Agriculture As an Engine of Economic Reconstruction and Development in Fragile Countries

Brussels Rural Development Briefings A series of meetings on ACP-EU policy Development issues

Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

This Reader was prepared by Isolina Boto, Manager of the CTA Brussels Office Lebo Mofolo, Policy Development Briefings Officer, CTA Brussels Office June, 2018 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

This Reader was prepared by Isolina Briefing n. 51 Boto, Manager, CTA Brussels Office Agriculture With the assistance of Lebo Mofolo, as an engine Policy Development Briefings Officer, of economic CTA Brussels Office The information in this document reconstruction was compiled as background reading material for the 51st Brussels and development Development Briefing on the topic of in fragile Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in countries fragile countries. The Reader and most of the resources are available at: http://brusselsbriefings.net Brussels, 27 June 2018 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Table of Contents

1. Context �� 4

2. Policy engagement in favour of resilience �� 9

3. Fragility and agriculture �� 18

4. Agriculture Successes in the Context of Fragility...... 21

6. The way forward �� 38

Annex

Glossary �� 39

Acronyms �� 42

Resources ��46

Websites �� 51

Endnotes �� 52 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

1. Context

1.1. Approaches and Fragility is evaluated over five Symptoms of state fragility include: definition to fragility dimensions: political, societal, (i) high poverty rates; (ii) large economic, environmental and numbers of refugees and internally security.”3 There are alternative displaced persons (IDPs); (iii) It is important to establish that there definitions of fragility, which are low levels of internal tax revenue is no universal definition of “fragility”, used by the African Development generation; (iv) dependence on and periodic advances in the Bank4, the World Bank5, The Fund for external resources (ODA, FDI, and understanding of fragility have led Peace and other international actors, remittances); (v) high indebtedness; to changes in the way that this issue and approaches to the definition of (vi) strong reliance on primary is addressed by the international this subject have developed over products; (vii) low degree of community. the decades. Although they are export diversification; (viii) low not synonymous, violence, conflict, human development; (ix) endemic Confusion still reigns among poverty and fragility are intertwined, corruption, and (x) poor soft and international actors over how and feature heavily in the literature hard infrastructure.6 to define “state fragility” and on fragile states, and as factors what distinguishes fragile states having the most detrimental effects from general conditions of on a country’s development. underdevelopment and poverty as underlined.1 Fragility results from the complex interplay of weak societal institutions Perhaps the most widely used confronted with internal and definition is that of the OECD external stresses. Fragility has which characterises fragility as “the many dimensions and exists along a accumulation and combination of spectrum that ranges from fragility risks combined with insufficient to resilience (stability). It commonly capacity by the State, system, and/ refers to situations in which the state or communities to manage it, absorb is not able to perform basic state- it, or mitigate its consequences“. related functions, such as securing Fragility can lead to negative control over territory, enforcing outcomes including violence, national laws and regulations, ensuring the breakdown of institutions, citizens’ security, providing basic displacement, humanitarian crises or public goods such as access to justice. other emergencies.2

4 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

The OECD defines fragility asThe An alternative approach looks at Fragilities impose large costs and combination of exposure to risk fragility as a measure of the extent hardships on local populations and insufficient coping capacity to which the actual practices and that can spill over to neighbouring of the state, system and/or capacities of states differ from its countries— directly through conflict, communities to manage, absorb idealized image (Carment, Prest crime, and disease, but also through or mitigate those risks. Fragility and Samy 2009, 2008), with the economic linkages. Those countries can lead to negative outcomes methodology often found in political also face a heavy reliance on including violence, the breakdown sciences literature focusing on development aid. In 2017, almost 124 of institutions, displacement, elements of fragility represented by million people across 51 countries humanitarian crises or other Authority (A), Legitimacy (L), and and territories faced crisis levels emergencies.7 Capacity (C).8 of acute food insecurity or worse and required urgent humanitarian States of Fragility 2016 Other definitions of fragility, such as action. In 2016 the population in characterises fragility as the that of the Overseas Development need of urgent action was estimated combination of exposure to risk and Institute (ODI), which accordingly at 108 million across 48 countries. insufficient coping capacity of the uses a results-based measure of Prolonged drought conditions also state, system and/or communities fragility, whereby “fragile countries resulted in consecutive poor harvests to manage, absorb or mitigate those are best thought of as those where in countries already facing high levels risks. Fragility can lead to negative poverty prevalence is high and where of food insecurity and malnutrition outcomes including violence, the rate of improvement is slow. This in eastern and southern Africa. the breakdown of institutions, definition mostly overlaps with the North-east states of Nigeria, South displacement, humanitarian OECD one, but is simpler to measure Sudan, Somalia and Yemen have crises or other emergencies. and is more directly operational for experienced significant acute food The OECD’s fragility framework aid agencies.”(ODI, 2017). insecurity and malnutrition. Famine provides a comprehensive picture was declared in February 2017 in two of fragility around the world. The counties of South Sudan. calculations reflect a systems-based conceptualisation of fragility. Risks and capacities are measured Figure 1. The 2016 OECD fragility framework diagram in five dimensions: economic, environmental, political, security and societal. In addition, capacities are measured at state level, as well as incorporating the various formal and informal mechanisms societies can draw upon to cope with negative events and shocks. The choice of these dimensions, and the decision to take a whole of society approach to fragility, is based on expert judgement. It is one of the key outcomes of the consultation process underlying the new OECD fragility framework.

Source: OECD (2016)

5 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

1.2. Geographical The Fragile States Index (FSI)10 is Figure 2: World's most fragile states an annual ranking of 178 countries distribution of Fragile based on the different pressures States they face that impact their levels of fragility. The Index is based on The Fund for Peace’s proprietary In terms of the scope of fragility, Conflict Assessment System Tool the OECD identifies 56 countries as (CAST) analytical approach. Based having fragile situations – which are on comprehensive social science home to over 1.6 billion people or methodology, three primary 22% of the global population.9 There streams of data — quantitative, is no single characteristic of a fragile qualitative, and expert validation — country and the fluidity or evolution are triangulated and subjected to of fragility in a temporal dimension critical review to obtain final scores raises challenges of its own in terms for the FSI. Millions of documents are of quantifying the numbers of people analyzed every year, and by applying affected by fragility, its impact on highly specialized search parameters, communities and populations, as well scores are apportioned for every as in the development of responses country based on 12 key political, to fragile situations. This creates social and economic indicators and further difficulties when it comes over 100 sub-indicators that are to monitoring and evaluation of the result of years of expert social fragile situations, and the literature science research. on fragility frequently refers to limitations in availability of data and information.

Figure 3: Geographical Distribution of Fragile States, 2010–17 11

6 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

1.3. From fragility By definition all of the least developed countries demonstrate a and resilience to lack of capacity to reduce poverty development or promote development. Many low-income and even middle-income countries are a long way from Understanding fragility and resilience ensuring the protection of human in states and cities is critical to bring rights. A definition of “state fragility” the support that is needed. The that is useful both analytically and for whole problem of “state fragility” policy intervention needs to highlight is to understand why some poor what distinguishes fragile states from countries are unstable and have the rest of low-income developing been particularly subject to violence countries. Clearly, Afghanistan and warfare, while others have (Giustozzi 2008a) and the DRC achieved long periods of peace even (Hesselbein 2007) – like Somalia in conditions of poverty and low and Haiti, where state organisations economic growth (Gutiérrez et al. hardly function and where wave 2011, Gutíerrez 2011). By suggesting upon wave of violent conflict or war that fragile states are those without have prevented a modicum of state the will or capacity to function in consolidation – pose a very different ways that reduce poverty, ensure set of challenges than Tanzania or development or safeguard human Zambia, or Malawi, where poverty rights, the reigning definitions of remains profound, human rights state fragility in the policy community imperfectly protected, but people fail to distinguish between the generally live in peace. particular conditions of “fragility” and the general conditions of “underdevelopment” .

Figure 4: Four dimensional State Fragility to Resilience Spectrum

Source: James Putzel and Jonathan Di John. Meeting the Challenges of Crisis States. Crisis States Research Centre at the London School of Economics and Political Science. 2012

7 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Promoting development – or progress Fragility is an issue of pressing 1.3.1 Linking Fragility to Poverty14 towards accelerated growth and concern, as it contributes to wide- poverty reduction – requires both reaching consequences and spill The concentration of poverty transcendence of basic fragility over effects, often affecting acutely in fragile contexts follows from and the creation of further state the most vulnerable members of three facts. Their annual economic capacity to promote an intensification society, namely women, children, growth is usually low, so there of economic integration within a the sick and elderly. By many are few opportunities to escape state’s territory and a step-change estimates, the state of fragility poverty. Even when growth is rapid in productivity in agriculture, worldwide has become a leading for a few years, it is not sustained, manufacturing, wider industry, trade matter of concern for development so the long-term average growth and key service delivery. actors and institutions. On the rate remains low; annual growth one hand, globalisation has led tends to be volatile, with any The way “state fragility” is defined to the wider reach of risks and gains in one year offset by set- in the policy community loses sight their repercussions – including the backs later, either due to conflict, of the huge distance that must be recognition of fragility as a concern natural disaster or other economic traversed from both conditions of in middle-income countries.12 and political shocks. Long-term fragility and stagnant resilience to a On the other hand, the overall growth forecasts, therefore, either situation where the state is presiding global poverty/development extrapolating from a decade over accelerated growth and poverty gap lessened in the last decades of growth from IMF sources or reduction. has led to a marked shift in focus using the shared socio-economic towards those countries that can pathways developed by the International Institute for Applied A “developmental” or be characterised as “fragile”, where Systems Analysis (IIASA) and “transformational” state has to it is estimated that poverty will 13 the OECD for climate modelling, be able to create incentives and be concentrated in the future. At are also low. In addition, overall conditions for the holders of wealth local and national levels, fragility population growth in fragile to invest in productivity raising leads to widespread internal states is higher than in non-fragile economic ventures, and incentives displacement of communities and contexts, reinforcing the poverty and conditions for labouring people villages, with rural areas facing dynamics. The number of extreme to work for wages. the most significant challenges as livelihoods of are dependent on poor living in fragile states is rising access to land, markets and labour. and will soon exceed the number living in non-fragile states.

Figure 5: Rising poverty in fragile states could soon end global poverty reduction.

8 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

2. Policy engagement in favour of resilience

The OECD describes resilience more dynamic, looking at fragility EU Definition of Resilience16 as “the ability of households, beyond a binary nature where the The European Union (EU) communities and nations to absorb characterisation of all the factors defines resilience in the EU and recover from shocks, whilst related to a situation of fragility 2012 Communication on the positively adapting and transforming as “bad” or “good”. The same EU Approach to Resilience: their structures and means for goes when it comes to resilience Learning from Food Security living in the face of long-term and its relationship with fragility. Crises as ‘the ability of an stresses, change and uncertainty” “Early research in the resilience individual, a household, a (OECD, 2014). Perspectives on field conceptualised fragility and community, a country or a region how to address fragility have resilience as “opposite ends of a to withstand, to adapt, and to evolved in recent decades, much spectrum”. However, more recent quickly recover from stresses like the understanding on the topic work has emphasised that fragility and shocks’. A joint instruction itself. For the first half of the 20th and resilience actually “co-exist” letter defined the goals of the century, the focus was much more and their relationship is complex resilience approach as “more on peacebuilding and bolstering and dynamic, with changes in effective EU collaborative action, security, with a progression towards one not necessarily leading to a bringing together humanitarian institution building and governance commensurate change in the other assistance, long-term development as the focus of the late 20th (de Boer, 2015b).”15 cooperation and on-going century. Current approaches are political engagement… leading to a reduction in humanitarian needs and more sustainable and Figure 6: Fragility, its drivers and manifestations equitable development gains”. The main elements of operationalizing the EU approach, as outlined in the 2012 Communication and 2013 Council Conclusions, include: (i) adapting financing instruments, (ii) understanding the underlying causes of food security, (iii) comprehensive and collaborative EU political- development-humanitarian action, (iv) coordinated, multi- sectoral action, (v) measurement of resilience outcomes, and (vi) national ownership.

Source: African Development Bank (2015)

9 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Greater attention is being placed Greater attention is being placed Fragility and the Economy19 on identifying local solutions and on identifying local solutions and approaches to fragility, in recognition approaches to fragility, in recognition In most post-conflict countries, of the limitations presented by of the limitations presented by assistance includes disarmament, externally funded interventions and externally funded interventions and demobilization, reinsertion, and programmes, which are contingent programmes, which are contingent reintegration (DDRR or DDR) on the availability of funding and on the availability of funding and programs for ex-combatants resources, the degree of political resources, the degree of political to discourage them from re- will to act, and the level of priority will to act, and the level of priority joining militias. These programs that the situation presents. This that the situation presents. This generally combine temporary job point is especially advocated by the point is especially advocated by the creation and training, although LSE-Oxford Commission on State LSE-Oxford Commission on State employment per se is generally Fragility, Growth and Development, Fragility, Growth and Development, secondary to the primary which was launched in March 2017 which was launched in March 2017 to objectives of reintegrating ex- to guide policy to address state guide policy to address state fragility. combatants and reducing the fragility.17 The Commission cautions The Commission cautions against risk of renewed conflict. In part against transplanting models from transplanting models from developed, because of their complexity, these developed, OECD countries into OECD countries into fragile states, programs have at times drawn fragile states, and then expecting and then expecting these to resolve criticism for inadequate financing, these to resolve the issue; rather the issue; rather action should be poor administration, corruption, action should be framed around framed around the promotion of and resentment generated the promotion of solutions that are solutions that are relevant to the by the targeting of perceived relevant to the situation of fragility situation of fragility experienced in instigators of conflict. Evaluations experienced in any individual country any individual country or region. have pointed out that training or region.18 and economic opportunities to Perhaps the most critical policy youth and/or women need to be Perhaps the most critical policy development in the support towards accompanied by interventions development in the support towards fragile countries has been the move that increase their access to fragile countries has been the move away from a staggered or sequential important assets such as land and away from a staggered or sequential approach towards engagement in stronger legal rights. For women, approach towards engagement in situations of fragility. In practice, successful interventions must help situations of fragility. In practice, this has meant that international them enter the cash economy this has meant that international donors and partners begin their by reducing their domestic donors and partners begin their engagement with efforts towards burden. Moreover, training engagement with efforts towards stabilisation (political, environmental, programs—although a frequent stabilisation (political, environmental, etc.), and only when progress has component of programming in etc.), and only when progress has been advanced or achieved in this fragile environments—do not been advanced or achieved in this regard, will support begin towards always address actual market regard, will support begin towards working with the private sector demand or specific employment working with the private sector and promoting economic activity. opportunities. and promoting economic activity. Given the restrictions in funding and Given the restrictions in funding and implementing long-term support implementing long-term support in fragile countries, private sector in fragile countries, private sector development often gets neglected, development often gets neglected, and as a result, populations and and as a result, populations and communities ultimately remain communities ultimately remain trapped in a cycle of dependence on trapped in a cycle of dependence on external finance or aid. external finance or aid.

10 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Post-conflict economic performance This is not to minimise the attention to the political economy apparently significantly affects the importance of emergency and of reforms and capacity constraints, likelihood that post-conflict countries disaster management interventions, and coordination of donor efforts. will maintain peace. Collier’s data which are critical to stemming shows that in the first decade after the deepening of fragility within The 2008 Third High-level Forum peace, a stagnant economy gives a a country. Rather, actions that on Aid Effectiveness in Accra, country a 42.1% risk of relapse, while promote resilience across many Ghana, marked an important step a 10 percent growth rate reduces the domains, including economic, towards a new approach to fragile risk to 26.9%. should be seen as complementary, states. Donors and fragile and because they ultimately address conflict-affected states launched A better understanding of fragility some of the underlying issues the International Dialogue on and resilience building has led that contribute towards fragility, Peacebuilding and Statebuilding international and donor organisation such as unemployment and lack of (IDPS), which for the first time gave to move towards a more balanced opportunities. fragile states an equal voice. The approach, which recognises the emergence of the g7+, in the wake of importance of promoting economic a. The New Deal the 2008 High-level Forum in Accra, activity and functional markets, even a group of seven of the world’s during situations of fragility and for Engagement in most fragile and conflict-affected concurrent with emergency support Fragile States developing countries – Afghanistan, and interventions. Communities the Central African Republic (CAR), affected by fragility therefore have International understanding of Côte d'Ivoire, the DRC, Haiti, Sierra greater opportunities to resume fragility has evolved and is recasting Leone and Timor Leste – started to their livelihoods or undertake new the framework of development advocate for a major change in the economic activities, during and assistance. Key insights that are way donors engage with them and especially after levels of stability calling for a revised engagement of called for support to country-led and have increased. According to USAID the international community in these country-owned pathways for their (2009), ‘The purpose of economic environments are the following: transition from fragility to resilience. growth programming in post-conflict (i) the importance of adopting a countries is both to reduce the risk of state-building approach focused on The international framework for a return to conflict and to accelerate inclusive politics, citizen security, and assistance has been evolving the improvement of well-being for justice–in addition to more traditional with the adoption of the “New everyone, particularly the conflict- human and economic development Deal for Engagement in Fragile affected population.’ needs; (ii) the need to allow a long States” in 2011. The international time, perhaps a generation, to build community endorsed an innovative This is not to minimise the the necessary capable and legitimate approach for engagement in fragile importance of emergency and institutions that can effectively situations at the Fourth High Level disaster management interventions, manage the challenges of fragility; Forum in Busan. The “New Deal which are critical to stemming and (iii) the need for sustainable for Engagement in Fragile States” the deepening of fragility within employment generation and focuses on peace- and state- a country. Rather, actions that improved livelihoods through private building, new ways of engaging by promote resilience across many sector development. supporting inclusive, country led domains, including economic, transitions out of fragility and placing should be seen as complementary, Fragile states showed also slow trust in a new set of commitments because they ultimately address progress in achieving the majority of to provide aid and manage reforms some of the underlying issues the MDGs20 (OECD). In this context, for better results. In addition, the that contribute towards fragility, the international community is Busan document articulates the goal such as unemployment and lack of developing forms of engagement of “resilience” against a spectrum of opportunities. that stress peacebuilding, social possible “shocks” wider than violence cohesion, and statebuilding. They and conflict, and that include health return to conflict and to accelerate incorporate recognition of the pandemics, the effects of climate the improvement of well-being for need for sustained engagement, a change, economic downturns, food everyone, particularly the conflict- willingness to take calculated risks and fuel price crises and natural affected population.’ in uncertain environments, fuller disasters. This broad consensus on

11 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

engaging in fragile situations lays the fragility and conflict, in line with reboot its engagement in-country foundations for a new development basic aid effectiveness principles. and in international fora using partnership. Since its principles were It commits its signatories to the New Deal to support SDG formulated with active participation support inclusive country-led and implementation on the ground in of the recipient–self-declared country-owned transition out of fragile contexts. The strengthened “fragile”– countries through the G7+, fragility. The New Deal has three focus on country implementation it is considered more promising than pillars: the 5 Peacebuilding and is motivated by the recognition previous approaches. This consensus Statebuilding Goals (PSGs) and the that Agenda 2030 will fail the has become part of the discussions FOCUS and TRUST principles, which world’s poorest people by 2030 in Africa and elsewhere on the refer to the way of engagement without concerted action to apply development of the Post-2015 agenda and the way of working together the partnership principles of the for results respectively. New Deal. EU Approach: the New Deal for Engagement in Fragile States21 It is at the global level, where the Starting in 2017, the EU has taken IDPS has been most successful and over the Co-chairmanship of the The New Deal for Engagement in the g7+ has established itself as a Implementation Working Group Fragile States (New Deal) was group on the international scene. (IWG) of the IDPS for a 2 year drafted and negotiated by the In terms of policy advocacy and period, along-side the Central International Dialogue for Peacebuilding making the link between peace African Republic for the g7+ and and Statebuilding (IDPS) and and security and development, the CSPPS (represented through endorsed by over 40 countries and the IDPS was instrumental for the CORDAID). The EU seems well organizations, including the EU at inclusion of SDG 16 for peaceful, equipped for the new focus on the 2011 High-Level Forum on Aid just and equitable societies country level implementation Effectiveness in Busan, Korea. It in the Agenda 2030. After an given the wide network of was reconfirmed and renewed in independent review of the New Delegations, the directions Stockholm in April 2016, making the Deal and a more inward-looking provided in the new European clear connection to Agenda 2030. period of reflection, leading to the Consensus for Development and adoption of the above-mentioned the policy proposal for enhanced The purpose of the New Deal is Stockholm Declaration and a new support to state and societal to improve current development Strategy in March 2017 (also in FR), resilience in partner countries, as policy and practice in situations of the IDPS is now gearing up to well as the established practice of using country systems, in particular through Budget Support Figure 7: The New Deal for Engagement in Fragile States and State-Building Contracts.

In 2017 the EU addressed the issue of fragile states in a joint communication from the Commission and the Council entitled A Strategic Approach to Resilience in the EU’s external Action22

It highlights the importance of bridging the gap between humanitarian interventions and development cooperation. It recognises the need to move away from crisis containment to a more structural, long-term, non- linear approach to vulnerabilities, with an emphasis on anticipation, prevention and preparedness. Source: African Development Bank (2015)

12 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

b. European Union – There were 16 CSDP missions in Funding Resilience July 2014, civilian and military, Building Resilience in representing over 7000 personnel. The core instruments used for the Sahel and Horn of funding resilience to food crisis in Africa23 Several events have contributed the Sahel and Horn of Africa regions to triggering the development of include the European Development The European Union (EU) engages regional and national strategic Fund (EDF) and DCI-Food for with over 50 countries affected approaches. The most important DEVCO, and ECHO Humanitarian by conflict and fragility. It has were: the Niger crisis in 2005, the Implementation Plans (HIPs). Delegations in the 50 or so countries 2007/2008 world food prices crisis, that can be considered in situations the 2009/2010 pastoral crisis in the CDEVCO and ECHO commitments of conflict or fragility. Beyond the Sahel, and most significantly the related to the EU resilience approach Delegations, there are 12 EU Special 2011/2012 food crisis in the Horn and in the Horn and Sahel totalled about Representatives (as of January 2014). the Sahel. More recently there have five billion Euro over the period Nearly all Special Representatives been the instability in the Sahel, the 2007-2015: 2.2 billion by DEVCO work in fragile and conflict- migrant crisis in Europe, and El Niño (excl. ¤687m GBS) and 2.6 billion affected countries or regions, or on in 2015/2016. by ECHO. DEVCO commitments fragility-related themes. The EU’s varied considerably on a yearly engagement in situations of conflict The EU’s 2012 Communication on basis, with peaks in 2009 (launch and fragility spans a wide range of the EU Approach to Resilience: of the Facility for rapid response interventions. The engagement also Learning from Food Security Crises to soaring food prices) and in 2013 involves other issues that can directly defines resilience as ‘the ability of an (just after the EU Communication on affect fragility and conflict, such as individual, a household, a community, Resilience was issued). Two thirds trade, investment, global economic a country or a region to withstand, to of total commitments related to governance and financial regulation, adapt, and to quickly recover from Agriculture (36%) and Food and energy, the environment and regional stresses and shocks’. It aims at “more nutrition assistance (32%). Nine integration. effective EU collaborative action, out of the 25 countries accounted bringing together humanitarian for 83%: Burkina Faso, Kenya, In 2012, the EU’s development assistance, long-term development Somalia, Niger, Mali, Ethiopia, Chad, cooperation with countries in cooperation and on-going South-Sudan and Senegal. More situations of conflict and fragility political engagement … leading in-depth analysis on those nine represented EUR 4.9 billion (a to a reduction in humanitarian countries shows that resilience- budget managed by the Directorate- needs and more sustainable and related decisions were focused in General for International Cooperation equitable development gains”. about 75% of cases on sudden onset and Development – EuropeAid Its operationalisation includes: (i) climate shocks and less on longer- (DEVCO), or 59% of total EU adapting financing instruments, term changes. It also shows that a assistance. This makes EU institutions (ii) understanding the underlying high number of decisions related the second-largest provider of causes of food security, (iii) to agricultural production (70%), assistance in situations of conflict comprehensive and collaborative EU followed by food and nutrition and fragility — after the United political-development-humanitarian assistance (26%) and health and States and before the World Bank. action, (iv) coordinated, multi- nutrition (22%). ECHO resilience- The top three recipients of such sectoral action, (v) measurement of related contracts grew slowly from assistance in 2012 were Egypt, the resilience outcomes, and (vi) national 2007 with a peak in 2012. The share Occupied Palestinian Territories and ownership. The EU approach is a of humanitarian aid directed to the Bosnia and Herzegovina. Taking a shared inter-service responsibility Sahel has grown significantly and longer view, over 2000–12, the top of DEVCO, European Commission consistently over the period. This is three recipients were the Occupied Humanitarian aid and Civil Protection associated with a strategic decision Palestinian Territories, Afghanistan department (ECHO) and the to invest in addressing chronic and Ethiopia. The EU is also engaged European External Action Service malnutrition and vulnerability, as in situations of conflict and fragility (EEAS). outlined in the 2010-2014 ECHO through electoral observation Sahel strategy. This has aligned missions and Common Security and ECHO programming in this region Defence Policy (CSDP) missions. to a resilience objective. Over the

13 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

entire evaluation period, aid directed Alliance Globale pour l'Initiative through a focus on four strategic to the Sahel region amount to Résilience-Sahel (AGIR) and pillars: (i) livelihoods and social almost a third (31%) of the 2.6 billion Supporting the Horn of Africa's protection for the most vulnerable; contracted by ECHO; more than Resilience (SHARE) (ii) health and nutrition of vulnerable 60% related to the Horn of Africa households; (iii) agricultural and region. The pattern of expenditure AGIR is the EU’s regional resilience food productivity, access to food of appears to broadly follow patterns programme in the Sahel and West vulnerable households; (iv) better of humanitarian needs. The two main Africa. It supports 14 countries governance for food and nutrition sectors supported were Food and in strengthening the resilience security. The Regional Roadmap nutrition assistance and Health and of the most vulnerable. It is a adopted in 2013 sets indicators for nutrition. The World Food Program, policy tool that aims at bringing monitoring progress with a view UNICEF and Save the Children are together regional and international to reducing chronic malnutrition the three most important partners, stakeholders to coordinate on a by more than half, reducing acute accounting for 64% of the total common results framework. It was malnutrition by more than two-thirds, contracted amount. The share of launched in 2012 at the initiative generalizing access to basic social NGOs increased in recent years. of the EU, with the support of the services, and decreasing the child In terms of countries, the top-10 Sahel and West Africa Club (SWAC/ mortality rate. AGIR is also used as beneficiary countries are largely the OECD). It is now (2016) under the a framework for designing Country same for DEVCO and ECHO, albeit technical and political leadership Resilience Priorities (CRP). Since the with differences in order. Ethiopia of the Permanent Interstates adoption of the Regional Roadmap received by far the most funding Committee for Drought Control in all 17 countries in Sahel and West from DEVCO with ¤422m, followed the Sahel (CILSS), ECOWAS, and Africa have launched the process of by Niger with ¤151m and Kenya the West African Economic and discussing and designing their CRP. with ¤148m. For ECHO, Sudan was Monetary Union. The EU leads the By 2016 eight countries had adopted the largest beneficiary with ¤537m, group of Technical and Financial a CRP (Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, followed by Ethiopia with ¤326m; Partners, composed of key donors Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Mali, Somalia, Niger and South Sudan also and UN agencies. AGIR aims to Niger, and Togo) and three were in received more than ¤250m each. achieve ‘Zero Hunger’ by 2032, the process of adopting it (Guinea

Figure 8: Evolution of Areas Supported by Resilience Building Decisions (Evaluation focal countries)

Source: EU Approach to Building Resilience to Withstand Food Crises in African Drylands (Sahel and Horn of Africa) 2007-2015

14 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Bissau, Mauritania, and Senegal). to end conflict and build peace. engagement. These are the need The operationalization of AGIR has The HLPFS identified five drivers to (i) strengthen state capacity and been supported through various EU of fragility on the continent: support effective institutions; (ii) instruments (11th EDF [European poverty and exclusion, the youth promote resilient societies through Development Fund], Global Public bulge, urbanization and spreading inclusive and equitable access Goods and Challenges, ECHO’s informality, extractive industries, to employment, basic services Humanitarian Implementation Plan climate disruption and resource and shared benefits from natural [HIP], Instrument contributing to conflicts. It recommended a two- resource endowments; and (iii) Stability and Peace [IcSP], PRO- pronged strategic approach that enhance the Bank’s convening ACT, EU Emergency Trust Fund for addresses (emerging) drivers of role for a deeper policy dialogue, Africa, etc.) Launched in 2012 by fragility and builds resilience. New partnerships and advocacy around the EU, SHARE is a strategy that partnerships for building resilience issues of fragility. aims at “breaking the vicious cycle are an integral part of this approach, of crises in the region”. SHARE recognizing that issues of fragility d. UN Disaster Risk tries to improve coordination and are too broad and too challenging to information exchange between be tackled by any single institution. Reduction humanitarian and development Therefore, joint work with partners, assistance through a common building alliances and combining Natural hazards, such as floods, framework of intervention and different mandates and sources drought, earthquakes, tsunamis and analysis. It combines national- of expertise are key to effective epidemics, have had an increasing level interventions with a regional action. The findings of the HLPFS impact on humans due to population approach. SHARE focuses on were endorsed at the 22nd African growth, urbanization, rising the lowlands and drylands, and Union summit in January 2014. The poverty and the onset of global pays attention to the role of outcomes of the discussion of the environmental changes, including pastoralism and livestock, and of report by Heads of State and Bank climate change, land degradation natural resources management Governors during the 2014 Annual and deforestation. Compounding the in livelihoods. It also uses an Meetings in Kigali confirm the Bank’s situation, poor planning, poverty and integrated food security approach new approach to addressing fragility a range of other underlying factors that incorporates nutrition, food and building resilience in Africa and create conditions of vulnerability production and market development. provide a platform for the Bank’s that result in insufficient capacity or SHARE supports the IGAD’s Drought future engagement. measures to reduce the potentially Resilience and Sustainability Initiative negative consequences of natural (IDDRSI) in its effort to coordinate Guided by its development mandate, hazards and disasters. Thus, and help with the drafting of Country the Bank will put the twin objectives vulnerability contributes as much Programming Papers (CPP). All IGAD of inclusive growth and the transition to the magnitude of the disaster Member States (Djibouti, Ethiopia, to green growth at the heart of its impacts as do the natural hazards Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan engagement in fragile situations. themselves. Action to reduce risk and Uganda) have drafted a CPP. Tackling demographic changes has grown in importance on the and inequalities through a focus on international agenda and is seen c. African inclusive growth and meeting the by many as essential to safeguard environmental pressures through sustainable development efforts Development Bank - the promotion of a green growth and for achieving the Sustainable High Level Panel on agenda are highly relevant strategies Development Goals (SDGs). to address drivers of fragility and Fragile States and build resilience on the continent, International decade for natural AFDB Group Strategy with important linkages to peace- disaster reduction An increase in 2014-2019 and state-building and longer-term human casualties and property prevention of conflict. Based on damage in the 1980s motivated the The Panel was initiated by the the Bank’s understanding of the UN General Assembly in 1989 to Bank as part of its efforts to gain a key drivers of fragility, three areas declare the 1990s the International better understanding on fragility in of particular strategic importance Decade for Natural Disaster Africa and advise the international for building resilience stand out Reduction (IDNDR) (Resolution community on the way forward where the Bank should focus its 44/236). The aim of the IDNDR was

15 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

to address disaster prevention in The Hyogo Framework for Action24 Global Platform for Disaster Risk the context of a range of hazards, The World Conference on Disaster Reduction In 2006, the Under- including earthquakes, windstorms, Reduction (WCDR) was held from Secretary-General for Humanitarian tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic 18-22 January 2005 in Kobe, Japan. Affairs launched a consultative eruptions, wildfires, grasshopper and The aim of the conference was to process to consider practical ways locust infestations, and drought and increase the international profile of of strengthening the ISDR system desertification. DRR, promote its integration into to support governments in meeting development planning and practice, their commitments to implement Yokohama strategy and plan of and strengthen local and national the HFA. As outlined in the action One of the main outcomes capacities to address the causes of Secretary-General’s reports on the of the IDNDR was the Yokohama disasters that hamper development. implementation of the ISDR, the main Strategy for a Safer World and The 168 States attending the aims were to extend participation its Plan of Action, adopted in conference adopted the Hyogo of governments and organizations, 1994 at the World Conference on Framework for Action 2005-2015: raise the profile of disaster reduction, Natural Disaster Reduction held in Building the Resilience of Nations and construct a more coherent Yokohama, Japan. The Yokohama and Communities to Disasters (HFA) international effort to support Strategy set guidelines for action and the Hyogo Declaration. The national disaster reduction activities. on prevention, preparedness and HFA was endorsed by the General A result of the consultations was mitigation of disaster risk. These Assembly in Resolution 60/195, and the proposal to convene the Global guidelines were based on a set of committed governments to five Platform for DRR as an expanded principles that stress the importance priorities for action to: ensure that and reformed successor to the of risk assessment, disaster DRR is a national and local priority, IATF/DR. The Global Platform was prevention and preparedness, with a strong institutional basis for envisaged as serving as the primary the capacity to prevent, reduce implementation; identify, assess and multi-stakeholder forum for all and mitigate disasters, and early monitor disaster risks and enhance parties involved in DRR in order to warning. The principles also stated early warning; use knowledge, raise awareness on reducing disaster that the international community innovation and education to build risk, share experience and guide the should share technology to prevent, a culture of safety and resilience ISDR system. reduce and mitigate disasters, and at all levels; reduce the underlying demonstrate a strong political risk factors; and strengthen disaster Poverty and vulnerability to disasters determination in the field of disaster preparedness for effective response are integrally linked and mutually reduction. at all levels. reinforcing (Wisner et al. 2004). The poor are forced to exploit International strategy for disaster -- Moreover, the UN International environmental resources for survival, reduction At its 54th session in Strategy for Disaster Reduction thereby increasing both the risk and 1999, the UN General Assembly (UNISDR) launched in 2012 a exposure to disasters, in particular decided to continue the activities on paper which outlines substantive those triggered by floods, drought disaster prevention and vulnerability issues and a process of and landslides. Deforestation and reduction carried out during the consultations as the disaster agriculture on marginal land, or IDNDR through the establishment risk reduction community heads destruction of forests for firewood of the International Strategy for toward the end date of the collection, are often induced, or at Disaster Reduction (ISDR). An Inter- Hyogo Framework of Action least exacerbated, by poverty. These Agency Secretariat and an Inter- 2005-2015. practices directly affect the natural Agency Task Force for Disaster environment, and may hurt the Reduction (IATF/DR) for the -- It provides background very resource base that these poor implementation of the ISDR were information; an outline of trends, people are depending on. Indeed, also established (Resolutions 54/219 progress and challenges; and, the rural communities, which depend and 56/195, respectively). Among its a discussion on what form of a on resource-based activities, are mandated tasks, the IATF/DR was to post-2015 framework. The paper the worst sufferers of the disaster convene ad hoc expert meetings on also outlines a consultation impacts (Shaw 2006). issues related to disaster reduction. process, timeline, and maps out main events to 2015.25

16 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

For many of the world’s poor people, Unlike emergencies following natural and Zimbabwe. With staff on the four trends threaten to further catastrophes, protracted crises are ground, CASA works with public and increase their vulnerability26: often the result of failed institutions private sector partners and clients and conflicts over resources. to improve the investment climate, -- there are many more people They are characterized by poor support small business growth, and living in urban slums built on or non-existent public services, help countries attract investment precarious land. high susceptibility to violence, and develop larger infrastructure and the absence of regulation in projects. In Liberia, CASA helped -- the increasing pressure on the productive and trade sectors. establish a commercial code and farmland, caused by drought, As countries become less able to court and facilitated an electricity population density, and protect their citizens, widespread partnership that is bringing power increasing demand for meat hunger is a common consequence. back to the capital, Monrovia. In and dairy products in emerging Sierra Leone, CASA helped develop economies, means that more IFC Conflict Affected States in a national small business strategy, people will find it difficult to get Africa initiative (CASA)27 and in the Democratic Republic of enough to eat. Congo, CASA was pivotal in the Launched in 2008 and backed by establishment of the country’s first -- climate change, environmental donor partners from Ireland, the special economic zone. Over its first degradation, and conflict are Netherlands, and Norway, IFC’s five-year cycle, CASA helped launch likely to drive more people from Conflict Affected States in Africa 36 long-term IFC advisory projects, their homes, stripping them of initiative (CASA) is supporting helped train about 9,400 people, and their livelihoods, assets, and private sector growth, job creation, advised over 1,280 public and private the networks of family and and increased opportunity in entities. CASA’s second phase communities that can support some of the world’s poorest and will help IFC deepen its impact in them. Some estimates suggest least developed countries. CASA conflict-affected countries in Africa. that up to one billion people will be is active in Burundi, the Central forced from their homes by 2050. African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of -- the global economic crisis is Congo, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Sierra increasing unemployment and Leone, and South Sudan—and is undermining social safety nets. also beginning work in Somalia

Figure 9: The progression of vulnerability

17 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

3. Fragility and agriculture

The relationship between fragility to protect natural resource assets, the rest of the world. On average and agriculture is a complex one, and management schemes to ensure these extremely fragile contexts presenting many challenges for better recovery and resilience are becoming more dependent on governments and policymakers against shocks. By taking a agriculture, as the proportion of their to address. Agriculture systems sustainable development approach GDP generated from agricultural can suffer significantly because of to food and nutrition security, activity has increased by 19% since fragility, whilst also contributing reconstructing livelihoods of conflict 2004.” Hiller, Hilhorst and Weijs to the conditions for a fragility to and disaster affected communities is (2014) argue in their seminal paper emerge and persist. Defining fragility, possible. “Value chain development in Fragile understanding the agricultural States”, that even in midst of conflict, economy in fragile countries, The prevailing approach in the economic activity does continue, establishing the role to be played study of fragility is to look at its albeit with different features and by different actors and stakeholders relationship with agriculture in terms greater limitations. In fact, it may in responding to fragility, capturing its impact on food security and be more important during a period lessons from successful or nutrition – with good justification of fragility or crisis that economic unsuccessful approaches – these as lack of access to food and water activity is promoted and facilitated, are all issues to be addressed are leading factors in the emergence as communities lack alternative with respect to the promotion of of crises. A growing number sources of income, security or safety agriculture in the context of fragility. of approaches seek to interlink nets. Furthermore, the private sector economic support with emergency participation is also critical to the Agriculture plays an important responses in fragile countries, or resolution of crisis and achievement contribution towards economies at least promote continued private of resilience. of fragile countries, in building sector activity in the midst of resilience and offering prospects for fragility. These approaches include 3.1 Food insecurity income generation, livelihoods and the ubiquitous aid or donor driven wider social benefits in some of the interventions, but also increasingly is driven by multiple most vulnerable communities.28 feature local solutions and factors mechanisms. The role of agriculture and food has 3.1.1 Fragility, conflict, and violence a particular resonance in fragile and Even during contexts of fragility, (FCV) conflict states, where conflict results economic activity carries on, and in often sharp rises in food insecurity, indeed, as fragility increases, so FCV is a critical development and where smallholder farming can, does the reliance on agriculture as challenge that threatens efforts to in the right circumstances, form a source of livelihood and security. end extreme poverty, affecting both the basis of peacebuilding and According to the OECD, “the low- and middle-income countries. economic recovery.29 Improvements relationship between fragility and The share of the extreme poor living can be driven by resilient food poverty and extreme poverty is in conflict-affected situations is system approaches to ensure better further entrenched by a reliance expected to rise to more than 60% utilization of food and dietary on agriculture in these fragile by 2030. Conflicts also drive 80% of diversity and quality. Interventions contexts as a significant means of all humanitarian needs, while they include social protection income generation. The contribution reduce gross domestic product mechanisms through food safety of agriculture to GDP in these (GDP) growth by two percentage nets, resilient food and nutrition extremely fragile and fragile contexts points per year, on average. sensitive approaches, mechanisms is two to three times higher than in

18 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

3.1.2 Land conflict Violent conflict has spiked insecurity and malnutrition. Famine dramatically since 2010, and the was declared in February 2017 in two fragility landscape is becoming more counties of South Sudan. One major source of agrarian complex.30 inequality is associated with the Despite the different contexts of distribution of land rights in conflict • Two billion people live in the four countries, humanitarian and post-conflict contexts. Land countries where development assistance mobilized by the distribution, both in relation to the outcomes are affected by international community contributed inequality of distribution and the low fragility, conflict, and violence. to preventing a deterioration level of certainty of use and tenure, is in food security and nutrition. rapidly emerging as a key source of • By 2030, the share of global However, humanitarian needs remain conflict in many fragile countries. poor living in fragile and exceptionally high with almost 32 conflict-affected situations is million food-insecure people in need Often conflicts appear to be deeply projected to reach 46%. of urgent assistance in 2017 across rooted in the system of access to the four countries – an increase of land that existed under colonial • Conflicts drive 80% of all almost 5 million from 2016. By mid- administration, but find new points humanitarian needs.31 2017, Catastrophe/famine (IPC/CH of conflagration in relation to more Phase 5) conditions persisted in South recent land distribution policies • Forced displacement is a Sudan for 40,000 people and in north- associated with ethnic identity. development world crisis: 95% of east Nigeria for 50,000 people. refugees and internally-displaced live The continued co-existence of formal in developing countries, originating In 2017, conflict and insecurity and customary legal systems has from the same 10 conflicts since were the major drivers of acute given rise to the phenomenon of 1991, consistently hosted by about 15 food insecurity in 18 countries and legal dualism. The consensus that countries – also overwhelmingly in territories where almost 74 million the rule of law is a pre-requisite the developing world. food-insecure people were in need for development has often been of urgent assistance. Eleven of taken to mean the shift away from In 2017, almost 124 million people these countries were in Africa and the customary, often termed as across 51 countries and territories accounted for 37 million acutely food the “traditional” and “informal”, faced crisis levels of acute food insecure people; the largest numbers systems of law (Benda Beckmann insecurity or worse and required were in northern Nigeria, Democratic 2006). While the formal legal urgent humanitarian action. In Republic of Congo, Somalia and system focuses on economic 2016 the population in need of South Sudan. Four countries affected exchange, production and trade, urgent action was estimated at 108 by protracted conflict and with and is an arm of the state, these million across 48 countries. When very high numbers of food-insecure customary systems operate outside comparing the 45 countries included people in crisis conditions or worse the state arena, providing social in both editions of the Global Report were in the Middle East: Yemen had control, dispute resolution, and on Food Crises*, there has been an 17 million food-insecure people in reconciliation, especially with regard increase of 11 million people in need need of urgent assistance, while to familial matters and land tenure of urgent action, an 11 percent rise Syria, Iraq and Palestine together issues (Pouligny 2009). The notion from 2016. This is largely attributed accounted for over 10 million. that state and society operate as to new or intensified conflict and separate and insulated spheres is insecurity in Myanmar, north-east There were 65 million refugees fallacious, and the two-way process Nigeria, Democratic Republic of and internally displaced as of end- of interaction between state and Congo, South Sudan and Yemen. 2015, with 95% living in developing society in Africa has been termed Prolonged drought conditions also countries and over half displaced as a state-in-society approach. The resulted in consecutive poor harvests for more than four years. At its root nature of state-society interaction in countries already facing high levels are the same 10 conflicts which have is specific to the history, national of food insecurity and malnutrition accounted for the majority of the and local structures of a society. in eastern and southern Africa. forcibly displaced every year since In the context of a conflict or a North-east states of Nigeria, South 1991, consistently hosted by about 15 post-conflict situation, such as Sudan, Somalia and Yemen have countries – also overwhelmingly in the aftermath of a war, facing experienced significant acute food the developing world. the multiple disorientations of

19 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

internally-displaced persons, production and wealth accumulation induced crop production shortfalls returning migrants, and fear of the in SubSaharan Africa, while, at the in East Africa triggered sharp cereal state, marginalised rural people same time, remaining a complex and price increases in Kenya, Ethiopia, turn from the formal legal system organic basis for social relationships Somalia, Sudan and Uganda. to the customary system of dispute and cultural values, as well as a resolution and reconciliation source of prestige and power A significant number of the 52 (Pouligny 2009). (Huggins and Clover 2005). million children with wasting live in countries where cyclical food In particular, as countries move 3.1.3 Extreme climate events – insecurity and protracted crises towards a commodified market mainly drought exacerbate their vulnerability. economy, they experience, on the Extremely high rates of acute one hand, the increased formalisation Climate and drought were also major child malnutrition in countries or of the legal system, and, on the triggers of food crises in 23 countries areas affected by conflict including other, an increased alienation from with over 39 million food-insecure north Darfur in Sudan (28%), South customary tenures (Vlassenroot and people in need of urgent assistance Sudan (23%), the Lac region of Huggins 2005; Pantuliano 2008, in 2017. Two-thirds of these countries Chad (18%), Somalia (13.8-17.4%), Alinovi et al., 2008). This leads were in Africa, where almost 32 Northern Nigeria (10-16%), Central to contradictory tendencies: as million people faced Crisis conditions African Republic (12%), the Diffa the rights to land are increasingly of acute food insecurity or worse region of Niger (11%), Democratic becoming a source of economic caused by climate shocks. Weather- Republic of Congo (8-10%). The high burden of acute malnutrition is also seen in areas or countries affected Figure 10: Main drivers of food insecurity – 2017 by drought or floods, including Haiti, Ethiopia, northern Kenya, Madagascar, Sindh province in Pakistan, Somalia and Zimbabwe.

Source: Global Report on Food Crises 2018

20 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

4. Agriculture Successes in the Context of Fragility

Successful cases33 Kenya and Sudan. Thus, the Great aged less than 5 years old (56%) are Lakes Region constitutes a complex suffering from slow growth. In 2016 i. Great Lakes Region network of political and economic alone, more than 50,000 people have interactions with significant been displaced in the country due to The name ‘Great Lakes Region’ was implications for peace, security and flooding. In the absence of a viable derived from the freshwater lakes governance. It is also a region with solution to the problem, malnutrition and river basins within the central interlinked conflicts and common will cost Burundi an estimated 92 and eastern part of Africa, and is fundamental problems that emanate million euro per year, double the generally defined within the context from post-colonial challenges to entire budget of the Burundian Health of the regional entity known as the state-building and nation-building.34 Ministry in 201236. Importantly, the International Conference of the Great important population density coupled Lakes Region (ICGLR). According to the Global Hunger with the very low number of skilled Report, Burundi is the country with youth creates significant pockets of In the ICGLR context, the area of the lowest food security score, with unemployed youth. Burundi is also focus is therefore the countries levels worrying even when compared highly vulnerable to the effects of located in the east and central to the situation in the 1990s.35 Over climate change because in the small Africa – namely Rwanda, Burundi, the period covering from October to and often poorly managed farmlands, Democratic Republic of the Congo December 20017 2,6 million people extreme weather quickly leads to lower (DRC), Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia, are living a humanitarian crisis. Burundi crop production and higher food prices. Republic of Congo, Central African has a level of malnutrition against the Republic (CAR), South Sudan, worst in the world: 6 out of 10 children The agricultural sector still accounts for nearly 40% of GDP and the level of urbanization is Map 1: Great Lakes Region Conflict Incidents Map (Jan–Dec 2017) one of the lowest in Africa (12%). Approximately 1.2 million households farm on small plots (on average 0.5 ha per household) and mostly for subsistence, due to lack of alternatives. They produce little for the market, and yields are often not enough to meet their own needs.

However, research in Burundi shows that production of many crops can be tripled with efficient and well- integrated farming methods. Crucial here is that farmers - and especially women farmers - are encouraged to invest through mutual cooperation and knowledge-sharing in sustainable land management and higher-value food crops. For this, it is first necessary to improve access to fertilizer, improved seeds, (market) information and micro-financing, and support the formation of cooperatives.37 Source: UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2018)38

21 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

a. Impact Initiatives crop, vegetable seeds and farming b. Private Sector from Civil Society tools, as well as assistance on Development vegetable gardening and production chain management. Awareness Dutch Relief Alliance Response – Access to inputs and Formalisation raising activities and trainings Central African Republic39 were also provided on topics Availability of inputs is an important The Dutch Relief Alliance (DRA) such as child feeding practices, factor in determining the potential responds to major international agricultural techniques, efficient success of a value chain. Low input crises in a timely and effective dry season gardening and conflict usage leads to lower yield and less manner. The Alliance is a cooperation management. In addition to the quality. In conflict-affected areas of 14 Dutch NGO’s, funded by the continued provision of emergency formal markets for inputs can be Ministry of Foreign Affairs: CARE food supplies, or food vouchers, disrupted or credit in the form of Nederland, Cordaid, Dorcas, ICCO to vulnerable households, CAR- input supplies has become too risky. en Kerk in Actie, Oxfam Novib, JR2 organized cash for work and Plan Nederland, Save the Children, cash grant activities to cover at In Burundi the state historically Tear, Terre des Hommes, Stichting least 2 months of the hunger gap. provided inputs. Now that the Vluchteling, War Child, War Trauma Livelihoods were supported via markets are being privatised the Foundation, World Vision en ZOA. the distribution of seeds or seed privately owned washing station vouchers, garden tools, small provides inputs to the farmers on In the Central African Republic the poultry (for improved breeding), credit. In DR Congo the tools needed emergency aid is provided by the compost kits. CAR-JR2 also provided for honey collection and production, Dutch organizations Cordaid, ICCO technical (crop production, post- like smokers and outfits, are available en Kerk in Actie, Oxfam Novib, Plan, harvest processes, marketing skills) on the market. The bee colonies are Save the Children, Tear, Stichting and vocational/life skill trainings, collected from the wild. Vluchteling, War Child, World Vision income generating and cash for and ZOA and their local partners. work activities to farmer groups In Kono, one of Sierra Leone’s Cordaid leads the joint responses and the youth. Finally, functional remote and poorest districts, the in the CAR on behalf of the Dutch community gardens were set up NGO Cordaid supports food security Relief Alliance. with rain harvesting, irrigation solutions that promote high-value systems and fencing. To restore the and quick-impact crop harvesting. CAR-JR’s food security program livelihoods of those affected by the The support has allowed 35 local provided adequate, vital assistance crisis, the CAR-JR program provided farmer cooperatives to build their by ensuring access to food to emergency cash to 150 food insecure marketing capacity by introducing 63,600 individuals. This was done by households, and restored, in kind or innovative strategies and training providing basic and supplementary in cash, those productive assets for on the cultivation of competitive food to school children and income generating activities to 500 and less labour-intensive vegetable vulnerable households. These more vulnerable households. crops. Through participation in households also received staple the 35 cooperatives, the farmers’

Figure 11: Central African Republic Joint Response 1 and 2 figures

Source : Cordaid (2017)

22 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

work becomes part of the formal also supported the women farmers To support some of the poorest economy. For the first time ever, with the building of storage facilities and most vulnerable segments farmers are fully registered and that comply with the technical of the Burundian population, the linked to their local district councils standards required by the breweries. project identified community-based and the Ministry of Agriculture. Thanks to the improved quality of cooperative groups interested The cooperatives are encouraged the rice and the fact that the women in launching income-generating and supported to set up internal of LOFEPACO are able to deliver activities. Twitezimbéré and the management and regulatory bigger volumes, buyers these days Government of Burundi helped systems, and all of them operate are eager to do business with them. the cooperative groups learn basic formal bank accounts. The linking business skills, develop business of cooperatives to financial and Burundi – African Development plans, and obtain small amounts formal government institutions Bank of start-up capital and equipment. allows farmers access government- As a result of prolonged conflict, Income generating activities included funded initiatives and other financial poverty rates in Burundi increased trash collection in Bujumbura and services. from 33% in 1990 to 68% in 2002. the value-added transformation of More than 90% of the population agricultural products into palm oil, Market access and Value Addition is engaged in agriculture, and jams, cheese, fruit juices, honey, agriculture constitutes 40% of the dried gari from cassava, and soap. Smallholders have difficulty country’s gross domestic product. becoming part of upgraded value In 2004, the Government of Burundi The projects for community-based chains, often because few upgraded partnered with the Bank to launch a cooperative groups aimed to support value chains exist in fragile states project to improve livelihoods by (1) the livelihoods of approximately or because the farmers do not have equipping professional development 500 Burundian women. For one access to these chains. Conflict centres, (2) helping cooperative project, a cooperative including increases the likelihood of this groups launch income generating former refugees, internally displaced problem, even if food deficiencies activities in areas such as value- persons, and ex-combatants exist in nearby regions. added transformation of agricultural started a small enterprise for the products, and (3) providing short- decortication of rice. Twitezimbéré DRC – Cordaid term employment through labour- worked with the leaders of the TIn Eastern Congo, cooperatives and based infrastructure reconstruction. cooperative to develop a plan that organizations of rice producers in included a feasibility study with the region received encouragement The Government of Burundi a projection of annual profits, a from Cordaid to create a new and partnered with Twitezimbéré, work plan, provisions for group stable market for farmers and to help a Burundian nongovernmental members to receive training from increase trust among former warring organization, to rehabilitate three Twitezimbéré, and a budget outlining parties. Since local breweries have professional development centres key project costs. The cooperative started to locally source rice for in rural Burundi to increase the contributed about 12% to the costs. producing beer, tens of thousands of proportion of agricultural crops smallholders were helped to a higher preserved before they spoil, to The project successfully rehabilitated income and increased food security. broaden the variety of locally the professional development In the North Kivu province, Cordaid produced goods, and diversify the centres and trained the cooperative began working with an organized economy beyond the agricultural groups. While the project was a group of female farmers who sector. The centres were reequipped success in these respects, insufficient supply rice to the brewery Brasimba with tools and materials, and resources were planned for follow-up in Beni, by helping to establish Twitezimbéré worked with a support, monitoring, and evaluation contact between LOFEPACO and Canadian firm to develop tailored after the initial trainings. Future the agricultural research institute business skills curricula for different projects of this type would benefit INERA in Yangambi. They provided trades, including auto mechanics, from additional resources to provide the women farmers with higher clerical work, machining, masonry, technical support to cooperative quality seeds, which helped them to metallurgy, and the transformation of groups during the first year as they increase production levels from 2 agricultural products. start to implement their business ton to 4,5 tons per hectare. Cordaid plans.

23 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Youth Innovation and Job Creation The project’s specific targets were: supported men and women having increased their income by up to 25% DRC – GIZ • To support 60% of its participants through agricultural activities and The GIZ led project ‘Reinstating and in increasing their income by up to increased production. However, it stabilising the livelihoods of refugees 25% through agricultural activities is not clear what is meant by ‘poor’ and the local population in the and increased production. households in these instances. Uvira region’ - as demonstrates well what degree different forms of, and • To apply improved agricultural Secondly, the project set a target approaches to, rural development production and management of at least 40% of the farmer work in fragile states. The project’s techniques for 40% of the farmer associations and the state service area of intervention is the Uvira associations and the state service providers applying improved region in the eastern province of providers. agricultural production and South Kivu. Its implementation management techniques. Project started in October 2009 and is • To confirm for at least 40% data suggests rural households scheduled to end in December of the population (residents and have increased the application of 2013. The project has been returnees) that there have been increased agricultural techniques implemented jointly by GIZ, together improvements in social cohesion in from 12% in 2010 to 50% in 2012, with institutions from the DRC the communities. with households now eating more (IPAPEL (Inspection Provinciale de meals per day with a wider range l’Agriculture, la • To have 40% of handicapped of foods on offer. Seed providers people that took part in project now function relatively well in Pêche et l’Elevage), SENASEM activities increase their participation decentralized manner and are ‘close’ (ServiceNational des Semences), in the peace process. to the population. INERA (Institut National d’Etudes et de Recherches Agronomiques), During the period of the project Thirdly, the project also set a REMSU (Réseaux des multiplicateurs 22,000 people in the territory of target of at least 40% of the de semence à Uvira) and Ministère Uvira were reached (11,660 women population (residents and returnees) du Plan) and the International NGO and 10,340 men), and there were estimating that social cohesion in Christoffel-Blindenmission (CBM) 6,275 people that directly benefitted the communities was positive by the Germany, which have a reputation from the seed multipliers that were end of the project. In the project’s for their work with handicapped organized in 124 different production view this goal has been partially people. The total contract volume associations (GIZ 2013). reached though this has not yet been is EUR 4.52 million. The central goal sufficiently quantified. However, of the project is to improve the Assessments of project performance it appears that parties previously productive base of Uvira, integrating state a number of achievements. in conflict are now undertaking different social groups in a peaceful Firstly, seed multipliers increased activities together. way through a participatory household incomes by US$12 approach at the community/village (i.e. 21%) in 2011, with poor rural Finally, the project set a target level (GIZ 2013). households doing so by US$22 of 40% of handicapped people (i.e. 39%). Consequently, school who partook in project activities fees could be paid, health services to consequently increase their could be used and houses could be participation in the peace process. renovated. For the ESÜH-project, this However, actual progress has not meant the successful achievement been measured at present. of a stated target of 60% of the

24 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Youth Entrepreneurship in DRC way he is running his business ii. Lake Chad Basin “Coopérative Agroalimentaire et will create more opportunities and Sahel Pastorale des Jeunes du Congo”40 for youth employment in the region and help the co-op to The Lake Chad Basin is grappling Frank Kakel Mbumb, aged 31, is flourish without having to rely on with a complex humanitarian from the city of Lubumbashi in expensive imports. emergency across northeastern Katanga province in the DRC, Nigeria, Cameroon’s Far North, and after studying Computer On a wider scale, Kakel is western Chad and southeastern Science at the city university promoting youth entrepreneurship Niger. In the most affected areas he subsequently trained in in the DRC as Vice President of these four countries, conflict Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, of the Chamber of Commerce and displacement are adding to which laid the foundations for his for Young Entrepreneurs in other structural factors that are current business, the CAAPJECO Lubumbashi, Katanga Province. undermining the livelihoods of the cooperative. The business He passionately believes in the population, increasing food insecurity currently processes around four sharing of knowledge accrued by and poverty and diminishing access hundred chickens a month for young businessmen and women to basic and social services (water, meat and the plans are to increase and his vision is to see the forming sanitation, health and education).41 this number, by integrating more of business innovation hubs farmers into the cooperative with throughout his region and the Around 17 million people live in the a shared vision of turning the co- country as a whole. affected areas across the four Lake op into a regional leader which will also export to other African countries. Kakel currently runs the Map 2: Population movement and violent incidents in the most affected areas co-op together with his business partner Gualthier whom he met during the PAEJK1 project with the ILO in 2013. After presenting his project and winning one of the three micro-finance loans available to winners of the competition, he was available to get his business off the ground. The company currently employs three people and is available to give temporary work to around ten staff who help with slaughtering and packaging of the chicken meat. It is likely that they will have to soon employ another permanent member of staff as business is rapidly growing.

About 80% of the production costs of the coop are currently spent on chicken feed, which is imported from Zambia and is thus more expensive than locally produced chickenfeed would be. Kakel is currently developing his own feed from maize and soya, which has already been analysed by chemists who have judged it Source: OCHA, Lake Chad Basin: Crisis Overview (as of 22 January 2018) reliable. This development in the https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse. info/files/documents/files/lac_chad_snapshot_22_jan_2018_1.pdf

25 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Chad basin countries. More than 184th on the Human Development while shaping the response to 2.3 million people remain displaced. Index. Chad also remains extremely chronic needs in nine countries: Most of the displaced families are vulnerable to climactic variations, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Mali, sheltered by communities that count with natural disasters affecting Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal among the world’s poorest and most some 1 million people annually, and and The Gambia. (OCHA, 30 Aug vulnerable. Food insecurity and an estimated 2.4 million people 2017) malnutrition have reached critical suffering from food insecurity in levels. 2015. A landlocked country, Chad's Mali: Needs remain high with more economic development suffers than 3.5 million people being food Some 7 million people risk suffering from its geographic remoteness, insecure and some 852,000 people from severe hunger in the Lake Chad lack of infrastructure and industrial in need of nutrition assistance. Basin, which incorporates parts of underdevelopment: about 85% of More than 37,000 people remain Cameroon, Chad, Niger and north- the population still depends on internally displaced. The majority eastern Nigeria. In the latter, some subsistence agriculture. of those in need of assistance are 50,000 people are facing famine. in Mali’s northern region. In April While fighting and violence have Sahel region 2017, the Humanitarian Response caused much of the suffering, the Plan for 2017 for $293 million was impact of environmental degradation A combination of factors including, only 11.6% funded. OCHA warned and climate change including the 2011 drought, high food prices, of destabilizing consequences, as repeated droughts, are exacerbating low agricultural production, as the humanitarian situation is quickly the situation. well as the inability of affected deteriorating as a direct result of the households to recover from the conflict. (OCHA, 28 Apr 2017) Agriculture including livestock 2010 food and nutrition crisis, and fisheries can no longer be an exacerbated the sub-region’s In Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, afterthought. It is what produces vulnerability in 2012. Moreover, the Mauritania, Niger and Senegal, nearly food and what sustains the 2010-2011 crises in Cote d’Ivoire and 6 million people are struggling to livelihoods of about 90 % of the Libya also contributed to increasing meet their daily food needs. Severe region's population. the vulnerability of hundreds of malnutrition threatens the lives of thousands of households that 1.6 million children. These are levels In addition to providing an were deprived of the remittances unseen since the crisis of 2012, and immediate response to the acute of migrant workers who had fled the most critical months are still needs of affected populations, it these conflicts. Their return has also ahead. The crisis was triggered by is crucial to promote and support placed additional strain on their scarce and erratic rainfall in 2017, longer-term sustainable agriculture communities of return, notably resulting in water, crop and pasture practices and policies to adapt to in Chad, Niger and Mali. In 2012, shortages and livestock losses. climate change and the increasing approximately 18.7 million people Pastoralists had to undertake the scarcity of natural resources. were estimated to be food insecure earliest seasonal movement of and over one million children were livestock in 30 years – four months While considerable progress has at risk of dying from severe acute earlier and much further than usual. been made following decades of malnutrition. (OCHA, 17 Dec 2012) This has also increased the likelihood internal conflict, through efforts to of conflict with farmer communities improve economic stability, political In 2012, and for the third time in over scarce resources, water and dialogue, human rights, and social ten years, the Sahel region was hit land. services, Chad is once again facing by a major drought which further significant external and internal weakened vulnerable communities. Food security across the region pressures, which add to its fragility. The scale of the resulting food and has deteriorated. Food stocks have Surrounded by countries in crisis, nutrition crisis required all actors to already run out for millions of people. Chad hosts over 750,000 people join forces to save the lives of the Families are cutting down on meals, who fled violence in Sudan, Central 24 million people affected. A three- withdrawing children from school African Republic, Libya and the Lake year regional plan was developed in and going without essential health Chad Basin. This places a significant 2013 aiming to deliver coordinated treatment to save money for food. burden on national and community and integrated life-saving assistance resources – Chad itself situated to people affected by emergencies

26 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Severe acute malnutrition rates in the In the Sahel and Lake Chad region, a consequence, migration pressure six countries have increased by 50% challenges linked to extreme is mounting, with serious implication since last year. One child in six under poverty, lack of stability, economic both for the countries in the region the age of five now needs urgent life- fragility and low resilience remain and the EU. saving treatment to survive. acute. This is exacerbated by climate change in a region where Given the proximity of the Sahel In a severe lean season, anticipated more than 80% of the population to the EU and its immediate to last until September, the number relies essentially on agriculture and neighbourhood, the EU is working of people who need food and pastoral activities. Irregular migration closely with the countries of the livelihood support may increase to and related crimes such as trafficking Sahel and Lake Chad region to 6.5 million. in human beings and smuggling of support their efforts to achieve migrants, corruption, illicit trafficking peace, security and development. In Burkina Faso, the number of and transnational organised crime people facing food insecurity has are thriving particularly where In December 2017, the European already jumped nearly threefold there is an insufficient presence of Commission announced the launch since last year. In Mali, the number governmental authority and public of 13 new measures in the Sahel and of people in ‘emergency’ conditions administration. These security Lake Chad Basin amounting to EUR have increased by 120%. In challenges have been increasingly 274.2 million. Mauritania, severe acute malnutrition linked to terrorist groups and illicit rates are at their highest since 2008.42 trafficking of all kinds. The measures were adopted under the Emergency Trust Fund for Africa EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa43 The region also faces growing and supplement the 68 measures challenges related to demographic approved since December 2015 The Sahel and Lake Chad region of pressure, institutional weaknesses for a total of EUR 1 billion. All the the EU Emergency Trust Fund for and governance, weak social measures are designed to address Africa comprises of twelve countries: and economic infrastructures, the urgent and multiple crises in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Ivory environmental stress and insufficient Africa by providing a flexible, rapid Coast, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, resilience to food and nutrition and integrated response. Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, crises. All of these factors are root Senegal, along with neighbouring causes of forced displacement and The eight measures approved countries. These countries all have a make people flee conflict, seek tackle the challenges of stability by considerable number of challenges protection from persecution or adopting an integrated approach that can be addressed by the EUTF, serious harm, or seek new economic to the chronic conflicts and crises complementing other EU instruments. opportunities to build a better life. As affecting the Sahel and Lake Chad

Figure 12: Sahel and Lake Chad funding and projects under the EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa

Source: European Commission(2018) https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/region/sahel-lake-chad_en

27 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

regions with a view to helping • The programme ‘Prevention For Mauritania, the ‘Programme all groups - indigenous groups, of violent extremism and the for strengthening the resilience returnees and refugees - regardless deterioration of social cohesion in of vulnerable urban and rural of status. Burkina Faso' will primarily target communities in Mauritania' was the rural and urban populations of approved. This measure, worth EUR EUR 71 million has been allocated for sensitive areas of Burkina Faso (Mali 10 million, aims to strengthen the four measures in Burkina Faso. The and Niger border areas) to combat resilience of the most vulnerable aim of the measures is to strengthen violent extremism through increased population sections, in particular the State's presence to ensure it monitoring of radicalisation and young people and women. It can fulfil its role of safeguarding promoting and strengthening of targets the structural causes of the safety of goods and people, social cohesion and dialogue within food insecurity and malnutrition, and combat violent extremism and and between communities and supporting opportunities connected religious radicalisation. religions in Burkina Faso. High-risk with migratory trends and areas and sites of radical rhetoric strengthening capacities to adapt • ‘Budgetary support for the will be monitored with a view to to climate hazards. Based on an implementation of the Sahel promoting social cohesion and integrated and complementary Emergency Fund for Burkina Faso' strengthening dialogue between approach, the measure will support will help improve the security of religions and communities as well diversification of livelihoods through people and property and reduce as with the State and the security a strategy of risk reduction in rural vulnerability by bolstering the forces, using pastoralism as a vehicle areas and of economic integration presence of the State. This measure for peace and resilience. in both rural and urban areas. It will underpins the implementation of promote the social and professional the Emergency Programme for the • An amendment to the ‘Integrated integration of young people and Sahel — an initiative of the Burkina border management programme reduce radicalisation and emigration Faso government adopted in July for Burkina Faso (ProGEF)' was risks. 2017 to step up the implementation also been adopted, worth EUR 5 of the National Plan for Economic million. This budgetary reinforcement In Niger, to complement the and Social Development (PNDES) in will enhance the connectivity and emergency activities already the North and the Sahel, a troubled interoperability of agencies involved conducted in the area, the region with a high level of insecurity. in the monitoring and securing ‘Integrated project to support the Without a strong presence and of borders in Burkina Faso in resilience of vulnerable population increased action by the State, the coordination with the neighbouring groups of refugees, displaced area risks falling into the hands of countries. It will enhance data persons, returnees and hosts in the terrorists and traffickers, as in the transmission and extension of the Diffa region, Niger' was adopted case of the North of Mali and Nigeria. ‘IRAPOL' network (internal security for an amount of EUR 10 million. forces' data management system) The aim of the programme is to • The programme ‘Prevention and provide strengthened support create economic and employment of radicalisation of young people for the infrastructure of the internal opportunities and facilitate returns in in high-risk areas in Burkina Faso security forces. an area characterised by population through education and dialogue' displacements stemming from Boko will focus on education as a means In Mali, the programme ‘Youth and Haram violence. Targeting both to improve the social and economic Stabilisation in the central regions displaced people (refugees, internally life of young people with a view to of Mali (PROJES)' worth EUR 30 displaced persons, returnees) and reducing the risks of radicalisation in million was adopted to foster socio- host communities, the programme the country. The measure will help economic stabilisation and recovery will provide specific support for improve the quality of education by strengthening the supply of, the most vulnerable groups and in Franco-Arab schools, improve and access to, basic services will invest in the potential of young conditions in Koranic schools and considered locally as most urgent, people and women in particular. provide for dialogue between and by revitalising the regional and The measure will address basic communities, with religious and local economic fabric, with central needs through the construction/ customary leaders and with state importance being given to the renovation of social and community authorities. training and professional integration infrastructure and the provision of young people. of access to basic social services

28 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

(water, health, education). It will also In Niger, the programme ‘Creation measure will contribute to improving build development capacity through of jobs and economic opportunities the quality of higher education in activities focusing on food security, through sustainable environmental the partner countries, strengthening nutrition, livelihoods and vocational management in transit and departure the skills of young people and training. areas in Niger' has been adopted at consolidating their technical and a cost of EUR 30 million. Designed academic backgrounds to better For Chad, the ‘Programme of to meet the significant changes in equip them for the labour market. inclusive development in host areas the political and socio-economic (DIZA)', worth EUR 15 million, was balances in the North created by • Lastly, the programme ‘IPDEV2: adopted and will help strengthen the the authorities' commitment to Support for entrepreneurs and small inclusive local development of areas combating trafficking, it will promote SMEs in West Africa' addresses the in which there are many refugees the employment and inclusion of financing problems faced by micro, and returnees. These areas are the most economically vulnerable small and medium-sized enterprises particularly sensitive to economic, groups (young people, women, in Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Senegal, social, community and environmental the unemployed, rural households) Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Cameroon, tensions. The measure will focus on by developing a sustainable local Mali and Mauritania through the improving access to basic services, economy adapted to climate creation of dedicated investment creating economic opportunities, changes in transit, departure and funds for each country so as to strengthening local governance, and refugee areas in Agadez, Tahouda, offer structured and stable financial managing local investment, natural Zinder and Diffa. support to micro- and SMEs that resources and peaceful coexistence. generate jobs and added value. Lastly, three regional measures Five measures adopted today were approved at a total cost of The Lake Chad Development and seek to promote safe and orderly EUR 43.2 million. These measures Climate Resilience Action Plan migration conditions, combat forced aim to strengthen the fight against (LCDAP) – World Bank and Agence displacement and trafficking in trafficking and smuggling of Française de Développement44 human beings, and create economic human beings and to promote conditions favourable to local academic mobility and the economic The Lake Chad Development and development. development of the region. Climate Resilience Action Plan (LCDAP) was developed by the For Guinea, a ‘Support programme • The programme ‘Support for the Lake Chad Basin Commission for the socio-economic integration fight against trafficking in human (LCBC) and its six member states; of young people (INTEGRA)' was beings in Gulf of Guinea countries' is Cameroon, Central African Republic, approved to the tune of EUR 65 designed to combat trafficking and Chad, Libya, Niger and Nigeria, with million. This measure will contribute smuggling of human beings in Gulf support from the World Bank and to the prevention and limitation of of Guinea countries (Guinea, Côte French Development Agency. The irregular migration by supporting d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and plan is part of the World Bank’s $16 the economic development of Nigeria). The measure supplements billion Africa Climate Business Plan, Guinea so as to enhance the socio- the work undertaken in transit which was recently presented at the professional integration of young countries, particularly in Niger, COP21 conference in Paris. Guineans and the reintegration of based on a regional approach in returnees. The programme has high the countries of origin with a view As Lake Chad communities face visibility, with very strong ownership to supporting national structures, urgent development challenges by the authorities. It aims to create strengthening the link with the that are exacerbated by the future sustainable jobs through labour- still weak criminal justice system, impact of climate change on the lake, intensive activities for supporting boosting regional cooperation the Lake Chad Basin Commission local development plans, to provide between these structures, and (LCBC) developed a new Action better training and vocational developing services for victims. Plan that will assist people living guidance for young people, and to around the Lake in Chad, Cameroon, strengthen several key value chains • The programme ‘Erasmus + in Niger, and Nigeria. The Plan outlines at national level. West Africa' will support the mobility engagements that will empower of 2 200 students and academic staff local communities to build resilience between Europe and Africa. This to climate change and increase

29 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

regional development in the area. It • Priority Theme #5: Preserving the food prices, particularly in Ethiopia, focuses on securing livelihoods of environmental capital of the Lake Somalia and Kenya. Lack of rain in communities living around the lake, and its basin (4%) 2016 in Uganda led to increased food increasing the lake’s role in regional insecurity in early 2017, at a time food security and addressing acute • Priority Theme #6: Better when the country was already facing poverty in the area. managing the water resources of the high food insecurity due to an influx basin (5%) of refugees. The plan reflects the LCBC and countries’ shared belief in a need • Priority Theme #7: Disseminating In the wake of the multiple droughts to support the existing capacities information, improving knowledge, that hit the Horn of Africa over the of the lake’s communities to adapt and monitoring of the environment past year, countries in the region to and thrive in the highly-variable (5%) will face rise in hunger and further environment. The objective of the decline of local livelihoods in the LCDAP is to turn Lake Chad into a The majority of investments (53%) coming months, while also dealing pole of regional rural development would go toward the immediate lake with the growing number of refugees by sustainably improving: area, including its islands and banks, (FAO). East Africa and the Horn of and the rest to the lake’s hinterlands Africa are confronting a humanitarian • the living conditions of the where its commercial relations take crisis that may worsen in 2018. populations settled on the lake’s place (36%) and its conventional Armed conflict and severe drought banks and islands, and basin (11%). The LCBC, its member are causing extreme levels of hunger. states, and local governments and Up to 35 million people are in need • the resilience of the lake’s civil society organizations would be of urgent food assistance across the socio-ecosystem, which faces responsible for the implementation region. strong demographic growth, high of the plan. hydrological variability, and climate In the Greater Horn of Africa, uncertainty. iii. Horn of Africa competition over water and pasture is a constant cause for localized Building on LCBC’s water charter and Drought in East Africa damaged conflict between pastoralists and other national and regional strategic already strained livelihoods, farmers in the region. Water, forests, planning documents, the LCDAP destroyed crops and pushed up land and minerals are declining proposes a total of seven priority themes grouping 173 activities. The Map 3: Greater Horn of Africa percentages indicated below reflect the preliminary planned allocation of the total investment, estimated to be $1 billion (¤916 million).

• Priority Theme #1: Supporting producers and their value chains (13%)

• Priority Theme #2: Securing access to natural resources and managing conflicts (8%)

• Priority Theme #3: Improving living conditions through public investments (27%)

• Priority Theme #4: Facilitating Transport and Trade (38%)

Source: FDFA / https://www.eda.admin.ch/deza/en/home/countries/ horn-africa.html

30 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

owing to degradation, overuse and Nearly 12 million people across Political instability, war, and dry climate change threats, particularly Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia face weather has pushed food production the increase in temperatures. harsh food conditions, and are in systems to the breaking point in Conflicts among communities in need of emergency assistance. several countries in the Greater many parts occur as communities Families in the region also Horn of Africa. With tens of millions compete for increasingly scarce experience rising debt, low cereal of people already facing serious resources, while desertification in the and seed stocks, and low milk and food shortages in eastern Africa, region has resulted in less availability meat production. Farmers need aid organizations and governments of land suitable for agriculture and urgent support to recover from warned in February 2017 that pasture. consecutive lost harvests and to widespread famine could emerge keep their breeding livestock healthy in the coming months. Already, the Consequently, competition has and productive. United Nations has declared a famine become fierce, particularly in in part of war-torn South Sudan. drought years when pastoralists Poor rains, livestock losses and Somalia and Yemen—both wracked are forced to use non-traditional people abandoning their homes to by civil war—are on the verge of migration routes to find water for escape drought and conflict have famine as well. their herds. The most recent poor wrecked livelihoods and created rainfall seasons of 2015/16/17 have widespread food insecurity in While food shortages are relatively meant pastoralists have had to take Somalia. Following warnings of common in this part of the world, their herds to natural reserves and the risk of famine in early 2017, the formal declaration of famine farmland in Kenya, where they have emergency food assistance has is unusual. The technical definition clashed with local populations. reached roughly 2.5 million people requires that one in five households a month since April 2017, greatly in a given area face extreme food August 2012 saw the establishment mitigating food consumption gaps. shortages; that 30 percent of the of Somalia’s first permanent central population be malnourished; and that government since the start of the However, despite the challenges the the death rate exceed 2 people per decades-long civil war, paving the country has faced over the last 30 10,000 per day. way for the IMF’s reengagement years, livestock and crops remain with the country the following key sources of economic activity, year. Somalia has received strong employment and exports. Agriculture international support and, in makes up 75% of the country’s GDP February 2017, it experienced a and 93% of total exports. Around half peaceful transfer of power for the (49%) of Somalia’s population lives second time following elections. in rural areas and 46% of employed Even so, political stability remains people work in agriculture. There is fragile amid continued fighting an increasing demand and a broader among competing clan-based opportunity to invest in agriculture, factions. Poverty is rampant, and and stimulate a private agribusiness Somalia’s institutional capacity is sector in Somalia. ranked among the lowest in Africa.

31 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

EU Approach to the Horn of Africa amounting to EUR 665 million for to better respond to the needs of the Horn of Africa. Approved in refugees and vulnerable migrants. The Horn of Africa region faces five packages in December 2015, This includes protection and legal challenges that go beyond country April 2016, October 2016, December aid, hence supporting Djibouti in borders: climate change, forced 2016 and April 2017, these actions the implementation of the pledges displacement, demographic all contribute to improving stability made for the Common Refugee pressures, environmental and addressing the root causes Response Framework (CRRF). The stresses, various forms of conflict, of irregular migration and forced programme will be implemented by trafficking of human beings and displacement in the Horn of Africa the World Food Programme and smuggling of migrants, as well region. the International Organisation for as organised crime and violent Migration (IOM) in collaboration with extremism. The EU’s approach Of the previously adopted actions for other partners. to address these challenges is the Horn of Africa, over ¤410 million geographically comprehensive and have already been contracted. Ethiopia holistic, putting the region at the Among these are national projects • The programme "Leather centre of its response. On some in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Initiative for Sustainable projects, the EU is working with Sudan, Sudan and Uganda, and Employment Creation (LISEC) the regional organisation IGAD regional projects in support of the in Ethiopia" (EU Trust Fund (Intergovernmental Authority on Khartoum Process. contribution: ¤15 million) aims at Development), building on areas of creating greater economic and work in which IGAD is active, such as Djibouti decent employment opportunities, durable solutions for refugees, peace • The programme "Durable especially for young men and women and security and resilience building, solutions for host populations, through the development of the and harmonisation of national refugees and vulnerable migrants" Ethiopian leather industry and the policies and strategies. (EU Trust Fund contribution: ¤15 Modjo leather industrial park. This million) aims at supporting the programme proposes a new vision In December 2017, the Operational government to help manage the towards inclusive and sustainable Committee of the EU Trust Fund effects of increased mixed migration industrial development that protects for Africa adopted a new set of 13 flows. Support will be provided in the environment and supports social programmes worth ¤174.4 million the sectors particularly affected, inclusion. The programme will be for the Horn of Africa region. such as social security, healthcare implemented by the United Nations and sanitation, as well as to protect Industrial Development Organization This new package complements all vulnerable children, and to enable (UNIDO), the Industrial Parks 40 previously adopted actions the national office for refugees Development Corporation (IPDC)

Figure 13: Horn of Africa funding and projects under the EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa

Source: European Commission (2018) https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafrica/region/horn-africa_en

32 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

and by a partnership of national of the severe drought affecting daily school meals throughout the and international non-governmental northern Somalia and to strengthen academic year. The programme will organisations. the resilience of the most be implemented by UNICEF and the affected communities in northern World Food Programme. • The programme "Stimulating Somalia. This project will achieve economic opportunities and this by scaling-upthe current • The programme "South Sudan job creation for refugees and RESTOREproject through cash Rural Development: Strengthening host communities in Ethiopia in transfers, construction of productive Smallholders' Resilience – SORUDEV support of the Comprehensive infrastructure and assets and SSR" (EU Trust Fund contribution: Refugee Response Framework capacity building of local authorities ¤7 million) aims at contributing (CRRF) in Ethiopia" (EU Trust Fund and communities. The programme to strengthening resilience of contribution: ¤20 million) aims will be implemented by NGOs and communities, improving governance at supporting the implementation the FAO. and conflict prevention and reducing of the Comprehensive Refugee forced displacement due to loss of Response Framework (CRRF) to • The programme "Enhancing livelihoods. Its specific objectives shift from a 'care and maintenance' security and the rule of law are to improve food security of or camp-based model of refugee in Somalia" (EU Trust Fund rural smallholders in Greater Bahr assistance to an approach, which contribution: ¤40 million) aims at el Ghazal and to empower them to emphasises refugee self-reliance, increasing the presence and efficacy cope with environmental volatility refugee mobility in-country and the of police throughout the Federal and insecurity. The programme will integration of refugees into regional Member States whilst at the same be implemented by FAO. and national development processes. time connecting this increased law The programme will be implemented enforcement to a more accessible, • The "Technical Cooperation by UNHCR, the World Bank and reliable and competent justice Facility for South Sudan 2018- organisations with experience in provision. The primary beneficiaries 2020" (EU Trust Fund contribution: private sector development. will be those individuals who are ¤2 million) aims at contributing or who will become police officers to an efficient and effective use • The programme "Shire and/or judiciary personnel as well of the development funds the Alliance: Energy Access for Host as those who will benefit from the EU implements in South Sudan, Communities and Refugees increased law enforcement and focusing also on the transition and/ in Ethiopia" (EU Trust Fund access to justice. The programme or complementarity between the contribution: ¤3.05 million) aims will be implemented by the UN's humanitarian response and the atimproving the living conditions in multi-partner trust fund office and/or medium-long term development host and refugee communities by other UN agencies. response. creating livelihood opportunities, enhancing local capacity building South Sudan Sudan and improving access to energy • The programme "Education in • The programme "Fostering services. The beneficiaries are Emergency Programme in Four Smallholder Capacities and Access around 40 000 members of the Former States in South Sudan" to Markets in Food Insecure host and refugee communities in (EU Trust Fund contribution: ¤22.4 Areas of Darfur" (EU Trust Fund and around Adi-Harush, Mai Aini million) will focus on school-age contribution: ¤8 million) aims at and Hitsats refugee camps. The children attending primary schools enhancing the food and income programme will be implemented by in South Sudan (aged 6-18), primary security of smallholder farming the Spanish Agency for International school teachers, school staff, Parent households in Darfur. Its specific Cooperation and Development Teacher Associations (PTAs) and objectives are to: i) Increase (AECID). the education system in general household food availability by in the former four states Northern reducing pre-farm gate losses; ii) Somalia Bahr el Ghazal (NBEG), Western Empower smallholders to sell surplus • The programme "Building Bahr el Ghazal (WBeG), Warrap grain at higher prices; iii) Strengthen Resilience in Northern Somalia and Eastern Equatoria. It aims at capacity of smallholders and farmer's - RESTORE 2" (EU Trust Fund improving access to quality learning groups to access markets and value contribution: EUR 13.5 million) opportunities for 75 000 children, chains. Approximately 65 000 aims at addressing the impact including by providing them with farmers are to be reached by the

33 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Action, which will target South, West and other vulnerable migrants At the 2010 International Forum and Central Darfur States. It aims to and 3) the improvement of the for Rural Development in Somalia, develop and test a model that can referral system. The project will be representatives of the diaspora, be amended and replicated across implemented by Danish Red Cross government, development agencies the range of contexts that exist for and the International Organisation and academia initiated a dialogue to smallholder farmers in Darfur. The for Migration (IOM). outline priorities and opportunities programme will be implemented by for joint action to promote local the World Food Programme. Uganda: development. • The programme "RISE – • The programme "Integrated Response to increased demand on The innovative approach designed Measures to promote rural-urban Government Service and creation of for Enhancing Food Security in the value addition and Employment economic opportunities in Uganda" Horn of Africa through Diaspora (IMPROVE-EU)" (EU Trust Fund (EU Trust Fund contribution: ¤20 Investment in Agriculture builds on contribution: ¤8 million) aims at million) aims at strengthening the Somalia Forum initiative. The contributing to improved livelihoods the abilities of local authorities to project is implemented by a Dutch of refugees, migrant workers and cater for refugee populations in NGO, the Business in Development host communities in Eastern Sudan. planning social service provision (BiD) Network Foundation, in Its specific objectives are (1) to in their areas (e.g. access to water partnership with Shuraako, an increase farmers' incomes; (2) to services and education), hence American NGO with field offices in provide viable solutions to adapt supporting Uganda in implementing Somalia. farming systems to markets and to the Comprehensive Refugee Response climate variability; (3) to provide Framework (CRRF) and supporting Project objectives are to: farmers with new techniques to Refugee and Host Population increase their production. The action Empowerment (ReHope). Its specific • Promote pro-poor investment will address 1,600 farmer households objectives are 1) to strengthen mechanisms in rural areas and around 30 high potential small local authorities' coordination and medium local enterprises and development & contingency • Build diaspora capacity and working in the selected value chains planning, as well as local authority- promote the transformation of will be engaged in project activities. led service delivery to refugees diaspora into agents of development The project will be implemented by and the host populations and 2) to GIZ, the German Corporation for increase economic self-reliance of • Promote strategies connecting the International Cooperation (GmbH). refugees and host populations. The diaspora with private, civil society programme will be implemented by and public stakeholders in Somalia. • The programme "PROTECT – GIZ and civil society organisations. Protection of Persons of Concern Project activities started in 2014, and vulnerable migrants along Enhancing Food Security in the with the creation of the Somalia migratory routes in Sudan" (EU Horn of Africa through Diaspora AgriFood Fund (somaliagrifood. Trust Fund contribution: ¤4 million) Investment in Agriculture “Somali org), a matching seed capital fund aims at contributing to improve the AgriFood Fund”45 - IFAD that aims at providing incentives to management of mixed migration facilitate diaspora investments into flows in Sudan. Its specific objective Total project cost: US$1.55 million. the Somali agriculture, fisheries or is to improve the protection of Recognizing the critical role played food processing sectors. Persons of Concern, including by migrant workers in sustaining refugees, returnees, stateless livelihoods, IFAD engaged in policy The AgriFood Fund supports people, internally displaced people dialogue with the Government of investment projects that can range and asylum-seekers, and other Somalia, one of the most severely from US$20,000 toUS$250,000 vulnerable migrants along the conflict-stricken countries in the through a 40%contribution. The Northern migration route through 1) Near East and North Africa region. remaining 60% are financed by improved access to assistance and Somalia is estimated to receive over the business owner cash or in-kind protection, 2) enhancing the capacity US$1.3 billion annually in remittances, contribution (20%) and by external of police and judiciary to respond exceeding official aid to the country. capital, of which at least one third to the needs of Persons of Concern (or 20%of the total project cost) is (PoC), including asylum seekers to be financed by the diaspora. The

34 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

leverage ratio of the US$673,000 Somali Investment Survey, which Farmer Field Schools were fund is expected to be 3.4 to 1, or a was carried out by Shuraako in2015. established to train 1,031 crop and total investment of US$2.28 million. It was responded by close to 1,000 livestock farmers (pastoralists) Shuraako is the Fund Manager participants in 33 countries. Most on soil and water management, and is responsible for advertising respondents regard investment rainwater harvesting for plant use, the fund, screening applications, as a way to prepare their return yields assessments, post-harvest carrying out due diligence on eligible to Somalia. The survey provides management, land-use planning businesses prior to submission to the useful information as to factors that and range and infrastructure Investment Committee, channelling would facilitate diaspora investment, management. 120 community animal funds to recipients and monitoring including evidence of profitability, health workers (CAHWs) were implementation. a transparent and enforceable also trained on management and contract and risk mitigation. IFAD is treatment of livestock diseases. By January 2016, 199 candidates now planning to finance a follow-up Provision of improved seeds: had applied to the AgriFood Fund phase, which will aim at upscaling 21 communities in Afgoye and and six business owners had been good achievements by building husamareb were supported with awarded financing for a total of US the capacities of Somali public and high-quality seeds for crop and $435,600. The approved business private institutions to provide the forage production. Each of the plans involve 8 diaspora investors, diaspora with the services they need targeted 600 farmers (360 female of which 2 are women. These are to invest into Somali SMEs and 240 men) in Afgoye received all originating from the region they 12kg of maize. The forage seeds invest in and are contributing 40% to Oxfam Support for Resilience: were sown on communal range lands 60% of investment. The 6 awarded Food Security and Private Sector where water-harvesting structures agri-businesses are expected to Development in Somalia and South had been established, which helped generate 196 new jobs and to Sudan46 to improve the ground cover by 70%. open new market outlets for about Extension of irrigation system to new 15,000 small-scale producers in the Working with the national areas: This involved the rehabilitation agriculture and fisheries sectors. government, Oxfam’s Fisheries of 14 canals in Afgoye, increasing In the third investment round, the Project strengthened the fisheries the irrigable area by 15,458 hectares AgriFood Fund, contribution was sector in Somaliland and Puntland, which, in turn, is expected to brought down to 20% and applicants and influenced improvement of increase crop production by 300%. were Putin contact with partner policies, legislation, and institutional This activity benefited 14,180 people Somali banks to complete financing. structures and processes to support through cash for work and was The project has demonstrated the fisheries sector at national deliberately scheduled during the that it is possible to attract and local levels, alongside the lean season in order to additionally diaspora investment into Somali private sector. The project has support the farmers to access basic agribusinesses and to generate implemented a quality system for household needs. employment and revenues through the fisheries sector called FIQAEC diaspora resources. Furthermore, (Fish Inspection, Quality Assurance All work norms were based on a it has raised interest from the & Export Certification) to govern fish minimum expenditure basket. national financial sector (local banks handling, transportation, industrial and micro-finance institutions) to processing, storage and export of Rehabilitation of roads and develop activities aiming at diaspora fish and fisheries products. degraded landscapes: Oxfam also investment into the local economy. supported the rehabilitation of 10km This will however require improved Oxfam and partners supported of strategic feeder roads and the banks ‘compliance with international farmers through capacity-building clearance of invasive weed through banking standards. on good agronomic and livestock lean-season cash for work, benefiting management practices, provision of 764 people (207 women and 557 The creation of the Somali Banking improved seeds, extending irrigation men). This opened up land for forage Association, which was facilitated by systems to new areas, rehabilitation establishment. The communities Shuraako, constitutes a first step in of degraded landscapes and were encouraged to use the weed this direction. Diaspora’s interest in supporting community animal health for cooking purposes as a way of contributing to the Somali economy workers. controlling it and reducing pressure was further confirmed by the online on other useful tree species.

35 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Rehabilitation of Markets: This still being used today and seven for humanitarian aid had secured activity was identified as one of the women’s farming groups in Terekeka. funding for emergency response and priorities by the community and recovery in South Sudan. local authorities due to its economic Cordaid approach in South Sudan – significance to the local population. PRO-ACT47 Cordaid purposely, after assessment This was done in two markets, of the needs and gaps in Upper Burao and Adaado. This included Since December 2015, Cordaid has Nile, selected Fashoda and construction of market sheds, market been implementing the EU funded Malakal counties, where it could information boards, and watering PRO-ACT project with the aim contribute significantly to life saving troughs for animals. A fence was also of enhancing food security and interventions, quick recovery and erected to control and manage safe resilience of communities in selected continue support on long term movement of animals. counties of Upper Nile region resilience building and development (Malakal, Fashoda, Manyo counties). actions. In these counties Cordaid Strategic road rehabilitation: The has been implementing the PRO-ACT clearance and rehabilitation of Understanding the volatile and project since December 2015, but all strategic roads that connect villages unstable situation in Upper Nile, one the efforts were gone as a result of to markets was completed, thus of the key implementation strategies the 2017 conflict in Fashoda county improving access and lowering of Cordaid is adaptive management and Wau Shiluk town. However, transport costs of moving goods and of interventions and projects by Cordaid exerted its full effort to services to and from the markets. ensuring linkage between relief, bridge the emergency needs of rehabilitation and development hunger and loss of livelihood assets Oxfam is working with communities (LRRD), whilst most agencies with the renewed interventions of in South Sudan to find innovative including donors and international the PRO-ACT resilience project ways to address the root causes of organizations in South Sudan are to enable communities to recover livelihood insecurity, by enabling focusing on emergency response as quickly and bounce back from the people to meet their basic needs, stand-alone and neglect the need for shocks. and to sustainably improve their development and resilience support quality of life. for the people. Of the targeted households 1,522 were PRO-ACT project beneficiary Increased food production and As long as disaster risks, related to households. They received access to markets: Oxfam has both natural hazards and conflicts, unconditional or conditional cash distributed farming tools and seeds are not being addressed through transfers to increase their income to promote cultivation, and worked resilience building programming, it sources and reduce negative coping with farmers to ensure that efficient will be difficult to achieve poverty mechanisms such as selling livelihood farming methods are used and reduction, social equity, and assets and cutting trees for charcoal that markets are accessible. Oxfam sustainable development. However, production. With the conditional has also supported farmer group resilience and development cash transfer, beneficiaries engaged meetings, and used the time and achievements from support provided in rehabilitation and reconstruction space to not only discuss produce, to the most vulnerable people can of community assets that were but also issues that affect the also be (partly) destroyed again by destroyed by the conflict. Their community on a daily basis, such as a natural or human induced disaster, activities included restoring basic peace, the economy and governance. like the conflict of early 2017. infrastructure and local market places, cleaning feeder roads, Microfinance: We have conducted People had to run without their cleaning a hospital, health centres, business training and provided cash belongings, except the cash savings schools and airstrips, repairing water grants to community members from their Village Saving and points and removing conflict debris. as capital to start businesses Lending Associations. Cordaid’s Moreover, the most vulnerable and cooperatives. They include pioneering approach of LRRD households have received fishing kits fishing and farming groups, as through linking emergency response for immediate access to nutritious well as entrepreneurs. Oxfam has with resilience programming (the food consumption and agricultural supported five fishing groups with PRO-ACT project) is in action in inputs such as tools and seeds to capital and business training to set Upper Nile region. Cordaid through begin crop cultivation. up cooperative models that are a Dutch public appeal campaign

36 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

About 50% of the PRO-ACT beneficiaries in Malakal (Lelo and Ogot payams) and Fashoda counties (Kodok town, Kodok rural, Lul and Dethwok payams) have benefited from LRRD activities, whilst also in Manyo county 400 households participated in the cash for work programme. The LRRD approach has greatly supported the target communities to bounce back to normality and smoothly participate again in the PRO-ACT project, without worrying for daily income and reverting to negative coping strategies.

37 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

The way forward

Addressing fragility is not just a specific approach. Agriculture important to monitor and to predict matter of responding to political or must play a central part in boosting crisis and disaster risks and their economic pressures – it is central to fragile countries’ economies and likelihood of occurrence and effects the achievement of the global Agenda alleviating poverty (World Bank as much as possible on agriculture 2030 on Sustainable Development. and FAO). Many factors (weak sectors. Such risk monitoring must The Sustainable Development Goals institutions, insecurity, a persistent be coupled with timely alerts to (SDGs) emphasise the risks of violence insurgency, destroyed infrastructure, trigger accurate decision-making at to human security as well as to global environmental degradation and institutional and community levels. peace and security. Understanding the climate change) contribute to severe role of violence and fragility is crucial decrease in crop yields. Investing Reducing the root causes of to realisation of the SDGs. SDG 16 in more in agriculture50 would ensure vulnerabilities of individuals and particular aims to course-correct for moving from emergency to resilience communities with livelihoods the evidence that a far greater number and long-term development. depending on crop, livestock, fish, of people are exposed to violence trees and other renewable resources than ever before and, as a foundation There is a need to mitigate risks is fundamental. Crisis and disaster risk for all other SDGs, that sustainable to the population by investing in protection, prevention and impact development can only thrive where local capacities for early warning, mitigation through the application of there is security.48 preparedness and response. risk sensitive technologies and good Coherence between humanitarian and practices, risk transfer and social In addition to risk factors arising development strategic frameworks protection are crucial to strengthen from conflict or violence, rural as well as donor’s coordination still agriculture livelihoods and lessen, or producers and smallholder farmers are needs improvement.51 Development even cancel the effects of a potential additionally vulnerable to economic partners need to agree on shock on them and enable them to shocks and market fluctuations, as approaches driven by national bounce back better.52 well as to environmental risks related strategies and based on harmonized to climate, pollution, and proximity needs assessment and planning. National ownership and international and exposure to natural disasters. Linked to this is the need to identify commitment are needed to reduce Beyond the national boundaries, the funding solutions that will enable fragility fragile states have untapped effects of fragility have increasingly flexible, rapid and predictable funding opportunities to pursue development. spread regionally and internationally, for countries emerging from crisis. Capitalising on them will require notably in respect to migration and national ownership, international refugee flows moving away from areas Smallholder farmers are among the commitment and innovation.53 affected by conflict, violence and most vulnerable to climate shocks other factors of fragility. “Population and weather-related disasters, poor Donor coordination remains movements not only demonstrate the governance, conflicts and market necessary (ODI). A big part of the complex risk landscape in conflict- fluctuations. Access to inputs and problem with donor coordination in affected areas, they have also created knowledge, ICTs to quickly share fragile states contexts is that foreign, new dynamics, including deepening information and extension/advisory military, and political objectives fragility, with global political services will contribute to the coexist with developmental ones, repercussions”.49 This has been felt resilience of agricultural livelihoods. which makes it much more difficult in Europe over the last couple of Appropriate and enabling policies, for donors to agree on a common years, where the political landscape institutional structures, capacities and platform or set of interventions. has been significantly affected by the finances for disaster risk reduction and Despite the fact that, over time, influx of populations from countries crisis management must be in place there has been a considerable affected by conflict, violence, or other at local, national, regional and global accumulation of lessons regarding characteristics of fragility. levels to reduce increasing levels of state-building interventions, very threats from multiple types of shocks often these lessons are simply not Working effectively in fragile states affecting the agriculture sectors learned or shared across countries requires a long-term, context- and related food security. It is also and among donors.

38 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries ANNEX Glossary54

Accountability. The ability of “inclusive enough” when they involve Dietary energy intake. The energy institutions to be responsive to the parties necessary to restore content of food consumed. citizens, including abiding by their confidence and transform institutions aggregated preferences, disclosing and help create continued Dietary energy supply (DES). Food necessary information, permitting momentum for positive change; and available for human consumption, citizen participation in decision- when there is local legitimacy for expressed in kilocalories per person making, and allowing for citizen excluding some groups—for example per day (kcal/person/day). At sanction of public officials on the because of electoral gains, or country level, it is calculated as the basis of publicly recognized norms because groups or individuals have food remaining for human use after and procedures. been involved in abuses. deduction of all non-food utilizations (i.e. food = production + imports Anthropometry. Use of human body Commitment mechanisms. Ways + stock withdrawals - exports - measurements to obtain information to persuade stakeholders that industrial use - animal feed – seed about nutritional status. intentions to break with past policies – wastage - additions to stock). will not be reversed, including Wastage includes loss of usable Body mass index (BMI). The ratio of creating independent functions products occurring along distribution weight for height, measured as the for implementing or monitoring chains from farm gate (or port of weight in kilograms divided by the agreements. import) up to retail level. square of height in metres. Confidence. Trust between groups Expectations. The way people Capacity. The ability of institutions of citizens who have been divided make judgments about the future to carry out their core functions by violence, between citizens and and how it will affect them, their efficiently and effectively. the state, and between the state families, and their communities. In and other stakeholders (neighbours, situations where a track record of When states lack this capacity, they international partners, investors). violence has created low trust, both cannot mitigate stresses that might excessively low and excessively high induce organized violence. Conflict. Conflict as used in this expectations can create problems for report is defined as struggles government policy. Citizen security. Both freedom between interdependent groups from physical violence and freedom that have either actual or perceived Elite pacts. Formal or informal from fear of violence. Applied to incompatibilities with respect to agreements by the holders of the lives of all members of a society needs, values, goals, resources or political, military, or economic power. (whether nationals of the country or intentions. This definition includes These agreements, often enforced otherwise), it encompasses security (but is broader than) armed conflict through coercion and patronage, are at home, in the workplace, and – that is organized collective violent typically “personalized,” based on in political, social, and economic confrontations between at least two individual agreements. Throughout interactions with the state and groups, either state or non-state history the key motivating factor other members of society. Similar actors in forming an elite pact has been to human security, “citizen security” the wish to contain violence and to places people at the centre of efforts Conflict sensitivity. Conflict sensitivity secure the property and economic to prevent and recover from violence. means to study the profile, causes, interests and opportunities of pact actors and dynamics of conflict and members. The Report argues that Collaborative, inclusive-enough the interaction between these and the elite pacts can provide short term coalitions. Unlike elite pacts, proposed intervention. In the context security but that violence often these coalitions involve broader of sustaining peace, this means recurs unless the pact broadens segments of society—local maximizing positive impacts toward and is accompanied by institutional governments, business, labour, civil peace while minimizing negative transformation. society movements, in some cases impacts, including potentially creating opposition parties. Coalitions are so-called future hazards.

39 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Food insecurity. A situation that vulnerable to violence. Research for responsibilities that international law exists when people lack secure access the Report reinforces the close link view as the responsibility of states). to sufficient amounts of safe and between institutional fragility and the nutritious food for normal growth risk of conflict. Macronutrients. Here refers to the and development and an active and proteins, carbohydrates and fats healthy life. It may be caused by Hunger. In this report, the term available to be used for energy; unavailability of food, insufficient hunger is synonymous with chronic measured in grams. purchasing power, inappropriate undernourishment. distribution or inadequate use of Malnutrition. An abnormal food at the household level. Food Institutions. The formal and physiological condition caused by insecurity, poor conditions of health informal “rules of the game.” They inadequate, unbalanced or excessive and sanitation and inappropriate care include formal rules, written laws, consumption of macronutrients and feeding practices are the major organizations, informal norms of and/or micronutrients. Malnutrition causes of poor nutritional status. behaviour and shared beliefs—and includes undernutrition and over Food insecurity may be chronic, the organizational forms that exist nutrition as well as micronutrient seasonal or transitory. to implement and enforce these deficiencies. norms (both state and non-state Food security. A situation that exists organizations). Institutions shape the Micronutrients. Vitamins, minerals and when all people, at all times, have interests, incentives, and behaviours other substances that are required by physical, social and economic access that can facilitate violence. Unlike elite the body in small amounts; measured to sufficient, safe and nutritious food pacts, institutions are impersonal— in milligrams or micrograms. that meets their dietary needs and they continue to function irrespective food preferences for an active and of the presence of particular leaders, Nutrition security. A situation healthy life. Based on this definition, and thus provide greater guarantees that exists when secure access to four food security dimensions can be of sustained resilience to violence. an appropriately nutritious diet is identified: food availability, economic Institutions operate at all levels of coupled with a sanitary environment, and physical access to food, food society—local, national, regional, and adequate health services and care, utilization and stability over time. global. in order to ensure a healthy and active life for all household members. Fragility. Fragility is defined as the Kilocalorie (kcal). A unit of Nutrition security differs from food combination of exposure to risk measurement of energy. One security in that it also considers the and insufficient coping capacities kilocalorie equals 1 000 calories. In aspects of adequate caring practices, of the state, system and/or the International System of Units health and hygiene in addition to communities to manage absorb or (SI), the universal unit of energy is dietary adequacy. mitigate those risks. The new OECD the joule (J). One kilocalorie = 4.184 fragility framework is built on five kilojoules (kJ). Nutrition-sensitive intervention. dimensions of fragility – economic, Interventions designed to address environmental, political, societal, Legitimacy. Normatively, this the underlying determinants of and security – and measures each term denotes a broad-based belief nutrition (which include household through the accumulation and that social, economic, or political food security, care for mothers and combination of risks and capacity. arrangements and outcomes are children and primary healthcare See OECD. 2016. States of Fragility proper and just. The concept is services and sanitation) but not 2016: Understanding Violence. typically applied to institutions. necessarily having nutrition as the Paris. Available at www.oecd. Legitimacy is acquired by building predominant goal. org/dac/states-of-fragility-2016- trust and confidence among various 9789264267213-en.htm parties. Forms of legitimacy include Nutritional status. The physiological process legitimacy (which relates state of an individual that results from Fragility and fragile situations. to the way in which decisions are the relationship between nutrient Periods when states or institutions made), performance legitimacy intake and requirements and from the lack the capacity, accountability, (which relates to action, including body’s ability to digest, absorb and or legitimacy to mediate relations the delivery of public goods), and use these nutrients. between citizen groups and between international legitimacy (which citizens and the state, making them relates to the discharge of values and

40 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Organized violence. The use or Repeated cycles of violence. Transition moments. Events that threat of physical force by groups. Countries or subnational areas that make new efforts to prevent or Includes state actions against have seen more than one episode of recover from violence possible. other states or against civilians, organized violence for 20–30 years. These can involve space for civil wars, electoral violence deep and wide-ranging change between opposing sides, communal Sequencing and prioritizing reforms. (for example, the end of a war, conflicts based on regional, ethnic, Deciding on the type and scope of a deep national crisis, a change religious or other group identities changes societies will make first, in government after one party or competing economic interests, those that will be addressed later, has been in power many years) gang-based violence and organized and the timeframes for achieving or more limited change (a new crime and international non-state change. governmental reform plan or shift in armed movements with ideological key appointments, negotiations or aims. While an important topic Stresses. The political, social, coalition-building between different for development, we do not cover security, or economic risks that actors in society, events that spur domestic or interpersonal violence. correlate with organized violence. reflection in society such as riots, At times we refer to violence Violence is more likely when a military defeats, natural disasters, or or conflict as a short-hand for combination of stresses operate key political anniversaries). organized violence, understood in in an environment characterized these terms. Many countries address by weak institutions. Stresses can Undernutrition. The outcome of certain forms of violence, such as be internal—within the potential poor nutritional intake in terms of terrorist attacks by non-state armed capacity of an individual state to quantity and/or quality and/or poor movements, as matters that are control—or external, emanating from absorption and/or poor biological subject to their criminal laws. regional or global dynamics. use of nutrients consumed as a result of repeated disease. It includes being Over nutrition. A result of excessive Stunting. Low height for age, underweight for one’s age, too short food intake relative to dietary reflecting a past episode or episodes for one’s age (stunted), dangerously nutrient requirements. of sustained undernutrition. thin for one’s height (wasted) and In children under five years of deficient in vitamins and minerals Overweight and obesity. Body age, stunting is defined height- (micronutrient malnutrition). weight that is above normal for for-age less than –2 standard height as a result of an excessive deviations below the WHO Underweight. In adults, underweight accumulation of fat. It is usually a Child Growth Standards median. is defined as a BMI of less than manifestation of expending fewer Undernourishment. A state, 18.5, reflecting a current condition calories than are consumed. In lasting for at least one year, of resulting from inadequate adults, overweight is defined as a inability to acquire enough food, food intake, past episodes of BMI of more than 25 but less than defined as a level of food intake undernutrition or poor health 30, and obesity as a BMI of 30 or insufficient to meet dietary energy conditions. In children under five more. In children under five years of requirements. For the purposes of years of age, underweight is defined age, overweight is defined weight- this report, hunger was defined as as weight-for-age less than –2 for-height greater than 2 standard being synonymous with chronic standard deviations below the WHO deviations above the WHO Child undernourishment. Child Growth Standards median, and Growth Standards median, and is thus a manifestation of low height obesity as weight-for-height greater Transforming institutions. for age and/or low weight for height. than 3 standard deviations above Developing over time “rules of the the WHO Child Growth Standards game” that increase resilience to Wasting. Low weight for height, median. risks of violence, including laws, generally the result of weight loss organizations, norms of behaviour, associated with a recent period of Pragmatic, best-fit approaches. and shared beliefs that ensure inadequate caloric intake and/or Programs, institutions and reforms that the benefits from individuals disease. In children under five years that are not technically the lowest- choosing to act peacefully and of age, wasting is defined as weight- cost option for achieving outcomes, lawfully exceed the costs. for-height less than –2 standard but are adapted to local political, deviations below the WHO Child. security, and institutional realities. Growth Standards median.

41 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Acronyms

CEA Country Environmental Assessments COST Cooperation in the field of scientific and technical research CFT combating the financing of terrorism

ACLED Armed Conflict Location & Event Data CILSS Comité permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel, ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific group Permanent Interstates Committee for of states Drought Control in the Sahel

ADF African Development Fund CMAW Creating Markets Advisory Window

ADF-13 Thirteenth Replenishment of the CMU country management unit African Development Fund CODE Committee for Development AF additional financing Effectiveness

AfDB African Development Bank CPF Country Partnership Framework

AGIR Alliance Globale pour l'Initiative CPIA Country Policy and Institutional Résilience-Sahel; Global Alliance for Assessment the Sahel Resilience Initiative CPP Country Programming Paper ALSF African Legal Support Facility CRFA Country Resilience Fragility AML anti-money laundering Assessment

ANRC African Natural Resources Center CRP Country Resilience Priorities

ASA Advisory Services and Analytics CSO Civil Society Organization

ASP Adaptive Social Protection CSP Country Strategy Paper

AU African Union DCI Development Cooperation Instrument

BS Budget Support DEC Development Economics Vice Presidency CAADP Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme DEVCO European Commission Directorate- General for International Cooperation CAT Bond catastrophe bond and Development

CAT DDO Catastrophe Deferred Draw-Down DFi Development Finance (Vice Option Presidency)

CCSA Cross Cutting Solution Areas DfID Department for International Development in the UK CDC Community Development Council DG Directorate General CDD Community driven development DIB development impact bond

42 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

DNA Damage and Needs Assessment ESW Economic and Sector Work

DNPGCCA Dispositif National de Prévention et EU European Union de Gestion des Catastrophes et des Crises Alimentaires/ National Device EUD European Union Delegation for Prevention and Management of Disaster and Food Crises EUTF European Union Emergency Trust Fund for Africa DNSA Dispositif National de Sécurité Alimentaire/ National Food Security EWS Nutrition Early Warning System Management System FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of DPF Development Policy Financing the United Nations

DPG Development Policy Grant FCS fragile and conflict-affected situations

DPL Development Policy Loan FCV fragility, conflict, and violence

DPO Development Policy Operation FF Food Facility

DRM Disaster Risk Mitigation FIL Financial Intermediary Loan

DRR Disaster Risk Reduction FSF Fragile States Facility

EC European Commission GBS General Budget Support

ECD early childhood development GBV gender-based violence

ECHO European Commission Humanitarian GCFF Global Concessional Financing Facility aid and Civil Protection department GCMP Global Crisis Risk Management ECOWAP ECOWAS Agricultural Policy Platform

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African GDP Gross Domestic Product States GEF Global Environment Facility EDE Ending Drought Emergencies GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction EDF European Development Fund and Recovery

EEAS European External Action Service GIF Global Infrastructure Facility

EITI Extractive Industries Transparency GIS geographic information system Initiative GP Global Practice EM emerging market GPSA Global Partnership for Social EMDE Emerging Markets and Developing Accountability Economies HCI3N Haut Commissariat à l’Initative 3N: les EQ Evaluation Question Nigériens Nourrissent les Nigériens / High Commission to the 3N Initiative : ERA education resilience approach Nigerians Feed Nigerians

43 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

HDP Humanitarian-development-peace IPC Integrated Food Security Phase Classification HEA Household Economy Analysis IT Information Technology HH Household JC Judgement Criteria HIP Humanitarian Indicative Plan JHDF Joint Humanitarian Development HLPFS High Level Panel on Fragile States Framework

IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction LRRD Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and and Development Development

ICGLR International Conference on the Great MDBs Multilateral Development Banks Lakes Region MDGs Millennium Development Goals ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross MDRI Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative

ICSP Interim Country Strategy Paper MDTF Multi-Donor Trust Fund

IcSP Instrument contributing to Stability MS Member States and Peace NDMA National Drought Management ICT Information and communication Authority technology NGO Non-Governmental Organization IDA International Development Association NIP National Indicative Plan IDA18 [most recent 3-year IDA budget period, July 1, 2017 to June 30, 2020] NTF Nigeria Trust Fund

IDDRSI IGAD Drought Disaster Resilience ODA Official Development Assistance Sustainability Initiative OECD Organisation for Economic Co- IDP internally displaced person operation and Development

IDPS International Dialogue on Peace- P4P Purchase for Progress Programme building and State-Building (World Food Programme)

IDS In-depth studies PBA Performance-Based Allocation

IFC International Finance Corporation PBO Program-Based Operations

IFIs International Financial Institutions PFM Public Financial Management

IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on PRIME Pastoral Resilience Improvement and Development Marketing Programme

IMF International Monetary Fund PRORESA Programme de renforcement de la sécurité alimentaire au Mali/ INCAF International Network on Conflict and Programme for strenghtening of food Fragility security in Mali

44 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

PRP Priorités Resilience Pays/ Country UA Unit of Account Resilience Priorities UK United Kingdom PSD Private Sector Development UN United Nations PSNP Productive Safety Net Programme in Ethiopia UNDP United Nations Development Programme RAP Resilience Action Plan UNECA United Nations Economic Commission RAU Resilience Analysis Unit for Africa

REC Regional Economic Community UNICEF United Nations Children's Emergency Fund RESET Resilience building programme in Ethiopia US United States

RIMA Resilience Index Measurement and USAID United States Agency for International Analysis Model Development

RMC Regional Member Country WFP World Food Programme

RPCA Réseau de prévention des crises alimentaires/ Food Crises Prevention Network

SBS Sector Budget Support

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

SEEFS 2008 AfDB Strategy for Enhanced Engagement in Fragile States

SHARE Supporting the Horn of Africa's Resilience

SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises

SomRep Somalia Resilience Programme

SUN Scaling Up Nutrition

SWAC Sahel and West Africa Club

TANGO Technical Assistance to NGOs

TF Trust Fund

ToC Theory of Change

ToR Terms of Reference

TYS AfDB Ten Year Strategy 2013–2022

45 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

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Re-examining Improving European coordination in disaster risk reduction Tackling disasters Reform of Economic Institutions fragile states : Executive summary. in fragile and conflict-affected contexts. in Post-Conflict Contexts (April 16, https://www.afd.fr/sites/afd/ ODI, 2017 https://www.odi.org/sites/odi. 2018). Development Policy Centre files/2017-11/rapport-improving- org.uk/files/resource-documents/11808. Discussion Paper No. 68. https://ssrn. european-coordination-in-fragile-states. pdf com/abstract=3163933 http://dx.doi. pdf org/10.2139/ssrn.3163933

49 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Putzel, James and Di John (2012) World Food Programme (WFP) (2016). Meeting the challenges of Crisis Emergency food security analysis, May States Research Centre at the London 2016. http://www.fao.org/3/a-c0335e.pdf School of Economics and Political World Economic Forum (2014) The Role Science. 2012 http://www.lse.ac.uk/ of the Private sector in Fragile States: internationalDevelopment/research/ Catalyzing Investment for Security and crisisStates/download/finalreport/ Development http://www3.weforum. Meeting-the-Challenges-Executive- org/docs/GAC14/WEF_GAC14_ Summary.pdf FragileStatesConflictPrevention_ Putzel, James (2010) Why development Report%20.pdf actors need a better definition of ‘state World Economic Forum (2012) Council, fragility’. Policy Directions, London School Network of Global Agenda Councils of Economics and Political Science, Reports 2011-2012 "New Models for Crisis States Research Centre, London, Engagement in Fragile States", May UK. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/41300/1/ 2012. http://reports.weforum.org/global- StateFragilityPD.pdf agenda-council2012/#view/global- Sabine Hiller, Dorothea Hilhorst and Bart agenda-council-2012/councils/fragile- Weijs. (2014) Value chain development in states Fragile Settings. Wageningen University http://edepot.wur.nl/342676 SalvaTerra (2015) Rapport d’étude de faisabilité du renforcement de la chaîne de valeurs sésame au Tchad www. salvaterra.fr/download/104-etude-de- faisabilite-du-renforcement-de-la-chaine- de-valeurs-sesame-au-tchad.pdf Sherriff, A. (2011) A new EU impetus on conflict and fragility, or more of the same? Part 1: institutions and evaluation, ECDPM Talking Points, European Centre for Development Policy Management, Maastricht, 2011. http://ecdpm.org/ talking-points/eu-impetus-conflict-and- fragility-institutions-evaluation/ Sherriff, A., Görtz, S. and Chitaia, M. (2012) Evaluation of Visibility of EU external action, Final Report: Thematic Report on Crisis and Fragile States, Volume 4, Evaluation for the European Commission, 2012. http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/ how/evaluation/evaluation_reports/ reports/2012/1307_vol_4_en.pdf World Food Programme (2017) Global Report on Food Crises 2017 http://www. wfp.org/content/global-report-food- crisis-2017

50 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Websites

African Development Bank - Fragility & Resilience https://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and- sectors/initiatives-partnerships/fragility- resilience/

Cordaid https://www.cordaid.org/en/

CTA (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation) www.cta.int

EUROPEAN UNION

European Commission International cooperation and development Resilience and Fragility https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/ policies/fragility-and-crisis- management_en

European Union Trust Fund for Africa https://ec.europa.eu/ trustfundforafrica/

FAO in Emergencies http://www.fao.org/emergencies/en/

OECD – Conflict, fragility and resilience http://www.oecd.org/dac/conflict- fragility-resilience/

World Bank – Fragility, Conflict & Violence http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/ fragilityconflictviolence/overview

World Food Programme – Purchase for Progress https://www.wfp.org/purchase-progress/ overview

51 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

Endnotes

1 James Putzel and Jonathan Di John. 11 International Monetary Fund (2018) In- 22 The High Representative of the Union Meeting the Challenges of Crisis ternational Monetary Fund and fragile for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy States. Crisis States Research Centre states. Evaluation report (International and the European Commission. Joint at the London School of Economics Monetary Fund. Independent Evalua- Communication to the European Par- and Political Science .2012 tion Office) ; 2018. https://www.imf. liament and the Council. A Strategic 2 OECD States of Fragility report, 2016. org/ieo/files/completedevaluations/ Approach to Resilience in the EU's ex- FS%20-%20Report%20(web).pdf ternal action. 2017. https://ec.europa. 3 The OECD has published a report eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/ on Fragile States every year since 12 World Bank (2018). joint_communication_-a_strategic_ap- 2005 to monitor aid to a list of 13 LSE-Oxford Commission on State Fra- proach_to_resilience_in_the_eus_ex- countries that are considered most gility, Growth and Development (2018) ternal_action-2017.pdf fragile. OECD (2016), States of Fra- Escaping the fragility trap. April 2018. gility 2016: Understanding Violence, https://www.theigc.org/wp-content/ 23 EU (2017) EU Approach to Building OECD Publishing, Paris https://doi. uploads/2018/04/Escaping-the-fragili- Resilience to Withstand Food Crises org/10.1787/9789264267213-en. ty-trap.pdf in African Drylands (Sahel and Horn of Africa) 2007-2015 Final Report Vol- 4 AFDB (2016) From Fragility to Re- 14 Kharas H. and Rogerson A. (2017) ume I – Main Report June 2017 https:// silience Managing Natural Resources Global development trends and Chal- ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/ in Fragile Situations in Africa Febru- lenges Horizon 2025 revisited. ODI files/evaluation_resiliencel_final_re- ary 2016. https://www.afdb.org/ Report. https://www.odi.org/sites/ port_executive_summary_eng_1.pdf fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/ odi.org.uk/files/resource-docu- Publications/From_Fragility_to_Resil- ments/11873.pdf 24 http://gfdrr.org/docs/HFA_Guide_ Words-into-Action.pdf ience_-_Managing_Natural_Resourc- 15 OECD (2016) es_in_Fragile_Situations_in_Africa.pdf 25 Towards a post-2015 framework for 16 European Commission (2015) Operat- disaster risk reduction. http://www. 5 World Bank (2018). Maximizing the ing in situations of conflict and fra- preventionweb.net/files/25129_to- Impact of the World Bank Group in gility An EU staff handbook https:// wardsapost2015frameworkfordisaste. Fragile and Conflict-Affected Situa- ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/ pdf tions. http://documents.worldbank. files/2015_staff_handbook-operating_ org/curated/en/855631522172060313/ in_situations_of_conflict_and_fragili- 26 http://blogs.oxfam.org/en/blog/09- pdf/124654-WP-PUBLIC-Maximiz- ty-web-lr-2nd_edition-all.pdf 04-21-natural-disasters-will-hurt- ingImpactLowresFINAL.pdf more-people-due-to-climate-change- 17 https://www.theigc.org/research- inequality 6 European report on development themes/state/fragility-commission/ 2009. Overcoming fragility in Africa. 27 https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/conn 18 LSE-Oxford Commission on State Fra- Forging a new European approach/ ect/5f675b004540e75a95de9dc66d gility, Growth and Development (2018) Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced 9c728b/IFC+CASA+I+Final+Report. Studies, European University Institute, 19 Dudwick, Nora, and Radhika Sriniva- pdf?MOD=AJPERES san. 2013. Creating Jobs in Africa’s San Domenico di Fiesole, 2009. 28 Sabine Hiller, Dorothea Hilhorst and Fragile States: Are Value Chains 7 OECD States of Fragility report, 2016. Bart Weijs. (2014) Value chain devel- an Answer? Directions in Devel- opment in Fragile Settings. Wagenin- 8 Carment D. and Samy Y. (2017) Exit- opment. Washington, DC: World gen University. http://edepot.wur. ing the fragility trap Rethinking our Bank. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213- nl/342676 approach to the world’s most fragile 9793-0 . License: Creative Com- states WIDER Working Paper 2017/181. mons Attribution CC BY 3.0 http:// 29 Taylor S (2013) Fragile but not help- https://www.wider.unu.edu/sites/ documents.worldbank.org/curated/ less: Scaling Up Nutrition in Fragile default/files/Publications/Working- en/112231468010012428/pdf/786810 and Conflict-Affected States. World paper/PDF/wp2017-181.pdf PUB0EPI10ox0377351B00PUBLIC00. Vision, London UK. 9 OECD (2016) pdf 30 The World Bank- IBRD-IDA. 2018 10 Fund for Peace (2018) Fragile 20 OECD. Fragile States 2013: Resource 31 The World Bank- IBRD-IDA. 2018 State Index 2018. http://fund- flows and trends in a shifting world/ 32 FAO, WFP, IFPRI. FSIN Food Security forpeace.org/fsi/wp-content/ International Network on Conflict and Information Network. Global report uploads/2018/04/951181805-Fragile- Fragility (INCAF), OECD 2012. on food crisis. 2018. http://www.fao. States-Index-Annual-Report-2018.pdf 21 More information: https://ec.europa. org/fileadmin/user_upload/fsin/docs/ eu/europeaid/policies/fragility-and- global_report/2018/GRFC_2018_Full_ crisis-management/framework- report_EN.pdf engagement-fragility-and-building- resilience_en

52 Agriculture as an engine of economic reconstruction and development in fragile countries

33 ILO (2014) Agriculture - A Case Study 40 Cordaid (2016) Responding to hu- 52 FAO. Increasing the resilience of ag- Spreading their wings: Young entre- manitarian needs in the Central- ricultural livelihoods. 2016. https:// preneurs incubate chickens and busi- African Republic. https://www.cor- reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/ ness hubs in Katanga AFDB (2016) daid.org/en/wp-content/uploads/ resources/a-i5615e.pdf From Fragility to Resilience Managing sites/11/2016/12/12045-11-Cordaid-8- 53 OECD-DAC. States of Fragility 2015 Natural Resources in Fragile Situa- pager-CAR-20165-fin-15112016.pdf Meeting Post-2015 Ambitions. https:// tions in Africa https://www.afdb.org/ 41 FAO (2017) Lake Chad Basin crisis www.oecd.org/dac/conflict-fragility- fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/ FAO Response strategy (2017–2019). resilience/docs/FINAL%20States%20 Publications/From_Fragility_to_Resil- http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7078e.pdf of%20Fragility%20Highlights%20 ience_-_Managing_Natural_Resourc- 42 UN June 2018 document.pdf es_in_Fragile_Situations_in_Africa.pdf 54 FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. Occasional paper "Value Chain Devel- 43 https://ec.europa.eu/trustfundforafri- 2017. The State of Food Security and opment in Fragile Settings" (Sabine ca/region/sahel-lake-chad_en Nutrition in the World 2017. Building Hiller, Dorothea Hilhorst, and Bart Weijs) 44 Cordaid (2017) Success Story: LRRD resilience for peace and food security. Cordaid (2015) Smallholders And Food in Action - Synergies between PRO- Rome, FAO. Security In Fragile Contexts. https:// ACT and SHO. Response https:// www.cordaid.org/en/wp-content/ europa.eu/capacity4dev/file/64628/ uploads/sites/3/2015/06/Cordaid- download?token=oKg6iWm3 Position_paper_FoodSecurity-LR.pdf 45 Magrin, Geraud Denis; Lemoalle, Jacques; Lajaunie, Marie-Laure 34 http://www.accord.org.za/conflict- (2016) The Lake Chad development trends/conflict-great-lakes-region/ and climate resilience action plan 35 Global Hunger Report, IFPRI, 2014 : Summary (English). Washington, D.C. : World Bank Group. http:// 36 UNICEF, Analyse de la malnutrition documents.worldbank.org/curated/ des enfants au Burundi, 2013 en/365391467995401917/Summary 37 ILO and ITC (2016) Agriculture – 46 http://somaliagrifood.org/ A Case Study. Spreading their wings: 47 Oxfam (2016) Oxfam in Horn, East Young entrepreneurs incubate chick- and Central Africa Annual Report ens and business hubs in Katanga. 2016 https://reliefweb.int/sites/relief- https://ecampus.itcilo.org/pluginfile. web.int/files/resources/Oxfam%20 php/33727/mod_folder/content/0/ HECA%202014-2015%20Annual%20 AGRCase%20Study1_Incubation%20 Report%20web%20version.pdf from%20Chickens%20to%20Business. pdf?forcedownload=1 48 OECD (2016) 49 OECD (2016) 38 WUR 2017. https://www.wur.nl/en/ project/Supporting-Agricultural-Pro- 50 FAO. World Bank. Rebuilding resilient ductivity-in-Burundi-PAPAB.htm and sustainable agriculture in Somalia. 2018. http://www.fao.org/3/i8842en/ 39 UN Office for the Coordination of I8842EN.pdf Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2018) 51 Centre for EU Studies (CEUS), Ghent Regional Humanitarian Outlook for University. 2017. “Improving European the Great Lakes: January - June 2018 coordination in fragile states”. Prac- https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb. titioners’ Network for European de- int/files/resources/ROSEA_180316_ velopment cooperation. Authors: Jan GLR_Humanitarian_Outlook_%28Jan- Orbie, Sarah Delputte, Yentyl Williams, Jun2018%29.pdf Lies Steurs, Joren Verschaeve. https:// www.afd.fr/sites/afd/files/2017-12/ improving-european-coordination-in- fragile-states-main-report.pdf

53 Brussels Rural Development Briefings A series of meetings on ACP-EU development issues