1st BSC

18BBO24C - CORE PAPER – III ECOLOGY AND

UNIT – V Plant geography and : Principles of plant geography – Phytogeographical regions in India. Distribution types – continuous, discontinuous and endemic. Continental drift. mapping, GIS and its application in forestry. Vegetation types - Rain , forest, forest and Scrub jungle. Minor forest produce. Agroforestry and Social forestry. Phytogeography

Topics: • Principles • History • Description of earth • Theory of tolerance • • Brief description of major terrestrial (sp. Tropical, temperate and ) • Phytogeographical divisions of India • Vegetation of Delhi

Phytogeography or plant geography deals with the geographical distribution of on earth.

Phytogeography is defined by Good (1964) as ‘that branch of botany that deals with the spatial relationships of plants both in the present and the past’. + phytogeography= geobotany

In systematics plants are grouped into taxa. In ecology…………………….into communities etc In phytogeography………..into phytochoria.

• Phytochoria are natural floristic areas that broadly correspond to climatic types, and are based on the total number of with the same concentric distribution pattern.

• A phytochorion, in phytogeography, is a geographic area with a relatively uniform composition of plant species. Adjacent phytochoria do not usually have a sharp boundary, but rather a soft one, a transitional area in which many species from both regions overlap. The region of overlap is called a vegetation tension zone.

• Earliest definition was given by Schouw (1823) he divided the earths surface into 25 kingdoms represented by geographical areas named after their most characteristic plants. • Eg Kingdom of Saxifrages and mosses (Alpine ) • Eg Kingdom of Umbelliferae and Cruciferae (Eurasia); it was further divided into provinces.

• Turrill (1959) used the term ‘realm’ instead of Kingdom.

• Good divided the earth into 6 Kingdoms and 37 regions.

Good (1947) floristic kingdoms HISTORTY: • Study is quite old. • Even gave information regarding plants in Mediterranean region. • Linnaeus and de Candolle described geographical distribution of many plants. • However the first structural approach (as a separate subject) was made by Humboldt (1817). • He is credited to be the father of phytogeography: he studied the relationship between plants and environment, both latitudinally and altitudinally. • Important contribution by Sir JD hooker too. Studied plants from different parts of the . AIMS: • To find out and record the distribution of plants in geographical regions of the world on the basis of latitudinal and longitudinal positions. • To determine the units into which the Earth can be divided on the basis of the similarity of ranges of taxa. • To name and classify these units into phytochoria. • To determine the causes which result in these ranges.

Physical geography of the earth: Layers: • Crust • Mantle (upper and lower) • Core (outer and inner)

• Core (3500kms) is the densest. It is mainly metallic iron with some nickel and other elements. • Core is surrounded by mantle (2900kms). • Crust is topmost (50kms). Divided into continental (granite rock) and oceanic crust (Basalt rock) • Granite rock (light)- Silica + aluminum (sial) • Basalt rock/felsic rock (dark)- Silica + Magnesium • Granite rock is less dense than basalt hence continental platforms float over the oceanic crust. • Lithosphere includes crust and top portion of mantle. • The line of separation between crust and mantle is called MOHO or mohorovicic discontinuity (after the seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic) CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

Natural Vegetation and Wild life What is Natural Vegetation

• Natural Vegetation are plants that would grow in an area in the absence of human influence

• Different types of natural vegetation grow in different climates and soil conditions What is ?

• Very large area on land having distinct type of vegetation and animal life because of similar climatic condition Eco systEm

• A BIOLOGICAL OF INTERACTING LIVING THINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT • IT INCLUDE • 1)BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY • 2) PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT FAcoRs AFFEctING NAtURAL VEGEtAIoN

• RELIEF • LAND • SOIL • CLIMATE • TEMPERATURE • PRECIPITATION • SUNLIGHT

• LATITUDE AND ALTITUDE NAtURAL IN INDIA

• Grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a cover. • are classified into üTropical forests/ Rain forest üTropical deciduous forests/Monsoon forest üTropical Thorn forest and Scrubs üMountane forest üMangrove forest NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA Tropical evergreen forests

• Occur in the regions near the equator. Also called tropical rain forests. • Hard like rosewood, ebony, mahogany, etc are common. • Forests remain evergreen. Tropical deciduous forests

ØAlso called monsoon forests ØTrees shed their altogether in dry to conserve water ØTrees found are hardwood trees like sal, teak, neem and shisham ØAnimals are tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and monkeys Tropical thorn forest and scrubs

ØIts found in the areas getting less than 70cm of rainfall ØFound in Rajastan. Gujarath, MP etc ØAcacia, date palm, cactus, different and grasses are found here Montane forest

ØFound in hilly and mountain region ØVegetation varies according to the increase in altitude ØFound in Himalayan region Mangrove forest

ØFound in coastal areas where mud and silt get accumulated It is found in the Delta region ØSundarban forest STEPS TAKEN TO PROTECT AND FAUNA

ØIndian wild life act passed ØBiosphere reserves were established ØPeriodic census ØSpecial projects like project tiger ØHunting of wild animals is banned Wild life sanctuaries National parks BIOSPHERE RESERVES Formative assessment ØWhat is eco system? ØVegetation in most part of India is not natural. Give reason ØName the most wide spread vegetation in India ØName the 4 bio-reserves which have been included in the World network of Bio reserves ØName the state in which Simlipal bio reserve located ØName the different types of vegetation in India ØDistinguish between evergreen forest and deciduous forest ØGive a brief account of mountain vegetation ØWhat are the measures taken by the government to protest flora and fauna in India? ØHow does relief and rainfall influence the distribution of natural vegetation in India? Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources Summary of http://www.diva- gis.org/docs/gis_pgr_conservation.pdf

DIVA-GIS is a free mapping program, (GIS), that can be used for many different purposes. It is particularly useful for mapping and analyzing biodiversity data, such as the distribution of species, or other 'point-distributions'. Geographic Information Systems • Said in a simple way: ‘a tool for managing information of any kind according to where it is located’ • Main elements: • Data input, verification and editing • Importing digital datasets • Data storage, retrieval and management • Stored as data: vector and raster • Data manipulation and analysis • Bring diverse datasets together, make them compatible and combine and analyze them • Output • Selecting areas or layers for output on a screen Ecogeographic surveying Source of of information of such survey can be: • specimens • Germplasm accessions passport data • Experts • Literature • Field notes • Maps Ecogeographic surveying – main objectives Identifications of geographic areas which are: • Likely to contain specific desired traits (adaptations), taxa or habitats of interest • Highly diverse (whether environmentally, taxonomically or genetically) • Complementary to each other • Currently missing or under-represented in conservation efforts • Threatened with genetic erosion Output:

An example: Distribution of Oryza longistaminata In southern .

Images, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and radar images combined with other sources of data High diversity areas • Usually begins with dividing the target area into a number of smaller zones e.g. climate zone • Different geometric, political, socio-economic spatial units have been used • More examples: presence/absence of species, measures of diversity based on morphological characters or molecular markers (to calculate the morphological diversity of Capsicum spp) Complementary areas • Analyses of diversity • E.g. compare two areas to see if they have the same diversity of taxa or morphotypes • Can allow the diversity measure to be weighted for the distinctness of taxonomic units (thus calculate diversity values, e.g. taxa closely related or not) Under-conserved areas • Identify individual species, species-rich areas and vegetation types that are not represented or underrepresented • To identify ecogeographical gaps in existing ex situ germplasm collection Threatened areas • To predict genetic erosion by documenting and modeling changes of forests, , different land use types and cropping • Indicators of desertification, soil erosion, increasing outmigration, and appearance of new fields of agriculture into increasingly marginal areas • Can use result to early warning of crop failure and famine in regions of the world Analyses • To map different areas from different datasets • A case study from four separate analyses, from which the results are combined to produce a single map of priority areas for conservation interventions (se next slide) High priority areas for conservation of wild Gossypium in Africa

The methodology involves four separate analyses

•Probability of high diversity (localities of 607 herbarium) •Targeting geographical gaps in existing collections •Proximity to roads •Genetic erosion risk assessment (population growth, high density of cattle etc.) GIS technology can contribute with Field work • Field aids • Moisture and temperature maps • Identification of ecogeographic gradients, like slope • Optimal timing of field visits • Rainfall • Surveillance of the state of crops and vegetation over the growing season Design, management and monitoring of in situ reserves An example of establishing, Masoala National Park in Madagascar using combining maps, satellite imagery, biodiversity surveys and population studies: • Rare and threatened habitats and species • Park should follow features with buffer areas • Park should balance human and wildlife needs Germplasm regeneration and evaluation • To decide what sites are best for which accessions • Climate data and distribution maps for: • Pests • Diseases • • Wild relatives • Help to determine unique needs of individual accessions Use of genetic resources GIS can: • Improve quality and quantity of the locality data from collections • Help the genebank curator to complete passportdata (maps and gazetteers, collectors notebook) • Targeting specific areas for evaluation and use, based on the conditions where the accession was collected. E. g. maize that might be adapted to alkaline soils. Prospects • GIS based analysis of data on germplasm accessions add greatly to the value of data • Examples • More frost tolerant potato variety by using climatic data • Climatic data to identify areas where further germplasm collections should be done • Cost–effective of conservation efforts • Facilitate use of germplasm by breeders and others • Still very important: • Solid documentation • Effective management systems • Lots of data to manage FORESTS OF INDIA

Kanaga Valli.R

INTRODUCTION Forests  Indian vegetation presents a varied assemblage of plant communities and • includes exotic elements.

 The following recognised plant formation types cover whole of india & lakes

•Sea-shore FORESTS

 Champion (1936) recognised 13 major forest types in india.

 Champion and Seth(1968) recognised sixteen forest types.

 Hanson(1962) defines forest as “a stand of trees growing close together with associated plants of various kinds”. FOREST TYPES OF INDIA

FOREST

Alpine Tropical Montane forests forest subtropical Temperate Subalpline forests montane forest 1.Moist alpine 1.Wet Hill Forest 1. Wet 2.Dry alpine Tropical Tropical dry moist forest 2.Dry evergreen temperate forest forest forest 2.Himalayan moist 1.Tropical 3.Pine forest 1.Tropical dry temperate forest moist-evergreen evergreen 3.Himalayan dry 2.Tropical moist 2.Tropical temperate forests. semievergreen dry 3.Tropical moist deciduous deciduous 3.Tropical 4.Littoral and thorn forest

 Tropical forests are of two types.

A. Tropical moist forests

B. Tropical dry forests

TROPICAL MOIST FOREST

 These are further classified into followings based on relative degree of wetness Tropical moist evergreen forests

. Also called “tropical rain forest”

. These wet regions receiving more than 250cm per annual rainfall

. The trees are more than 45m in height

. The shrubs, (woody climbers) & epiphytes are abundant

. These forests are found in Andaman and Nicobar islands, Western coast and parts of Karnataka, Annamalai hills(Koorj), Assam and Bengal.

Tropical moist semi-evergreen forest

. These forest are found in Western coasts, Eastern Orrisa and upper Assam where annual rainfall is between 200 and 250cm.

. Giant and luxuriantly growing intermixed deciduous and evergreen species of trees and shrubs.

. Terminalia, Bambusa, Calamus, Pothos, Vitis, Orchids, , some grasses and several other herbs are found abundant. Tropical moist deciduous forest

. The annual rainfall is 100 to 200cm

. The dry period are of short duration and -fall in hot summer

. These are found along the wet western side of the deccan plateau (i.e) Mumbai, Andhra, Gangetic plains and in some Himalayan tracts

. Terminalia tomentosa, Dellenia species, Eugenia species and Mallotus philippensis.

Littoral and swamp forest Includes the following type (1)Beach forest

• These forest are found along the sea beaches and river deltas

• Ground water is blackish. Soil is sandy having lime and salts. Rainfall is 75-500cm depending upon the area.

• The common plants are Casuarina equisetifolia, Phoenix, Manilkara littoralis, Callophyllum littoralis and no. of twiners and climbers. (2)Tidal forests or Mangrove forest

• These forests are further classified as A. Tree Mangrove forests

• These forests are occur in East & West sea coasts and Sundarbans

• Rhizophora mucronata, R. conjugata, Bruguiera conjugata, Excoecaria agallocha, and other shrubs also commonly grow

B. Low Mangrove Forests

• Forests grow on soft tidal mud near estuaries, which is flooded by salt water

• Occur in east and west sea coast

• Ceriops decandra, Avicennia alba, Aegialitis rotundifolia, etc., besides a commom Acanthus elicifolius. C. Salt Water Mangrove Forests

• Trees in the big river deltas where the ground is flooded with tidal water. Salt content of soil is low. Forest are dense. Excoecaria agallocha, Ceriops decandra, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Bruguiera conjugata are commonly grow. D. Blackish Water Mangrove Forests

• Water is blackish(salty) but during rains it is fresh. Forest is dense.

• Heritiera minor, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Avicennia officinalis, etc are commonly grow (3)Forest Water Swamp forests

• These forest grow in low lying area where rain or swollen river water is collected.

• Impotant plants include Salix tetrasperma, Acer, Putranjiva, Holoptelia, Olea, Phoebe, Murraya, Ficus, Canna and a variety of grasses. Tropical Dry Forests These are classified into the following types:  Tropical dry evergreen forests,  Tropical dry deciduous forests, and  Tropical thorn forests. Tropical dry evergreen forests: . These forests are found in the areas where rainfall is in plenty. . Dry season is comparatively longer. . The trees are dense, evergreen and short(about 10 to 15 metres high) . These forests are found in eastern part of Tamilnadu, in east and west coasts . The common plant species are Maba,Calotropis,Pabatta,Feronia,Canthium,Zizyphus,Randia etc. . Bamboos are absent. . But, grasses are common.

Tropical dry deciduous forests:

. These forests are distributed in the areas where annual rainfall is usually low,raning between 70 and 100 cm, such as Punjab,U.P.,Bihar,Orissa,M.P.,and large part of Indian peninsula.

. The dry season is long and most of the trees remain leafless during that season.

. The forest trees are not dense,10 to 15 m in height,and undergrowth is abundant.

. In north,the forests are dominated by shal and in south by teak (Tectona grandis)

. Species of trees and shrubs of sal dominated forests of northern region areTerminalia,Semicarpus,Buchnania,Carissa,Modhuca,Acacia,Sterculia,La unea,Salmalia Adina,Bauhinia,Aegle,Grewia,Phyllanthus,etc. Tropical thorn scrubs:

. These forests occur in the areas where annual rainfall is between 20 to 70 cm,dry season is hot and very long.

. They are found in South Punjab,most of Rajastan and part of Gujarat.

. The land away from the rivers and devoid of irrigation is mostly sandy and devoid of trees.

. The vegetation is of open type consisting of small trees(8 to 10m high) and thorny or spiny shrubs of stunted growth.

. The forests remain leafless for the most part of the year and are sometimes called thorn scrub or scrub jungles.

. The species of Acacia,Cassia,Calotropis,Randia,Albizzi,Zizyphus,Erythroxylon, Euphorbia,Cordia,Prosopis,Salvadora,Aegle,Gymnosporia,Atriplex,Grewia, Asparagus,Berberis,Butea,Kochia,Leptadenia,Capparis,Adhatoda,etc Characteristics the plant formations of semiarid regions of India. Subtropical montane forests

These forests are found in the region of fairly high rainfall but where temperature differences between winter and summer are less marked. Winter generally goes without rains. They are found upto the altitude of about 1500 metre in south and upto 1800 Metre in the north. These forests have been grouped into the following three types:

 Wet hill broad leaved forests

 Dry evergreen forests, and

 Pine forests WET HILLBROAD LEAVED FOREST :-

• They are found in Mahabaleshwar, Coorg, Karnataka, parts of Assam, Panchmarhi and other parts of M.P.

• The important plants found in the wet hillforests of south are the species of Eugenia, Randia,Terminalia, Eleganus, Murraya, Gymnosporia, Atylosia, Ficus, Pterocarpus, Lantana, etc. While those of the north are Castonopsis, Calamus, Alnus, Quercus, Betula, Schima Phoebe, Cedrella, Garcinia, Populus, etc. DRY EVERGREEN FOREST:-

• They occupy the food-hill area of .

• The common constituents of vegetation are Acacia modesta, Olea cuspidate,etc. PINE FOREST:-

• Found mostly in Western & Central Himalayas and in Assam hill.

• The forest is dominated by species of Pinus( Pinus khasya and P. roxburghii) TEMPERATE MONTANE FOREST

 These forests occur in the Himalayas at the altitude 1800-3800m where humidity and temperature is low. It is classified into three types based on moisture regime.

(1) Montane Wet Temperate Forest

. These are found in Himalayas extending from Nepal to Assam and some parts of South India (Nilgiris) called as “Sholas”.

. Tree may be 15-20m hight. Epiphytes are in abundance. The members of family Compositae, Rubiaceae, Acanthaceae and Leguminosae. (2) Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest

. These forests develop in the areas of lesser rainfall. The trees are high, upto 45m tall.

. Undergrowth is shruby and consist of deciduous species of Barberis, Spiraea, Cotaneaster, etc (3) Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest

. These forests dominated by Rhododendrons, oaks and conifers in the Western Himalayas( Uttranchal-Himanchal Pradesh & Punjab-Kashmir)

. Commonly found species belong to genera Daphne, Indigofera, Cannabis, several epiphytes mosses, Lichens, etc.

SUB-ALPINE FOREST

o The sub-alpine forests are found throughout Himalayas from Ladakh in the west to Arunachal in the east at the altitude from 2800 m to 3800 m.

o Annual rainfall is less than 65 cm.

o But snowfall occurs for several weeks in a year.

o Strong winds and below 0 degree C temperature prevail for greater part of the year.

o Trees are like those of temperature zone.

o Epiphytic mosses and lichens are in abundance.

Champion(1939) has recognised the following two types of forests in sub-alpine zone:

• Silver Fir-Birch forests which are found on glacial moraines.Abies spectabilis,Abies densa,Pinus wallichiana,etc. are common plants of these forests.

• Birch-Rhododendron forests which grow on rocky substrata. The common trees are Betula utilis,Quercus semecarpifolia,many species of Rhododendron Pyrus spp.Acer spp,Salix,Juniperus spp etc.

ALPINE FORESTS Alpine vegetation has been classified into the following three types: a) Alpine forests, b) Moist Alpine scrubs, and c) Dry Alpine scrubs.

 ALBIAN FORESTS Plants growing at the altitude from 2900 to 6000 m are called alpine plants. In india, alpine flora occurs in Himalayas between 4500 and 6000 metres. The common pants of alpine forests are Abies,Pinus,Rhododendrons,Pyrus,Salix etc.

 Moist alpine scrubs This type of vegetation is distributed extensively throughout the Himalayas Above 3000 metres. It is most often dense and composed of evergreen dwarf Rhododendron species,some birch and other deciduous trees. Alpine pastures include mostly mesophytic herbs with very little grasses.

 Dry alpine scrubs These are openxerophytic formations spreadin U.P., Himachal Pradesh,Punjab and Kashmir. Species belonging to Artemisia,Potentilla,Kochia,Juniperus predominate in the vegetation which develops generally on lime stone rock. Biodiversity Hotspots

A biodiversity hotspot is an area with unusual concentration of species, many of which are endemic. It is marked by serious threat to its biodiversity by humans. The British biologist Norman Myers coined the term "biodiversity hotspot" in 1988 as a biogeographic region characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and by serious levels of habitat loss. According to Conservation International (CI), to qualify as a hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria: 1. It must contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants (at least 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics - which is to say, it must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot, in other words, is irreplaceable. 2. it has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat or It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation. In other words, it must be threatened. Many of the biodiversity hotspots exceed the two criteria. For example, both the Hotspot in Southeast Asia and the Tropical Hotspot in have about 15,000 endemic plant species. The loss of vegetation in some hotspots has reached a startling 95 percent. Presently Around the world, 36 areas qualify as hotspots. They represent just 2.4% of Earth’s land surface, but they support more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics — i.e., species found no place else — and nearly 43% of bird, mammal, reptile and amphibian species as endemics.

HOW DID THE CONCEPT OF BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS BEGIN? In 1988, British ecologist Norman Myers published a seminal paper identifying 10 tropical forest “hotspots.” These regions were characterized both by exceptional levels of plant endemism and serious levels of habitat loss. Conservation International, one of CEPF's global donor organizations, adopted Myers’ hotspots as its institutional blueprint in 1989. In 1996, the organization made the decision to undertake a reassessment of the hotspots concept, including an examination of whether key areas had been overlooked. Three years later an extensive global review was undertaken, which introduced quantitative thresholds for the designation of biodiversity hotspots and CI (1999) identified 25 biodiversity hotspots in the book “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial ”. In 2005, an additional analysis brought the total number of biodiversity hotspots to 34, based on the work of nearly 400 specialists.

Dr. Himanshu Dwivedi Assistant Professor (Department of Botany) In 2011, the Forests of East was identified as the 35th hotspot by a team of researchers from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) working with Conservation International. In February 2016, the North American Coastal Plain was recognized as meeting the criteria and became the Earth's 36th hotspot. Biodiversity hotspots host their diverse ecosystems on just 2.4% of the planet's surface, however, the area defined as hotspots covers a much larger proportion of the land. The original 25 hotspots covered 11.8% of the land surface area of the Earth. Overall, the current hotspots cover more than 15.7% of the land surface area, but have lost around 85% of their habitat.[10] This loss of habitat explains why approximately 60% of the world's terrestrial life lives on only 2.4% of the land surface area.

WHY ARE BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IMPORTANT? Species are the building blocks of Earth's life-support systems. We all depend on them. But our planet’s “biodiversity,” the vast array of life on Earth, faces a crisis of historic proportions. Development, urbanization, pollution, disease — they’re all wreaking havoc on the tree of life. Today, species are going extinct at the fastest rate since the mass extinction of the dinosaurs. To stem this crisis, we must protect the places where biodiversity lives. But species aren’t evenly distributed around the planet. Certain areas have large numbers of endemic species — those found nowhere else. Many of these are heavily threatened by habitat loss and other human activities. These areas are the biodiversity hotspots, 36 regions where success in conserving species can have an enormous impact in securing our global biodiversity.

Yet the hotspots remain important in our work for two important reasons:

 Biodiversity underpins all life on Earth. Without species, there would be no air to breathe, no food to eat, no water to drink. There would be no human society at all. And as the places on Earth where the most biodiversity is under the most threat, hotspots are critical to human survival.

 The map of hotspots overlaps extraordinarily well with the map of the natural places that most benefit people. That’s because hotspots are among the richest and most important ecosystems in the world — and they are home to many vulnerable populations who are directly dependent on nature to survive. By one estimate, despite comprising 2.4% of Earth’s land surface, forests, wetlands and other ecosystems in hotspots account for 35% of the “ecosystem services” that vulnerable human populations depend on.

Dr. Himanshu Dwivedi Assistant Professor (Department of Botany)

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN INDIA

1. THE HIMALAYA: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and Myanmar) 2. INDO-BURMA: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China) 3. SUNDALANDS: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Philippines)

4. WESTERN GHATS AND : Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)

1. THE HIMALAYA: The Himalaya Hotspot is home to the world's highest mountains, including Mt. Everest. The mountains rise abruptly, resulting in a diversity of ecosystems that range from alluvial grasslands and subtropical broadleaf forests to alpine meadows above the tree line. Vascular plants have even been recorded at more than 6,000 m. The hotspot is home to important populations of numerous large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers, elephants, rhinos and wild water buffalo.

2. INDO-BURMA Encompassing more than 2 million km² of tropical Asia, Indo-Burma is still revealing its biological treasures. Six large mammal species have been discovered in the last 12 years: the large-antlered muntjac, the Annamite muntjac, the grey-shanked douc, the Annamite striped rabbit, the leaf deer, and the saola. This hotspot also holds remarkable endemism in freshwater turtle species, most of which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss. Bird life in IndoBurma is also incredibly diverse, holding almost 1,300 different bird species, including the threatened white-eared night-heron, the grey- crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge.

3. SUNDALAND The spectacular flora and fauna of the Sundaland Hotspot are succumbing to the explosive growth of industrial forestry in these islands and to the international animal trade that claims tigers, monkeys, and turtle species for food and medicine in other countries. Populations of the orangutan, found only in this hotspot, are in dramatic decline. Some of the last refuges of two Southeast Asia rhino species are also found on the islands of Java and . Like many tropical areas, the forests are being cleared for commercial uses. Rubber, oil palm, and pulp production are three of the most detrimental forces facing biodiversity in the Sundaland Hotspot. 4. WESTERN GHATS AND SRI LANKA

Dr. Himanshu Dwivedi Assistant Professor (Department of Botany) Faced with tremendous population pressure, the forests of the Western Ghats and Sri Lanka have been dramatically impacted by the demands for timber and agricultural land. Remaining forests of the Western Ghats are heavily fragmented; in Sri Lanka, only 1.5% of the original forest remains. Population levels are also applying increased stress on the fringes of protected areas where many farms, loggers, and poachers use the resources illegally. Due in part to the varying effect of the yearly monsoons and the high mountain regions, this hotspot is home to a rich endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles, and amphibians. Sir Lanka alone may be home to as many as 140 endemic species of amphibians. The region also houses important populations of Asian Elephants, Indian Tigers, and the Endangered Lion-tailed Macaque. Freshwater fish endemism is extremely high as well, with over 140 native species.

List of 36 hotspot by region: North and Central America California Floristic Province Madrean pine-oak Mesoamerica North American Coastal Plain

The Caribbean Caribbean Islands

South America Atlantic Forest Cerrado Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian Forests Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena Tropical Andes

Europe

Africa Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa Eastern Afromontane Guinean Forests of West Africa Madagascar and the Islands Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Succulent Karoo

Central Asia Mountains of Central Asia

South Asia Himalaya Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar

Dr. Himanshu Dwivedi Assistant Professor (Department of Botany) Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

South East Asia and Asia-Pacific East Melanesian Islands New Zealand Philippines - Eastern Australian temperate forests Southwest Australia Sundaland and Nicobar islands of India

East Asia Japan Mountains of Southwest China

West Asia Irano-Anatolian

Source: Convention on Biological Diversity Conservation international Botanical survey of India Zoological survey of India Wildlife Institute of India

Dr. Himanshu Dwivedi Assistant Professor (Department of Botany) to

Presentation on

By VINAY J U PGS15AGR6674 GIS and GPS

Global Positioning System (GPS): A satellite system that projects information to GPS receivers on the ground, enabling users to determine latitude and longitude coordinates.

Global Information System (GIS): Software program that enable users to store and manipulate large amounts of data from GPS and other sources. GPS & GIS Communication and Control World : 24 Operational GPS satellites

IRNSS-1D on 28 March 2015

India : 4 Operational GPS satellites Different GPS Types

1. Hand Held

2. Backpack

3. Vehicle Mounted Commercially Available GPS

Garmin Trimble Examples of GPS and GIS:

Global Positioning System (GPS): An agricultural producer may use a handheld GPS receiver to determine the latitude and longitude coordinates of a water source next to field.

Global Information System (GIS): Following a chemical spill, maps obtained from a GIS system can reveal environmentally-sensitive areas that should be protected during response and recovery phases.

Source: Purdue University With GIS software, information from a GPS unit may be combined with data such as

• USGS topographical maps • Aerial photography • Digital elevation models • Cropland use • Critical infrastructure maps • Census maps

The Result:

“Layered” maps can be generated by the GIS software. Example of Map “Layers”

A GIS database creates “layers” with many pieces of information visualized for the same area.

Yield data – collected using GPS

Topsoil Depth - collected using GPS

Aerial photo of the area

Source: University of Missouri GPS and GIS applications in agriculture

 Control  Mapping

 Variable rate fertilizer  Soil properties and pesticide  Chemical Application application  Chemical Prescriptions

 Variable depth tillage  Tillage Maps  Yield Mapping  Variable irrigation  Pest tracking and mapping  Topographic Maps  Planting Maps GIS information and maps have a variety of uses in the agricultural biosecurity sector, including the potential to assist

Preparedness Response Recovery Mitigation efforts in plant biosecurity management.

 Robinia pseudoacacia  Acer negundo  Fraxinus pennsylvanica  Ailanthus altissima  Gleditsia triacanthos  Rhus typhina  Amorpha fruticosa Maps of invasive tree on Mt. Avala

a. Position of Mt. Avala b. Robinia pseudoacacia

c. Acer negundo d. Fraxinus pennsylvanica e. Ailanthus altissima f. Gleditsia triacanthos

g. Rhus typhina h. Amorpha fruticosa.