A Study of the Informational Needs of College Women Sports Spectators
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
A Study of the Informational Needs of College Women Sports Spectators Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University Qy Vivian Floyd Lewisj 13. S., M. S, * t The Ohio State University 1953 Approved by: ser CCUTEIJTS hapler Page ■L "::THuDucr:'"joii ....................... 1 Historical Assets of Sports and the S: octator . 1 An A: precir.tive Snorts Spectator • • • • ia At Tndicat' on of a deed ••»••• 21 3 orts Appreciation as a Concern of Education . 23 Education Seeks a Wa’r to feet the Objective of A^ prec 5 atr. on * * • 2 Slill a deed dor a Course in Sports -appreciation 3b 1 TIE KibblET. ‘'juTTJC)D AJTD PROCEDURES . 33 State::ent cf problem ••«•••• . ^ .Justification of an Assumed deed . • • • HR "etJod of Obta'ninr Data on ituder.t Felt .eeds 3^ distribution of Return;’, on Student Felt 'ceds V. Selection and Refinement of Data on Sports tc i se in too Study i.;0 Selecti n and Refinement of Questions t< se i.n the Study ^3 hrj.i1 ary Selection of Questions to . se as Subject ’"atter ..••••• 13 Final Selection and Refinement of Quest5ons • • U3 Method of Obtaining Data on Student Judgment . "ethod of Outaining Data on Adult Judgment . R7 TTethod of Refining and Interpreting Data on Student and Adult Judgment * * . • Ud Chapter Pa re Supplementary Sources U3ed to establish Sunjcct at • * • • • » • • * 71 III PRKSFUTATION GT' 1 KITS 73 Understanding and Appreciating Football • • • • • 77 Understand!nr and Appreciating Baseball • • . » • 91 Understandin" and Appreciating Basketball • • • • lOi: ■ ndcrstandinp and Appreciating Trac,: and Field • • . 112 Understandin and A opr eclatin'- Tennis • . • • • 121 r; su'r*AcY, cokglksicns , HEC(/r'Ei'DATicr3 • * 125 The Problem and Procedure •••»•••• 123 Major Findings and Implications *•••••• 123 Sugrested Use of Teaching Units ••••••• 129 Ceneral Conclusions and leccmr.en.dations • • • • • 135 APPENDIX ... 136 ri: ................................................. 159 A, 162 1:1 Chapter I INTRODUCTION Historical Aspects of Sports and the Spectator Millions of Americans actively participate in sports while perhaps ten times as many practice "looking on", Tiiis "looking on" or being a spectator has existed in all historical eras and continues to assume an important place >n American culture* Competitive sport3 have existed since the days of primitive soci eties. Foot racing, wrestling, boxing, dancing and throwing were pre dominate sports among civilized people of the past. As communal living improved competitive sport3 played an important role in the ceremonials, festivals, and pageantry of each succeeding era* history reveals that the spirit of play and competition were an integral part of t: e daily living of the Kgyptians, Assyrians, Persians, and the Hebrews. "The- monuments of these people are inscribed with 1 pictures of wrestlers, swimmers, hunters, ••*, ball players, ... ." Stories of man show further tnat the Greeks were considered as the first people in Europe to attain a high degree of civ?lization in which com petitive sport* played an important role in perpetuating the Greek society. "The Iliad and Odyssey show the prominent place which athletic O sports held in Homeric society." Chariot and foot races, throwing events , and wrestling were daily events; hockey was a Greek team sport. The Greek Pentathlons of 500 H. C. are known as the forerunners of modern 1 Ennet Rice, A Brief history of Physical Education, pp. 9-10. 2 Ibid., p. 16. 1 track ai d field. The Pai>-Hellenic Games were festivals of the deities in dance, songs and. rane and from these have come our present Olympics. Hear the end of the Homeric age, a race of sturdy people, the Romans, planned and trained to rule the world about them* Physical training and moral education were duties discharged to the hone. The fathers in their daily contact with their sons instilled in them the concept that strength, skill, endurance, and uardiness in the use of the sword, spear and other weapons of combat were reeded in order to serve the state and maintain the respect of ones fellowman. The youth were also trained to compete against the tricks of nature, the wind, the icy waters and the hard soil, and as a part of their military training they were taught horsemanship and how to compete with each other in wres tling, boxing, running and jumping. -ecauso of the severe physical train ing and 3 trict moral education for the young men, Home w-vs ahle to conquer in several centuries many lands, among which were Italy, Spain, Greece, Asia Minor, and the 'edi terranean Islands. Around 300 G. C., Rome gov erned the whole of the Mediterranean world and obtained much wealth and many luxuries as a result of each victory. During; these victories, the Romans realized that they were a people of little intellectual attainment. In an attempt to reacn the intellectual attainment of sone of the nations they had conquered, the training of the youth at home was relinquished by the parents and the young men were sent to newly established schools to train for statesmanship ano to live in luxury, because youth were no longer required to oe a part of the Roman army, a professional army was established and as a result tee physical training formerly taken oy all men for military purposes began to decline. The new found luxuries, the establishment of the professional 2 army, and the desire f< r intellectual training proved to be tne beginning of the decline of the doman Empire. Competition among the young as a -"cans of military training was soon replaced oy the national sports, chariot races and gladiatorial combats in which the participants were cruelly m.isueed to satisfy the whims of the spectators* Subsequent history of the fourth and fifth centuries after Christ has revealed that during; the decline of the Roman Empire, there migrated large tribes of Teutonic oarbarians from fforthern Europe into the Roman lands. These tribes of people easily conquered the Romans who at this time had become wear because of inactivity, luxurious living and lacr of physical training. Tnis introduction of umuarians into a weakened yet high ly civilized nat on uroduoed t.e "Dark Ages". Tne intellectual at tainments of tne Kenans was replaced by crudeness and physical strength. owever, competitive sperms for the tribesmen were found amon^ tnese peoples. Competing in warlixe sports, hunting for food and following the erase were activities enga-ed in for recreation and as training in war fare. In the midst of these baroaric and pagan "ears of the declining Roman Empire, the ideals of Ctiri stianity took root and later, about 500 b* C., triumphed in Lhe Roman Empire and the rest of Europe. The chariot races and gladiatorial combats of the Romans care to an end. Christi anity in the East, namely Syria and Egypt was expressed tnrough ascet icism. In Europe, the Monastic life as an expression of Christian oelief was also dominated by aceticism. Christianity as a way of life took a firm hold in the lives of the people and became very powerful during the following Middle Ares. Competitive sports were cast out of the lives of the people and replaced by asceticism or other forms of Christian behavior. feudal:’ sn arose later during the Riddle A res and provided for a society of lords and vassals in the European countries. Competitive sports again found a way into the lives of tie oeople. This time, how ever, the people were a select group. Participation in competitive sports were sanctioned by the ruler Tor the lords or aristocrats and appeared as tournaments and jousts during that part uf the Tiiddle Ages Known as the A"e of Chivalry. Although competitive spcrts net many set acks durinu the Dark and ,T::ddle Ages, they began to take root again during the Renaissance, the fourteenth, fifte*nth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. Under the influence of the Humanists and Realists of ti s period, individual ism, primarily for t e aristocracy, was promotorj competitions were held and proficiency was encouraged in running, wrestling, t-rowing and swimming• Early in the beginning of the nineteenth century the ideas of Rousseau of ?ranee on social equality, the elimination of the upper and lower classes, ar.d physical education based upon natural activity were outlawed in France but accepted in Germany in asedow's Naturalistic School. Here all classes of young people part5 ci'nteb in Sunning, throwing, jumping, riding, wrestling events and games and competitive sports served to satisfy the needs of the ,youn~ people for natural growth and bodily exercise. Late in the century5 Johann Gutsmuth be came a teacher of physical education in Germany and continued to advance and promote the concept of natural activities — running, climbing, swimming, balancing and others — as a means of promoting the health of the voung. During the entir nineteenth century physical education in some h form was instigated in mo:>t of the countries in Europe and competitive sports of all kinds were participated in by the people in order to oromote healthful living throxirh wholesome activity and competition* The settlers who landed in America and began the first English colonies had the sane heart for competitive sports that is common among the British peoples. However, plav became more vigorous and appeared as community projects for survival. Play for fun was considered as idle ness and many laws were enacted to enforce work and prohibit amusements of all kinds, Puritanism developed an intense disa proval of games and sports. This disapproval forced many Puritans and some of the non- Puritans to consider the restraints imposed upon them a burden, "Worn out by endless work on the^r little farmis, ,,, fearful of famine, or Indian attack, they had to have some release for pent-up emotions, some wav to forget the wcrid ••»• Fany of them — and this was not only in Hew England but in all colonies — found it in drinking,"^ However, New England was not devoid of all amusements for there were many settlers who were non-Puritans and who could not be compelled by law to accept the idea that pleasure was a sin.