboard had to be returned to the Union. BRITAIN Backed by the Labour and Liberal Parties, the powerful Trade Union Congress and some, but not all, of the co-operative societies, an Anti-Apartheid Committee in Britain organized a boycott of South African goods for the month of March. The left-wing journal Tribune published a list of forty branded products, including tinned foods, cigarettes, wines and spirits and fruit, for shoppers to avoid. Similar lists were distributed among the 8 -million trade unionists and the general public. The British Chamber of Commerce dissociated itself from the boycott. WEST AFRICA Early in 1960 Nigeria decided to ban all imports from South Africa. Ghana followed suit as from the beginning of August, stating that applications for import licences would only be entertained in the most exceptional circumstances. It is reported') that as from 1 December 1960 light shipping lines are to impose a 25 per cent surcharge on goods coming from West Africa to the Union because of the additional expense caused by the fact that cargo vessels are almost empty on their northward passage. CENTRAL AND EAST AFRICA The Sudan, too, has imposed an official ban on South African goods. There are unofficial boycotts in Kenya and Tanganyika. At a Pan-African conference representative of six Central and East African territories, held in Tanganyika during September 1959, it was decided that as from 1 November of that year the countries concerned would boycott South African liquor, which is easily distinguished, and the widely used South African hoes. A wider boycott would be instituted after details of imports had been worked out. The Government of the new State of Somaliland decided during June 1960 to exclude South Africa from the Commonwealth countries that were to be granted a 15 per cent preferential trade tariff. (1) Star, 9 November 1960.

SCANDINAVIA Leaders of the 3,300,000 trade unionists of Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Finland called upon them to support a boycott of South African goods which lasted from April to August 1960 inclusive. The Swedish co-operative societies pledged their support. Norwegian dock workers refused to off-load consignments of South African fruit. Two South African tennis players were refused permission to play in the Norwegian championships during May, when the boycott was in force. UNITED STATES In June 1960 the American Committee on Africa arranged a conference which was co-sponsored by the Americans for Democratic Action, the American Society of African Culture, the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, the Jewish Labour Committee, the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People and the local region of the United Automobile Workers. It was decided to urge the Washington Government to cease buying gold and strategic raw materials from South Africa if other sources were available, to advocate a consumer boycott of South African goods, to urge dockworkers to refuse to unload these goods, to try to persuade the organizers of the World Trade Fair not to grant South Africa a pavilion, and to attempt to dissuade businessmen from investing in the Union.(') MALAYA The Malayan Government decided during July 1960 to place a ban on the entry of goods from South Africa. EFFECTS OF THESE BOYCOTTS As is mentioned in an earlier chapter, in spite of the boycotts the total volume of South Africa's export trade increased during 1960. In many cases it proved possible to find alternative markets. Numbers of individual firms and industries were, however, adversely affected, for example producers of canned fish and fruit, rubber products, batteries, brass goods, machine parts, building materials and pharmaceutical products.(') Manufacturers of certain export goods are said to be sending out these products without the imprint "Made in South Africa". (2) Star report, 2 June 1960. (" Reports in the Star, 3 June, and Rand Daily Mall, 30 July 1960. 276 A SURVEY OF RACE

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS UNITED NATIONS, NOVEMBER 1959 On 17 November 1959, by 62 votes to three, with seven abstentions, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution expressing deep regret and concern that the Union Government had not yet responded to previous appeals that it should reconsider its policies which impaired the right of all racial groups to enjoy the same fundamental rights and freedoms. The Assembly stated its deep conviction that policies which accentuated or sought to preserve racial discrimination were prejudicial to international harmony. It was for this reason convinced that the South African Government's discriminatory policy was not simply a matter of domestic jurisdiction, but was an international subject of the utmost importance. The countries that opposed the motion were Britain, France and Portugal. Those that abstained from voting were Australia, Belgium, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Finland, the Netherlands and Spain. The United States supported the motion, the head of its delegation stating that "apartheid is a violation of human rights buttressed and sanctified by law." THE NETHERLANDS On 10 November the Dutch Foreign Minister issued a statement on behalf of his Government in which he is reported to have said that the Netherlands abstained from voting because she doubted whether the United Nations was entitled to deal with the Union's domestic policy. Nevertheless, the Netherlands Government was of the opinion that South Africa's apartheid policy was incompatible with the sense of justice in all three parts of the Netherlands Kingdom. On I1 January the South African Ambassador at The Hague handed the Netherlands Foreign Minister a note expressing the Union Government's displeasure and serious concern over this statement. It could not but have an unfavourable reaction on the traditionally friendly relations between the Union and the Netherlands, and would also react unfavourably upon the relations of the Afrikaner people with the land of their forefathers. the note said. The Netherlands Government rejected South Africa's objections to its official viewpoint on apartheid. According to the Press,'4) on 5 April the Dutch Lower House resolved to make a cri de coeur to the Union Parliament for "reflection on the welfare of the whole of the South African people in the (4) Rand Daily Mail, 6 April 1960. RELATIONS- 1959-60 277 light of the apartheid policy." The Prime Minister, Professor Jan de Quay, said that apartheid could not find grace in Dutch eyes. His Government felt that the regrettable events in the Union could not be seen otherwise than as a direct consequence of the South African Government's apartheid policy. CANADA During January the President of the 1,200,000-member Canadian Labour Congress (C.L.C.) criticized the Canadian Government for Canada's abstention from voting on the United Nations' resolution, and stated that Canada should do everything in its power to bring pressure on the Verwoerd Government to change its policy. The Labour Congress passed a motion demanding that South Africa be expelled from the Commonwealth. The Prime Minister, Mr. John Diefenbaker, replied that he had strong feelings about racial discrimination. Nevertheless he had no intention of supporting the C.L.C.'s stand. Members of the Commonwealth were bound to disagree about the courses of action each followed, but the independence of each member was the essence of the CommonwealthP5) On 22 March, when the House Leader of the Canadian Commonwealth Federation, speaking in the House of Commons in Ottawa, urged his Government to lodge an official protest against the "brutal" policy of apartheid, Mr. Diefenbaker replied that the Canadian Government had made it clear that it condemned racial discrimination.(6) But it appears that the detention in South Africa under the emergency regulations of Mr. Norman Phillips, foreign editor of the Toronto Star, provoked Mr. Diefenbaker for the first time into making a statement which might be construed as interference in South African affairs. It is reported(7) that he not only protested against the arrest of one of his countrymen, but also conveyed "the widespread indignation felt in Canada at the measures which have given rise to the recent violence and loss of life in South Africa." BRITAIN Mr. Macmillan's "Wind of Change" speech An historic speech was made by the Rt. Hon. Harold Macmillan on 3 February to a combined meeting of the South African Houses of Parliament. After thanking the Union Government for arranging his tour of the country and expressing appreciation of the friendship he had encountered, Mr. Macmillan went on to point out that the (5) Star report, 29 January. (6) Ibid, 22 March. (7) Ibid, 11 April. 278 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 economies of Britain and South Africa, while expanding rapidly, had yet remained interdepedent. He deplored the consumer boycott in Britain of South African goods which could only have serious effects on Commonwealth relations and trade and be to the ultimate detriment of others than those against whom it was aimed. The most striking of all the impressions he had formed during his tour of Africa, Mr. Macmillan said, was of the strength of African national consciousness. In different places it took on different forms. But it was happening everywhere. The wind of change was blowing throughout the continent. Whether one liked it or not, this growth of national consciousness was a political fact. Its causes were to be found in the achievements of Western civilization. National policies must take account of it and come to terms with it, for otherwise the precarious balance of East and West, on which the peace of the world depended, might be imperilled. The great issue in this second half of the 20th century was, as Mr. Macmillan saw it, whether the uncommitted people of Asia and Africa would swing to the Communist camp, or to the West. Would the great experiments in self- government that were being made in Asia and Africa, especially within the Commonwealth, prove so successful and by their example so compelling, that the balance would come down in favour of freedom and order and justice ? The struggle was joined, and it was a struggle for the minds of men. Each of the independent members of the Commonwealth must answer for itself the question as to what it could show the uncommitted nations to help them to choose aright. It was a basic principle of the modern Commonwealth that each respected the other's sovereignty in matters of internal policy. At the same time it must be recognized that, in this shrinking world, the internal policies of one nation might have effects outside it. "We may sometimes be tempted to say to each other 'mind your own business'. But in these days I would myself expand the old saying so that it runs 'mind your own business, but mind how it affects my business too.'" It had been Britain's aim, in the countries for which she had borne responsibility, not only to raise the material standards of life. but to create a society which respected the rights of individuals a society in which men were given the opportunity to grow to their full stature, and that in Britain's view must include the opportunity of an increasing share in political power and responsibility; a society in which individual merit, and individual merit alone, was the criterion for a man's advancement. In countries inhabited by several different races, it had been Britain's aim to find means by which 1o foster fellowship between the different parts. 279

A SURVEY OF RACE He was well aware of the peculiar nature of the problems with which the Union was faced, Mr. Macmillan said. "As a fellow member of the Commonwealth we always try, and I think have succeeded, in giving South Africa our support and encouragement. But I hope you won't mind my saying frankly that there are some aspects of your policies which make it impossible for us to do this without being false to our own deep convictions about the political destinies of free men." He had spoken frankly about the differences which existed between the two countries in their approach to one of the great current problems with which each had to deal within its own sphere of responsibility, Mr. Macmillan concluded. But differences on one subject, important as they were, need not and should not impair the capacity to co-operate with one another in furthering the many practical interests which were shared in common. "Those of us who by the grace or favour of the electors are temporarily in charge of affairs in your country and in mine ... have no right to sweep aside on this account the friendship that exists between our countries.. . I hope - indeed I am confident - that in another 50 years we shall look back on the differences which exist now between us as mere matters of historical interest. For as time passes and one generation yields to another, human problems change and fade. Let us therefore resolve to build - and not to destroy. Let us also remember that weakness comes from division, and, in words familiar to you, strength from unity." Dr. Verwoerd's Reactions In thanking Mr. Macmillan, Dr. Verwoerd is reported(') to have said, "I think it is an attribute of civilization that one is capable of discussion with friends and, in spite of differences, remain friends and be capable of co-operating in all that remains of mutual interest". Maintaining that "there must not only be justice to the Black man in Africa, but also to the White man", he added, "There may be very great dangers inherent in your policies in that the very objects you are aiming at may be defeated." Later, in the Assembly, Dr. Verwoerd said,") "It appears to me that the Western nations are prepared to abandon the Whites in Africa ... The White man of Africa is not going to be told that, because he is outnumbered by the Black peoples, he must allow his rights to be swallowed up and be prepared to lose his say ... We do not accept ... that the White inhabitants must be satisfied as a minority in a multi- racial country to compete with the Black masses on an equal basis, which in the long run can only mean a Black government." (8) Rand Daily Mail, 11 February. (9) 9 March, Hansard 8 cols. 3015-21. 280

RELATIONS: 1959-60 281 What he saw developing in Africa was Black dictatorships, Dr. Verwoerd stated. "The Black masses which did not find their burdens very onerous under White democratic domination or under careful White leadership will perhaps in future find things more difficult". Neither human intermingling nor political intermingling but a permanent co-existence should be the aim, he maintained. "One accepts that Black neighbour states must come into being - their development must take place from the bottom upward, and gradually, at the speed at which he is capable of advancing That is what we are trying to do in our Bantu homelands". "We will see to it that we remain in power in this White South Africa", Dr. Verwoerd said later.(") The Bantu "should really be rooted in the areas inhabited by their forefathers". UNITED STATES On the day after the Sharpeville and Langa riots a Press representative of the U.S. State Department read the following prepared statement at a Press conference in Washington: "The United States deplores violence in all its forms and hopes that the African people of South Africa will be able to obtain redress for legitimate grievances by peaceful means. While the United States, as a matter of practice, does not ordinarily comment on the internal affairs of governments with which it enjoys normal relations, it cannot help but regret the tragic loss of life resulting from the measures taken against the demonstrators in South Africa." According to Dr. Verwoerd,(n) on 23 March Mr. Eric Louw asked the U.S. Ambassador to call to see him. "The Minister made it clear that by raising the matter with the Ambassador he was not conceding the right of the U.S. Government to concern itself with the domestic affairs of South Africa . . . The Union Government found it necessary, however, to express its concern that the State Department authorized the Press statement without first acquainting itself with the full facts, which had been the subject of a judicial inquiry regarding the attacks by many thousands of Bantu on a small Police Force to whom was entrusted the duty of maintaining law and order." UNITED NATIONS' DEBATE, MARCH/APRIL 1960 At the request of the Afro-Asian group, which maintained that the situation in South Africa had grave potentialities for international friction, endangered the maintenance of international peace and security, and should be discussed as a matter of urgency, (10) 23 March, Assembly Hansard 10 col. 3984. (11) Assembly, 23 March, Hansard 10 cols. 3981-2.

282 A SURVEY OF RACE the United Nations Security Council met on 30 March, and decided without any objections that the matter would be accepted for discussion. Immediately thereafter the U.K. representative said that while his delegation had not objected, Britain nevertheless reserved her position because of her view on intrusion into the domestic affairs of member states. She would approach the debate with that view in mind. The French and Italian representatives also expressed concern about interference in members' domestic affairs; but the former added that French opinion had always vigorously disapproved of racial discrimination, and the Italian representative qualified his remark by saying that events in South Africa appeared "to justify some special procedure on our part." (The other members of the Security Council were the United States, Russia, China, the Argentine, Tunisia, Ceylon, Ecuador and Poland. Delegations from South Africa, India, Ghana, Pakistan, Guinea and Liberia were invited to participate in the debate). Mr. Brand Fourie, the head of South Africa's permanent mission to the U.N., then pointed out that this was the first time in the history of the U.N. that the Security Council had decided to consider "a purely local disturbance." It was creating a dangerous precedent which could affect other countries. The annual discussions of South Africa's racial problems in the General Assembly had helped to inflame the situation in the Union, he said. He warned members that the forthcoming debate might well incite new racial strife, and said that if this were to be the result the blame would rest squarely on the shoulders of the Security Council. Stating that now the item had been inscribed on the agenda he would have to report to his Government for further instructions, Mr. Fourie then retired to his seat on the sideline. According to Press reports,('2) although highly critical of the policies of apartheid, the speeches that followed were moderate in tone. A resolution was finally adopted by nine votes to nil with Britain and France abstaining. It expressed the view that the situation in South Africa was one that had led to international friction and if continued might endanger international peace and security. It was deplored that the disturbances should have led to the loss of life of so many Africans. The policies and actions of the South African Government, which had given rise to the situation, were deplored. The South African Government was called upon to initiate measures aimed at bringing about racial harmony based on equality, and to abandon its policies of apartheid and racial discrimination. 0:) e.g. Star. 31 March.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 283 The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mr. Dag Hammarskjbld, was requested, in consultation with the Union Government, to make such arrangements as would adequately help in upholding the purposes and principles of the Charter, and to report to the Security Council whenever necessary and appropriate.(") Mr. Eric Louw subsequently announced in the Union House of Assembly1') that Mr. Hammarskjb1d had written to him making it clear that any consultations would not require prior recognition by South Africa of the United Nations' authority. This being the case, he had informed Mr. Hammarskjold that the latter would be welcome to come to the Union for discussions at a time mutually suitable and still to be arranged. He had suggested that it might be convenient for Mr. Hammarskj6ld to go to London for preliminary discussions after the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conference. The latter did so, and at the conclusion of the talks a statement was issued to the effect that "after a useful exchange of views" Mr. Hammarskj6ld and Mr. Louw had agreed "on the character and course of the further consultations, which are scheduled to take place in Pretoria." Mr. Hammarskj6ld made plans to visit the Union during May; but the rioting in the Congo forced him to change his arrangements. He held further discussions with Mr. Louw in New York during October, after which it was stated(") that he was drafting an interim report for the Security Council and planned to leave for the Union on 4 or 5 January 1961. BRAZIL During April the head of the Brazilian mission in South Africa was recalled "for consultations". It was reported(") that Brazil was trying to organize a collective stand by all the Latin American Governments to face what the Brazilian Foreign Minister publicly described as "an issue of prime importance for nations born of a fusion and a co-ordination of efforts of different races". He added that the internal security of such countries was threatened by the propagation of doctrines aimed at destroying the relationship between peoples of different races and creeds. COMMONWEALTH PRIME MINISTERS' CONFERENCE According to Press reports, at the opening session of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers' conference in London on 3 May, Tunku Abdul Rahman, Premier of Malaya, referred to "the (13) Star report, 2 August 1960. (14) ]9 April, Hansard 14 cols. 5562-3. (15) Star report, 11 October. (16) [bid, 6 May. problem of racial discrimination in South Africa and its effects on relations between South Africa and other Commonwealth countries," and said he hoped an opportunity would be found for the Prime Ministers to discuss the subject. The meeting reaffirmed the traditional practice, however, that at Commonwealth conferences there was no formal discussion of the internal affairs of member countries. Mr. Eric Louw pointed out that the South African Government was alone responsible for its domestic policies; but agreed to a suggestion that he should meet other heads of delegations for informal discussions. According to reports, Mr. Louw gave offence to certain delegates by holding a Press conference before these informal discussions at which he appeared to pre- judge their outcome, making it clear that South Africa had no intention of modifying its policies or admitting any sort of liability for the crisis that had developed. The Premier of Malaya stated on 5 May that he had walked out of informal discussions with Mr. Louw and would refuse to have further talks with him. It was impossible to discuss matters with the representative of a country which had firmly decided that there would be no change in its policies, he said. Addressing the India League in London, Pandit Nehru said that apartheid might "shake the very foundations of the Commonwealth". "I wish to lay stress on the dangers and explosive character of this situation," he added. Field Marshal Ayub Khan of Pakistan said at a Press conference that unless some human solution to apartheid was found "it will certainly set alight the best part of Africa." Mr. Louw is reported to have been involved in disputes with Mr. Diefenbaker, who called upon him to explain or justify a public statement that he was unaware of Canada's attitude to apartheid, and with Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, who said that the invitation to Mr. Louw to visit Ghana later in 1960 had been a conditional one, the condition being that the Union reciprocate with an invitation to Ghana's Foreign Minister, Mr. Ako Adjei, to make a similar trip thereafter. So far South Africa had not agreed to this condition, and the original invitation would now be withdrawn because of the recent events in the Union. Mr. Louw denied that any conditions had been attached to the invitation. It was announced at this time that Tunku Abdul Rahman was shortly to pay an official visit to West Germany. Mr. Louw had planned to visit Bonn during this same period but had been advised by officials there that his proposed visit "would be inconvenient". 284 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 285 The communiqu6 issued at the end of the Prime Ministers' conference referred in guarded terms to the discussions that had taken place on South Africa's racial situation even though these were informal and although Mr. Louw is reported to have been strongly opposed to any such reference. It said, "While re-affirming the traditional practice that Commonwealth conferences do not discuss the internal affairs of member countries, Ministers availed themselves of Mr. Louw's presence to have informal discussions with him about the racial situation in South Africa. "During these informal discussions Mr. Louw gave information and answered questions on the Union's policies, and the other Ministers conveyed to him their views on the South African problem. The Ministers emphasized that the Commonwealth itself is a multi-racial association and expressed the need to ensure good relations between all member States and peoples of the Commonwealth." As is mentioned in an earlier chapter, it is believed that Mr. Louw sought advance approval for South Africa's remaining in the Commonwealth as a republic, but no such assurance was given. The communiqud stated, "In the event of South Africa deciding to become a republic and if the desire was subsequently expressed to remain a member of the Commonwealth, the meeting suggested that the South African Government should then ask for the consent of the other Commonwealth Governments". It is understood that the adequacy of a purely White referendum, and the inclusion of South-West African White voters, was questioned by Mr. Nehru, Dr. Nkrumah and Tunku Abdul Rahman. PAN-AFRICAN FEDERATION CONFERENCE The decision made at the Pan-African Federation Conference, which was held in Addis Ababa during June 1960, to employ commercial, diplomatic and political sanctions against the Union is mentioned earlier in this chapter. A further decision was that Ethiopia and Liberia, as the only participating countries that had been members of the League of Nations, should take the question of the South-West African mandate to the International Court of Justice, on the submission that the Union had violated the terms of the mandate by suppressing rights and liberties and practising racial discrimination. GHANA It was announced during July that the Ghana Government had decided that all its ports and airports would be closed to South African shipping and aircraft except in cases of distress. A South

A SURVEY OF RACE African citizen would only be permitted to enter Ghana, whether in transit or otherwise, if he declared before Ghana officials his opposition to apartheid and other forms of racial discrimination. Dr. Verwoerd stated on 14 August7) that the Union Government would take action against South Africans who signed this anti-apartheid declaration. Any Union citizen working or living in Ghana who applied for a British passport would "forfeit his moral right to privileges in his own country", and would be refused a South African passport. Legislation on this matter, which would be retrospective to the date of the Prime Minister's announcement, would be introduced during 1961. An American airline which used the Accra airport subsequently succeeded in having in transit South African passengers exempted from the Ghana Government's requirement. Such passengers, unless they have signed the declaration, are restricted to the international section of the airport. NIGERIA According to a Press report,80 the Nigerian Government was also considering refusing airport facilities to South African aircraft. An official of the S.A. Railways, Harbours and Airways Administration stated, however,09) that the decision eventually to by-pass Kano had been made by South Africa. A long- range Boeing service was being introduced, and these aircraft would not need to refuel at Kano, as the D.C. 7B's did. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE S.A. POLITICAL BUREAU Numbers of Non-White South Africans who left the country at the time of the emergency or on their release from detention made their way along an established escape route to Ghana. They were joined later by young men going for "political, administrative and military training.'"2°) Among these people were Mr. Oliver Tambo, ex-deputy President-General of the A.N.C., Mr. Tennyson Makiwane and Mr. V. Make, treason-trialists and former members of the A.N.C., Dr. Y. Dadoo, former President of the S.A. Indian Congress, and Messrs. Nelson Mahono and Peter Molotsi, formerly of the Pan-African Congress. Money has been raised in Ghana to enable these men and others to set up a S.A. Political Bureau, which is said to have offices in Accra, London, Leopoldville, Cairo and Addis Ababa, with the object of carrying out anti-South African Government propaganda. (17) Rand Daily Mail report, 15 August 1960. (18) Sunday Times, 3 July. (19) Star, 6 July. (20) Rand Daily Mail report. 3 September. 286

SOUTH AFRICAN MEMBERSHIP OF INTERNATIONAL BODIES The status of South Africa's permanent mission at the United Nations has been raised to that of an Embassy. Mr. Brand Fourie, the Union's representative at the United Nations, became its first Ambassador there.(") The Minister of External Affairs, Mr. Eric Louw, again visited New York for the 1960 session. During January 1960 the Union reversed its previous decision and decided to become a member of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. Mr. Brand Fourie headed a delegation of senior officials who attended the second session of this body, which was held in Tangier. At a conference of managers of railway systems in African countries, held during May, Mr. D. H. C. du Plessis, the Union's General Manager of Railways, unreservedly offered all the technical know-how of his administration to the new African states. International bodies continue to be hesitant about holding conferences in the Union, in case Non-White delegates are subjected to embarrassment. For this reason the venue of a conference of the International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, held in February 1960, was altered from Natal to Mauritius. Individual Non-White official visitors are, however, made welcome by the Union Govern.. ment: among such visitors during the year under review was Mr. Subash Mazumdar, an Indian statistician attached to the U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization, who came to South Africa for discussions with Government officials and was accommodated in a leading hotel in Pretoria. UNITED NATIONS' CONSIDERATION OF SOUTH-WEST AFRICA As was mentioned in last year's Survey,(") on 17 November 1959 the United Nations' General Assembly adopted a resolution calling upon South Africa to enter into negotiations with the United Nations with a view to placing South-West Africa under U.N. trusteeship. Shortly thereafter, during December, there was serious rioting in Windhoek Location, the alleged underlying cause being resentment over a scheme to move residents to a new municipal township where the housing was better but the rentals higher. About eight policemen were injured when stones were flung at them, several buildings and cars were badly damaged, eight or twelve Africans (reports differed) were killed when the police and soldiers opened fire, and at least thirty Africans were wounded. The Government appointed a one-man commission to enquire into the causes of this disturbance. (21) From Modern South Africa, May 1960, issued by S.A. Information Service in London. (22) Page 326. 287 RELATIONS: 1959-60

Although the General Assembly's debate on South-West Africa had been concluded, the Trusteeship Committee of the United Nations decided by a small majority of votes to grant a hearing to three African petitioners from the territory. A resolution was adopted noting with deep concern the action taken by the police and soldiers, and urging the Union Government to desist from the use of force and from compelling residents of the location to move. The United Nations Standing Committee on South-West Africa, of which Brazil, Denmark, Eire, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Indonesia, the Phillipines, the United Arab Republic and Uruguay are members, issued a further report during September 1960. It quoted a letter from the Union's Minister of External Affairs in which the latter is reported to have said that the Union would not negotiate with the United Nations on the question of placing SouthWest Africa under trusteeship. While reserving the Union's legal claims to the territory, it would, however, discuss any other possibilities with some special U.N. body.23") The committee stated that, judging from the information it had been able to gather, conditions in South-West Africa had not improved. There seemed to be a marked disparity in the amount of money appropriated for the benefit of the Whites and the amount appropriated for the benefit of all other races. The policy of apartheid dominated South Africa's administration of the territory. It seemed that the intention was to integrate SouthWest Africa into the Union, or to annex it. As is mentioned earlier, during November 1960, in their capacity as former members of the League of Nations, Liberia and Ethiopia instituted an action against South Africa in the International Court of Justice. Article seven of the League mandate agreement provided that if any dispute between the mandatory power and another member of the League relating to the interpretation or the application of the provisions of the mandate could not be settled by negotiation, it should be submitted to the International Court of Justice. In 1950 the Court ruled that this article was still in force. The question of South-West Africa was again inscribed on the agenda for the meeting of the Trusteeship Committee in November (23) Rand Daily Mail report, 14 September 1960. 288 A SURVEY OF RACE

RELATIONS: 1959-60 289 1960, in spite of Mr. Eric Louw's contention that the matter was sub judice in view of the action pending in the International Court. The South African delegation took no further part in the discussions. THE TREATMENT OF PERSONS OF INDIAN ORIGIN IN SOUTH AFRICA During December 1959 the United Nations General Assembly once again urged South Africa to negotiate with India and Pakistan on the question of the treatment of persons of Indian origin in South Africa.

290 A SURVEY OF RACE SOME RECENT PUBLICATIONS DEALING WITH RACE RELATIONS PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS Fifty Years of Union, by Donald B. Molteno, Q.C. (Presidential Address). Can Africa Come of Age? by Prof. C. W. de Kiewiet (Hoernl6 Memorial Lecture). Social Development since Union, by Prof. Hansi Pollak. An Outline of Native Law, by Julius Lewin. The Cost of Living for Urban Africans, by Joy de Gruchy. A Survey of Race Relations, 1958-1959, compiled by Muriel Horrell. Fact Paper No. 4-African Taxation: Its Relation to African Social Services. Fact Paper No. 5-Days of Crisis in South Africa (Events up to 15 May 1960), compiled by Muriel Horrell. Fact Paper No. 6-African Traders: Their Position and Problems in Johannesburg's South Western Townships, by Lawrence Reyburn. Fact Paper No. 7-The "Pass Laws", by Muriel Horrell. Fact Paper No. 8-The Liquor Laws: How these affect the African, Coloured and Asian People, by Muriel Horrell. 30th Annual Report of the Institute, 1958-59. Race Relations Journal: Vol. XXVI No. 4: The Significance of the Bandung, Cairo and Accra Conferences, by William Bross Lloyd, Jnr. Two Souths, by Violaine Junod. The Legal Status of African Women, by Julius Lewin et alii. The African Peasant, by Jessie Hertslet. Book reviews. Vol. XXVII No. 1: South Africa and the Wider Africa, by Prof. the Hon. E. H. Brookes. Where Stands the Federation? by Maurice Webb. A Review of Recent Legislation, by Quintin Whyte. Recent Trends in Race Relations in Britain, by Sydney Collins. Book reviews. Vol. XXVII No. 2: Fifty Years of Union-Political Review, by Prof. L. M. Thompson. Prospects for Race Relations in Southern Rhodesia, by Terence Ranger. Dr. John Philip and Liberalism, by Julius Lewin. The Role of the Church in Race Relations in the United States of America, by Darrell Randall. Vol. XXVII No. 3: Julius Nyerere: A Biography, by George Dunheved. The Concept of Pan-Africanism, by Prof. Vernon McKay. Report on the Congo, by John Marvin. Book reviews.

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Race Relations News-12 issues. Thought (a Journal of Afrikaans Thinking for the English-Speaking) Four issues-December 1959 March 1960 June 1960 September 1960. Perspektief (a Journal of Liberal Thinking for the Afrikaans-Speaking). Two issues-June 1960 September 1960. (Memoranda issued in roneod form are mentioned in the text of this Survey). PUBLISHED BY OTHERS Adam, Thomas R.: Government and Politics in Africa South of the Sahara (New York: Random House) 1959. Apthorpe, R. J. (Ed): From Tribal Rule to Modern Government. Proceedings of the 13th conference of the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute for Social Research (Mimeographed) 1959. Barker, Anthony: Giving and Receiving: An Adventure in African Medical Practice (Faith Press, London) 1959. Biesheuvel, Simon: The Development of Personality in African Culture Paper presented at the C.C.T.A./C.S.A. Symposium, August 1959 (Roneoed). Biesheuvel, Simon: Tests for the Study of African Personality Development. Paper given at C.S.A. meeting, August 1959 (Roneoed). Black Sash, The: Education for Isolation. 1960. Branney, L.: Towards the Systematic Individualisation of African Land Tenure. Journal of African Administration, October 1959. Brookes, Edgar H.: The City of God and the Politics of Crisis (Oxford University Press) 1960. Clegg, Edward: Race and Politics: Partnership in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Oxford University Press) 1960. Clutton Brock, Guy: Dawn in Nyasaland (Hodder and Stoughton) 1959. Coleman, James S.: Nigeria: Background to Nationalism (University of California Press) 1958. Creighton, T. R. M.: The Anatomy of Partnership: Southern Rhodesia and the Central African Federation (Faber and Faber) 1960. Crozier, Brian: The Rebels (Chatto and Windus) 1960. Davidson, Basil: Old Africa Rediscovered (Gollancz) 1959. Davis, G., Melunsky, L. and du Randt, F. B.: Urban Native Law (Grotius Publications, Port Elizabeth) 1959. Delius, Anthony: The Last Division (Human and Rousseau, Cape Town) 1959. Dickson, Mora: New Nigerians (Dennis Dobson, London) 1960. Dison, Lewis and Mohamed, Ismail: Group Areas and Their Development (Butterworth, Durban) 1960. Duffy, James: Portuguese Africa (Harvard University Press) 1959. Education League, The: Blackout: a Commentary on the Education Policy of the Instituut vir Christelik-Nasionale Onderwys. September 1959,

292 A SURVEY OF RACE Fagan, the Hon. H. A.: Our Responsibility: A Discussion of South Africa's Race Problems (Universiteitsuitgewers en Boekhandelaars, Stellenbosch) 1959. Field, M. J.: Search for Security (Faber and Faber) 1960. Fraenkel, P.: Wayalishi (African life in Rhodesia) (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London) 1959. Gaitskell, Arthur: Gezira: A Story of Development in the Sudan (Faber and Faber) 1959. Gelfand, Michael: Shona Ritual (Juta) 1959. Hanna, A. J.: The Story of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland (Faber and Faber) 1960. Hatch, John: Everyman's Africa (Dobson) 1959. Hepple, A.: Censorship and Press Control in South Africa (Published by the Author) 1960. Hobart Houghton, D. (Ed.): Economic Development in a Plural Society: Studies in the Border Region of the Cape Province (Oxford University Press) 1960. Huxley, Elspeth: A New Earth: Land Reform in Kenya (Chatto and Windus) 1960. Institute of Race Relations, London: Coloured Immigrants in Britain (Oxford University Press) 1960. Irving, James: Macleantown: A Study of a Small South African Community (Rhodes University) 1959. Jabavu, Noni: Drawn in Colour (John Murray) 1960. KrUger, D. W.: South African Parties and Policies, 1910-1960 (Human and Rousseau) 1960. Kuper, Hilda: Indian People in Natal (Natal University Press) 1960. Leys, Colin: European Politics in Southern Rhodesia (Oxford University Press) Second edition 1959. Leys, Colin and Pratt, Cranford (Ed.): A New Deal in Central Africa (Heinemann) 1960. London--Central Office of Information: Nigeria: the Making of a Nation 1960. Mackenzie, W. J. M. and Robinson, Kenneth (Ed.): Five Elections in Africa: A Group of Electoral Studies (Clarendon Press, Oxford) 1960. Macmillan, W. M.: The Road to Self-Rule: A Study in Colonial Evolution (Faber and Faber) 1959. Marquard, Leo: The Peoples and Policies of South Africa (Oxford University Press). Second and revised edition, 1960. Mason, Philip: Year of Decision: Rhodesia and Nyasaland, 1960 (Oxford University Press) 1960. Mason, R. J.: British Education in Africa (Oxford University Press) 1960. Massyn, J. A. R.: Productivity of Bantu Labour (A summary of the InterAfrica Labour Institute report). The Manufacturer, February 1960. Matthews, David and Apthorpe, Raymond (Ed.): Social Relations in Central African Industry (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute) 1959. Murdoch, G. P.: Africa: Its Peoples and Their Culture History (McGrawHill) 1959. Murray, D. N. and Edelstein, M, L. (Ed.): Social Work in South Africa (Privately published) 1959,

RELATIONS: 1959-60 293 Mwewa, P. B.: The African Railway Workers' Union, Ndola (RhodesLivingstone Institute) 1959. Nyirenda, A. A., Ngwane, H. D. and Bettison, D. G.: Further Economic and Social Studies, Blantyre-Limbe, Nyasaland (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute) 1959. Paton, Alan: The Charlestown Story (Liberal Party of South Africa) 1960. Pedler, F. J.: West Africa (Methuen) New edition, 1959. Phillips, John: Kwame Nkrumah and the Future of Africa (Faber and Faber) 1960. Pienaar, S. and Sampson, Anthony: South Africa: Two Views of Separate Development (Oxford University Press) 1960. Rhoodie, N. L. J. and Venter, H. J.: Apartheid (HAUM, Cape Town. Pretoria) 1960. Richards, Audrey I. ,(Ed.): East African Chiefs: A Study of Political Development in Some Uganda and Tanganyika Tribes (Faber and Faber) 1960. Ritner, Peter: The Death of Africa (MacMillan, New York) 1960. Roskam, K. L.: Apartheid and Discrimination (A. W. Sythoff, Leyden) 1960. Rosseau, F. P., Q.C.: Handbook on the Group Areas Act (Juta) 1960. Salisbury, Central Statistical Office: First and Second Reports on the Umtali and Gwelo Budget Surveys, 1959. Sampson, Anthony. Common Sense About Africa (Gollancz) 1960. Sanger, Clyde: Central African Emergency (Heinemann) 1960. Skeffington,Arthur: Tanganyika in Transition, 1960. Slade, Ruth: The Belgian Congo: Some Recent Changes (Oxford University Press for the Institute of Race Relations) 1960. Singh, A. R.: A Survey of Hospitals, Clinics and Social Services for the Indian Community of Durban (Sponsored by the R. K. Khan Hospital and Dispensary Trust) 1960. Smith, T. E.: Elections in Developing Countries (MacMillan) 1960. Spottiswoode, H. (Compiler): South Africa: The Road Ahead. (Howard B. Timmins, Cape Town) 1960. Symon, S. A.: African Medicine in the Mankoya District, Northern Rhodesia (Rhodes-Livingstone Institute) 1960. Ullendorff, E.: The Ethiopians (Oxford University Press) 1960. United Nations: Economic Survey of Africa Since 1950 (1959). United Nations: Special Study on Social Conditions in Non-Self-Governing Territories, 1959. United Nations and International Labour Office: Equal Pay for Equal Work, 1960. Watson, R. G. T.: Tongaati-An African Experiment (Hutchison) 1960. Wilson, Monica: The Early History of the Transkei and Ciskei (African Studies, No. 4 of 1959). Wood, Susan: Kenya: The Tension of Progress (Oxford University Press for Institute of Race Relations) 1960. Younger, Kenneth: The Public Service in New States (Oxford University Press) 1960.

294 A SURVEY OF RACE INDEX A Advisory Boards-104, 123 Also see Local government Advocates Admission Bill-207 Afforestation-1 13 African: Births, Marriages and Deaths: Registration of--30, 240, 241 Children's courts-247, 249 Feeding Scheme-245 institutions-249 ,,9 Education-see Bantu ,, Ministers and Clergy: authority of-31 National Congress: Action taken since going underground-72, 286 Banning of-69, 71, 72 Conference, December 1959-54 Demonstrations arranged by-54, 60 Population-see Population Representation in Parliament-2 on municipal councils: suggestions for--125 proposed urban Bantu authorities- 104, 123, 124 Women: legal status-129 . . "passes" for-106 Africans: Expenditure by the State on-128 in urban areas: Advisory boards-104, 123 Conferences on position of-102, 125 Government policy for-104, 122, 123, 124 Institute of Race Relations statement-17 Opposition Party views-li, 14, 15 Representatives of chiefs-124 Urban Bantu authorities proposed-104, 123, 124 Africans: Need for consultation with-21, 24, 90, 91, 93, 101, 103 Also see Bantu, Native, etc. Afrikaanse Handelsinstituut-90, 91 "Agitation": Court penalties for-71, 76, 77 ,, said to be occurring-45, 56, 62, 66, 71, 73, 102, 104 Agricultural betterment schemes: opposition to--41-49, 44fJ. ,, development in the Reserves-113 training for Africans-114 ...... Coloured-199 Union-200 Agriculture: Employment in-197 Air transport for Non-Whites-170 Alberton: housing-163 Alexandra Anti Tuberculosis Association-244 Township-161 All-Africa conferences-274, 285 Anglican Church-85, 95-100 Apartheid policy- 94, 96, 102, 104, 105, 122, 280ff. .. .., Overseas attitudes to-277 et seq. Arrests during emergency: Regulations-74, 75 Under Section 4.-79 ,, Section 4 bis-84, 86 Urban areas-84-88

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Asians-136 et seq. Domiciliary rights-136 Education-see Education Future of in South Africa--ll, 136 Official responsible for the interests of-136 Traders: effects of Group Areas Act-143, 156 Also see Indians Assemblies: banning of-62, 68, 74 Association for the Improvement of Bantu Wages and Productivity-191 of Chambers of Commerce of S.A.-91, 92, 188 , Trust Companies-91 Athletics-263 B Ba-Hurutshe tribe--35, 49 Ballinger, Mrs. V. M. L., M.P.-4, 22, 53, 189 Banning of A.N.C. and P.A.C.-62, 69, 71, 72 persons from meetings or certain areas-35 public meetings-62, 68, 74 publications-76, 88 Banishment of Africans-36, 47 Bantu authorities established- 107 incentive presents-i 14 opposition to system-39-49 representatives in urban areas-124 revenue and expenditure-127 urban areas-104, 123, 124 Bantu Education-211 et seq. Bursaries and study loans-234, 239 Disturbances at schools-219 Educational qualifications of Africans-216 Examination fees-218 results-216 Farm schools-200, 219 Financing of-211, 213 Night schools-239 School boards-219 Statistics-213, 214 Teachers-215 Universities and university colleges-227 et seq. Bantu in Urban Areas Draft Bill- 123 Investment Corporation-120 Also see African, Native Basson, Mr. J. D. du P., M.P.-4, 15, 94 Bathing-263 Beach apartheid-263 Benoni: housing-162, 169 Bethlehem: housing-167 Betterment schemes-see Reserves Bilheimer, Dr. R.-97-100 Birthplaces of Asians and Coloured-28 Births, marriages and deaths: registration of-30, 240, 241 "Bishop's" Committee-54 Bizana disturbances-39-47 Black Sash-37, 64 Black spots-1 10 Blind pensions-253 et seq. Persons' Amendment Act-249 Blindness-244

296 A SURVEY OF RACE Bloemfontein: housing-167 Joint Council-245 riots-68 Blood transfusion services-245 Border industries-105, 115 et seq. Regional Survey-188 Boxing-265 Boycotts of Nationalist products-54 South African goods-274 et seq...... Effects of-173, 276 Brakpan: housing-162 Brazil-283 Britain: attitude to apartheid-278 boycott of South African goods-275 Broadcasting-260 et seq. Brookes, Prof. the Hon. E. H.-16, 101 Building industry: employment in-201 job reservation-178, 182 workers, African-201 Bursaries and study loans-234, 239 Bus services: apartheid in-170 C Canada-278, 284 Cancer-244 Canning workers-194 Cape Chamber of Industries-85, 90, 92, 182 Cape Town: Arrests of juveniles during emergency-87 Chamber of Commerce-92 Group areas-147, 152 Housing: African-164, Coloured and Indian-152, 168 Police action during emergency-85 Riots-50, 65, 166 Catholic Church-100 Cato Manor: Group areas-153 . . 11 Housing-166 Riots-50, 65, 166 Census reports-24-28 Central Native Labour Board-189, 192 Cerebral Palsy-244 Chamber of Commerce-91, 92, 188 Industries-85, 90, 91, 92, 119, 182, 188 Mines-91 Chiefs: Numbers and remuneration-108 Powers of-43, 48 Representatives in urban areas-124 Children's Act-246 Christian Council of S.A.- 23, 37 ,, responsibility in areas of rapid social change-22. Church of the Province of S.A.-85, 95-100 Churches: Authority of African ministers-31 Dutch Reformed-23, 94-100 Number of adherents-27 Other-see under name of Church Separatist-27, 128 Cinemas-260 Citizen Force: Mobilization of during emergency-73, 78, 84 reorganization of-39 Civic guards, African-124

RELATIONS: 1959-60 297 Clergy and ministers, African, authority of-31 Clinics: Fees imposed-243 in the Reserves-242 Clothing industry: Job reservation-180 Strike by African workers--195 Wages in Northern Natal-I 15 Coloured Affairs Department-131 Council for Coloured Affairs-132 Education-135, 221, 226 Also see Education Farm workers: courses of training-199 Housing-168 Mission Stations and Reserves-131 People: Attitudes and future of-133, 134 Conference in Southern Transvaal- 134 Government's attitude-105, 133 People's National Union-133 .. Organization-64, 133 Representation in Parliament-i, 2, 3, 135 on municipal councils-133, 135 Views of Opposition Parties-11, 14, 15 Commerce: African traders-202 Coloured traders-203 Employment in-202 Indian traders-143, 156 in the Reserves-120, 121 Commissioners-General- 107 Commonwealth: Membership by South Africa-5, 7, 11, 285 Prime Minister's Conference-7, 283 Compensation for African widows-129 Congress of Trade Unions-196 Constitution of South Africa-1-9, 13, 14 Consultation with Non-Whites: Need for-21, 24, 90, 91, 93, 101, 103 Continuation classes-239 Committee of S.A. Churches' Conference-22, 97-100, 240 Cope, Mr. J. P., M.P.-] 30, 249 Cost of living-184 et seq. Court procedure affecting Africans-104, 124, 269 Cricket-264 Criminal Law Amendment Act-71 Statistics-266 Crisis in South Africa-73 et seq. Broadcasts during-262 Economic effects-172, 276 Government policy following- 103 et seq., 122 Overseas reactions-274 et seq. Reactions in South Africa-89 et seq. D "Day of Mourning"-60 Deaths: registration-30 De Blank, the Most Rev. J.-95-100 Defence and Aid Fund-81 Deportations-75, 83, 98, 99, 100 Detention of persons: Demonstrations for release of detainees-82 Emergency regulations for-74 Persons detained, Section 4-79-83 Section 4 bis-84, 86-88 Trials of Africans-85

298 A SURVEY OF RACE Diplomatic relations-277 et seq. Disturbances amongst Africans-39 et seq. Also see Crisis Doctors: Numbers-207, 242 Domestic appliances: job reservation-179 Draper, Miss Mary-43 Duncan, Mr. P.-89 Durban: Cato Manor: group areas and rents- 153, 166 Cost of living-186 Group areas-144, 153 Housing: African-165, Indian-154 Riots at Cato Manor-50, 65, 166 . elsewhere-65 Unemployment-174, 175 Dutch Reformed Churches-23, 94-100 E East London: Conference on poverty of Africans-187 Housing-165 Economic Advisory Council-118, 176 Commission for Africa-287 Conditions in South Africa-172 Developments since Union-18 Sanctions against Nationalist products-54 South African goods-274 et seq. Ecumenical conference-22 Education-209 et seq. African-see Bantu Asian and Coloured-135, 137, 221, 226 Bursaries-234, 239 Compulsory: Need for Non-Whites-17 Control of: Government Policy-18, 209 Examination fees-218 Expenditure on-210 History teaching-222 Night schools-239 Numbers of pupils-213 Qualifications of Non-Whites-216 Special schools-224 Teachers-see Teachers Universities-227 et seq. Vocational and technical-226 Eiselen line policy-88, 105, 165 Elandsdoorn Youth Camp-270 Emergency in South Africa: Broadcasts during-262 Declaration of-73 Economic effects-172, 276 Government policy following-103 et seq., 122 Overseas reactions-274 et seq. Reactions in South Africa-89 et seq...... Regulations-73 Employment-172 et seq. for juveniles-271 Engelhard, Mr. C. W.-94 Engineering industry: reservation of work-179, 182 Entertainment-259 Entertainments: censorship of-32 Entry into and departure from certain African areas-34

RELATIONS: 1959-60 299 Eoan group-258 Ermelo: housing-164 Estcourt: group areas-157 Evaton riot-56 Exit permits from South Africa-34 Expectation of life-241 Expenditure by the State on Africans-128 External Affairs-274 et seq. Extra-Union Africans: Naturalization of-130 of ,, Unemployment benefits denied-256 Extension of University Education Amendment Act-211 Eye diseases-244 F Factories, Machinery and Building Work Amendment Act-182 Family allowances-256 Farm labour-197 et seq. training for Africans-il14 ,, Coloured-199 labourers: treatment of-272 schools for Africans-200, 219 Farming: Betterment schemes opposed-41-49, 44ff. ,9 Development in Reserves-113 Farms: White occupancy of-198 Federation of Free African Trade Unions-196 Feeding: Malnutrition: Government announcement-246 Nutrition-18, 223, 245 et seq. School feeding-18 Voluntary schemes-245 Field sports-263 Films: Censorship of-33 shown in African Reserves-33 "Foreign" Africans: Naturalization of-130 Unemployment benefits denied-256 Fort Hare-228, 232, 235, 236 Franchise rights: African representation in Parliament-2 on municipal councils: proposals -125 Coloured representation in Parliament-i, 2, 3, 133, 135 9... on municipal councils-133, 135 Consideration of by Institute of Race Relations -19-20, 125 Proposed by Opposition Parties-il , 12, 14, 15 Freehold tenures: need for-93, 202 Furniture industry: proposed job reservation-182 G Gaols-see Prisons Garment workers-Job reservation-180 Strike by Africans-195 Wages in Northern Natal-I 15 Gatherings: Banning of-62, 68, 74 Gcalekaland: Opposition to Bantu authorities-48 Geldenhuys, Rev. Dr. F. O'B.-99 Germiston: Housing-162, 169 Riots-67 Ghana-275, 284, 285, 286

A SURVEY OF RACE Golf-265 Graaff, Sir de V., M.P.-4, 11, 72, 89 Group areas-142 et seq. Alternative accommodation for those required to move142, 145, 160 Basic values-146 Books dealing with-147 Defined areas-158 Development Board-146 Proceedings of Board not quasi judicial-145 H Hambro, Sir Charles-94 Hammarsdale strike-195 Hammarskj6ld, Mr. Dag-283 Handelsinstituut: Afrikaanse--90, 91 Health-240 et seq. Hellmann, Dr. E.-150 Hermanus riot-65 History teaching-222 Hoernld Memorial Lecture-22 Home guards-124 Hospitals-242 Hotels for Non-Whites-207 Housing-159 et seq. Funds-159 Needed for people forced to move-169 Also see name of town concerned Schemes for Africans-160 et seq. Coloured and Indians-168 I Identity cards issued-28 Immigration-93, 175 Amendment Act-136 Incitement: Penalties for-71, 76, 77 ,, said to be occurring-45, 56, 62, 66, 71, 73, 102, 104 Incomes of Africans: Government's attitude-105, 191 Need for increase-19, 23, 91, 92, 105, 187, 191 Recent increases-189, 190, 192 Wage Board Action-192 Also see Cost of living Indemnity during disturbances and state of emergency-58, 78, 83 Indians-136 et seq. Arts-258 Domiciliary rights-136 Education-see Education Future of in South Africa-i1, 136 Housing-168 Official responsible for interests of-136 Review of a century of Indian settlement-136 Traders affected by Group Areas Act-143, 156 Unemployment-174, 175 United Nations debates-289 Industrial colour bar: need for relaxation of-93 conciliation machinery for Africans-192, 206 Council agreements-189 development in the Reserves-120 on borders of Reserves-105, 115 et seq Industry: employment in-201 300

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Infantile mortality-207, 241 Influx control: hardships-88, 165 Also see Pass laws Institute of Race Relations: Action at time of emergency-20, 101 Council meeting 16-20, 136 Executive meeting, May 1960-20, 102 Also see numerous subject headings Interdenominational African Ministers' Federation-129 International organizations-277 et seq. Intimidation-Penalties for-71, 76, 77 said to be occurring-45, 56, 62, 66, 71, 73. 102. 104 Irrigation schemes in African areas-il15 Isaacson Foundation Bursary Fund--221, 239 Job reservation-177 et seq. in factories-182 Johannesburg: Alexandra Township-161 Cost of living for Africans-184 Group areas-147 Housing: Africans-160 et seq. Coloured and Indians-148, 149, 168 Lenasia-148 Meadowlands-161 Planning Council for Non-European Social Welfare- 251 Riots-61, 67 Transport services for Africans-171 Welfare projects for Africans-252 Western Areas-147 et seq. Judicial authority of African courts-104, 124, 269 Justice-266 et seq. Juvenile delinquency-266, 271 employment--271 K Kaffir beer-139, 141 Kenya-275 Kgosana, Mr. P.--59, 62, 63 Kimberley: Coloured men on City Council-133 Group areas-154 King Kong-259 Kroonstad: Housing-167, 169 Krugersdorp: Housing-163 L Labour disputes--192 et seq. migrant-19, 23 reservation of work-177 et seq...... in factories-182 Lady Selborne-152 Land betterment schemes: opposition to-41-49, 44fl. purchased by S.A. Native Trust-i 10 Also see Agricultural, Reserves Langa riots-59, 63 Langeberg Kooperasie strike-194 Languages of population at home-25

302 A SURVEY OF RACE Law: Advocates Admission Bill-207 African attorneys-208 Justice-266 et seq. Lawrence, the Hon. H. G., M.P.-13 Legal aid-273 status of African women-129 Lenasia-148 Leprosy-244 Levies proposed in urban areas-124 " : tribal-127 Liberal Party: Action by-37, 64 . . policy-4, 11, 53 Lift operators: job reservation-178 Liquor and Catering trade: proposed job reservation-182 laws: summary of-138 offences-140, 266 raids: Government decision-104 . . Opposition to-50, 140 Suggestions for relaxing laws-91, 92, 104, 140ft. Literacy rate amongst Africans- 240 Literature-257 Also see Publications Lobolo marriages-25, 129 Local authorities: Control of African affairs by-104, 122, 123, 124 government: Advisory Boards-104, 123 Chiefs' representatives in urban areas-124 Coloured-133, 135 Proposed urban Bantu authorities-104, 123, 124 Suggestions for African representation on municipal councils-125 Lockhat case-144 Louw, the Hon. E. H., M.P.-7, 283-285, 289 Dr. M. S.-93 Luthuli, ex-Chief A. J.-60, 69, 86 M Mabieskraal-49 Macmillan, the Rt. Hon. H.-278 Mafekeng, Mrs. E.-51 Maintenance grants-82 Malan Commission-140 Malaya-276, 283, 284 Malnutrition-245 Manufacturing-see Industry Marico District-35 Marital status of population-25 Marriages: Lobolo-25, 129 Registration of-30 Mbata, Mr. J. C. M.-48 Meadowlands-161 Medical practitioners-207, 242 services-242 Meetings banned-62, 68, 74 Methodist Church-99 Metz-35 Migrant labour-19, 23 Mineworkers: Accidents to Africans-256 Mining: employment in-203 Ministers: African: Authority of-31

RELATIONS: 1959-60 303 Mission Stations and Reserves: Coloured-131 Mitchell, Mr. D. E., M.P.-9 Modder B prison-87 Molteno, Mr. D. B., Q.C.-12, 13, 16 Moolman, Dr. J. H.-90 Mother tongue education for Coloured pupils-221 Motor transport driving: proposed job reservation-182 Multi-racial membership of voluntary organizations-17, 251 Municipal employees-206 ,, representation of Coloured-133, 135 proposed for Africans-125 urban Bantu authorities-104, 123, 124 Municipalities: Control of African affairs-104, 122, 123, 124 Music-258 N "Natal stand"-9 National Union of S.A Students-236 Party policy-4, 15 Party policy-6, 10, 94, 96, 103, 105, 122, 133, 280ff. Number of seats in Assembly-8 Native Separatist Churches-27, 128 Transport Services Levy-171 Also see African, Bantu Naturalization of aliens, including Africans-130 Naudd, the Rev. C. F. B.-99 Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk-23, 94-100 Netherlands-277 Nigel: Housing- 163 Nigeria-275, 286 Night schools-239 Nkoana, Mr. M.-85 Nkrumah, Dr. K.- 284 Nurses-208, 242 Nutrition-18, 223, 245 Government announcement on malnutrition-246 School feeding-18, 223 Voluntary schemes-245 0 Occupations of population-197 Oppenheimer, Mr. H.-93 P Paarl: Housing-165 Riots-51, 65 Painting-258 Pan-African Congress: Action taken since going underground-72, 286 Banning of-69, 71, 72 Campaign against pass laws-55 Conference, December 1959-54 Pan-African Federation Conferences 274, 285 Parliamentary representation -see Franchise rights, Senate, Referendum, and individual political parties by name.

304 A SURVEY OF RACE Pass laws: Description of-52 Government decisions-105, 106 Influx control: hardships-88, 165 Offences against-52, 266 Opposition to-52-56 Raids to be decreased-52, 105, 106 Reference books to be smaller-105 Suggestions for relaxation of-91, 92, 93, 101, 103 Temporary relaxation of during emergency-68 Women's reference books-106 Passports-33 Peddie area-35 Pensions and grants-253 Personal service: employment in-207 Pietermaritzburg: Bus services-170, 171 Group areas-155 Housing-166 Pietersburg: Group areas-156 Housing-164 Platteland: European occupancy of-198 Pneumoconiosis-256 Police Force: Action by-84, 86-Also see Disturbances-45 et seq. Strength of-205 protection for Africans-104, 269 Poliomyelitis-244 Political developments since Union-19 rights-see Franchise Pondoland disturbances-39-47 Pongola Poort irrigation scheme-I 1 Population: Birthplaces-28 Home languages-25 Marital status-25 Occupations-197 Religions 26 Size of-24 Population Registration: Africans-31 Amendment Act of 1960-28 Borderline cases-29 Progress of-28 Port Elizabeth: Conference on poverty of Africans-187 Group areas-145, 159 Housing-165 Riots-67 Strike by African canning workers-194 Poverty of Africans-184 et seq. Pratt, Mr. D.-89 Presbyterian Church-101 Pretoria: Group areas-151 Housing: African-164, Coloured and Indian-151 Transport services for Africans-171, 172 Prison farms-267 labour: use of-266 Prisoners: probationary release of-268 Prisons-266 : Youth camps-270 Professions: employment in-207 Progressive Party policy-4, 12-14, 54 Prohibition-see Banning Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act-2 Provinces: powers of-9, 10 Public order: preservation of-74

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Public Safety Act-73, 79 Public Service: Employment in-205 Publications and Entertainments Bill-32 by Non-White authors-257 dealing with Group Areas-147 deemed subversive during emergency-76, 88 of Institute of Race Relations-290 of others-291 R Racial classification-see Population policies in South Africa: overseas opinions-277 et seq. Radio services-260 Rahman, Tunku Abdul-283, 284 Railway services to African townships-170 Railways: Employment in-206 Recreation-257 Red Cross-64, 81 Reeves, Rt. Rev. A.-79, 98-100 Reference books: Size to be reduced-105 Women-106 Also see Pass Laws Referendum-5-8, 285 Refugees from South Africa-79, 286 Regional authorities- 107 Registration of births, marriages and deaths--30, 240, 241 Religion: role of in a multi-racial State-22 Religions of population-26 Removal orders served on Africans-36, 47 Republic in South Africa-5-8, 285 Reservation of Separate Amenities Amendment Act-263 work-177 et seq. in factories-182 Reserves: African-107 et seq. Agricultural development of-113 Betterment schemes: opposition to-41-49, 44fJ. Coloured-131 Commerce-120, 121 Entry into and departure from certain areas-34 Extent of-109 Funds for development-Ill Industrial development within Reserves-120 in border areas-105, 115 et seq. Need for rapid development of-93, 103 Riotous Assemblies Act-35, 71 Riots among Africans-39 et seq. Also see Crisis Roodepoort-Maraisburg: Housing-160, 163 Rugby-263 Rural areas: White occupancy-198 " villages-i 14, 121 Rustenburg: Group areas-155 S Sabra-102 Sadie, Prof. J. L.-103 Scandinavia-276 School boards-219 Y, feeding-18, 223

306 A SURVEY OF RACE Schools: disturbances at-219 Also see Education Search: powers of during emergency--77 Secondary industry-see Industry Sekhukhuneland-35, 49 Senate Act-l-5 Elections--4 Separate Representation of Voters Act-2 territorial development-see Apartheid Separatist Churches-27, 128 Sharpeville riot-57, 86 Sheltered employment-257 Simon's Town: Housing-165 Riot-65 Sixty-Nine men: statement by-8 Smit, Dr. D. L., M.P.-31, 249 Sobukwe, Mr. R. M.-55, 56, 85 Soccer-264 Social developments since Union-16 welfare-see Welfare workers: training of African-226 Soil conservation in the Reserves-113 Somerset West riot-65 Sophiatown-150 South Africa Act Amendment Act-2 Foundation-177 South African Agricultural Union: policy for African workers-200 . . Bond-15 Bureau for Racial Affairs-102 Coloured People's Organization-64, 133 Congress of Trade Unions-196 Federated Chamber of Industries-90, 91, 119, 188 Cape Chamber-85, 90, 92, 182 Institute of Race Relations Action at time of emergency-20, 101 Council meeting-16-20, 136 Executive meeting, May 1960-20, 102 Also see numerous subject headings National Tuberculosis Association-243 Political Bureau-286 Sports Association-263 Trade Union Council-196 South-West Africa: Representation in Senate-3 Question referred to International Court of Justice-285, 288 United Nations' consideration of-287 Windhoek riot- 287 Special Education Amendment Act-225 schools-224 Sport-263 Springs: Housing-162, 169 Squatters-1 12 Stanford, Mr. W. P., M.P.-13, 54 Stanton, Miss Hannah-83 State of emergency in South Africa-73 et seq. Also see Crisis Statement by 69 prominent men-8 Steel and Engineering Industries Federation of S.A.-91 Stellenbosch riot-64 Steyn, Mr. S. J, M., M.P.-10

RELATIONS: 1959-60 Steytler, Dr. J. van A.--4, 13 Stock Exchange-92 Strikes-192 et seq. Subsidies: welfare-253 Subversive associations during emergency-77 statements and publications-emergency regulations-76, 88 Suppression of Communism Act-35, 70 Suzman, Mrs. H., M.P.-88 T Table tennis-265 Tambo, Mr. 0.-79, 286 Tanganyika-275 Taxation of Africans- 126 : Opposition to increase in-44 Teachers: Cost-of-living allowances for Africans-216 Distinctions earned by-209 Numbers-215 Pensions schemes for Africans-215 Training of-216, 218 Technical training-226 Tembuland: opposition to Bantu authorities-47 Territorial authorities-107, 108 : representatives in urban areas-124 Theatre-259 Trade unions-195 et seq. Traders: African-202 Indian-143, 156 Coloured-203 Transkei: Bantu authorities-107, 108 Future of Whites. and Coloured-illt, 121 Pondoland disturbances-39-47 Transport levy-171 services-170 Transvaal and Orange Free State Chamber of Mines-91 Treason trials-37, 77, 89, 105 Trials of Africans resulting from state of emergency-85 Tribal authorities-108 levies-127 . . proposed in urban areas-124 representatives in urban areas-124 Tsonga people: opposition to Bantu authorities system-48 Tuberculosis-243 U Unemployment- 174 insurance-255 Union Council for Coloured Affairs-132 Education Advisory Council Bill-209 United Nations: Consideration of apartheid policy-277, 281 South-West Africa- 287 Treatment of Indians-289 Debate after Sharpeville-281 Economic Commission for Africa-287 Status of South African mission-287 United Party policy-4, 10 United States: attitude to apartheid-281 PV y boycott of South African goods-276

308 A SURVEY OF RACE Universities and university colleges-227 et seq. Admission of Non-White students-229 Degrees and diplomas awarded to Non-Whites-228 Enrolment at-227, 230 University College of Fort Hare-228, 232, 235, 236 Pius XII-238 the North-203, 228, 237 Western Cape-228, 238 Zululand-228, 237 for Indians- 229 Colleges: Admission to-228 Fees-234 Regulations for-231 Study loans-234 University of Natal: Cost-of-living investigation-186 Unlawful Organizations Act-69 Unskilled workers: wages-see Incomes Urban areas: Advisory boards-104, 123 Government policy for African administration -104, 122, 123, 124 Representatives of chiefs in-124 Urban Bantu authorities-104, 123, 124 Also see Africans, Franchise rights V Vanderbijlpark: Housing-164 Riots-57 Van Wyk, Mr. F. J.-23, 97, 98 Vereeniging: Housing-164 Riots-56-58 Verwoerd, Dr. the Hon. H. F.-5, 10, 89, 103, 117, 133, 280, 286 Villages in the Reserves-114, 121 Visas-33 Visitors: Non-White to the Union-287 Vital statistics-240 Vocational training-226 Voting strength of various political parties-7, 8 W Wage agreements-189 ,, determinations-189 Wages of Africans: Government's attitude-105, 192 Need for increase-19, 23, 91, 92, 103, 187, 191 Recent increases-189, 190, 192 Wage Board action-192 Also see Cost of living War Veterans' Foundation-24 Webb, Rev. Dr. J. B.-99 Welfare-246 et seq. organizations for Africans: Control and siting of institutions-250 services-Control of African services-247, 250 Development during the past fifty years-16 Membership of controlling committees-17 Welkom: Disturbances-52 ,, Housing-168 Western Areas of Johannesburg-147 et seq. Whyte, Mr. Quintin-16, 102 "Wind of Change" speech-321

RELATIONS: 1959-60 309 Wolmaransstad: Group areas-157 Women, African: Legal status-129 Reference books-106 Wool Board-90 Worcester riot-64 World Council of Churches-24, 95-100 x Xhosas: opposition to Bantu authorities-48 Y Youth camps for Africans-270 Youths: employment for-271 z Zeerust area-35 Zulu, Bishop, A. H.-32

THE NATURE AND AIMS OF THE S.A. INSTITUTE OF RACE RELATIONS The Institute furthers inter-racial peace, harmony and cooperation in South Africa by seeking the truth in all inter-racial situations and making it known, whether it be popular or unpopular with any Government or party or group. The Institute is not a political body, nor is it allied to or given financial help by any political party or Government. It is not tied to any "ism", is not pro-white or anti-white, or pro-black or antiblack. Institute membership is open to all, irrespective of colour or creed. The Institute believes that problems can be solved by hard thinking, hard work and goodwill, on the basis of fact found by dispassionate, objective scientific enquiry. It is concerned not only with tensions between white and black, but between all groups: Afrikaans- and English speaking, urban and rural, white and black and coloured and brown. It opposes injustice and unfair discrimination, and It seeks to further the social, economic and political development of all communities in South Africa. INSTITUTE OFFICES HEAD OFFICE: Auden House, 68 de Korte Street, Braamfontein (P.O. Box 97), Johannesburg. CAPE TOWN: 203-205 Bree Street. DURBAN: 11-12 Colonization Chambers, 355 West Street, (P.O. Box 803). PORT ELIZABETH: Southern Life Buildings, Donkin Hill.

1Qfl~ -44E&-~9~ -4i . F! 1972