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N-Methylamino-L-Alanine (BMAA) in the Marine Benthic Ecosystem

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N-Methylamino-L-Alanine (BMAA) in the Marine Benthic Ecosystem marine drugs Article New Typical Vector of Neurotoxin β-N-Methylamino-L-Alanine (BMAA) in the Marine Benthic Ecosystem Aifeng Li 1,2,*, Jialiang Song 1, Yang Hu 1, Longji Deng 1, Ling Ding 1 and Meihui Li 1 1 College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; [email protected] (J.S.); [email protected] (Y.H.); [email protected] (L.D.); [email protected] (L.D.); [email protected] (M.L.) 2 Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-532-6678-1935 Academic Editor: Lucio G. Costa Received: 4 September 2016; Accepted: 27 October 2016; Published: 4 November 2016 Abstract: The neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) has been identified as an environmental factor triggering neurodegenerative diseases such as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We investigated the possible vectors of BMAA and its isomers 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) and N-2(aminoethyl)glycine (AEG) in marine mollusks collected from the Chinese coast. Sixty-eight samples of marine mollusks were collected along the Chinese coast in 2016, and were analyzed by an HILIC-MS/MS (hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography with tandem quadrupole mass spectrometer) method without derivatization. BMAA was detected in a total of five samples from three species: Neverita didyma, Solen strictus, and Mytilus coruscus. The top three concentrations of free-form BMAA (0.99~3.97 µg·g−1 wet weight) were detected in N. didyma. DAB was universally detected in most of the mollusk samples (53/68) with no species-specific or regional differences (0.051~2.65 µg·g−1 wet weight). No AEG was detected in any mollusk samples tested here. The results indicate that the gastropod N. didyma might be an important vector of the neurotoxin BMAA in the Chinese marine ecosystem. The neurotoxin DAB was universally present in marine bivalve and gastropod mollusks. Since N. didyma is consumed by humans, we suggest that the origin and risk of BMAA and DAB toxins in the marine ecosystem should be further investigated in the future. Keywords: β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA); 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB); Neverita didyma; HILIC-MS/MS; marine ecosystem 1. Introduction BMAA (β-N-methylamino-L-alanine), as an unusual amino acid, has been hypothesized to trigger the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases like Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) [1,2]. Extensive in vitro experiments have demonstrated that the neurotoxicity of BMAA for neurons is a result of multiple mechanisms including action at NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic acid) or AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid)/kainate receptors, generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species), and production of excessive dopamine [3–7]. Recent reports have documented that BMAA inhibited antioxidant enzymes of the macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum and of aquatic plants (Lomariopsis lineata, Fontinalis antipyretica, Riccia fluitans, and Taxiphyllum barbieri), indirectly implicating the induction of oxidative stress in plants by BMAA [8,9]. The accumulation of BMAA in zooplankton results in a loss of swimming ability, phototaxis, and reproductive ability, which may also be linked to toxicity due to oxidative Mar. Drugs 2016, 14, 202; doi:10.3390/md14110202 www.mdpi.com/journal/marinedrugs Mar. Drugs 2016, 14, 202 2 of 12 stress [10–12]. Neuro-muscular and developmental abnormalities of zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos occurredMar. Drugs because 2016, 14 of, 202 the exposure to BMAA [13]. 2 of 11 A typical bio-magnification pathway of BMAA has been reported in the food chains within the muscular and developmental abnormalities of zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos occurred because of islandthe of exposure Guam [ to1]. BMAA BMAA [13]. originates within diverse taxa of cyanobacteria living in terrestrial, as well as freshwater,A typical bio brackish,‐magnification and marine pathway environments of BMAA has [ 14been,15 reported]. Since cyanobacteriain the food chains represent within the a large proportionisland of Guam the base [1]. of BMAA the food originates chain inwithin marine diverse ecosystems, taxa of cyanobacteria further research living is in needed terrestrial, to understandas well their importanceas freshwater, and brackish, bio-magnification and marine environments pathways. [14,15]. Since cyanobacteria represent a large Inproportion addition of to the cyanobacteria base of the food as anchain originating in marine sourceecosystems, of BMAA,further research a marine is needed dinoflagellate to (Heterocapsaunderstand triquetra their importance) and diatoms and bio‐ (magnificationAchnanthes pathways.sp., Navicula pelliculosa, Skeletonema marinoi, ThalassiosiraIn additionsp., Proboscia to cyanobacteria inermis) have as an also originating been implicated source of [ 16BMAA,,17]. Aa picturemarine dinoflagellate is developing of (Heterocapsa triquetra) and diatoms (Achnanthes sp., Navicula pelliculosa, Skeletonema marinoi, widespread occurrence of BMAA in aquatic organisms (Table S1) [18–38]. Of particular interest is Thalassiosira sp., Proboscia inermis) have also been implicated [16,17]. A picture is developing of the presence of BMAA in marine animals collected from the coastal area of Florida, USA, and the widespread occurrence of BMAA in aquatic organisms (Table S1) [18–38]. Of particular interest is the southernpresence coast of of BMAA Stockholm, in marine Sweden animals [22 ,collected23]. Furthermore, from the coastal BMAA area was of also Florida, detected USA, in and samples the of musselssouthern and oysters coast of cultivated Stockholm, in Sweden seawater [22,23]. using Furthermore, LC-MS/MS BMAA analysis was of underivatizedalso detected in extracts samples [ of35 –37]. However,mussels the and controversy oysters cultivated regarding in seawater data on using BMAA LC‐MS/MS in aquatic analysis ecosystems of underivatized has also extracts been reviewed [35– by Faassen37]. However, [39], who the demonstrated controversy regarding that it is stilldata needon BMAA to develop in aquatic and validateecosystems the has precise also analyticalbeen methodsreviewed for BMAA by Faassen in the [39], future. who demonstrated Based on these that newit is still findings, need to contamination develop and validate with BMAAthe precise and its isomersanalytical 2,4-diaminobutyric methods for BMAA acid (DAB) in the future. and N Based-2(aminoethyl)glycine on these new findings, (AEG) contamination was investigated with BMAA in diverse mollusksand its collected isomers from 2,4‐diaminobutyric ten cities along acid the (DAB) Chinese and coastN‐2(aminoethyl)glycine in this study (Figure (AEG)1). was It is investigated the objective of in diverse mollusks collected from ten cities along the Chinese coast in this study (Figure 1). It is the the present study to assess the risk of the neurotoxin BMAA in marine mollusks in order to protect objective of the present study to assess the risk of the neurotoxin BMAA in marine mollusks in order seafood safety and consumer health. to protect seafood safety and consumer health. Figure 1. Sampling locations for marine mollusk animals collected in March 2016 and analyzed for β‐ Figure 1. Sampling locations for marine mollusk animals collected in March 2016 and analyzed for N‐methylamino‐L‐alanine (BMAA), 2,4‐diaminobutyric acid (DAB) and N‐2(aminoethyl)glycine β -N-methylamino-(AEG) in this studyL-alanine (samples (BMAA), were collected 2,4-diaminobutyric from aquaculture acid zones (DAB) in Zhoushan and N and-2(aminoethyl)glycine Shenzhen cities, (AEG)the in other this studysamples (samples were purchased were collected from local from seafood aquaculture markets zonesin other in eight Zhoushan cities). and Shenzhen cities, the other samples were purchased from local seafood markets in other eight cities). Mar. Drugs 2016, 14, 202 3 of 12 2. ResultsMar. Drugs 2016, 14, 202 3 of 11 BMAAMar. Drugs was 2016 detected, 14, 202 in a total of five samples from three marine species collected from3 Chinese of 11 2. Results coastal2. waters.Results DAB was detected in 78% of the samples (53/68) representing 23 species in this research (TableBMAA1 ).was The detected highest in concentrationsa total of five samples of BMAA from werethree marine detected species in the collected same species from Chinese of benthic BMAA was detected in a total of five samples from three marine species collected from Chinese gastropodcoastalNeverita waters. didymaDAB wascollected detected from in 78% Dalian, of the Rongcheng, samples (53/68) and Lianyungangrepresenting 23 cities species in Marchin this 2016, researchcoastal waters.(Table 1). DAB The washighest detected concentrations in 78% ofof theBMAA samples were detected(53/68) representing in the same species23 species of benthic in this respectively (Figure2). BMAA was also detected in two additional samples of N. didyma collected gastropodresearch (Table Neverita 1). didymaThe highest collected concentrations from Dalian, of Rongcheng,BMAA were and detected Lianyungang in the same cities species in March of benthic 2016, from Laizhou and Qingdao cities. Neither BMAA nor DAB was detected in the protein of any mollusk respectivelygastropod Neverita (Figure didyma2). BMAA collected was alsofrom detected Dalian, Rongcheng,in two additional and Lianyungang samples of N.cities didyma in March collected 2016, species.fromrespectively The Laizhou identity (Figureand
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