A Study of the Informational Needs

of College Women Sports Spectators

Dissertation

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree Doctor of

Philosophy in the Graduate School

of the Ohio State University

Qy

Vivian Floyd Lewisj 13. S., M. S, * t The Ohio State University

1953

Approved by:

ser CCUTEIJTS hapler Page

■L "::THuDucr:'"joii ...... 1

Historical Assets of Sports and the S: octator . 1

An A: precir.tive Snorts Spectator • • • • ia

At Tndicat' on of a deed ••»••• 21

3 orts Appreciation as a Concern of Education . 23

Education Seeks a Wa’r to feet the Objective of

A^ prec 5 atr. on * * • 2

Slill a deed dor a Course in Sports -appreciation 3b

1 TIE KibblET. ‘'juTTJC)D AJTD PROCEDURES . 33 State::ent cf problem ••«•••• . ^

.Justification of an Assumed deed . • • • HR

"etJod of Obta'ninr Data on ituder.t Felt .eeds 3^

distribution of Return;’, on Student Felt 'ceds V.

Selection and Refinement of Data on Sports tc i se

in too Study i.;0

Selecti n and Refinement of Questions t< se i.n

the Study ^3

hrj.i1 ary Selection of Questions to . se as

Subject ’"atter ..••••• 13

Final Selection and Refinement of Quest5ons • • U3

Method of Obtaining Data on Student Judgment .

"ethod of Outaining Data on Adult Judgment . R7

TTethod of Refining and Interpreting Data on

Student and Adult Judgment * * . • Ud Chapter Pa re

Supplementary Sources U3ed to establish

Sunjcct at • * • • • » • • * 71

III PRKSFUTATION GT' 1 KITS 73

Understanding and Appreciating Football • • • • • 77

Understand!nr and Appreciating Baseball • • . » • 91

Understandin" and Appreciating Basketball • • • • lOi:

■ ndcrstandinp and Appreciating Trac,: and Field • • . 112

Understandin and A opr eclatin'- Tennis • . • • • 121

r; su'r*AcY, cokglksicns , HEC(/r'Ei'DATicr3 • * 125

The Problem and Procedure •••»•••• 123

Major Findings and Implications *•••••• 123

Sugrested Use of Teaching Units ••••••• 129

Ceneral Conclusions and leccmr.en.dations • • • • • 135

APPENDIX ... 136

ri: ...... 159

A, 162

1:1 Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

Historical Aspects of Sports and the Spectator

Millions of Americans actively participate in sports while perhaps ten times as many practice "looking on", Tiiis "looking on" or being a spectator has existed in all historical eras and continues to assume an important place >n American culture*

Competitive sport3 have existed since the days of primitive soci­ eties. Foot racing, wrestling, boxing, dancing and throwing were pre­ dominate sports among civilized people of the past. As communal living improved competitive sport3 played an important role in the ceremonials, festivals, and pageantry of each succeeding era*

history reveals that the spirit of play and competition were an integral part of t: e daily living of the Kgyptians, Assyrians, Persians, and the Hebrews. "The- monuments of these people are inscribed with 1 pictures of wrestlers, swimmers, hunters, ••*, ball players, ... ."

Stories of man show further tnat the Greeks were considered as the first people in Europe to attain a high degree of civ?lization in which com­ petitive sport* played an important role in perpetuating the Greek society. "The Iliad and Odyssey show the prominent place which athletic O sports held in Homeric society." Chariot and foot races, throwing events , and wrestling were daily events; hockey was a Greek team sport.

The Greek Pentathlons of 500 H. C. are known as the forerunners of modern

1 Ennet Rice, A Brief history of Physical Education, pp. 9-10. 2 Ibid., p. 16.

1 track ai d field. The Pai>-Hellenic Games were festivals of the deities in dance, songs and. rane and from these have come our present Olympics.

Hear the end of the Homeric age, a race of sturdy people, the

Romans, planned and trained to rule the world about them* Physical training and moral education were duties discharged to the hone. The fathers in their daily contact with their sons instilled in them the concept that strength, skill, endurance, and uardiness in the use of the sword, spear and other weapons of combat were reeded in order to serve the state and maintain the respect of ones fellowman. The youth were also trained to compete against the tricks of nature, the wind, the icy waters and the hard soil, and as a part of their military training

they were taught horsemanship and how to compete with each other in wres­

tling, boxing, running and jumping. -ecauso of the severe physical train­

ing and 3 trict moral education for the young men, Home w-vs ahle to conquer in several centuries many lands, among which were Italy, Spain, Greece,

Asia Minor, and the 'edi terranean Islands. Around 300 G. C., Rome gov­ erned the whole of the Mediterranean world and obtained much wealth and many luxuries as a result of each victory. During; these victories, the

Romans realized that they were a people of little intellectual attainment.

In an attempt to reacn the intellectual attainment of sone of the nations

they had conquered, the training of the youth at home was relinquished by

the parents and the young men were sent to newly established schools to

train for statesmanship ano to live in luxury, because youth were no

longer required to oe a part of the Roman army, a professional army was

established and as a result tee physical training formerly taken oy all

men for military purposes began to decline.

The new found luxuries, the establishment of the professional

2 army, and the desire f< r intellectual training proved to be tne beginning of the decline of the doman Empire. Competition among the young as a

-"cans of military training was soon replaced oy the national sports, chariot races and gladiatorial combats in which the participants were cruelly m.isueed to satisfy the whims of the spectators*

Subsequent history of the fourth and fifth centuries after Christ has revealed that during; the decline of the Roman Empire, there migrated large tribes of Teutonic oarbarians from fforthern Europe into the Roman lands. These tribes of people easily conquered the Romans who at this time had become wear because of inactivity, luxurious living and lacr of physical training. Tnis introduction of umuarians into a weakened yet high ly civilized nat on uroduoed t.e "Dark Ages". Tne intellectual at­ tainments of tne Kenans was replaced by crudeness and physical strength.

owever, competitive sperms for the tribesmen were found amon^ tnese peoples. Competing in warlixe sports, hunting for food and following the erase were activities enga-ed in for recreation and as training in war­ fare.

In the midst of these baroaric and pagan "ears of the declining

Roman Empire, the ideals of Ctiri stianity took root and later, about 500 b* C., triumphed in Lhe Roman Empire and the rest of Europe. The chariot races and gladiatorial combats of the Romans care to an end. Christi­ anity in the East, namely Syria and Egypt was expressed tnrough ascet­ icism. In Europe, the Monastic life as an expression of Christian oelief was also dominated by aceticism. Christianity as a way of life took a firm hold in the lives of the people and became very powerful during the following Middle Ares. Competitive sports were cast out of the lives of the people and replaced by asceticism or other forms of

Christian behavior. feudal:’ sn arose later during the Riddle A res and provided for a society of lords and vassals in the European countries. Competitive sports again found a way into the lives of tie oeople. This time, how­ ever, the people were a select group. Participation in competitive sports were sanctioned by the ruler Tor the lords or aristocrats and appeared as tournaments and jousts during that part uf the Tiiddle Ages

Known as the A"e of Chivalry.

Although competitive spcrts net many set acks durinu the Dark and ,T::ddle Ages, they began to take root again during the Renaissance, the fourteenth, fifte*nth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. Under the influence of the Humanists and Realists of ti s period, individual­ ism, primarily for t e aristocracy, was promotorj competitions were held and proficiency was encouraged in running, wrestling, t-rowing and swimming•

Early in the beginning of the nineteenth century the ideas of

Rousseau of ?ranee on social equality, the elimination of the upper and lower classes, ar.d physical education based upon natural activity were outlawed in France but accepted in Germany in asedow's Naturalistic

School. Here all classes of young people part5 ci'nteb in Sunning, throwing, jumping, riding, wrestling events and games and competitive sports served to satisfy the needs of the ,youn~ people for natural growth and bodily exercise. Late in the century5 Johann Gutsmuth be­ came a teacher of physical education in Germany and continued to advance and promote the concept of natural activities — running, climbing, swimming, balancing and others — as a means of promoting the health of the voung.

During the entir nineteenth century physical education in some

h form was instigated in mo:>t of the countries in Europe and competitive sports of all kinds were participated in by the people in order to oromote healthful living throxirh wholesome activity and competition*

The settlers who landed in America and began the first English colonies had the sane heart for competitive sports that is common among the British peoples. However, plav became more vigorous and appeared as community projects for survival. Play for fun was considered as idle­

ness and many laws were enacted to enforce work and prohibit amusements

of all kinds, Puritanism developed an intense disa proval of games and

sports. This disapproval forced many Puritans and some of the non-

Puritans to consider the restraints imposed upon them a burden, "Worn

out by endless work on the^r little farmis, ,,, fearful of famine, or

Indian attack, they had to have some release for pent-up emotions, some

wav to forget the wcrid ••»• Fany of them — and this was not only in

Hew England but in all colonies — found it in drinking,"^ However,

New England was not devoid of all amusements for there were many settlers who were non-Puritans and who could not be compelled by law to accept

the idea that pleasure was a sin. These people found time for sore forms

of wholesome recreation, and “Puritanism failed to eradicate the early

Americans' natural urge for p l a y , As communal living improved and

the people oecame more secure economically, competitive sports found

their way into the lives of the settlers, ",,, the common experience

of colonial farmers in hunting and shooting contests, in simple country

sports, in the communal activities of training dogs and barn-raisings,

3 Foster Dulles, America Learns to Play, p, 16. li Ibid,, p, 2 0 . played its part in the welding of a nation.” Recreation sports con­ tinued to play an important role in the colonial ar.d frontier life of the aristocracy and the common man. Pride in marksmanship made shooting matches of all kinds very popular. Foot-racing, wrestling, hurling the

tomahawk and horseshoe pitching became favorite sports. Cricket was also played by many.

Urbanization and its twin industrialization caused an increase in

leisure time and an increasing mass of urban people failed to get outdoors

and continue the traditional pattern of recreational life. "Restrictions of time and space, the limitations imposed upon people crowded into small

!Mving areas without parks or open spaces, did not permit the familiar * games and contests of village life."0 '‘Spectator sports”, professional

affairs put on to amuse the people and to gain profit, took the place of

the traditional sports in which the people themselves participated,

horse-racing, rowing, sailing regattas, foot-races and prize-fighting were the “spectator sports” in this period. People watched them as an

idle diversion. Late in the nineteenth century, the "American sports",

movement began and continued to gain considerable Impetus oefore and

during the Civil Mar. baseball was played by the Ttorthem soldiers

"and emerged more widespread than before and it rapidly became the na­

tional ^ameTrack and field events were promoted by athletic clubs.

Basketball was introduced by NaL smith nn 1891* Wrestling, hockey, tennis, volley ball, football and various other sports became marked features of

5 Ibid., p. 22. 6 Ibid., p. 136. 7 Rice, op. cit., p. 161*.

/ Apurican life* These sporls with improved facilities for recreation took a root in our cities, schools, colleges, and universities until today we find competitive sports in some form being played by all ages, from the five year old child to the sixty year old adult.

Now, concurrent with the development of competitive sports has been the development of looking on or watching* People have always participated in sports as spectators; spectators have been as much a part of the game or sport as the participants. During every era of civilization, many have watched and urged the contestants to fight hard for victory.

Pr mitivo folk sat about the fire and watched the dance and wres­ tling of his fellowmen. They jeered the weak and encouraged the strong.

The Iliad arid The Odyssey have accounts of competitive sports, as war games, and the role of the spectator in perpetuating the activity.

The funeral of Patroclus related in the twenty-third Dook of The Iliad by Homerus shows the part played by the spectator during the quoit throw­ ing event. ”... but w ^ n nighty Polypoetes took the quoit he hurled it as though it r.ad been stockman's stick ..., so far did his throw out­ distance those of the others. All who saw it roared applause, and his O comrades carried the prize for him and set it on board his 3hip.n In book V U X of The Odyssey5 Homerus writes of the entertainment given by the Fhaeacians for Odysseus, Spectators came in numbers and "... now the galleries and courts and the rooms were thronged with men that came 9 to the gathering, for these were many, young and old" who provoked

8 bamuel Butler, The Iliad of Homer, p. 370. 9 o. H. Butcher, The Odyssey of Homer, p. 103 •

7 Odysseus to tnr w a greater’ stone than that which the Phaeacians con­ testants were throwing.

In the ancient stadium at Athens, in the year 330 n. C., the

Greeks lie Id t; eir contests and festivals at wnich many watched tlie con­ testants from the seats of the stadium* Thi3 same stadium was restored for spectators and contestants in 1896 and the Old Olympic Games were restored and recane the scene of the first modern Olympic panes*

The Homans built large arenas for tne audiences to sit in and watch the cruel gladiatorial combats and chariot races. "The Circus

'aximus was about 2,ooo feet long and 600 feet vide and accomodated approximately 20^,000 spectators.11^ Here, "The audience wagered large stakes on the success of their favorite driver or teams". The Romans later developed systematic plans for town3 "and generally included provisions for ..., open air theatre, amphitheatre, forums for puDlic assemblies, stadiums, and sometimes parks *.." 12 for spectators and contestants. During the Age of Otiivalry the "place of combat, known as the 1 1 ’t, was an oval-sha^d field with seats arranged on eacn side* it the ends,the contestants were stationed. The gay courts of ladies, noolenen, and clergy assembled in splendid medieval pomp and pag­ eantry.

During the Colonial Period in America, the circle of friends or fellowmen watched as the contestants danced and wrestled Inside the circle. Small groups of intimate friends applauded the fine show of

10 Rice, op. cit.. p. ii5. 11 Ibid., p* h6 12 L. H. Weir, Europe at Play, p. 21* 13 Rice, op. cit., pi 52. 8 markstoansh io dor in shooting contests and urged the runners on in the foot-racin- events. Early in the nineteenth century with its urban­ ization and industrialization the Arrrican icople turned to the "spec­ tator sports" for diversion. Commercial amusements played an important role in the l:ives of the people who would not actively participate in their traditional sports. "Crowds ran ing from twenty to fifty thousand, made up of all members of society, were consequently txtrning out as early as the lu2 0 ’s for widely heralded horse-races, ... and the mule races of nrofess i onr.l runners. The available stan s would be packed, the overflow spreading bo every point of vantage. ,,‘^1 The eac^rness for amusements co.ld ne seen everywhere and at any time. Every attraction gathered countless thron-'S composed of many girds of people, unemployed, ganders, aristocrats, and rough-necKs.

These spectator sports of the early nineteenth century were a poor substitute for the outdoor games ai d sports tiiat bhe early Americans had previously participated in as contestants, out this served as a means of

partially satisfying the Anerican citizens urge to participate. "If they could not play or com.ete, they could at least get the thrill of vicar- 15 ious participation by cheering on their favorites from the stand*

With the srread of the American sports movement in the late 1660's and tne 1070!s, there was a breakdown of watching tne "spectator sports" as an idle diversion and people ware encouraged to participate actively again in outdoor games and sports. In subsequent vears with the emer- * ging of American sports, football, and basketball — and a revival of the old — track, wrestling, tennis, boating, hockey, soccer, golf,

lli Dulles, op. cit., p. 137. 15 Loc. cit. and others — Car more people than ever before took part themselves in games and athletics, America todav has developed plans to meet the new growth of recreat on in its cities, Playgrounds, athletic fields, tennis courts and other facilities and areas have been developed for the citi«* zens to use durinr their leisure hours, and as a part of their planned educational program.

The passion for looking on has not ceased but rather has grown coincidently with active oarticipation, Many American citizens now participate in one sport and watch another. The man who once played football turns to watching it in his later year3 and actively parti­ cipates in a game of r-olf. Young ladie3 play tennis but because of the nature of football are forced to watch it. The a ateur participates in his own game today and watches the professional gane on Sunday, While we have oecome a nation of active participants, we ha\*c also uecome a nation of onlookers.

The attendance figures of sports spectators in the United States have become enormous. About one hundred million people watched basket­ ball in I9b0 and nearly four million people appeared as rooting spec­ tators at track meets all over the country, "Roughly sixty million people watch football each season and see players in action ranging from little fellows uarely able to see from under their oversized hel­ mets to great professional stars who play the game for money,

"Looking on has oecome synonymous with Anericanism and the end is not yet. The stage will get smaller and the rows of seats will mount higher."^ This fact is evidenced today by the enurmoua cost and size

16 Delbert Oberteuffer, Physical Education, p. 3, 17 Jay B. Nash, Spectatoritis, p. 10,

10 of our high school, college and public stadiums* Menke^ lists ninety- eight stadiums in the United States seating over 20,000 spectators when

the field is used for team play; the seating capacity of the stadiums

ranging from approximately 2 n,noo at Tacoma Stadium, Tacoma, Washington

to 105,000 at California University, Los Angeles, California*

Dai.lv and weekly proof of the number of spectator participants is

given in newspapers, radio and television commentations acting as the

voice of American sports. With the constant improvement in mediums of

communication it is, in fact, difficult to avoid contact with athletic

sports, since descrintions of these events are constantly before the

public in newspapers, over the radio and television.

The following newspaper accounts sorv' as concrete evidence of the vast number of spectators at varsity, amateur and professional games

today:

The Flyers of '52-53 set a new oaslcetball attendance record for Davton U.D. ticket manager ?ene Burg announced Wednesday, knocking off the old one - set the year before - by 8 66.

Official attendance for varsity bail at I*D* fieldhouse the past season was compared to 01,932 in '51-52. In each of the two campaigns, there were 16 games at home.

A new record also was set for a U.D. home game when 6o5 h persons turned out the night the Floors toppled previ­ ously a11-conquering deton Hall, which had set the longest single-season winning streak in major college basketball history. This mark displaced the 5950 for the 1951-52 tilt with Miami U. 19

Washington and Cincinnati will 3tage their traditional special openers Monday, preceding Tuesday's full eight-game schedule. The two-day program is expected to attract some

18 Menke, Encyclopedia of Sports, pp. 571-572. 19 "U.D. Cage Attendance New High of o2,8ho", Dayton Daily Hews, April 1, 1953, P. 13.

11 300,00 fans. It won't attract President Eisenhower, how­ ever, He will be golfing in Augusta, Ga,, while Vice Presi­ dent Mixon attends to the job of throwing out the first ball at Griffith Stadium,

’Milwaukee's vest-popping pride in becoming a big league town will help swell the Tuesday totals with a sellout crowd of 36,011 jamming the new ^3,000,00 county stadium. Thousands of disappointed ticket seekers will have theMr chance later to watch the displaced braves as the new National League city aims at its goal of 1,000,000 paid.^0

Historical records of other countries also reveal that plans have been made for the spectator, "According to the Handbook of the Soviet

Union, 1936, oy the end of 1932 the Union had U,000 stadiums and sport 21 fields, 2,0^0 eymnasiums . In 1913 Germany constructed the great sport park or "stad? 011" for ti.e German contestants and spectators, Many other countries nave kept pace in planning for spectators. In Italy one finds the large Stadio Dei Marmi, Foco Mussolini; and in Sweden one finds the Tennis Stadium at Stockholm located in the vicinity of the Stockholm

Stadium constructed for the Olympic Games, lvl2. T ese are only a few of the arenas Duilt by the European countries to meet the spread of watching among its citizens.

Although watching while others participate holds its place in the

American sporUs scene, there are some who have frowned upon its growth,

Staley points out* "Doing is the sign of youth ... looking on the first op sign of death ,., a livin^ death". This is a rather formidable and negative viewpoint toward looking oru

Still another negation is shown by Staley in the following state­ ment: "The spectator ceases to be challenged uecause his success is only

20 "Major League Clubs Set for Opening Games'', Columbus Dispatch, April 12, 1953, P. 30. 21 Weir, op. cit., p. 36. 22 Seward Staley, Program of Sportsmanship, p. 20.

12 mediocre, it is average, anyone can attain it, ard therefore it -•s not singled out for either self or self approval."^

Staler asserts furtner that "the spectator rets no satisfaction"."^

However, tnere are other educators who discuss broader concepts of what it means to be a spectator. Scott says, "Those who understand and appre­ ciate what they see articipate vicariously in the activity, and as a result of this experience, may be deeply moved." ^

Aosence from any form of athletic event or social function is not a sign of satisfaction but rather of dissatisfaction. "Literally mil­

lions of people attend the art gallery and sport:. arena to derive inner satisfaction that comes from the various ferns of aesthetic appreci- at-ion.At the same tine, there are tno3e spectators who attend many of the sports events not for aesthetic appreciation out rather to be­ come emotionally stimulated or aroused 07 brutality or to esteem crude­ ness. This foici

Although the two foreroing examples of den reelation and appreci­ ation show great diversity, each provides for some form of satisfaction.

Hence, Staley's idea of looking on falls shcrt of positive knowledge.

Williams lends greater certainty to a more positive belief about looking on in the following statement*

It is rather remarkable that the role of the spectator at music recitals, dance recitals and art exhibitions is

23 Ibid., p. 163. 2h Ibid., p. 63. 2? Harry A. Scott, Competitive Sports in Schools and Colleges, p. 16U. 26 Loc. cit.

13 socially approved but that watc'-ing such intensely dr ana tic and hurian art as football and caseball contests is called "spectatoritis" and frowned upon* It -ay be granted that participation in music, dance, paintinr, drawings, and sculpturing is also admirable. but all cannot play football, nor baseball, nor compete in the Olympic games. There is a place for the dramatic festivals of sport and the modern American culture gives them a welcome. The role cf the understanding spectator is not to be despised.27

An Appreciative Sjxjrts S cctator

Scott and Williams have given greater meaning to watching through

their use of the terms appreciation and understanoin, •

What is really a’ predation? This question has frequently been

answered through the stud;/ of music, art, literature, a-d science. How­ ever, little nr s been said about sports apurociation*

Literature a; preciation correlates rather closely with the ability to understand language and its social significance in the lives of people; music a; ;rcciation uitv‘ the ab? li.ty to understand sounds, tones and their variations, and the values found in music as an individual or group activ­

ity; so sports appreciation should correlate closely with the ability to

understand the language of the game; to understand the physical, social, emotional and ethical values inherent and develoj^ed in the game for con­

testants and spectators alike; and to understand the rules and regula­

tions necessary for wholesome development of these values.

To be a spectator is to be active and a basic principle in edu­

cation today is that activity is a source for learninr. One of the most

acceptable forms of spectator reaction or activity is that of sheer

sensory satisfaction* To be with a crowd, to sense a feeling of belong­

ingness, is often satisfying* To watch moving objects or players, to

27 Jesse F. Williams, Principles of Physical Education, pp. 17^-179

XU become dazzled by the bright colors uniforms, to see a scuffle, is often releasing, Jaitin<" or suspense is thrilling* However, a deeper reaction can exist that contributes to the best of cultural growth. TV is is a deep appreciation — understanding the art of the thing one observes; co- incidently deriving from this the same values that the players are able to develop and obtain from the contest; and havin- a knowledge of the strategy, rules, and techniques corron to the game*

In order to be appreciative, the spectator should receive many of the same physical, encl.i onal, social, and ethical values from the game as the participant. The athlete is able tc Improve his physical self by finding in the game opportunities in which he can express the native urges tc run, jump, leap, strike, and throw. The need for muscular move­ ment is m rt and strength in ti e individual and the tea”: is developed.

Although the spectator cannot actively participate or compete, he can at least get the thri11 of vicarious participate on or activity by waving his arms in his excitement, "feeling" his legs run as a col­ lege mate on the field runs, standing up and sitting down with the uegin- ning and completion of plays, and applauding and cheering his favorite team or players from the grandstand. Thus, the spectator's need for move­ ment and activity can also be met and strength in the individual, the cheering crowd, and the team is developed. The appreciative spectator should know when to satisfy the urge for activity — wnen to wave, stand up, applaud and cheer; when strength or team support is needed. By understanding the shills of the game, he should be able to "feel" the activity of the game and get an emotional reaction from graceful bodily movement, numbleness of foot and the power expressed in the play.

As the athlete participates in the games, he also learns to control

15 the big muscles used in given situations, and at the same time, to con­ trol, inhibit, and satisfy certain emotional urges inherent in him.

Fear, pain, and some form of hatred are a part of the game. "The ability to overcome fear, to stand pain and fatigue and persist to the ultimate end is a fundamental characteristic of a real m a n . "28 Many of these characteristics are found in the athlete today. He appears to conquer fear, to show courage and emotional stability. "The fighting team games

furnish the occasion around which are developed many other emotions ...»

Fighting for an ideal, an institution, or an individual is the surest way of building up an emotion of affection. "29 J07/, exultation, pride and satisfaction appear with victory and the athlete learns to accept defeat and pride in success. These become important principles since

both — success and defeat — are a part of daily laving.

The spectator can have the same emotions — r.e can fear defeat, feel tfe pain resulting from the blocks, bumps and collisions on the

field or court, have a "little" uncontrollable hatred for the opponents, have loyalty and love, exult in victory and accept defeat. However, the appreciative spectator should feel these and other emotions in sociably accepted degrees; he should express then in proper forms and control them adequately and according to acceptable standards of behavior.

Social values are a part of our modern living and education.

People strive more each day to live their lives in relation to others.

Participation in sports present to athletes opportunities for rich social development. Cooperation, team work, unity, group consciousness,

28 Elmer Bprmn The Philosophy of Atnletic3 t p. U?# 29 Loc. cit» 16 sacrifice for i,.iu ro ■ developed as the athletes play together.

Group spirxt., loyalt/ , arc se'. control are developed in and out of the huddles.

Berry says:

"Mo athletic team ever reached great success without a high degree of self-sacrifice and self-forgetfulness on the part of its members. One of the great problems of a coach is to do away with stars and starring; to get men to sacrifice and advance the baserunner; to pass instead of shooting for the casket; to run interference as well as to carry the ball «...

Self-sacrifice means self control. Ho man forgets himself and Focr f : •o:; iV >* u ° good of the team, his college, i is c< r.trv, ar, ;d.s ideals unless he has himself in hand.1130

The athlete also ays the rules and regulations of the game; ho resneclB the authority of the coach, the officials, nis quarterback and his captain. He constantly endeavors to show respect for his opponents, sportsmanship, and rtesir.

S; ectators are a gro'-p : 2 people wno come together to view the athletic contests. This coming together also provides a great oppor­ tunity for rich social development and effects* "No other sports awaken in the spectator such a feeling of unity, of inter-dependence, of oneness with the team itself, of c*asire to help the team as the fighting games, especially football. It is tneir team — their fight, their college, their victory, or their defeat,Opportunities to show self-control or even to forget one's self-control arise as the game progresses on the field or as an opposing spectator speaks in the stands* Opportunities

30 Ibjd., p. 2 3 -2 6 * 31 Ibid., p. 29.

17 to show respect for others — the players, other spectators, and the officials are constantly around the spectator as he sits in the stand.

The appreciative spectator should possess these qualities: he approves and participates in acts of sportsmanship; he supports the officials; he appreciates the fine play of his team and tho opponents; he appreci­ ates fair play; he is courteous; he takes victory modestly, and defeat with good grace; and has the college "spirit".

As the athlete participates in the game, he is compelled to make ethical decisions; to make good or bad choices, "In none of our activ­ ity does opportunity come so frequently and so definitely for such decisions as upon the athletic field. These decisions are not always by ary means right. The temptation to win, the ease of escaping de­ tection, the unfairness or supposed unfairness of opponents, heat and intensity of conflict, make athletics a testing mound of reality ,,,, 32 The stage is set for making ethical character," Fair play, honesty, truthfulness and other ethical principles are developed in the game.

Will a man hit back when he has been slugged? Wj 11 a man deliberately foul his opponent? Will a man hold when the umpire is looking the other way? Will a man admit that he fouled even though the referee doesn't see him do so? — These and others are common ethical decisions or prob­ lems that are solved in athletic games.

The spectator can observe fair play, honesty, cheating, and deliberate fouling and other ethical or unethical decisions as the players contest or the field of play. The appreciative spectator should condemn and frown upon unethical decisions and loudly applaud

32 Ibid., p* iiO,

1R honesty, truthfulness, fair play and other displays of sportsmanship.

McCormick speaks of the appreciative and intelligent spectator as one who is aware of*

1, Correct form in various fundamentals of many activities in order that they may recognize excellence when they see it*

2* The rules, reflations, and 11 round rules" of many sports in order that they may intelligently follow tre game,

3, The strategy of the game in order that they may experience the thrill of "quartersacking" or anticipating what the individual or team is to do next,

.'4, Go d manners or the code of ethics acrentable for spectators of the contest,3b

Such a spectator has an appreciation w ich is comparable to and

maybe as elevating as that wr-ich is derived f -om a poem by Poe, a

painting uy Itaphael, or a symphony by heethovcn. Growth in this appre­

ciation, by the spectator, comes tnrough a willingness to try out the

knowledge or facts which the tec' nician, the doer or player, has found

effective and useful in the game. The spectator becomes intimate. He

has the ability to photograph or eye witness the action of the game and

magnify this with his knowledge of the game a~d to "feel" himself as an

active participant in the stands.

Now, among the ten million American citizens attending our games

and sports events, composed of men oarticipants, are millions of col­

lege women. This attendance shows a degree of appreciation. However,

much of this observing is passive because tne watcher feels little of

the true action of tre game; there is little intimate and friendly

33 Hemert J. McCormick, Enriching the Physical Education Service Program in College3 and Universities^ p, Ik).

19 photoplay amplified by knowledge and understanding and de< p appreciation.

On the other hand, any girl friends ar wives are left at home during the hour3 of "the game". eing left at home prevents the lady from develop­ ing a true appreciation o:' sports, for such an appreciation grows out of shared pleasurable experiences and knowledge of the sport with a com­ panion or, as already shown, indirectly with the participants.

Scott has this to say about the personal and social aspect of sports for women:

Furthermore, social relationships are considerably improved if the woman is an intelligent spectator at a variety of sporting events. Attendance at amateur and professional athletic contests by both sexes is increas­ ing at a rapid rate .... Sports today are a part of the cultural life of all people. Contributing to this situation in no small measure is the fact that com­ petitive sports are fashionable for women both as spectators and as participants.3b

"Fashion desingers have capitalized on tliis situation by creating attractive costumes for the spectator at sports events. They have also designed clothing for the woman participant in sports that is function- 35 ally correct and appealing to the eyes."

The following newspaper article shows how the up-to-date designer is thinking:

"California Designers Dream Up Styles hound To Create New Fans For Snorts"

If you need an excuse to wear active sports clothes, run out and learn the rules to some games while there’s time. Shorta and play clothes are so much fun themselves, you can arrange to live through the games they're designed for ....

Styles shown by California Fashion Creators promise to

31 Scott, op. cit., p. Ii$6 . 35 Inc. cit.

20 put morel interest in games from a spectator's point of view tOO . 0 . * 3^

An Indication of a Heed

By briefly recapturing some of the behavior of women spectators and the writer's thoughts during a college game and describing them,the writer may perhaps bring to light a picture of thd "average" college woman and her passive spectatorship. It should be borne in mind that similar drama and behavior ijiay be evidenced among high school girls, and lay women who attend the high school and professional dramas on the field or courts* however, because the writer is a college teacher, s; e is more acquainted with college women and their oehaviors; therefore, uses them as examples.

The oand Prathers, with trial piping, blowing and blaring; they prepare to play; the teams appear; the audience yells and applauds; the music Degins; the captains meet; and all is ready. The whistle is blown shrilly; the kick is made; and the audience stands nushed. The game has oe gunj

At once a thrill, but it lasts only ten seconds; then interest lags. A spectacular play occurs; the band blasts a tune of approval; nn<, attention is momentarily regained, but the Indies’ minds wonder again to "ary's hat, Ann's coat or to talk about the coming dance.

Enjoyment, yes; but intermittent. Understanding, some, but mixed with perplexity and a hundred unanswered questions about "the game".

Something wonderful is happening on the field, but only half the audience understands what. The other half, the "average" lady spectators, are

36 "California Designers Dream Up Styles Bound To Create Fans For Sports", Dayton Dai ly News, November 19, 195>2, p. 22.

21 spasmotically watchin" sonrething above most of the:r heads.

'The game goes on for fifteen minutes, thirty minutes, fifty min­ utes, one hour and unspoken, Intentionally hidden feminine uewilderment

last for the same amount of time. True, there is a sensuous pleasure

gained from the olare of the brass, the action of cheerleaders, the humdrum conversations of the other spectators, and satisfactions stemming

from beinr a part of the crowd; but shouldn't there be a deeper reason

for coning to the game, or should the other factors — talk about hats,

shoes and Alice and her boy friend — take priority over the game in the

ladies' minds?

A book, a lecture, maybe a play, one can understand; tnese are com­

posed primarily of words. But the formations, whistles, officials, sig­

nals, and players running on and off the field, tne slugging of an op- por*snt, and the pat on the oack given oy one player to his opponent

appear confusin■■ to the "average" lady, however, there must be something

to this hubbub, for a i art of the crowd seems to grasp the purpose of the

plays, signals, and displays of conduct and are able to applaud with

oijvious sincerity. Is there some knowledge or understanding they have,

and most of the ladies have not? If so, what is it? What do they need

to know in order to reach such appreciation as shown by those who express

apnroval of the rame by their sincere attention and applauding?

These questions are significant and should be answered. They in­

dicate a need for women students to become qualified spectators in many

sports, "A workin* knowledge of the rules and regulations of many of the

games and contests which go to make up a repertoire of adult education - both as a participant and spectator"37 is one of the students need for

37 McCormick, op. cit., p. 2CJ»

22 Knowledge. To tris, one should add the understanding of the social, puysical, emotional, and ethical values derived from the game by both the spectator and the articipant.

Sports Appreciation As a Concern of Education

•’Knowledge is essential for appreciation. It lends significance to watching"• The present leve] of sports appreciation among women, can be raised if it is based primarily upon knowledge and understanding.

Education can serve as the antidote for an apparent lack of 'ports appreciation. Teachers in physical education service class nrograms or in separate elective or required courses in sports appreciation can hope to educate women in taste, discernment, and appreciation, 30 that they will come to value the ; est in spectator sports*

''any physical educators cave already shown concern about the need for intelligent and appreciative spectators. One of the specific cbjec- tives of physical education for hign school ooys as listed oy Fcrsythe ~<9 n id Duncan is: "An appreciation of sports common to our culture"."

This objective nay easi ly a ,ply to a- y level cf students and to both sexes.

In order to manifest this objective Forsythe and Duncan state:

This means that in addition to the sports that the student learns in physical education, he should develop an understanding and appreciation of the sports common to cur sports pages, radio sports program, end daily conversation. Sports have tremendous social significance in our culture, and the physical education program should develop an under­ standing and appreciation of the important aspect of Amer­ ican life.dO

38 Ibid., p. 8 . 39 Charles Fors7gthe and Hay Duncan, Administration of Physical Education p. ho Loc* cit*

23 "To provide op .ortunity for aid students to acquire the knowledge

and understanding necessary to the appreciation and enjoyment of com­

petitive sports as a form of aesthetic expression11^ has been 1 ; sted oy

Scott as onr of the objectives of the pro -ra of competitive sports in

school or colie -e. Clarity is given to this statement in the ensuing

paragraph:

As a part of the instructional program of physical education, c> ildren and youth should be helped to under­ stand and appreciate the aesthetic qualities of form and movement inherent in motor activities* Important also in this connection is the eiXect that understanding has on human conduct, '*uch of the disgraceful action of spectators at school and coilc^e games may be attributed to lack of understanding and appreciatecn of the true purpose of the contest. Understandin - and appreciation nay also contribute to the pleasure and satisfaction that comes from intelligent observation of panes, sports and other motor activities,^-2

LlI McCormick has included the objective of "Standard of Conduct'1, ^

implying spectator ethics and participation, as a now objective in phys­

ical education alon - with the older and authoritative objectives of the

dev lopment of skill, organic vigor, and neuromuscular control as estab­

lished oy other outstanding physical educators, i'J: i ^ bcott, Oberteuffer, 5 and others J have placed tremendous

ill .icott, op, cit., p, 1 7 6 , U2 Loc, cit, 10 McCormick, op, cit,, p, 8, hh Scott, op, cit,, pp. 78-82, US Delbert Oberteuffer, op, cit., pp* 9 3 -10lu U6 Charles >ucher, Foundations of Physical Education, pp. 150-152; 162 .-1 ^6, American Associati.cn of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Developing Democratic Human Relations.

Charles Bucher, "Physical Education Medium for Promoting Inueraational c c p Ooodwill",9 American ------t - - Association------of . Health,. . < . J . . ,,,F^' ' ^’’ Education ■■■■and Recreation, J. X73k-u_.

21 enrbasis on liunan relav'ons — understanding people — with particular stress on racial, national and international understating as objectives attainable through physical education or sports.

The American spectator assumes an important role in the insti­ gation of understanding, among peoples of racial, religious, and national differences. Without the acceptances of the spectator, interracial sports competition in the l nited States would continue to exist on a very low level, and international cooperation and understanding, as shown through the Olympics, Davis and Wightman cup matches, and the world heavyweight boxing championship would be seriously threatened.

In dr;ving hone this point, the Educational Policies Commission suggests that teachers can help to prepare youth to live safely and con­ structively in a world of racial and international tension when they

".. cultivate the habit of facing the facts* Dodre no important issues.

Avoid prejudices and cynicism".^

Interestin'-* illustrations of the inf ue nee of s recta tors upon an appreciation ard understanding of other peoples as participants and fellow spectators can be found in the following accounts of spectator conduct, either approval or disapproval.

"Hot Springs Ousted After Refusal To Drop negroes"

The Deep South Cotton States league has given its Hot Springs, Arkansas, member trie boot oeca ise the club insisted on keeping two begro pitchers. League President A1 Haraway said t^e Bathers' franchise was withdrawn yesterday at a meeting here oecause tne issue at stake was "a matter of survival of the league." ... The squabble had been simmering since Hot Springs signed up Jim and Leander Tugerson of Florence Villa, Florida.

U7 Educational Policies Commission, "American Educational and Inter­ national Tensions", National Education Association, 19li?, p. 35.

2$ Negroes have never played in the league, nade up of Hot Springs, Pine Bluff, and El Dorado in Arkansas, Monroe in Louisiana and Greenville, Jackson, Natchez and Meridian in Mississippi* The Hot Springs directors offer to pay the Tugersons only where home teams approved, but this compromise was unsatisfactory*

"Notre Dame Negroes Break A Tradition'1

Two rfegrc football players, first ever to play in Kenan stadium here, were in the Notre Dame lineup Saturday as the Irish downed North Carolina 3U-~lli* R. M. Washington, a halfback, and Wayne Edmonds, a tackle, were the tradition breakers. There was no noticeable sign of recognition from the crowd of 13,000 in this college town where a short time ago admission of Negro students to the university and their seating at football games were widely discussed issues*^9

Clifford (Tippy) Goes, Chairman of the United States Rowing Com­ mittee, made the following statement w 1 en he spoke about the relationship between Soviet and United States participants at tne 1952 Olympics: "We visited their (Soviet) camp yesterday. Its righ^ next to ours. From what

I ’d heard, I expected to -et my ears chewed off. Instead, they couldn't h.Tve been nicer. They're a swell bunch of fellows* Such mutual acceptance could not have been possible unless there was a sense of under­ standing and appreciation of other peoples*

Eindland revealed how readily its citizens could accept foreign spectators during the Olympics. Although there were not nearly enough hotels in Helsinki to house all foreign spectators, "everyone with a ^ T_ (t spare room opened his home to visitors", This type of reception

U8 "Hot Springs Ousted After Refusal To Drop Negroes", Dayton Daily News, April 7, 1953, p* 13* k9 "Notre Dame Negroes Break a Tradition", Dayton Daily News, November 17, 1953, p. 13* 50 "U. S, Soviet Crews Hit Friendly Note", New York Times, July 13, 1952, P* S3* 51 "Finns Open Homes To Ease Crowding", Ibid*, p, S3*

26 frequently occurs among fellow sport spectators because of their common interests in the games or contests*

Many illustrations of the above nature are in the limelight daily and indicate an awareness among peoples of this nation and other nations toward mutual understanding, appreciation of others, and brotherhood*

Participants in sports events normally tend to accept their fellow players or opponents regardless of racial, religious,or n a t ion al dif­ ferences. However, spectator opinions often find a way to reach the mihds and hearts of the participants and inflame them with hatred, mis­ understanding, and depreciation of his fellow participants* Poor partic­ ipation conduct is frequently the result of such an influx of opinions*

Staley says:

Spectators exercise a tremendous influence in deter­ mining the manners of the contestants in athletic contests. The spectators attitude is quickly sensed by the players and is readily translated into action. If the spectators' attitude is wholesome the playars' reactions will tend to be wholesome; if the spectators attitude is unwholesome the players actions will tend to be unwholesome,52

Because the spectators are also actors in the sport dramas, and because spectator conduct, in terms of human relat'ons, is oft times negative, physical education can play a still greater role by offering opportunities through which the spectator may become more appreciative of other people and more conscious of good sportsmanship.

The possible intimacy of spectator sports with democracy and human relations is beautifully summed up in the following statement:

The democratizing influence of spectator sports in American culture can scarcely be over-estimated. In furnishing a common cultural interest, fostering under­ standing across class lines, and increasing the intimacy

52 Staley, op* cit*, p. ID*

27 of association with different classes* spectator sports have contributed to those integrating forces which are vital and Indispensable in the preservation of our democratic way of life. The lowliest individual in the economic or social scale may participate with equal benefit and pleasure in spectator sports. The bleachers are equally cordial to coal miners, politicians, and bank presidents.53

Educators Seek A Way to Meet the Objective of Appreciation

"arty physical educators have recently accepted the fact that the objectives of physical education, in terms of the real needs of students in the areas of sports and recreat'on, cannot be met through participation in a program of physical skills only. "The appreciate on, attitudes, and understandings that have long been considered desirable outcomes by phys­ ical education are dependent upon a background of knowledge not to be acquired in a program of physical activity alone."5^1

Shaman suggests the following ways by which appreciation can be developed:

1* The u3e of motion pictures. 2* Explanations at school assemblies. 3. Explanations by officials or well qualified announcers during interruptions of games. U. Promotion of an extensive intramural program. 5* Definite teaching toward this end in the required physical education classes. 6. The preparation and distribution of a "primer in football" and similar manuals of appreciation for other sports. 7. Provision of games during the regular school hours with all pupils attending and officials lecturing on the fine points of the game.>5

S3 Frederick Cozens and Florence Stumpf, "American Sports From the Sideline", Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 23*£6 (November, 1952'). 5U McCormick, op. cit., p. 3* 35 Jackson Sharman, M o d e m Principles of Pnysical Education, p. 83*

28 56 Several universities and colleges have accepted the task of enriching the college physical education program and have re-examined curriculum content. As a result of such action, activity courses have been supplemented with 'Orientation1 sections*. These sections have been established to provide an introductory course in physical education. The content of this course, as offered in the institutions, deals primarily with the organization of physical education in the respective institu­ tions, the history of physical education, and the aims and objectives of physical education. In many instances two or more units have been added so as to include a study of the Olympic games and develop an understand­ ing and appreciation of higher standards of skills*

The Department of Physical Education, Ten's Division, at The Ohio

State University have adopted the "associated learnings"^ — mechanics of the game or sport, techniques and strategies, social behaviors, con­ temporary status, and the hygiene of the activity — into the regular physical education curriculum for service classes*

56 W. L. Hughes, "Orientation in Physical Education", Journal of Health and Physical Education, 5:10(December, 1935)• Hubert McCormick, "Orientation in Physical Education", Journal of Health and Physical Education, 10tliiMMarch, 191*0 ). G. W. Howard, "The Possibility of Enriching Instruction in the Service Course", Forty-first Proceedings of the College Physical Education Association. Gertrude Baker et al, "The Physical Education Program for College Women", Journal of Health and Physical Education, 26*337(June, 19U7 ). Staff of the Woman's College, University of North Carolina, "An Orientation Program for College Freshmen", Journal of Health and Physical Education, 19*9k(February, 19U3). C. J. Dintelman, "For An Enriched Curriculum", American School Board Journal, 121*36-7(October, 1950). 57 Oberteuffer, op. cit., pp* 235-^2*

29 The men's division of physical education at the University of 58 Michigan offers an elective course called "Sports Survey" in which

"students participate in a discussion of the nature, techniques, and ap­

preciation of football, basketball, and hockey, three sports which most

of the students will not play but will witness as spectators".^

Hancock Central High School in Hancock, New York, originated a plan

for (raining acceptance of its physical education program by placing

tremendous emphasis on "An Appreciation Course in Physical Education"^

— a plan for carrying on the interest of the students in spectator

sports*

Yet A Need For A Course in Sports Appreciation

In this age of a preponderance of leisure in wbich one finds mil­

lion dollar stadiums, "oig business" athletic programs, amateurism,

basKetball scandals, Johnny Bright cases, international competition,

bowl games, professionalism, and millions of Americans watching sports,

- some as advocates of sportsmanship and ethics, others as sports men­

aces — there are problems to be faced and values needed. These inevi­

table factors in our Anerican culture must be recognized by those devel­

oping college curricula. Today educators must study, along with the

other problems of our society, the problems of young ladies as spect­ ators, be aware of the competencies and understandings young ladies will

likely need to cope with the changing world of sports, and the values

58 "Sports Survey Course, P.E.M. 60a, Physical Education for Men", Howard C. Leibee, Supervisor, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1950* 59 Oberteuffer, op* cit*, p. 2U3* 60 John Rosenburg, "An Appreciation Course in Physical Education", Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1I**1|99 Crtovember, lyllJT. ------30 they must live by as they share American sports with the contestants*

Added leisure demands new abilities and understandings on the part of the great group of citizens who spend their leisure hours as spectators* The changing nature of the spectator sports also demand a

greater diffusion of knowledge and understanding* Within the range of curricula practices and changes significant advances have been made, but mingled with these are procedures established to meet the needs of other times* Education has not kept up with leisure time activities, com­ petitive sport s> and the serge of looking on although, history has shown ub that competitive sports and watching developed coextensively with civilization itself* The question, What shall be the source and nature

of the college experiences for spectator participation that will promote understanding and appreciation among college women for sports?, necessar­

ily waits for an answer* In order to justify society's faith in edu­

cation, schools and colleges must build a curriculum which helps young

ladies to develop the understandings and appreciations, and democratic values needed to fully enjoy our college and professional sports* The

living, driving, enjoyable and vitalizing elements of watching the college

games 3hould not be entirely crowded out by the tool subjects* reading, writing, arithmetic and other fundamental or basic subjects which are

given along with then* Sports are here to stay and watching or looking on will remain an Integral part of them*

Although some educators have shown that there is a current reali­ zation of a need to stress appreciation and understanding of competitive

sports in Survey and Orientation courses or as a part of the regular physical education program, the writer has found no data on a separate course entitled Sports Appreciation nor found any studies that clearly

31 reveal what should be taught to women In terms of becoming more appreci­ ative spectators* In recent years there has been an abundance of mate­ rials on sportsmanship or how to act at the game* However, little has been written on what to look for in the game, or how to become a real

spectator participant* Observation shows us that the average women spec­ tator has not been able to see during a game what should be seen in

order to attain maximum enjoyment of the sport* Many books have been written for the coach or the players which are too technical and really afford little aid to the fan because of the technology and terminology used*

Because of the vast impact of watching on American culture and the

scarcity of data on what the spectator should look for in the game in

order to appreciate and understand it in its entirety, the writer feels

that if the fans could be given a fuller realization of the organization of the gane, its current terminology, its rules, its plays, and the values derived from it by spectators and contestants through a course in

Sports Appreciation, they might achieve a greater appreciation of the elements of the contest and enjoy a rewarding experience through fuller understanding* Hence, this study on the spectator needs of the college woman sports fan has been undertaken by the writer for the purpose of

discovering the needs and constructing suggested units of stuc^r for a course in Sports Appreciation to meet the needs and satisfy the curiosi­ ties of college women*

32 Chapter II

PROBLEM, METHOD AND PROCEDURE

This study is an attempt to ascertains (1) What information col­ lege women sport fans feel they need to know about varsity or "spectator sports" in order to understand and appreciate these sports; (2 ) What the coaches of varsity sports think college women spectators need to know about the games in ordar to be appreciative and understanding spec­ tators; (3) How this information or data can be adjusted and compiled so as to serve as suggested subject matter for a course of study in sports appreciation; and (10 The extent to which these data can be in­ telligently used in teaching a class in sports appreciation.

Analysis of Problem

The problem of determining the informational needs of college women spectators required that the writer seek answers to several perti­ nent questions.

1. How can the adult felt or assumed need be justified?

2 . What sports should be included in the suggested course of study?

3. What information should be known about the sports selected In order to give evidence of understanding?

lu What otter information associated with sports will aid the spectator in further appreciation and understanding of the selected sports?

5 . How can this information be compiled and used in a sports appreciation course?

33 1* Justification of An Assumed Need

What needs do students have which can be answered and satisfied through some kind of a non-activity course on sports? This is an important and guiding question* No casual views, answers, or assump­ tions about this question by the writer or other educators will do if the proposed course is to be scientifically sound* In order for an educational program to be effective, or of any real value to the students, it must be basically functional, living, and centered around student needs* Therefore, an answer to the above question, the satisfaction of the needs, and the attainment of the necessary resources should begin with an analysis of the student* The teacher must come to know what the student wants or needs* With such an understanding, the teacher of sports appreciation may intelligently make a contribution to the enrichment of the student's life in the world of spectator sports. Oberteuffer^ made the following statement about student needs and subject matteri

Student needs form the basis for the selection of subject matter most likely to affect conduct favorably. By student needs is meant the actual problems of living, •. •, about which students have an actual curiosity and desire for information, or which teachers may anticipate and so forearm students against an adverse environment* It should be clear that these needs may be felt, that is, actually experienced by the student in the form of a problem, a curiosity, or a difficulty, or they may be just around the corner, not yet within the students' consciousness and yet known to the adult as an eventual problem of youth*

61 D. Oberteuffer, Health and Physical Education Series of the State of Ohio Department of Education* Vol. ill, 1932. p. l£t*

3h This statement Indicated that even though student needs may be known to adults, the needs are not vital, are of no real value, and cannot be effectively fulfilled until first known or felt by the stu­ dents as significant interests or problems in their lives. Educators must bear In mind that ".*. the first principle of guidance involves a purpose on the part of the one seeking aid* Once this purpose is felt, 62 as a definite need, the guide can give personal help."

Because the writer's purpose was to utilise the best scientific methods in selecting subject matter to serve as a guide in teaching sports appreciation, the problem of determining the informational needs of college women spectators first demanded an answer to the question,

Where are these needs and how can they be discovered?

In an attempt to answer this question, the writer procurred 1*31*6 questions on spectator sports from freshman and sophomore women enrolled in twelve selected colle ges and universities, and worked on the assump­ tion that the obtained questions would serve as tangible evidences of the curiosities and informational needs as felt by college women spec­ tators and that these student felt needs would also give promise of revealing some clear information as to just what could be taught in a sports appreciation course for college women*

Every effort was made to procure information on what the college woman fan wants to know about spectator sports, since education is primarily concerned with helping students solve their problems by asking questions arising from living experiences*

62 McCormick, op» cit*, p* 1*.

35 Method of Obtaining Data on Student Felt Needs

As a preliminary procedure, the writer met with several teachers during a meeting of the Women's Physical Education Section of the Ohio

College Association in 19$ 1, described the proposed study aid solicited the cooperation of their departments in the study* Because some of the

Ohio colleges and universities were not represented at this meeting, the writer sent cards describing the study to several other Ohio insti­ tutions and solicited their help and cooperation* The chairman of the women's division in each institution was asked to Indicate on this card either (1) willingness of her department to cooperate; please send the necessary materials, or (2) department unable to participate in the study at this time*

As a result of these preliminary procedures, the writer was able to secure the cooperation of the following institutions}

1. Akron University

2. Bowling Green University

3. Central State College lu Dayton University

5. Flora Stone Mather, Western Reserve University 6. Kent State University

7. Miami University

8* Oberlln College

?• The Ohio State University

ID* Ohio Wesleyan University

11* Wilberforce University

12* Wilmington College

36 Because physical education is a two year required course in the cooperating institutions, freshman and sophomore women enrolled in these colleges and universities were used as sources of data for determining student felt needs* Approximately one hundred per oent participation of all women enrolled in the required service class program could therefore be expected* This also gave the writer some assurance that a significant number of responses would be obtained for the study*

After the completion of the preliminary procedures, the writer compiled the following direction sheet for students to be featured in the study:

A STUDY OF THE INFORMATIONAL HEEDS OF SPECTATORS

Direction Sheet

Attention Ladies:

We want you to help with a study to determine what women want to know about such sports as basketball, football, baseball, track and field, and others which you watch as spectators*

Perhaps as you watch the games or contests in action on the field or court, many questions regarding officials, fouls, formations, signals, words or phases used to explain the game, arise in your mind*

Please recall some of these questions nowl Place the name of the sport and your question on the card or cards given you* Use one card for each question* Ask as many questions as you desire about any or all of the sports*

Place your age and classification in the upper right hand corner of each of the cards before turning it or them in* You need not sign your name* Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated*

Sincerely,

Vivian F* Lewis Central State College

•4 Fifty copies of these Instructions along with five hundred three by five cards were sent to each institution* The teacher in charge of each class in physical education was instructed to give out the direc­ tion sheets and the desired number of cards to all young ladies enrolled in her class.

The questions asked by the students, according to directions, were collected by the teachers and returned to the writer along with a state­ ment of the approximate number of women participating in this study*

Distribution of Returns on Student Felt Needs

Replies were received from all twelve institutions* The distri­ bution of questions and the approximate number of students participating are indicated in Table I* Questions asked in the various institutions ranged from 20 to 666 and the number of women asking questions in the twelve Institutions ranged from 20 to U00*

38 Table I

Distribution of Questions on Student Felt Needs Returned From Institutions Cooperating In This Study

Name of College Approximate Number Number of or University of Women Asking Questions Questions Asked

Akron University 300 393

Bowling Green University 310 398

Central State College 220 702

Dayton University 90 257

Flora Stone Mather Collage 20 35

Kent State University 250 306

Miami University 300 387

Oberlin College 230 1*52

The Ohio State University 1*00 1*88

Ohio Wesleyan University 250 666

Wilberforce University 20 82

Wilmington College 35 182

Total - 12 Colleges and Universities 21*25 1*31*8

The 21*25 women, representing twelve institutions, and the 1*51*8 questions, representing the felt needs of these college women, were a large enough numbers in the opinion of the writer to serve as a repre­ sentative sample for this study#

3 9 II. Selection end Refinement of Deta on Sports

To Use in the Study

The U3li8 questions received were categorised under the sport about which the questions were asked and frequencies were tabulated In order to locate or determine the relative Importance of each sport as shown by the number of questions asked.

The frequency of questions ranged from one question asked on bil­ liards to lh 92 on football as indicated In Table II.

Table II

Frequency of Questions Asked About Sports

Rank Sport Number of Questions Asked About Sports

1 Football 1U92

2 Baseball 787

3 Basketball 588

k Track and Field 322

5 Swimming and Diving 308

6 Tennis 226

7 Golf 138

6 Wrestling 92

9 Boxing 87

10 Soooer 82

11 Ioe Hookey 60

12 Bowling 58

13 Badminton 37 I4O (Tab1a U continued)

1U Volleyball 19

as Handball 17

16 Fencing 15

17 Skiing 6

Id Qysnaetlos 6

19 Biflery 5

20 Billiards 1

Total - 20 Sporta li3U8 Questions

It would be impractical, in fact highly impossible, for atudezxta

and teacher to cover effectively twenty sports in a single course in

sports appreciation* Therefore, the writer was confronted with the

problem of deciding what sports should be included in this study. It

seemed advisable to establish standards to determine the correctness of

any conclusions reached* The following criteria proved helpful in the

selection or rejection of the various sportst (1) frequency of questions;

(2) current popularity of the sport; (3) facilities for spectator usage;

and (U) classification of sport*

Frequency of questions asked about each sport should be some in­

dication of the degree of spectator needs and interests; the more ques­

tions, the greater the curiosity and need for clarification*

Current popularity of the sport on the average college campus

Implies that spectator attendance at a sport event is a manifestation

of spectator interest. The popularity of a varsity sport is usually measured in terms of spectator attendance*

Facilities for spectator usage refers to the availability of seats for the spectators* The number of seats or other suitable U1 arrangements predetermlnas, to a graat extent, spectator attendance*

Students ooma to aaa thoaa aporta they oan comfortably ait and watch.

Soma varsity aporta ara narar popular aa "apactator aporta" on collaga

campuses baeauaa the araaa in which tha oontaata occur do not accommo­

date many apactatora. Varaity swimming ia an example* In moat cases,

tha awimming pool atands have not been built to accomodate tha atudant

body aa have tha atadium for football, or tha gymnasium or field houaa

for basketball*

Claaaifioation of aporta gives reference# to tha actual importance

placed on tha aport In terms of availability of fund# to perpetuate tha

aport, availability of needed apace in which to practice and play tha

aport, and availability of time in which to practice and play* Tradi­

tionally, it has bean tha practice in many colleges to place aporta in

"major" and "minor" classifications, thus, dooming some aporta to medi­ ocrity* The "minor" sports ara often given tha leaser amount of finan­

cial support, practice apace, and time* Although this la an undemoc­ ratic procedure and ia not fair to thoaa participating in tha "minor" sports, tha practice continues and tha "major" sports continue to have tha greatest spectator appeal on tha average collage campus*

In this study the five aporta which moat nearly met these es­ tablished criteria, in the opinion of the writer, were retained* The top four sports, football, baseball, basketball and track and field, ranked according to frequency of questions asked (refer to Table U ) 4 and also considered by the writer as ranking high according to apeeta- tor attendance and "major" claaaifioation, and the sixth ranking sport tennis were selected as the sports to use in this study* Although swimming and diving ranked fifth in frequency of questions aaked (refer to Table II), tennis, number six in frequenoy rank, was selected as the fifth sport because the writer felt that termis had more spectator appeal and was popularized more, on the average college campus, than swimming and diving* These five sports are also listed as intercollegiate activ­ ities in most colleges today and have tremendous spectator appeal as amateur and professional events therefore, should be worthy of educa­ tional attention*

III* Selection and Refinement of Questions to Use in the Study

A* Primary Selection of Questions to Use as Subject Matter*

decause of the vast number of questions asked about the selected sports, the writer found it necessary to establish some criteria to determine what questions should be given corsiUeration and what questions should be eliminated from the study. The lb92 questions on football,

787 on baseball, $ 8 on basketball, 322 on track and field, and the 226 on tennis were tested under the following criteria.

1. Frequency

The same question or a similar question asked many

times indicates interest. Such duplication and repe­

tition of interest are worthy of consideration* Fre­

quency often guarantees the worth of a question.

2* Feasibility

Questions written without "rhyme or reason" are

not practical for use. Questions that show logic or

reasoning should receive some consideration*

3. Current Popularity of Question

Every year it is somewhat normal and expected

that the curiosity of spectators be aroused because

of new rule changes. These curiosities are usually

13 in the form of interrogations which are evidences

of alert spectators. "What is the nev one and one

rule in basketball?" is an example of current

curiosity.

All questions about the five sports were treated in three ways:

(1) Frequency was used as the primary criteria for selecting questions in order to locate relative emphasis or tendencies toward felt needs.

In football, for example, the question, "What is a down?" was asked 103 times, by studying the question according to frequency, the writer was able to eliminate duplications and consolidate similar questions; (2 )

Questions that were poorly worded and showed no relationship to the sport involved were eliminated. The question, "What is a balk in foot­ ball?" i3 a poor question in as much as a oalk occurs in baseball and not football.; (3) Several questions were asked about new rule changes*

They were considered in the light of current popularity and selected as questions that the spectator needed the answers to in order to understand and appreciate the game. "Why was the two platoon system eliminated?" is a good example of such a question.

As a result of this treatment, the original Ubli8 questions evolved to 292 questions, represented by 6l on football, 87 on baseball, 63 on basketball, 50 on tennis, and 31 on track and field. (Refer to Appendix)

These questions were then organized into specific areas of emphasis, that is, plays, players, positions, officiating and others. The writer tried to organize these questions into spectator categories and not the categories of a technician of the gai®. The 1*056 questions remaining, after the 292 questions were selected and organized, were eliminated from the study.

Ui B. Final Selection and Refinement of Questions!

Testing for Cruciality

Still another step was taken to validate further the conclusions.

The writer felt that the 292 questions revealed as student felt needs

(Step III-A) were not equal in importance and needed more justification for including them as suggested subject matter for a course in sports appreciation. Therefore, some selection of those questions most im­ portant and most suitable for use had to be made in order to provide rich and profitable problems for students to discuss.

Three tests for cruciality suggested by Oberteuffer were applied to serve as a check on the inclusiveness and importance of the questions selected from student sources.

Test Ij Frequency

Frequency with which a question appeared was the first

test for cruciality. This test serves as the primary

criterion for the selection of the 292 questions and has

been discussed under Step III-A.

Test II* Student Judgment

"On the theory that the consumer should be consulted,

the student should be asked every now and then to react to

the importance of certain segments of the course.On

the basis of this statement and also in order to provide

several criteria to determine the final selection of

questions for suggested subject matter, students were

63 Delbert Oberteuffer, School Health Education, pp. 81-63. 6U Ibid., p. 81.

1 5 solicited to serve as judges of the questions peculiar

to their needs. The opinions of students should serve

as very valuable criteria for selecting or rejecting

subject matter for students to study.

Method of Obtaining Data on Student Judgment

The questions selected for each sport, 6l for football, 87 for baseball, 63 for basketball, $0 for tennis, and 31 for track and field, were mimeographed separately (see Appendix) and along with mimeographed instruction sheets (see Appendix) given to freshman and sophomore women enrolled in the required physical education service classes at Central

State College. Sixty students were used for each sport. These students were asked to react to the importance of each question by placing before each question either a (2) to signify that the question was of great importance to spectators, or a (1) to signify that the question was important and would contribute to further understanding of the game, or a (0) to Indicate that the question was of no importance and would con­ tribute little toward the spectators1 understanding and appreciation of the game. For example, a (2) was placed by 96*6 per cent of the student judges before the question, "What is back court?" This (2) implied that the student judges believed the question to be very important and needed to be answered in order to improve the spectators' understanding and appreciation of basketball.

Three hundred women students, sixty for each of the five sports, enrolled at Central State College were selected at random to serve as student judges because they were immediately available to the writer's own classes in physical education. Because these students were at the

i.16 disposal of the writer, they were used advantageouslyj the writer was able to clearly explain to them their contribution to the problem and how tc follow inte lli^entlytbe directions given them in Instruction

Sheet No* II* (See Appendix)*

Sixty was arbitrarily selected as the number of judges to use for each sport since it was a number easy to work with and significant enough in size to represent student opinion*

The responses from the three student judges enabled the wrd ter to select those questions considered as important in terms of needed information for the women spectator.

Test III* Adult Judgment

Coaches experienced in their respective sports, because

of their long conscientious work in the field, have reliable

judgment of the importance and cruciality of problems pe­

culiar to their sports. Although they are technicians of

the game, they have some vital, helpful Opinions on what

is best for the spectator*

Method of Obtaining Data on Adult Judgment

Iii order to give strength and added significance to student felt needs, a sample of fifty coaches in Ohio, ten coaches for each of the five spcrts, were solicited as adult judges to determine the importance of the questions asked by students about the five selected sports in thisstudy* These judges were requested to react to the same set of questions and follows the same directions (See Appendix, Instruction

Sheet, No* III) given to student judges*

The replies from the coaches were returned slowly, therefore, five responses or replies were selected as the quota to work with in this stauvin order to ascertain any conclusions on adult opinion. ?i e was also selected as the numoer of responses to se i ecause it was an easy number to handle on the oasis tha l. a majority opinion on any question could always be expected* The possibility of a cie in adult opinion was therefore eliminated, since tne responses could ue either b-0 , h-1, or

3-2 in favor of or against the acceptance of a question either as very important (2), important (l), or unimportant (0). Since per cent was used in the final analysis of tre question represented, exact equality for a^’d against was also eliminated. The per cent findings co Id only be IbO per cent, 80 per cent,60 per cent, or J:0 per cent, re nr fifty pier cent*

After the formulation of conclusion on adult opinions, replies from other coaches, in the fifty solicited, were received. any of these responses carried suggestions or comments which the writer considered as helpful hints, or interrogations. Those s: r -estions considered as im­ portant were placed in the suggested units of study, (Chapter TIT ) and labeled r’O, meanin ; sugrested by football coach; ;C, sucres ted by base- oall coach; BaC, suggested by basketcall coach; T, su; rested oy tennis coach; or Tc, suggested by tracK coach. These data are discussed under

Supplementary Criteria.

Through all replies, the writer was able to determine the value of each question on the basis of expert adult opinions.

Method of Refining and Interpreting Data on Student a^d Adult Judgment

The final selection of quest ons to use as suggested subject matter involved an analysis of data received from two sources, namely, student judgment and adult judgment. All information concern^nr student judgment was analyzed first for each sport. The procedure for handling

data on student judgment was as follows:

1. Every question in each sport was tallied under the

number (2 ), (1 ), or (0 ) that represented its degree of

importance as felt by each student judge* A total of

sixty responses were recorded for each question. This

number represented the total number of students previ­

ously selected to react to the questions.

2* The frequency of responses for each question under

the (2 ), (1 )> or (0 ) area of importance were totaled

and tabulated as raw scores.

3* Percentages of responses in each area of importance

were computed from the raw scores indicated in step

two* These percentages served to Indicate the student

judges who considered the questions as (2 ), (1 ) or (0 )

in importance.

A minimum of per cent was selected as the criterion to use in determining the acceptance or rejection of a question* This per cent, in the opinion of the writer, represented more than a half which elim­ inated uncertainty or the "fifty-fifty proposition." It also provided a noticeable degree of importance and made the handling of data much simpler* As a result of this procedure, the writer temporarily selected all questions with 60 per cent or more responses in the (2 ), or (1 ) area of importance for inclusion as suggested subject matter, in terms of stu­ dent judgment, for the course of study in sports appreciation. All ques­ tions in the (o) area of importance with 60 per cent or more responses were discarded from the study. U9 Tables III, IV, V, VI, and VII indicate the percentage of atti­

tudes of student judges toward the 292 rated questions previously

obtained as an indication of student felt needs* It may be seen that

only two questions out of the original sixty-one indicating student felt

needs on football were eliminated by student judges as unimportant, (o)

for the spectator; three eliminated from eighty-seven on baseball; one eliminated from sixty-three on basketball; one eliminated from fifty on track and field; and one eliminated from thirty-one on tennis*

These findings indicated a close relationship between the orig­ inal felt needs of students and the opinions of the three hundred student judges on the importance of the 292 questions chosen oy the writer as a questions result of testing the original/asited according to the criteria discussed under Step I U - A of this study* In fact, there was approximately 98 per cent acceptance of the 292 questions as important by the student*

All questions that were not eliminated by the findings according to student judgment were compiled according to percentage findings on the basis of student judgment and checked with adult judgment which has been discussed later in this chapter*

Data representing adult or expert judgment were analyzed after the refining of all data on student judgment had been compiled* The procedures covered in order to extricate the data on adult judgment were as follows:

1* All questions in each sport were tallied under the

number (2), (1), or (0) that represented its degree of

importance as indicated by each adult judge or coach*

A total of five responses were recorded for each ques­

tion* This number represented the total number of

50 judges selected to contribute to this study by reacting

to the 292 student questions.

2* The frequency of responses under the (2), (1), or

(0) area of importance were totaled in order to deter­

mine frequencies and then frequencies were tabulated

as raw scores*

3. Percentages of responses in each area of importance

were computed from the raw scores found in Step two*

These percentages indicated the proportions of coaches

serving as adult judges who considered the questions as

(2), (1), or (0) in importance* Since five had been

previously selected as the number of replies from

coaches to use to substantiate conclusions, the per­

centages obtained or computed were either 100 per cent,

80 per cent, 60 per cent, or Uo per cent. The chance of

exact equality for or against or the "fifty-fifty prop­

osition" was completely eliminated thereby simplifying

the opportunity to reach sound or nearly exact con­

clusions on adult opinions*

Tables III, IV, V, VI, and VII indicate the percentage of opinions of adult judges toward the 292 questions indicating student felt needs as taken on the basis of student rating of each question concerned*

Once all of the data from the three sources - student felt needs, student judgment of the importance of each felt need, and adult judgment of the importance of student felt needs - had been collected, organized and analyzed, it was easily discernable to the writer that although student felt needs and student judgment of the importance of each need were established as the primary criteria for selecting subject matter

51 Tor the course in sports appreciation, correlation and supplementation of these data with adult judgment would provide excellent material for the course of stucfy.

With this thought in mind, the writer used adult judgment as a check on student judgment, not as a criterion for selecting material but rather to provide objectively a reason to give more consideration to those questions showing a balance in importance in terms of student judgment and adult or expert judgment.

Tables III, IV, V, VI and VII show the extent to which there was a balance between student judgment and expert or adult judgment of the questions on football, baseball, basketball, tennis, and track and field indicating student felt needs in these sports selected to use in the course of study# The questions that show a commonsss in opinions have a 60 per cent or more rating by both student judges and adult judges#

All questions ranking 60 per cent or more in the very important area,

(2), according to both student and adult or expert judgment were given first consideration and immediately selected as very important subject matter# Questions ranking 60 per cent or more in the important area,

(1), according to both student and expert judgment were considered next in importance and also selected as important subject matter# Questions ranking sixty per cent or more in the no importance area, (0), according to both student and adult judgment were eliminated as possible material for the course of study#

Several questions in each sport shewed ho harmony or agreement in terms of student and adult judgment# In such instances, the writer used student judgment alone as the criterion for selecting or eliminating the question since fulfilling student felt needs is the primary concern of

52 education. For example, the question, ''What signals and timing devices are used by the teams to designate each play and when to begin it?*', ranked 7 1 .6 per cent by students In the important area, (1 ), whereas the five football coaches serving as adult judges ranked the question

60 per cent in the of no importance area, (0 ), the coaches thus sug­ gesting that this question should be eliminated. However, the 71*6 per cent in the important area, (1 ) indicated a high degree of student interest in the question, therefore, it was considered by the writer as a significant student need deserving preference as subject matter*

Questions represented by 60 per cent or more responses in the (0) area, of no importance, according to student judgment were eliminated as pos­ sible subject matter, and has been previously discussed*

All questions selected as subject matter on the basis of student and adult judgment, or student judgment alone have been placed in the units of study (Chapter III) and labeled CW, indicating that these ques­ tions originated from college women spectators*

53 Table III

Results of Student and Expert Judgment of the Informational Needs of Women Football Spectators

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep­ Studerrt resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment

1 0 65 UO hO in area 1

2 2 70 80

3 2 6 1 .6 60

h 2 6 8 .3 80

5 1 61.6 60

6 2 9 6 .6 100

7 2 8 6 .6 80

8 2 70 60

9 2 63.3 80

ID 2 6 1 .1 80

1 1 2 60 80

12 2 8 6 * 6 80

13 2 8 1 .6 100

1h 0 71.6 60 15 1 6 1 .6 hO 60 in area 0

16 1 6 6 .6 ho hO In area 0

17 1 71.6 20 60 in area 0

18 1 65 6 0

19 1 6 1 .6 6 0

6h Tabl< H l- Football (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student ______Judgment

20 1 65 60

21 1 63.3 60

22 1 63.3 60

23 2 73.3 60 2i* 2 86.6 8o

25 2 80 Uo 80 in area 1

26 1 65 1*0 60 in area 0

27 2 68.3 80 20 in area 0

28 2 95 80

29 2 61.6 1*0 60 in area 1

30 2 93.3 80

31 2 86.6 1*0 6 0 in area 1

32 2 95 80

33 2 9 6 .6 80

31* 1 65 60

35 1 65 1*0 1*0 in area 0

36 2 68.6 20 60 in area 1

37 2 78.3 6 0

38 1 68.3 60

3 9 1 65 60

ho 1 63.3 80

55 Table jjL- Football (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rap— Coaches Hep- Coaches Rep* Student resenting Final resenting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment____

1*1 1 63.3 80

1*2 2 86.6 1*0 1*0 in area 0

1*3 2 85 1*0 60 in area 1

1*1* 2 96.6 60

1*5 1 71.6 1*0 60 in area 2

1*6 1 68.3 20 ilD in area 0

1*7 1 61.6 20 80 in area 0

U8 2 80 1*0 60 in area 0

1*9 1 65 60

5o 2 85 80

51 2 65 1*0 60 in area 1

52 2 70 1*0 60 in area 1

53 2 60 20 30 in area 1

51* 2 9 6 .6 100

55 2 70 80

56 2 73.3 80

57 1 65 1*0 1*0 in area 0

58 1 88.3 60

59 2 81.6 1*0 60 in area 1

60 1 65 1*0 1*0 in area 0

61 2 90 80

56 Table IV

Results of Student and Expert Judgment of the Informational Needs of Women Baseball Spectators

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep» Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep— Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student ______Judgment

1 0 6 6 .6 60

2 0 75 80

3 2 6 8 .3 80

U 2 7 6 .6 6 0

5 1 65 60

6 2 83.3 100

7 2 71.6 60

8 1 I4 6 .6 60

9 1 80 60

10 2 58.3 80

11 2 60 ho 60 in area 1

12 2 71*6 80

13 2 85 80

Hi 2 8 6 .6 60

15 1 6 1 .6 UO 6 0 in area 0

16 2 80 100

17 2 93.3 100

18 1 68.3 6 0

19 2 8 6 .6 100

5? T»bl* '5?" Baseball (Continued)

Question Final Eating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep­ Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep­ Student resenting Final oentlng Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment

20 2 65 100

21 2 90 100

22 2 71.6 Uo 60 in area 1

23 1 71.6 80 2h 2 91.6 20 80 in area 1 25 1 56.6 6o

26 1 65 85 27 1 61.6 30

28 1 83.3 30

29 2 63.3 Uo 60 in area 1

30 2 88.3 100

31 2 38.3 100

32 2 78.3 loo

33 2 7IL6 80

3U 1 6 0 80

35 1 65 60

36 1 63.3 80

37 2 78.3 UO 60 in area 1

38 2 93.3 100

39 2 85 100

Uo 2 70 Uo 6o in area 1

53 Tib It 35- Base ball (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment_____

U1 2 9 6 .6 1 0 0

U 2 2 75 60

U3 2 85 60 Uh 2 85 IOO U5 2 85 80 he 2 76.6 69 hi 2 70 80

so 2 93.3 60 S i 2 95 100

$2 2 60 80

S3 2 63.3 80

Sh 2 76.6 80

SS 2 71.6 Uo 60 in area 1

56 2 8 6 .6 80

57 2 98.3 1 00

58 2 95 100

59 1 63.3 80

6 0 1 60 80

6 1 1 71.6 8 0

62 2 8 6 .6 100

63 2 85 Uo 60 In area 1

59 "lab 1* 32- Baseball (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final sentlng Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment

6U 1 65 6o 65 2 81*6 60

66 2 78.3 Uo 60 in area 1 67 2 71*6 6o 68 2 70 Uo 60 in area 1

69 2 71.6 Uo Uo in area 1 70 2 61.6 Uo 60 in area 1

71 2 85 60 72 1 78.3 80 73 1 86.6 60 7U 1 70 60 75 1 63.3 60 76 2 88.3 80 77 0 70 Uo

78 2 85 60

79 2 81.6 60

80 2 70 Ud 6o in area 1 81 2 81.6 80

82 2 86.6 8 0

83 1 65 60 8U 1 65 80 60 Baseball (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment

85 1 71*6 60

86 1 70 60

87 2 85 100

61 Table V

Results of Student and Adult Judgment of the Informational Needs of Women Basketball Spectators

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep* Student resenting Final aenting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment

1 0 78.3 60

2 1 73.3 6o

3 2 88.3 80 h 2 98.3 100

5 2 65 80

6 1 66.6 60

7 2 86.6 100 8 2 71.6 Uo

9 2 75 20 6o In area 1 10 2 70 Uo 60 in area 1

11 2 8 0 .1 20 80 in area 1

12 2 80 Uo 6 0 In area 1

13 2 71.6 20 60 in area 1

Hi 2 85 20 60 in area 0 15 1 80.1 Uo 6o in area 1

16 2 80 Uo 60 in area 1

17 2 66.6 20 80 in area 1

18 2 73.3 UD 60 in area 1

19 2 93.3 80

62 T»bl« -5 - Basketball (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Rep- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final resenting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student ______Judgment 20 2 90.1 100

21 2 60.1 60

22 2 96.6 Uo 60 in area 1

23 1 86.6 60 2U 2 6 1 .6 60

25 2 8 8 .3 100

26 2 96.6 Uo 60

27 2 90.1 Uo 60

28 2 65 Uo 60

29 2 76.6 6 0

30 2 90.1 8 0

31 2 96.6 Uo 60 32 2 93.3 Uo 60

33 2 95 60 60

3U 2 8 0 .1 6 0

35 2 90.1 60

36 1 55 60

37 2 93.3 6 0

38 1 6 0.I 8 0

39 2 100 1 0 0

h0 2 71.6 20 80 in area 1 63 T a b le 5 - Basketball (Continoad)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment_____

h i 2 88.3 60 U2 1 5 8 .3 60

U3 2 66.6 Uo 6o in area 1 Uh 1 71.6 80 U5 2 90 Uo 6o in area 1 h6 2 65 Uo 60 in area 1

hi 2 90 20 BO in area 1 US 1 80.1 80 h9 1 60.1 60 50 2 93.3 80 51 1 56.6 80 52 1 70 80

53 1 6 3 .3 80 5 U 2 76.6 Uo 60 in area 1

55 2 98.3 6o

56 2 100 bO

57 2 96.6 Uo 6o in area 1

58 1 6 1 .6

59 1 80.1 6 0 60 1 90 .1 60

6U Tafc>\e. 'SL Basketball (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment_____

61 1 86.6 8 0

62 2 61.6 8 0

63 1 61.6 8 0 Table VI

Results of Student and Adult Judgment of the Informational Needs of Women Track and Field Spectators

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final santing Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment_____

1 2 83.3 100 2 2 90 100

3 2 65 80 U 2 75 100 1 56.6 6o 6 2 61.6 100

7 2 63.3 20 80 in area 1 8 1 68.3 60

9 2 70 100 10 2 76.6 100 11 2 71.6 100

12 2 85 100 13 1 65 60 1U 2 85 Uo 60 in area 1 IS 2 61.6 20 80 in area 1 16 2 61.6 Uo 60 in area 1

17 2 70 20 80 in area 1 18 2 80 80

19 1 65 80 66 Track and Field (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep­ Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep­ Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment 20 2 86.2 100

21 2 83.3 80 22 2 81.6 Uo 60 in area 1

23 1 61.6 60 2U 2 66.6 100

25 2 35 60 26 1 66.6 80

27 1 65 80 28 2 71.6 20 80 in area 1

29 1 70 80 30 2 63.6 Uo 6n in area 1 31 1 63.6 80 32 1 68.3 80 33 1 63.6 60 314 2 80 60 35 2 96.6 100 36 2 86.2 Uo 60 in area 1

37 2 85 Uo 60 in area 1 38 0 56.6 60 39 1 71*6 60 Uo 2 80 80

67 Tib)e. 5X Track arid Field (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre­ Coaches Rep­ Student resent ing Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment

U1 2 66.6 Uo 60 in area 1 U2 2 81.6 6o

U3 2 61.6 Uo 60 in area 1 uu 1 61.6 80 16 2 85 Uo 6o in a rea 1

U6 2 86.2 Uo 60 in area 1

h i 2 95 Uo 60 jn area 1

he 2 68.3 Uo 60 in area 1

h 9 1 70 60

50 0 68.3 60

68 Table VII

Results of Student and Adult Judgment of the Informational Needs of Women Tennis Spectators

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep- Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep- Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment

1 0 70 6o

2 2 86.6 60

3 1 63.3 6 0

1* 2 81,6 Uo 60 in area 1

5 2 95 100

6 2 80 ho 60 in area 1

7 2 96.6 do

8 2 100 100

9 2 100 100

10 1 6 1 ,6 60

11 2 95 100

12 2 93.3 80

13 2 80 60 m 2 96.6 Uo 60 in area 1 35 2 100 80

16 1 68.3 uo 60 in area 0

17 1 66.6 Uo 6 0 in area 0

18 1 71*6 UO 6o in area 0

19 1 60 60

69 t ,u u -sa Tennis (Continued)

Question Final Rating Percentage of Percentage of Percentage of Based Upon Students Rep­ Coaches Repre- Coaches Rep­ Student resenting Final senting Final resenting An Judgment Rating Rating Area Contrary to Student Judgment 20 2 70 Uo 60 in area 0 21 2 70 Uo 60 in area 1

22 1 58.3 60 23 1 71.6 6o 2k 2 95 100 25 1 80 80

26 1 80 60

27 2 63.3 Uo 6 ' in area 1 28 2 95 80 29 1 73.3 60

30 2 86.6 60

31 2 70 Uo 60 in area 1

70 Supplementary Sources Used to Establish Subject Matter

All data which have been secured in answer to the instructions and questionnaires on student felt needs, student judgment, and adult judgment were supplemented further with information obtained from two other sources* First, for a period of one year, the writer paid close attention to the accounts of sport events on the radio, television, and in the newspapers, books, and magasines. A record was kept, on three- by-five cards, of any information the writer felt was important or pertinent in developing the woman spectator's understanding and appre­ ciation of spectator sports. Such information was categorized under the following headings for each sport concerned* coined words describing a play, players, or any aspect peculiar to the sport; spectator attire; spectator conduct or sportsmanship; conferences, professionalism; and educational values of sports to the spectator and players. These accu­ mulated records or notes were rated by the writer who used herself as an expert to indicate the degree to which the obtained information was of value to the spectator. The effectiveness of this procedure was revealed in that there was a close relationship between those questions asked by students and those suggested through the source just discussed and recorded by the writer. The suggestions recorded by the writer were recorded to form questions and checked with student questions for rep­ etition or similarity. After a close scrutiny of questions selected by the writer andthose selected by students as indications of needs, the that questions/were not found among student questions as important but were termed important or significant according to the opinion of the writer were included as subject matter. These questions have been Indicated

71 In the unit8 of study (Chapter III) as WR, meaning that they are sug­

gested by the writer.

Second, as stated earlier, the coaches were ashed to write on

the questionnaires sent to them any suggestions or comments which they

considered as vital in terms of needed spectator information* Many of the coaches returned their questionnaires with the needed information

on adult opinion and also sent several additional suggestions* These

suggestions were weighed by the writer, acting in the capacity of an expert, in order to reach some conclusions as to their value for the

spectator* Several suggestions were too technical, thereby, considered

as unimportant for the spectator and eliminated as possible subject matter* For example, the suggestion that the spectator know the di­ mension of a tennis court was of no real value to the spectator, there­

fore eliminated* However, many suggestions from the coaches were help­ ful and could in the opinion of the writer contribute to the spectators understanding and appreciation of sports* These suggestions were re­ corded as questions and have been placed in the units of student and

labeled FC, meaning suggested by football coach; BC, baseball coach;

BaC, basketball coach; T, tennis coach; and Tc, track coach*

The units written in Chapter III are the results of an analysSs of both kinds of needs - student felt needs forming the framework of the units and adult or expert opinions on the needs of students serving as a check and as additional material to complete or further the realisa­ tion of student needs*

72 CHAPTER III

PRESENTATION OF UNITS

In this chapter, the data which have oeen secured in answer to the questionnaire^ on student felt needs, supplemented by related sources of information have been organized or arranged into suggested units of study.

The title of each unit and the order in wtich the material is pres­ ented in each unit were suggested by ten college women who collaborated with the writer for the purpose of organizing the data according to stu­ dent concepts of the logical procedure to follow in studying the sports

Involved. The women were asked the following question: "If you were a spectator, what would you like to know about the game?1* The students responded to this question by stating in question form many of the same questions gathered throughout this study, such as, "What are the names of the players?"; or "What are the duties of each player?" At this tine the writer asked another question: "Can you state these things as a big topic or big idea that could be used as a title for a unit?" In the light of the two questions mentioned, one student responded to the ques­ tion in tie following manner: "Well, how about calling this a unit on information the spectator needs to know before the game starts or lets call the unit Before the Qame.

Many titles such as Scoring, and Watching the Pitcher were estab­ lished as a result of these Interrogations and discussions between the ten students and the writer. The titles suggested were recorded by the writer and later included,wherever possible, as titles for the units included in this study. They have not been altered appreciably from the wording in which they were stated by the students. They represent the language of the student, not the adult, and the suggested order of

73 presentation or study according to student opinion*

Because the spectator should be able to follow the logical sequence of action on the field or court, the questions in each unit have also been arranged, as near as possible, according to the logical progression of the game - from pre-game information, the game in action, to additional help­ ful tips to the spectator — as expressed by student opinion supplemented by adult judgment*

The teaching units are in four divisions: Points for Discussion,

Teaching Suggestions, Required Readings, and Additional References*

Points for Discussion

The Points for Discussion, in the form of questions, represent stu­ dent needs determined as a result of analyzing and interpreting student and adult data previously discussed* These questions typify the curios­ ities and interest of college women, and, if answered, should contribute to the development of appreciative women spectator at our American games*

Although these questions may appear simple, trivial, or significant to experts, one should bear in mind that they are real and natural, and represent the thoughts of American college women deserving of sound con­ crete answers*

Many of the lead questions contain sub-questions asked by students and suggested by the coaches and the writer* These questions although originally asked as separate or individual questions are really suggested in the lead questions, which were also originally asked as individual questions, and have been listed as sub-questions because they augment the topic or main question* Responses to these questions will give greater meaning and clarify to the lead questions because they constitute an essential or Integral part of the lead question necessary to complete

7U * meaningful answer*

Teaching Suggestions

The Teaching Suggestions provide opportunities for clarifying the answers to the questions involved In each unit*

Response to the curiosities of the students can be manifested by active student participation in classroom, laboratory and campus expe­ riences in which answers to the questions may be found or established*

Teaching aids will also magnify the responses needed to provide meaning, simplify understanding, and promote appreciation*

These suggestions are not exhaustive* Others will reveal them­

selves as teaching progresses*

Required Readings

These references are for both student and teachers* They represent the minimal number of references needed, in the opinion of the writer, to serve as sources for the teacher and the student on the problem1concerned in each unit* They are also suggested as the least technical sources for the sports fan to read*

Additional References

Obviously, there are many source books on varsity or spectator sports* Although many of these references have been written for the coach and the player, a wise teacher and a curious sports fan will avail herself of the opportunity to be well versed in the various as­ pects of the subject by reading some of these references*

7$ Source of Information

Immediately following each question is a symbol Indicating the origin of the question* The origin of each question has been established as follows: (1) the question was obtained from or suggested by college women, CW; (2) the question was suggested by the writer, WR; or (3) the question was suggested by the coach of the particular sporti FC, foot­ ball coach; 3C, oaseball coach; BaC, basketball coach; Tc, track coach; and T, tennis coach*

76 APPRECIATION AND UNDERSTANDING FOOTBALL

Before the Game

Unit I - Getting to Know the Team and Playing Equipment

Phases Included in Unit:

Positions of players Duties of players Qualifications of players Platoon system Uniform Ball Playing field ■^Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion:

1* What are the names and positions of the players? CW

1.I What is a linesman? WR 1*2 What is a backfield man? CW 1*3 What is a triple threat tail back? CW 1*U Does a players number indicate the position he plays? FC

2* What are some of the mental and physical characteristics of football players? FC

2*1 Why are football players spoken of as men with muscles and no brains? CW

3* What are the duties of each player? CW

3*1 Why can't any man on a team run out for a pass? CW

iu What is the two-platoon system? CW

iu 1 What is a defensive team? FC lw2 What is an offensive team? FC U* 3 Why was the two-platoon system done sway with? CW

5* What are the new rules on free substitution and how does this affect the platoon system? CW

6* What are the different kinds of kicks in football? CW

*CW - Question obtained from college women* FC - Question obtained from football coaches WR - Question suggested by writer* 7. What is blocking and tackling? FC 8. What does a complete football uniform consist of? WR

9. What is the difference between a brown oall end a white ball? WR

9.1 Why are the balls called “pig skins"? WR 10. What are the names of the various parts of the field? FC ID.1 What is the end xone? CW ID.2 What are the white lines running across the field? CW 10.3 What is the telephone on the sideline for? CW

Teaching Suggestions*

Class discussion of questions in this unit. Let thestudent select a team in class and place the players in their basic positions. Let the class decide on some of the physical and mental characteristics of football players.

Arrange for the students to watch the college team practice; then request them to pick a first string team to represent the college on the basis of characteristics previously established for players in their respective positions.

Ask the students to give pro and con views on the free substitution rule and the two-platoon system.

Bring a complete uniform to class; let the students figure out the cost of the total uniform.

Dress a student in complete attire.

Let the students find out why the ball is called a “pig skin". Show a short film on beginning football* Required Readings*

Bible, D. X* Championship Football. New Yorks Prentice-Ha11, Inc., 19U9, pp. 1-5; 7-lOj 1*7-1* 9; &1; ^-87; 130; 135-lWU; 163. Caldwell, Charles, W. Modern Football For The Spectator. New York* J. B. Idppincott Company, 19f?i, pp. 15-25>; 1*2-7 U.

Cerf, B. "Trade Winds - Double Platoon System". Saturday Review of literature, 32 (December 17, 19l*9), p. 1*. Leahy, Frank. Notre Dame Football. New York* Prentice-Hall, Inc., 191*9, pp. 1-11; 222-221*; 229-23^.

78 "One Platoon System Is Back*1. Life, 3l(May 11, 1953), pp* 1U7-8.

Waltz, G. H. "Making Pig Skins Out of Cowhide”. Popular Science, 5?(October 1950), pp. 11*2-11*3.

Sport Goods Catalogue.

Additional Referencess

Cummings, Parke. The Dictionary of Sports. New Yorkj A. S. Barnes and Company, 19 U9. (Use as a dictionary)•

Faurot, Don. Football* Secrets of the "Split T Formation". New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952, pp. 5&-6o> 338-31*0.

KA111nger, Glen, W. Football. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company 1939, pp. 12-1*3; 125-128.

"End of An Era; Substitution Rule". Time, 6l(January 26, 1953), p* U5»

Lowe and Campbell. Athletic Field and Court Diagrams. Lowe and Campbell Athletic Goods, 1953-

"Emotionalism in Football". Scholastic Coach, 22(October 1952), p. 5.

N.C.A.A. Official Football Rule Book. (Published yearly).

Wilkinson, Charles. Oklahoma Split T Football. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952, pp. £-5; 5&-60.

79 Going Into Action

Unit II - Advancing the Ball

Phases Included in Units

Starting the game - Flip of coin; Kick-off line of scrimmage Huddle Offensive formations Defensive formations Plays Signal system for plays Downs Indentity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1* How is the decision made as to which team should kick-off? CW

1.1 Why is the team permitted to kick the ball over at the start of the half? CW

2. Is there a special formation for the kick-off? CW

3. What does line of scrimmage mean? CW

lu What goes on in the huddle? CW

iu1 Who decides what the next play will be? CW iu 2 Is a team always required to huddle? WR

5. What are the various offensive formations in football? CW

5*1 What is T-formation? CW 5.2 What is the single-wing and double-wing formation? CW 5.3 What is split T-formation? CW 5.U What is spread formation? CW 5.5 What is punt formation? CW

6. What are some of the defensive formations? CW

6.1 What does the announcer mean when he says 6-2-2-1, 5-li and "umbrella" defense? CW 6.2 What is 6-3-2 and 7-2-1 defense? CW 6.3 What is a "line backer"? CW 6.U What is a "safety man"? CW 6.5 What is a "secondary"? CW

7. What are some of the commonly known plays in football? CW

7.1 What is a "trap play"? CW 7.2 What is a "quarter back sneak"? CW 7.3 What is a "statue of liberty" play? CW 7.U What Is a "screen" pass? CW 7.5 Wtmt is a "lateral"? CW 7.6 W*mt is a "flanker"? CW 7.7 What is a "spinner" play? CW 7.8 What is a "quick opener" and "cross buck"? CW 7.9 What are "end-around" and"off-tackle" plays? CW 7*10 What are "reverse" plays? CW

8. What signals and timing devices are used by the teams to designate each play and when to begin it? CW

9. What are some of the terms used to express playing techniques? WE

10. What is a down? CW

10.1 Why does a team usually kick on the fourth down? CW 10.2 What is the purpose of the turn over sigr. numbered 1 to It held by a man at the opposite side of the playing field? CW

11. How do the officials and the players determine when a play is finished? CW

11,1 When one player kicks the ball and no one touches it* why do all the players run toward the ball with their arms in the air and yell "don't touch it"? CW

12* What is considered good ethics among players of opposing teams?

Teaching Suggestionst

Discuss questions in this unit.

Let the students select teams in class and arrange them in the various offensive and defensi-ve formations.

Run a simple play from one of the formations and then let the students decide on the line of scrimmage.

Let one of the offensive teams selected during class time execute a huddle and return to the line of scrimmage for a play; then let a defensive team establish a formation.

Arrange for the class to watch the varsity practios In order to see some of the plays in action and hear some of the signals and timing devices.

Run several simple plays off in class; use huddle, signals, and timing devices; then let the class determine yardage and downs.

Request the students to work in groups of two and keep a gams chart of a scheduled varsity game - show time gams started, who kicked-off, where ball was received, and returned to, downs, and notes on forma­ tions used. Show a short film of a football game, stress formations, and plays*

Required Readings:

Bible, D. X* Championship Football* New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1917, pp. 87-09; 96-129; 163-181*5 £li0-2li:u

Caldwell, Charles, W. Modern Football for the Spectator. New York: J. B. Idpplncott Company, 195>3, pp. 27-Iil.

Faurot, Don. Football: Secrets of the ’♦Split T-Formation". New York* Prentice-Hall, inc., 1950, pp. 3U0-3l*l*

Leahy, Frank. Notre Dame Football - The T-Formation. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., I£h9, pp. '£^2-228. Additional References:

"T Secrets". Time, 9U(September 19, 19h9), p. 93.

Killinger, Glen, W. Football. New York: A. S. barnes and Company, 1939, pp. 2U-25. Leahy, Frank. Defensive Football. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1991, pp. 1-7; 189-193. Meyer, L. R. Spread Formation Football. New York: Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1992, pp. 15-12.

Munn, C. L. "Signal Systems". Athletic Journal. 30(June* 1990), p. 9. Treat, Ro^er. The Official National Football League Encyclopedia. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1953.

Wilkinson, Charles. Oklahoma Split T Football. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1992, pp. 9-^9.

02 Unit III - Scorings Objectives of the Game

Areas of Concentration

Ways of scoring Terms used to express a score Official. signal for a score Identity of origin of question

Riases Included in Units

1* What is a touchdown? CW

1*1 Why are touchdowns resulting from a pass caught outside the end sone declared no score? FC 1*2 What is "pay dirt"? CW 1*3 How many points are given for a touchdown? CW

2• What is a safety? CW

2*1 Under what conditions can a safety occur? CW 2.2 How many points are given for a safety? CW

3. What is a touchback? CW

In What is a field goal? CW

lnl When can a field goal be kicked? CW in 2 Why are second tries given? WR In3 How many points are given for a field goal? CW

5. How many ways can a team make an extra point? CW

5*1 Why are second tries given for an attempt for an extra point for kicking? CW

6 . If a running play, a kick, or apass playis In progress when game time Is declared over, does the scorestand if the play Is completed under one of the scoring opportunities? WR

7. How does the official signal a touchdown, safety, field goal, and extra point? CW

8* How are football box scores and statistics written up for news­ paper references? WR

9» What are the various data kept on the scoreboard? WR

Teaching Suggestions*

Discuss questions in this unit.

Demonstrate the official signals for scores*

Let the class keep score during the inter-squad scrimmage. Use class members and demonstrate the difference between a safety and a touchback*

Have students bring in box scores and statistics of games from the newspapers and discuss them in class*

Request the students to continue keeping a game chart of each home game*

Required Readings!

Caldwell, Charles W . Modem Football for the Spectator* New York: J* B. LLppincott Compeer, 1953, pp*' 1dU-10^*

Cummings, Parke* Dictionary of Sports* New Yorki A. S. Barnes and Company, 19U9, pp. 561-^68. (Use also as a dictionary to find meaning of terms)*

N.C.A.A. Official Football Rule hook* 1^3*

Current Newspapers - Sport Pages*

Additional References!

Menke, Frank* Encyclopedia of Sports* New Yorki A. S. Barnes and Company, 19h^*

Treat, Roger* The Official National Football League Encyclo­ pedia, New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1 9^3 * Unit IV - Fouls, Penalties and Officials

Phases Included In Unit:

Common fouls Penalties for fouls Officials and their duties Official signals Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1. What are some of the coTrmon fouls that occur in football? CW

1*1 What Is offside? CW 1*2 What is backfield inmotion? CW 1*3 What is roughing the kicker? CW 1*U What is holding? CW 1*5 What is illegal use of the hands?CW 1*6 What is clipping? CW 1»7 What is pass Interference? CW l*d What is intentionally grounding theball? CW 1*9 What constitutes delaying the game?CW

2m What are the penalties imposed for the common fouls in football? CW

2.1 Refer to fouls in No. 1 above.

3. Why does a team sometimes refuse a penalty and other times accept it? CW

U. What are the official signals for each foul? CW

5. Who are the officials and what are their duties? CW

5.1 What are the requirements for being an official and how are they chosen so as to be Impartial? CW

6 . What does a "flag1* or a •handkerchief on the play mean? CW

7. For what reason can a player be put out of the game? CW

Teaching Suggestionst

Discuss questions In this unit*

Demonstrate some of the fouls by setting up game situations In class.

Watch a scriimnage game and look for fouls*

Set up a penalty situation in class and let the students decide whether to accept or reject the penalty.

85 Demonstrate official signals*

let the students practice giving official signals*

Obtain student opinion on the relationship of officials with players, coaches and spectators.

Invite an official in to talk to the class on officiating, and signals*

Required Readings s

Bible, D. X* Championship Football, New York* Prentice-Hall, Inc*, 19h9f pp* 2ii3-21*lu

Caldwell, Charles W. Modern Football for the Spectator* New York* J. B* IAppincott Company, 1953, pp* 75-108*

Cummings, Parke. Dictionary of Sports* New Yorkt Prentice- Hall, Inc*, pp* 567-563* (Use filso as a dictionary).

Faurot, Don* Football - Secrets of the "Split T-Formatlon11* New York* Prentice-Hall, Inc*, 1950, pp* 3U3-3li5*

Additional References*

N*C.A*A* Official Football Rule Bool:, 1953*

86 Unit V - Time

Phases Included in Units

Game time Time to put the ball in play Time out Stopping the clock Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1* What is the official playing time for a football game? CW

2* How much time is allowed to put the ball in play? CW

3* When can time out be called? CW

3.1 How do the players know that time is in for play? WR

iu How much time is allowed for time out? CW

5. How many time outs can a team have? WR 6. How much time is allowed to huddle? CW

7. When is the clock stopped? CW

Teaching Suggestionss

Discuss questions in this unit.

Suggest that the students watch the clock during the game and notice when it stops and starts.

Required Readingss

N.C.A.A. Official Football Rule Book. (Read sections on Time)*

87 Unit VI - Additional Tips to the Spectator

Phases Included In Units

Tips on how to watch the game Spectator conduct - sportsmanship Spectator attire Organization and administration of football Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1* What should a spectator look for in terms of good team play and strategy? CW

1*1 Should the spectator follow the oall or the player? CW

2• What is the best type of relationship between the spectator and the officials; the spectator and the players; the spectator and the coach; the spectator and cheerleaders? WR

2.1 Is it good for the spectator to be a "side line coach" or a "grandstand quarterback"? CW 2*2 What is accepted sportsmanship at a football game for the players and spectators? WR 2.3 Why is sportsmanship necessary? WR 2. li Who is responsible for the spectators display of good or bad sportsmanship? WR

3. What is considered correct attire for women at a football game? CW

Lu How are the various conferences established? CW

5. What are eligibility rules? CW

6 . What are the differences betweenprofessional football and college football? CW

7. What is :T,C.A.A.? CW

8. What are the educational values of football? WR

9* What is "skull practice"? CW

10. What is subsidizing and recruiting? WR

11. What college roup controls the football program? WR

11.1 What part should the alumni play in the athletic program? WR

12. What does a ticket buy? WR 38 12.1 What does the spectator get out of the footbaU game? WR

13* What is the human element in football? WR

13*1 Why do the players want to play? WR 13*2 What value is football to the spectator? WR

Teaching Suggestions*

Discuss questions in this unit*

Request the students to bring in articles on spectator c< nduct and present examples of spectator conduct they have witnessed*

Brinr out the pros and cons of spectator conduct.

Ask the students to bring in pictures of the attire of women at a football game*

Request the students to survey their college pro -ran of athletics*

Request the students to establish several educational values of football.

Required Readings*

Caldwell, Charles W. Modern Football for the Spectator* New York* J. o. Idppincott Con^ai^7^^37~-ppT-l097_^ 7 ^

Daley, A. "How to Watch Football"• New York: Times Magazine, (October 9, 19i*9), pp* 16-17*

"Football For Fans". Time, 56(N6vember 6 , 1930), p. I4I4 .

Oberteuffer, Delbert. "Sportsmanship - Whose Responsi­ bility?" Journal of Health, Physical Education, 19(October, 191*8), pp. $hy-$U£i 573-577.

Wilkinson, C. B. "How to Watch Football". Saturday Evening Post, 223(November, 1951), p* 19*

Additional References*

Bible, D. X. Championship Football. New York* Prentice- Hall, Inc., 191*9, pp. a*D-2ii6.

Faurot, Don. Secrets of the "Split T-Formation". New York* Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19^0, pp* 336-31*6*

Leahy, Frank. Defensive Football* New Yorkt Prentice- Hall, Inc., 1951, pp. 169-193.

8 9 Little, Lou* How to Watch Football - The Spectators Guide. New Yorki McGraw-Hill Company, 1935*

Woodward, S* “Football vs Baseball vs Fans". New York Times Magazine, (November 26, 1950), p. 22*

Bryson, L. L» “Sportsmanship as a Characteristic of an Enlightened People"* Journal of Health and Physical Education, 19(Nobember, 19U8), * 596*

90 APPRECIATING AND UNDERSTANDING BASEBALL

Before the Game

Unit I - Learning To Know Your Team and Its Playing Equipment

Riases Included in Units

Names of players Positions on the field Playing field Playing equipment ^Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1. What are the names of the players and the positions they assume on the field? CW

1*1 What is the battery? CW 1,2 How many pitchers can pitch in one game? CW

2. What are the basic qualifications of each player in terms of positions played? WR

2.1 What is a "good glove" man? CW 2.2 What is a "good stick" man? CW

3. What are the names of the various parts of the playing field and areas around the field? WR

3.1 What is the infield? CW 3.2 What is the little box on the side of the firstand third base line? CW 3*3 What is the bull pen? CW 3.U What is the outfield? WR 3*5 What is the dug-out? WR

is. What is "fungo"? CW

Teaching Suggestions)

Discuss the questions in the unit.

Let the students diagram a playing field and place the players in their respective positions.

-"CW - Question obtained from college women. BO - Question obtained from baseball coaches, WR - Question suggested by writer.

91 Take the class to the college baseball diamond and place several students on the field as players.

Let the class watch the varsity practice and then select a team according to qualifications of players.

Ask the students to bring in articles on well known baseball players and their abilities.

Required Readings:

Coombs, John W* Baseball, New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc,, 1950, pp, 3, 51, 6 2, Ik, 8«, 90, 1 0 6, 127.

CuimaingB, Parke, Dictionary of Baseball, New York: A, S. Barnes and Company, 1953* PP* 28-25. (Use also as a dictionary to find meaning of terms),

Jesse, Daniel E. Baseball, New York:A, S. Barnes and Company, 1939# pp. H , 23, 3 1 , hi, $h, 59.

Paley, A, ,rWhat Hakes A Great Player", New York Times Magazine, (April 16, p. 22,

Stublefield, C. "Heart of Your Defense: Pitching and Catching", Athletic Journal, 23(April, 1953), P. 28,

Additional References:

Cuozzo, T, "Individual Styles in Baseball"• Athletic Journal, 30(March, 195>0), p. 28,

Turkin, H., and Thompson, S, C. The Official Encyclopedia of baseball. New York: A, S, Barnes and dompany, 1953,

Sports Catalogues,

92 The Game in Action

Unit II - Watching the Pitcher and the Catcher

Phases Included in Units

Pitching position Kinds of pitches Relationship between pitcher and catcher Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1. What does "on the rubber" mean? CW

2* What is "balk motion"? CW

3. What is a balk? CW

lu What are the different kinds of pitches? WR

lul What is a "crossfire" ball? CW h.2 What is a "change-of-pace" pitch? CW U*3 What is a "sinker"? CW U.h What is a "knuckle ball"? CW h*S What is a "sailer"? CW U* 6 What is a "split ball"? CW lu 7 What is a "hesitation" pitch? CW 5* What is a pitch out? CW

6 . Can a pitcher throw side am? CW

7* What are some of the signals used by catchers to tell the pitcher what kind of a pitch to deliver? CW

8. Why so much ado over right handed batters against left handed pitchers and visa versa? CW

Teaching Suggestions*

Discuss questions in this unit*

Ask one of the college pitchers to demonstrate the correct pitching positions, "balk notion", and a "balk"*

Arrange for the class to watch a college practice game and observe deliveries of the various kinds of pitches*

Ask the class to bring in articles on current professional pitchers and the kinds of pitches they are known for*

Show a short film on pitching*

93 Required Readings:

Allen, Ethan* Major League baseball. New York: Macmillan Company, 1939, pp. 28-hU. "

Coombs, John W. Baseball* New York: Prentice-Kail, Inc*, 1950, pp* 3-29.

Paxton, H. T. "Riey Can All Be Pitched To". Saturday Evening Post, 225(May 23, 1953), P« 21*

Stublefield, C* "Heart of Your Defense; Pitching and Catching**. Athletic Journal, 23(April, 1953), p. 28.

Official Baseball Rule Book.

Additional References:

Jesse, Daniel E. Baseball. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1939, p- 1-21. Smilgoff, J* "What's the Pitch?" Athletic Journal, 30 (March, 1950), p. 16.

Vogel, 0. H. "Types of Pitches". Athletic Journal, 32 (March, 1952), pp. 6 -8*

9h Unit III - Watching the Batting Game

Phases Included in Unit:

Kinds of batters Batting order Kinds of batted balls; Strikes; Balls When the batter is out Batters right to become a base runner Plays developing from a batting position Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion:

1. What are some of the different types of batters? WE

1.1 What is a "switch hitter"? CW 1.2 What is a "waiter"? CW 1.3 What is a "pull hitter"? CW

2. How is batting order established? WE

2.1 What are the qualifications of a lead-off man, clean-up batters, etc.? CW 2.2 What is the penalty for batting out of turn? CW

3. What is "in the hole", and "on deck"7 CW

h. What is "stepping in the bucket"? CW

5. What are the different kinds of batted balls? WR

$»1 What is an Illegally batted ball? CW 5*2 What is a bunt? CW 5*3 When is it advisable to bunt? CW 5.U What is a foul ball? CW 5.5 What is a "liner"? CW 5.6 What is a "texas leaguer"? BC £•7 What is a "blooper"? WR

6 * What is a strike? WR

6.1 Why is a foul ball sometimes called a strike and at other times it is not a strike? CW 6.2 Can a batter bunt on the third strike? CW 6.3 What is "took it downstairs"? CW 6.1: What is a "hit or take signal"? CW

7. Under what conditions is the batter entitled to abase? CW

7.1 On a "deliberate walk" can the batter attempt to hit the ball? CW

9$ 7 * 2 If the batter is hit by a pitched ball, is he always entitled to a base? CW 7*3 What is interference called on the catcher? CW 7*U Does the batter get a base on a balk? CW 7.5 What is a fair hit ball? WR

8* Under what conditions is the batter out? CW

8*1 Is the batter automatically out on a called strike and on a third strike foul tip? CW 8*2 Is the batter out if he hits the ball and it bounces back and hits him? CW 8*3 What is the infield fly rule? CW

9* What are some of the offensive plays which might develop from the batting position? WR

9*1 What is a *sacrifice”? CW 9.2 What is a "hit and run" play? CW 9.3 What does "hitting behind the runner" scan? CW 9*U What is a "suicide" play? CW 9*5 What is a squeeze play? CW

Teaching Suggestions:

Discuss the questions in the unit*

Arrange for the class to watch the team practice anddetermine the kind of batter each player represents*

Arrai^e for the class to watch the team practice and then establish a batting order according to batting abilities of players.

Use students in the class and set up conditions under which a batter is out*

Use students and set up conditions under which a batter is entitled to a base*

Ask the college coach to set up plays during practice and let the class watch and discuss them

Ask the class to bring in articles on current professional batters and plays*

Show a short film on batting*

Required Readings:

Bolin, C* E* "Batters UpJ" Scholastic Coach. 19(March, 1 ?5 0 ), pp. 1 0-1 1 *

Coombs, John W* Baseball* New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc*, 1950, pp. 127-1U3} 171-TT5; Masin, 1!. C. "The Old Bat Magic", Scholastic Coach, 55 (September 2 1, 19h9), p* 28.

Meany, T. "Where are i^aseball's 300 Hitters?" Collleraj 131 (February 7, 1553)> PP* l6-19»

Official Baseball Rule Book.

Additional References:

Allen, £• "Swing in Batting". Scholastic Coach. 2 0 (February, 1551), pp. 10-11.

Boyer, C. K. "Hit and Run". Scholastic Coach. 20(March, 1950), p. 1 0.

Cummings, Parke. Dictionary of Baseball. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1953*

Cummings, Parke. The Dictionary of Sports. New Yorki A. S. Barnes and Compaq, 1914.9.

TurkLn, Hy and Thompson, S. C. The Official Encyclopedia of Baseball. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1953. Unit 17 - Watching the Base Runner $ Attempt to Score

Phases Included in Unitt

The man on base Offensive strategy of base runner Defensive plays Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1* Under what conditions is a man on base entitled to another base? CW

2. How far can a base runner go off the base if he is "fooling11 a steal? CW

3* Under what conditions can a base runner be put out? CW

3*1 What is the penalty for failing to touch a base? CW 3,2 If a base runner is hit ay a batted ball, is he out? CW 3*3 Why does a baseman have to tag the runner sometimes and just tag the base on other occasions? CW

Lu What are the best ways of sliding into a base? CW

5, Is deliberate spiking Justifiable? CW

6 , What are some of the different defensive plays that might occur during offensive attempts to reach a base or to score? WR

6.1 What is an "assist"? CW 6.2 What is a "run-down"? CW 6.3 What is "fielders choice"? CW 6,1* What is a double and a triple play? CW 6.5 What is a "pick-off" play? CW 6 .6 What does 1* to 3* 5 to li, etc,, mean? CW 6.7 What is a "trapped" ball? CW 6 ,6 What is interference or obstruction? CW

Teaching Suggestions!

Discuss the questions in this unit.

Demonstrate some of the conditions under which a base runner may be put out, or may be entitled to another base.

Arrange for the class to watch the varsity demonstratesons of the defensive plays and base sliding,

Request the class to watch one of the varsity games andrecord outs according to players involved - U to 3, etc. Required Readings!

Allen, Ethan, Major League Baseball. New York: Macmillan Company, 1939, pp. 62-209.

Coombs, John. Baseball. New York: Prentice-hall, Inc., 1 9 5 1 , pp, lULi-1 7 0.

Official Baseball Rule Book.

Additional References:

Cummings, Parke. Dictionary of Sports. New York* A. S. Barnes and Company, 19b?.

Jesse, Daniel. Baseball. New York* A. S. Barnes and Company, 1939, pp. 76-551

99 Unit V - Coaching, Umpiring and Errors

Phases Included in Unit:

Coaches and their signals Officials and their signals Determining errors Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion:

1* Why are baseball coaches legally permitted to signal plays vhila such action is considered unethical in other sports? CW

2. What are some of the signals used by the coaches on the base line to inform the batter and base runners what to do? CW

3* How many officials are there in the game? CW

U. What are the duties of each official? CW

U.1 Does the home plate umpires decision take precedence over other decisions made by uase umpires? CW

5. What are the official signals for a strike, out, safe, etc.? CW

6 . How is an error determined? CW

7. Who determines whether or not an error has been committed? CW

7.1 If two people are involved in a play in which an error occurs, how does one decide who is guilty of the error? CW

Teaching Suggestions:

Discuss questions in this unit.

Demonstrate 3 one of the coaching signals.

Demonstrate the signals of the officials.

Arrange for the class to watch a varsity game and a nalyee situations in which errors occur.

Required Readings:

Coombs, Jack. Baseball. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951, pp. 165-170; 265-296.

Daley, A. "What They Say To the Umpire”. American Magaelne, lii9(June, 1950), pp. Ii6-ii7. Jesse, Daniel. Baseball. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1939, pp. 85-39.

"Runs, Hits, Errors". New York Tiroes Magazine, (April 15, 1951), p. 14u Additional References:

Ruzicka, E. E. "Coaching Signals In baseball". Athletic Journal. 33(March, 1953), p. lU*

Turkin, Hy and Thompson, S. The Encyclopedia of Baseball. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1953.

lei Unit VI - Additional Tips For the Spectator

Phases Included in Unit:

Averages Keeping record of the game Box scores Leagues and Farm Teams Rookie of the year and most valuable player Spectator conduct Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion:

1« How is a fielding average computed? CW

2. Why is .300 considered a good batting average? CW

3. How can a spectator keep a record of hits* bases on balls* outs* etc.* during a game? CW

1*. What do the letters 0* RBI* etc.* mean in the box score? CW

5. How ard the various leagues - AAA* A* B* C, American and National - organized? CW

6 . What is a "farm" team? CW

7. How is rookie of the year and most valuable player determined? CW

8. Why are fines placed on professional players? CW

9m Is booing an accepted thing at baseball games? WR

10. What is considered wholesome relationship between the spectator and the officials? WR

11. If a baseball player plays "pro*1 baseball can he participate in other varsity sports if he returns to college? WR

Teaching Suggestions:

Discuss questions in this unit.

Let the students compute averages from data obtained from the college game chart sheets.

Request the students to bring in data on .300 hitters.

Give score cards to the class and let each student keep a record of a varsity game. 102 Let the students discuss box scores brought in from current sports pages*

Let the students vote for rookie of the year and most valuable player on a selected team*

Arrange to take the class to a major league game*

Required Readings:

Coombs, John* Baseball, New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc*, 1951, pp. 179-222; 225-2^0.

Cummings, Parke, Dictionary of Sports* New York: A, S. Barnes and Company, 1949, pp. 5>56-55>8*

Louchhein, A, B, 11 Now The Booing Is Done In Soprano; Sports Minded Females"* New York Times Magazine, (September 1;, 1949), p. 17.

"Right That Wrong; Right of Baseball Fans To Insult the Players". Colliers, 126(JuIy 29, 1950), p. 7U.

Stone, Naomi* "Learn To Enjoy Baseball", Charm, (April, 1952), pp. 150-151.

Additional References:

Daley, A. "This is Baseball", New York Times Magasine, (April 12, 1953), pp. 78-79.

Daley, A* "Superfan". American Magazine, 15l(June, 1951), pp. 110-113.

Meany, T. "You're A Big league Rookie"* Colliers, 131 (March 14, 1953), pp. 20-22.

Simmons, H* "So You Think You Know Baseball"* Saturday Evening Post* 223(April 21, 1951), p. 1514 . (A continued series)*

"What Percentage". Newsweek, 34(June 2, 1952), p* 16*

103 APPRECIATING AND UNDERSTANDING BASKETBALL

Before the Qeroe

Unit I - Getting Acquainted With the Players and the Court

Phases Included In Unit*

Players, positions, and duties - The team; The Court Identity of origin of question

ft>ints for Discussion*

1. What are the names of the players, their positions, and their duties? CW

1*1 Can aiy member on the team shoot for a basket? CW 1*2 How many substitutes can be used in a game? CW 1.3 Is it necessary for the players to line up a special way for the center jump at thebeginning of each half? CW

2. What are sone of the qualifications for basketball players? WR

2.1 Is the short man loosing his place in varsity basketball? CW 2*2 What is a "set shot" artist? CW 2*3 What is a "good ball handler"? CW 2.1* What does one mean when he calls a player a "good morale man"? CW 2.5 What is a "ball hawk"? CW 2.6 What is a "pace-setter"? CW 2.7 What is an "offensive man", and a "defensive man"? CW

3. If the visiting team has on uniforms the same color as the home team, what happens? CW

U. The basketball courts seem to be different sizes. Is there an official size court? CW

5« What is the "key hols"? CW

6 . What is the "bucket"? CW

7. What is front and back court? CW

CW - Question obtained from college women. WR - Question obtained from the writer. BaC- Question obtained from basketball coach, Teaching Suggestions!

Discuss questions In this unit*

Select students in the class and arrange them In the correct positions for the starting center jump*

Request the students to Interview the varsity players and f lnd out their height; then calculate the team height*

Arrange for the class to watch varsity practice and then let them select a first string team according to the observed abilities of the players.

Required Readings!

Cummings, Parke* Dictionary of Sports* New York* A* S. Barnes and Company, 1919 • (Use to find definitions)*

Hobson, Howard. Scientific Basketball* New York* Prentice- Hall, Inc., 19h9, pp. 103-112*

Holman, Nat* Holman on Basketball* New York: Crown Pub­ lishers, Inc*, 1950, p. 15*

Official Basketball Guide Book, 1953.

Additional References:

Hobson, Howard. Basketball Illustrated. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 192*8, pp. 9-1*6.

Luge rot, 0. F. "Eliminating the Tall Man's Advantage". Athletic Journal, 30(February, 1950), pp. 50-52.

105 Action on the Court

Unit II - Watching Offensive and Defensive Play

Phases Included in Unitt

Plays on the offensive Defensive Scoring Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussiont

1* What are some of the well kncwn plays in basketball? CW

1*1 What is a pivot play? CW 1.2 What is "set offense"? CW 1.3 What is a "sleeper"? CW l*ii What is a "stalling attack"? CW 1.5 What is a "screen" play? CW 1*6 What is a "figure eight" play? CW 1*7 What is a "fast break"? CW 1*8 What is an "assist"? CW 1*9 Is "freezing" the ball considered a good offensive technique or is it considered as being too careful or even coward? CW

2. How do the players determine what defense to use against an opponent? CW

2*1 What is cone defense? CW 2*2 What is a shifting zone defense? CW 2.3 What is a "pressing" defense? CW 2*1* What is "man to man"? CW

3* How nary points are scored for a field goalj for a foul shot? BC

3.1 What is "slicing the post"? CW 3*2 Is the point good if after the ball has left the hands of the shooter the buzzer sounds add thdn the ball enters the basket? CW

Teaching Suggestions!

Discuss qiestions in this unit*

Arrange for the class to watch varsity practice and watch the varsity demonstrate some of the well known plays and defenses in basketball*

Arrange for the class bo watch a scrimmage game and let the students keep the score of t he gams * Show a film of a basketball game*

Required Readings:

Cummings, Parke• Dictionary of Sports, New Yorki A, S. Barnes and Company, 191*9* (Use to find definitions of terms)*

Hobson, Howard* Scientific Basketball* New York: Prentice- Hall, Inc*, 191*9, pp. 133-11*1*; U*5-lU9j W - l f l 8.

Rupp. Adolph. Rupp1s Championship Basketball* New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc*, 191*o, pp. 7 5 j bl+j 96 j i59.

Additional References:

Bunn, J. W. "Zone Hysteria"• Athletic Journal, 32(January, 1952), P. U .

Hobson, Howard* Basketball Illustrated* New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 191*^3, pp* 63-76*

Hopper, E* "Figure Eight Offensive"• Athletic Journal, 33(October, 1952), p. 26.

Moon, P. C. "Fast Break Principles". Athletic Journal, 3 1 (0ctober, 1 9 5 0), pp. 13-15.

Ward, S. "Applying the *ull Court Press". Athletic Journal, 32(December, 1951), p* 20*

107 Unit III - Calling Fouls and Violations

Phases Included in Unit:

Violations and penalties Fouls and penalties Jump balls Officials and their signals Spectator conduct Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion:

1* What is a violation? CW

1*1 What does "3 seconds" mean? CW 1*2 What is "back court"? CW 1*3 What is "palming the ball"? CW l*li How many steps can a player takebefore shooting or passing the ball? CW 1*5 Is kicking the ball legal? CW 1*6 If a player steps on the boundary line is he out- of-bounds? CW 1.7 What does "in the circle" mean? CW 1*8 What happens when a player in possession of the ball is forced out-of-bounds by his opponent? CW 1*9 Why does the official have to touch the ball before it can be put In play from out-of-bounds? CW

2* What is the difference between a technical and a personal foul? CW

3* What are some of the common fouls in basketball and what penalties are imposed for them? CW

3*1 What is elbowing? CW 3*2 How does the referee distinguish between charging and blocking? CW 3*3 There seems to be a considerable amount of personal contact that is not "called" during the game* Why isn't all personal contact recognized as a foul? CW 3.U What determines whether a player gets one or two free shots? CW

U* How many fouls disqualify a player? CW

5* If two fouls are called at the same time on different players, what happens? CW

6 * Why was the one and one foul shot rule put in men's basketball CW 7 What is the two minute rule in basketball? CW 7*1 Isn't the two minute rule an unfair advantage for the team that is ahead? CW

6 . What are the various reasons for calling jump ball? CW

9* How many officials are necessary for a game and what are their duties? CW

9*1 Does the referee's decision take precedence over the umpire's decision? CW 9*2 Can a coach have an official's decision changed? CW

1 0* What are the official signals for fouls and violations? CW

11* Who is responsible for a spectator who Interferes with the game? CW

11*1 What is considered good spectator conduct at a game? WR

12* What is the relationship between the officials and the spectators? WR

Teaching Suggestions:

Discuss questions in this unit*

Arrange for a basketball official to discuss fouls, violations, and officiating with the class*

Request the class to watch a varsity game and keep a record of the common fouls and the nunfcer occuring.

Let the class practice the official signal*

Ask the students to give examples of spectator conduct*

Required Readings:

Official Basketball Guide* 19?3*

"Basketball Changes". Scholastic Coach* 21(May, 1952), pp. 16-17. Kaifman, M. D* "Consistency in Officiating”. Scholastic Coach, 21 (October, 1951), P* 26*

Additional References:

Mitchell, Elmer. Sports Officiating* New York: A* S* Barnes and Company, 19li9*

Cummings, Parke. Dictionary of Sports* New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 191*9* Unit 17 - How Much Time?

Phases Induced in Units

Length of playing time Time-out Overtime Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1. How long is the playing time of a game? CW

1*1 When is the clock stopped during the regular playing time? CW

2* How many time outs are allowed for each team? CW

2.1 When and for what reason can time out be called? CW 2.2 Who can call time out? CW

3* What is the overtime rule? CW

3.1 Can a team have as many time-outs as they want in an overtime period? CW

U* How does one read the time clock? CW

5. How long can the players "stall* the ball? CW

Teaching Suggestions!

Discuss questions in this unit*

Arrange for some of the students in the class to be timekeepers at a scrimmage game*

Request the class to keep a record of time-outs during a varsity game*

Required Readings:

Henderson, 0* L* "Those Basketball Rules"* American Associ- ation of Health* Physical Education and Recreation Journal* 23 (fcbrHMy/lKSVw. 8-9.------Official Basketball Guide* 1953*

110 Unit V - Additional Tips For the Spectator

Phases Included in Units

Averages Keeping records Box scores Professionalism Spectator behavior Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussions

1. What is considereda good shooting average? WE

2. What influence has professional basketball had on college players? WR

3* Why were gamblers able to get into college basketball? WR

U. What is considered good spectator behavior at a basketball game? WR

Teaching Suggestionss

Discuss questions in this unit*

Arrange for class members to be scorekeepers at a scrimmage game.

Discuss amateur and professional basketball*

Discuss the pros and cons of "the fix'*.

Required Readings!

"Bribery Gets benched". Scholastic Coach, 59(Deceraber 5, 1951), P. liu Erdman, B. "Plea for Sportsmanship". Athletic Journal, 30(October, 19U9), pp* 57-60.

Oberteuffer, Delbert. "Sportsmanship - Whose Responsibility?" Journal of Health and Physical Education. 19t6(October, 19U8), pp. 5U3-5h5j 573-577.

Additional Referencest

Miller, B. "Sportsmanship, Jersey Style". Scholastic Coach, 20(July, 1951), P. 5.

Oberteuffer, Delbert. Physical Education. New York* Harper and Brothers, 1951, PP* 93-loIu

111 Unit I - Becoming Familiar With the Layout of the Track and Field and Track theof Layout the With Familiar Becoming -I Unit £ 2 3 Additional References: Additional Required Readings: Required ecigSuggestions: Teaching Points for Discussion: for Points Phases Included in in Units Included Phases - Question obtained from writer. from obtained Question - - Question obtained from college women. college from obtained - Question coach. track from obtained -Question Arrange for the class to visit the track and go over the layout of layout the goover and track the to visit class the for Arrange ud. e ok . . ansadCmay 1953. Company, and Barnes S.A. York: New Guide. unit.the in questions Discuss t Lus C V MsyCmay 15, p U66-H67. pp. 1950, Company, Mosby V. C. Louis: St. field. and track the 5. .Wa sarna? WR runway? a is What 6. 2. 9. 8. lu 7. 3. 1. Identity of origin of question of origin of Identity field track theand of Layout hti h tagtwy CW straightaway? the is What What is the difference between track and field? and track between difference the is What htae"tgee"sat? CW starts? "staggered" are What hti h ht? CW chute? the is What hti cac or? TC board? scratch a is What What are the circles on the football field for? field football on the circles the are What o aylnsaeo h rc? CW thetrack? on are lanes many How Breshnakan, G. and Tuttle, W. Track and Field Athletics. Field and Track W. Tuttle, and G. Breshnakan, National Collegiate Athletic Association. Track and Field and Track Association. Athletic Collegiate National o ogi h rc? CW thetrack? is long How UNDERSTANDING AND APPRECIATING TRACK AND FIEID AND TRACK APPRECIATING AND UNDERSTANDING Before the Races the Before 112

CW CW

CuwmingB, Parke. Dictionary of Sports* New Yorki A. S. Barnes and Company, 19li9. (Use to look up terms).

113 Unit II - Know the Running E-rents

Phases Included, in Unit!

Sprints Distance runs Relays Hurdles Combined events Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion:

1. What are the various distances run in track? CW

1*1 What is cross-country? CW 1*2 What are sprint runs? WR

1.2.1 What is the difference between a 100 yard dash and a 100 meter run? CW

1*3 What are distance and middle distance runs? CW

2. What are the different types of races? WR

2.1 What are the various types of relays? CW

2.1*1 What are shuttle relays? CW 2.1*2 What are medley relays? CW

2.2 What is a steeple chase? CW 2.3 What are the various types of hurdle races? CW

2.3*1 What are the heights of the hurdles? CW 2.3.2 Is there a difference in high school and college hurdles? CW

2.1 Is there a special way to walk in the walking race? CW

3. What is a decathlon, and a pentathlon? CW

Teaching Suggestions:

Discuss questions in unit*

Arrange for the class to go to the track and see the markers for th various distances.

Let the class calculate the number of times around the track for distance runs.

Let the class find out the differences between meter runs and yard runs. Ilia Arrange for the class to run some of the races at a slow pace*

Let the class set up a miniature steeple chase and run a race for fun*

Required Readingsi

Brashnakan, G. and Tuttle, W. Track and Field Athletics* St, Louis: C, V. Mosby Company, 1950, pp* 66, ID?, 13f>, 157, 175*

Watson, E* G. "Cross-Country Running"* Scholastic Coach, 19(October, 19U9), p* 20,

Additional References:

Athletic Association* Official Rules and Record Book of College Track and Field, New York: Grand Central Station*

115 The Race in Action

Unit III - From tne Start to the Finish

Phases Included in Unit:

Heats Starts Fouls Finish Judges Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion:

1. What are heats? CW

1.1 Why are preliminary trials conducted? CW

2. How are runners picked to run in the different lanes? CW

3. What is a stationary sta^t? CW

iu What are "staggered starts" and why are they used? CW

lul When staggered starts are used, why do the runners sometimes remain in their lane and at other times head for the inside lane? CW

Sm Is the clock started with the sound of the gunor the smoke of the gun? CW

6* What is "back stretch"? CW

7* What is "gun lap"? CW

3* What is the "exchange mark"? CW

3*1 What does "outside the passing zone" mean? CW 8.2 What is a "blind pass"? CW

9. What does "anchor man" mean? CW

9* 1 Can a relay team win a race if the last man finishes without the baton? CW

13. What are the responsibilities of the judges? CW

11. What Is considered good time for the various track events? CW

II.1 What are the records? WR

12. What fouls can occur in track? CW 116 12*1 What are the penalties for the fouls committed in track? CW 12.2 What is spiking? CW 12.3 What is the two stride rule? WR

13* What are the different ways of scoring track and field events? CW

13.1 How are points divided in a two-way tie or a three- way tie for first place? CW

li*. What is a "stretch"? CW

15* How are runners chosen for the Olympics? CW

16. How strongly is wind considered when recordsare announced? CW

17* What ethics are involved in track? WR

17.1 Should you clap for the loser? WR

Teaching Suggestions*

Discuss questions in the unit.

Let the class set up a race and calculate the number of heats according to the number of contestants.

Take the class to the track and let the students run a race at a slow pace and use staggered starts.

Arrange for the class to watch varsity practice and let them start and clock some of the races.

Organize class relay teams and take the class to the track and let them run relays.

Request the class to keep some scores during a varsity meet.

Arrange for some of the students to be judges at the intramural track meet*

Required Readings*

Breshnakan, 0. and Tuttle, W. Track and Field Athletics* St. Louis* C. V, Mosby Company, 1950, pp. 1.58-160; 167-173; L51- 1*63.

Lertzk, M. H. "Running Records". Scientific American. 187 (August, 1952), pp. 52-51*.

National Collegiate Athletic Association. Track and Field Guide. New York* A. S. Barnes and Compaq, 1953.

117 Additional Referencesi

Athletic Association* Official Rules and Record Book of College Track and Field, New York* Grand 'Central Station.

Cummings, Parke, Dictionary of Sports, New York* A, S, Barnes and Company, 191x9, (Use to find definitions of terms).

Doherty, T, k. "Speed in Track and Field Events", Athletic Journal, 35(February# 1950), p. 17*

Menke, Frank, Encyclopedia of Sports, New York* A. S. Barnes and Company, 19li5# pp. 589-590.

118 Unit IV - Watching Field Events

Phases Included in Unit:

High Jump Pole Vault Javelin throw Broad Jump Discus Throw Shot Put Haniner Throw Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion:

1* What are field events? CW

1.1 How many trials are given in the broad jump, high jump, pole vault, discus throw, shot put, hammer throw, and Javelin throw? CW WR

2* What are the weights of the shot puts used in college and high school? CW

2.1 What is "hardware"? CW

3, What is the "Eastern roll" and "Eastern layout"? CW

3.1 Is it legal to high jump head first over the cross bar? CW

U* How is the hop-step-jump race conducted? CW

5, What fouls can occur in field events and what are the penalties involved? CW

6, What are considered good distances and heights in the field events? CW

Teaching Suggestions:

Discuss questions in the unit,

Arrange for the class to go to the track and watch the varsity practice the field events*

Arrange for members of the class to try some of the field events just for the fun of it*

Required Readings:

Breshnakan, G. and Tuttle, W, Track and Field Athletics, St* Louis: C, V. Mosby Company, 1951, pp, 222, 2L9> 2tJ8, 32^, 357, 390* National Collegiate Athletic Association, Track and Field Guide. New York* A* S. Barnes and Comparer, 195>3»

120 APPRECIATING AND UNDERSTANDING TENNIS

Unit I - Watching A Match in Progress

Phases Included in Unit:

The court Serving Earning points Keeping score Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion*

1. What are the different parts of the courts called? CW

2. What are the names of the various services used in tennis? CW

2.1 What is a "cannonball11? CW

3* Whatis the serving order for singles and doubles? CW

lu How many serves are taken by each player? CW

11.1 What is a "let" service? CW

5. What faults can occur on the services? CW

£•1 What is a "double fault"? CW 5.2 What is a "balk in tennis"? CW

6. How are pointn earned in tennis? CW

6.1 If a ball strikes a boundary lin§, is it good? CW 6.2 If the ball hits the top of the post, is it still good if it hits in bounds? CW 6.3 Is touching the net with the racket or the body a fault? CW

7. What is the method of scoring In tennis? CW

7.1 Where did the terms "love" and "deuce" come from? 7.2 What does "ad in" and "ad out" mean? CW 7.3 What is a set? CW

7*3.1 What does "set point" mean? CW

7.1* What is a match? CW

T - Question obtained from tennis coach* CW - Question obtained from college women. WR - Question obtained from writer. 8. When do the players change courts in a set and in a match? CW

Teaching Suggestions!

Discuss questions in the unit*

Arrange for the class to go to the tennis court and go over the names of the various parts of the court*

Take the class to the court and let them "walk out” the serving order*

Arrange for the class to watch a match and request them to keep score*

Required Readings!

Seaton, Dan and others. Rvysical Education Handbook* New York! Prentice-Ha11, Inc*, pp. 17U-176.

United States Lawn Tennis Association. Official Tennis Guide and Yearbook With Official Rules* New York! A* S. Barnes and Company, 1953*

Additional References!

National Section of Women's Athletics. Official Tennis- Badminton Guide* Washington, D. C. i American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, (June, 1952-195k)t pp* 95-103* Ainsworth, D. and others. Individual Sports for Women. Philadelphia! W. B. Saunders Company, 19U9, pp* 359-399*

122 Unit II - Something About Playing Strategy

Phases Included in Unit*

Types of shots Sys tem of playing doubles Officials Players Spectator conduct Identity of origin of question

Points for Discussion*

1* What is a "lob" shot? CW

2. What is a "slice"? CW

3. What is an "under cut"? CW

lu What is a "chop" shot? CW

5* What is a smash? CW

6. What is an "ace"? CW

7* What is a volley? WR

8* What is a "rally"? WR

10, What is a "seeded" player? CW

11* What is a "court hog"? CW

12* What is tennis elbow? CW

13* How many officials are required in an official match and what are their duties? CW

llu What is considered good spectator conduct during a tennis match? TC

111* 1 When is the correct time to applaud? TC

1$* Why is tennis called the gentlemen's game? WR

Teaching Suggestions*

Discuss the questions in the unit.

Arrange for the class to watch the varsj ty playersdemonstrate some of the shots and team play in doubles*

123 Discuss some of the nationally known tennis players.

Required Readings:

Ainsworth, D. and others. Individual Sports for Women. Philadelphia: W* E. Saunders Company, 19h9, pp. 370-3^6.

Seaton, Don and others. Physical Education Handbook. New York: Prerrtice-Kall, Inc., pp. 177-189.

Additional References:

National Section on Women's Athletics. Official Tennis- Badminton Guide. Washington, D. C.: American Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, (June, 1952-1951:)> pp. 95-lDh.

Menke, Frank. Encyclopedia of Sports. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 191:5, p.5$2.

12 U Chapter 17

SUMMAKY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

The Problem and Procedure

The purpose of the study was fourfold* (1) To ascertain what information college women sport fans feel they need to know about spec­ tator sports in order to understand and appreciate these sports; (2) To ascertain what coaches of these sports think college women need to know about the game in order to be appreciative and understanding spectators;

(3) To determine how the data obtained from students and adults can be adjusted, combined and compiled so as to serve as suggested subject matter for a course in sports appreciation, and (U) To show the extent to which these data can be intelligently used in teaching a class in sports appreciation*

An instruction sheet was prepared seeking information about what college women wanted to know about the sports they watched as spectators.

Copies of the instructions and three-by-five cards were sent to in­ structors in the women's division of physical education at twelve Ohio colleges* These institutions had previously indicated a willingness to participate in the study* The physical education teachers in the par­ ticipating institutions gave the instruction sheets and the necessary three-by-five cards to women students enrolled in the service classes*

These students wrote on the three-by-five cards, using one for each question, the questions about spectator sports that they needed an­ swers to in order to satisfy their curiosities and needs and improve their understanding and appreciation of amateur and professional sports.

The data received from this phase of the study were tabulated to

125 determine what the informational needs of college women were as indicated by the questions received. The tabulation showed that 21*25 women asked

U3U8 questions about twenty spectator sports* These data obtained from student sources provided sone justification for the writer's assumption that there was a definite need for colleges to provide materials or subject matter about spectator sports in order to contribute to the de­ velopment of more appreciative and understanding women spectators*

On the basis of criteria established, fifteen of the twenty sports, about which questions were asked by students, were discarded, leaving five for use in the study* These five werei football, baseball, basket­ ball, tennis, track and field* The questions concerning these five sports were tested by means of selected criteria; and as a result, the original U3U8 questions received indicating student felt needs, evolved to 292 questions, represented by eighty-seven on baseball, sixty-three on basKetball, sixty-one on football, fifty on term: s, and thirty-one on track and field* All other questions received were eliminated from the study*

In order to test the cruciality or Importance of the 292 questions concerning the five sports, a questionnaire, with the evolved number of student questions included, was prepared for each sport* Copies were given to 300 women, enrolled in the required physical education service class program at Central State College, who were asked to judge the

Importance of each question in terms of its value in improving the woman spectator's understanding and appreciation of the game* Data received were tabulated to determine the extent to which the questions on each sport were important in terms of student judgment and the extent to which the questions should be included in suggested teaching units for a course

126 in sports appreciation*

The same questionnaires were sent to ten Ohio college coaches of each sport selected for the study ’,*ho were asked to serve as expert or adult judges and indicate the importance or significance of each ques­ tion in terms of improving the understanding and appreciation of college women spectatora* Data received from five coaches of each sport were used in this study to indicate the importance of the questions asked by students, and the extent to which these questions could be used as sug­ gested subject matter for a course in sports appreciation* Adult judg­ ment was used as a check on student felt needs and the importance of the questions as indicated by student judgment, not as a criteria for se­ lecting material, but rather to objectively provide a reason to give more balance In importance on the basis of student judgment and adult or expert Judgment and thereby give them first consideration for being in­ cluded in the suggested teaching units*

Other media were used to obtain useful and needed information to include in the teaching units. These supplementary sources of data were the radio, television, newspapers, sport books and magazines, and com­ ments or suggestions from the fifty coaches who were asked to cooperate in the study* For a period of one year, the writer collected suggestions about spectator sports through the media named and reworded the sugges­ tions so that they became questions* These suggestions ware about such items asi (1) coined words about sports, (2) sportsmanship, (3) ama­ teurism vs* professionalism, (li) educational values of sports, (5) curid any information about the sport that the writer felt was a student need in terms of information*

The data which were secured in answer to direction sheets, cards

127 and questionnaires on student felt needs, student judgment, adult judg­ ment, supplemented by related and vital information,which was secured by other methods and from other sources discussed, were analyzed and organ­

ized, separately and in combination, and culminated as suggested teaching units for a course in sports appreciation. The title of each unit and the order of progression of the information in the units were selected according to student opinion supplemented Dy the judgment of the writer*

The titles for tne units were not altered appreciably from the wording in which they were stated by students. Tne units were further organized by the writer into four divisions: Points for Discussion, Teaching Sug­ gestions, Required Readings, and Additional References which will be dis­ cussed again as sources for improving the understanding ana appreci­ ation of college women spectators.

!1ajor Findings and Implications

literature surveyed indicated that although 11 looking on11 has grown by leaps and bounds, colleges, universities, and high schools have made minor attempts to develop appreciative women spectators* To accomplish this end, however, several institutions of learning have included Sports

Survey and Orientation courses for men in which students participate in a discussion of the nature, techniques, and appreciation of sports which the students do not play but witness as spectators. However, such courses are practically nonexistent for college women students. No data concerning a sports appreciation course or what to teach in a sports appreciation course oased upon the needs and curiosities of college women were found.

The questions, indicating student felt needs, asked about

128 the sports women participate in as spectators served to justify the writer's assumption that there is a need for a course and subject mat­ ter in sports appreciation to satisfy the spectator needs of college women*

Tables III, TV, V, VI, and VII, on the results of student and adult judgment, show the extent to which there was an agreement between student judgment and adult judgment of the 292 questions selected to reveal the informational needs of college women about the five sports concerned! football, basketball, baseball, track ana field, and tennis.

Student judgment and adult judgment tend to repeat or parallel one another. This information served to indicate further how well students can determine their own need3 if given the opportunity.

Little supplementary data were needed; therefore, few suggestions from the writer or coaches are found in the teaching units. This showed the inclusiveness of student and adult judgment of the student felt needs.

Recommended Use of Teaching Units

Whether consciously planned to be so or not, any investigation into student needs is an attempt to overcome the stigma of traditional courses and methods in which teaching units wex*e simply subject matter suggested by books or a repetition of notes and assigranents taken by the teacher from the course content of his or her college professor.

The alert educators today are asking these questions* "Can we justify what we are doing for our students?"; "What do our students need; and what do we think they need?"; "Why have needs become so important and how can we discover them?".

129 The vast implications of need have been studied, widely discussed

and published by educators, psychiatrists, psychologists, sociologists,

guidance specialists, and others who have spent considerable tine and

effort analyzing man and his relationship to his environment. Many ways

of determining or inquiring into student needs have been devised and

used in the educational circles. The procedure selected and used in the

study in wr ich college women students were asked to write down their

curiosities or problems concerning the sports they participated in as

spectators is just one type of inquiry into student needs. In the same

light, the procedures used to determine the significance of the needs

by asking students and adults to judge the importance of the questions

in terms of improving the understanding and appreciation of college women

sport spectators are one of many plans used in education to give strength to student felt needs*

The teaching units in this study are not given for their perfec­ tion but because they illustrate a number of points in connection with the problem. First, they serve to answer the questions previously men­ tioned* "What do students think they need?"; "What do adults think students need?"; and "How can student and adult thinking be combined for the purpose of Improving educational practices and satisfying stu­ dent curiosities?" The data Included in the units are comprehensive lists of spectator needs written as interrogations by students, selected, organized, classified and evaluated by students and adults as subject matter for a course in sports appreciation*

However, the question, "How can these data be used effectively by one who plans to teach a course in sports appreciation?", necessarily arises. The educator who uses these data must bear in mind that the 130 study has not been conducted to provide a bulk of finished material to

use as subject matter in any course in sports appreciation* The user

should be a teacher who keeps in mind the idea that careful pre-planning

is vital in education if students are to be helped to work, think, plan,

and evaluate for -themselves* The question is frequently raised as to

how a teacher can plan for student needs* This problem of planning is

not too difficult when the teacherdevelops a "plan for planning" in which the needs of the students can be discovered and satisfied* In

order for an instructor to plan for students to plan for themselves,

he must first search through his own experiences, educational studies

on needs, topics, writings on methods, and references for materials that can be used to help in the preparation of a lesson or a unit in which cooperative planning by teacher and student is to take place. The teacher who searches in order to make plans for all phases of work in a subject may find many helpful hints which will enable him to proceed with confidence and skill to stimulate student response and planning*

The topics and units included in this study are not complete nor should the reader assume that they have settled everything in advance, and thereby use word for word and suggestion for suggestion; but rather he should consider the material as a source of reference, obtained through an educational study on needs, and should search through them for ideas to use in planning with students their course in sports appre­ ciation*

The instructor who contemplates the use of these available materials will find helpful suggestions in Chapter III where the units of study have been organized as Points for Discussion, Teaching Sugges­ tions, Required Readings, and Additional References*

131 The writer suggests the following technique for using these units*

Teacher Pre-Planning* Planning for Students

1* Keep in mind the major goals of the course - to provide

opportunities for college women to become more appreciative

and understanding sports spectators*

2. Consider the maturity, previous experience, abilities,

and interests of your group*

3* Make an exploratory investigation of spectator needs and

interests of college women by reading the titles and topics

of the units in the study, thereby gaining some idea of the

spectator sports that may be studied by your students.

Iu Read the questions on one or two of the topics in the

study (sports) that you think are practical for your local

situation*

5* Familiarize yourself with the answers for some of these

quest j ons*

6* Select from the Teaching Suggestions those which are

applicable to the questions and answers that you have

familiarized yourself with in terms of your local situation*

Teacher - Student Plannings Planning with Students

7* Open the class by discussing the purposes of the course.

8* cite one or two topics that you selected during pre­

planning as suggested topics or ideas for class discussion

so as to stimulate your students' thinking about potential

areas of choice*

9* Introduce several questions and Teaching Suggestions on

these topics so as to arouse your students' interest in their

132 needs and show how the problems can be made enjoyable and

valuable through various suggestions for teaching and

learning*

ID, Have on hand several references on the topics and

questions discussed so as to help your students see the

possibilities of enriching understanding and appreci­

ation through wise use of references,

11, Discuss with your students and share ideas on what

will be suitable for them to study. Consider criteria

for choosing a topic or topics.

12, Cooperatively select the topic or topics receiving

the approval of a large majority of your group.

13, Cooperatively plan with the students the direction

in which the study will move. This will require more

planning on your part.

Teacher Pre-Planning* Planning for Students

11. If the students select one of the topics given in

this study, read all of the questions in the topic.

15* Familiarize yourself with the Teaching Suggestions

on the topic and select those applicable to your local

situation*

16. Read some of the Required Readings so as to be able

to answer any of the Discussion Points*

17. Select one of the two Discussion Points for use at

the beginning of the next class* Use these questions

to stimulate your students to think and plan for their

own spectator needs*

133 Teacher - Student Planningi Planning with Students

18. Open the lesson by citing the chosen topic.

19* Invite class discussion by introducing several

questions from the units in this study.

20. Guide your students into organizing purposes and

procedures. These purposes will be revealed through

the questions the students ask and will represent

their felt needs. The plans they develop for getting

the answers will be the procedures.

21. Keep a list of the questions asked and suggest

others that may be found in these units.

22. Cooperatively develop resource material for

answering questions. Refer to the Required Headings

and Additional References in this study*

23. If the opportunity arises, introduce projects,

and activities from the Teaching Suggestions for

class or individual work.

2U. Be prepared to answer all questions asked.

25. Continuously evaluate with the class the extent

to which the purposes - the questions or needs - are

being realized. Develop with the students some means

or techniques for determining to what extent outcomes

or answers have been achieved. These evaluative

techniques might include paper-and-pencil tests,

observation of student behavior at the game, dem­

onstrations, or any others cooperatively selected

by students and teacher.

1314 26. Keep in mind that you are trying to help your students

work, think, plan, and evaluate for themselves* You can

stimulate students to exert effort on the chosen topics

through guidance and presentation of models used in the

units of this study. Remember that to appeal to student

needs is possible after their needs have been looked

into by the teacher or some other sources. The student

does not always come with interest or come knowing his

needs, but rather he may come with formless ideas and

an awarene ss of hi s needs* You as a teacher must

stimulate him to respond and question; then he will

begin to see his needs and will seek ways of satisfying

them*

General Concisions and Recommendations

This di osertatiop nas presented an educational oasis for a course

in sports appreciation for women in our collefes and universities. This has >een foond w st; dying the informational needs of college women

spectators* Several suggestions have grown out of this study. Perhaps the first fundamental thing that stands out is that our college women lack the materials and Knowledge that are indicative of appreciative and understanding spectators* This lack of knowledge suggest that incul­ cating the concept of sports appreciation to our college women is an educational problem that should be taken over by educational authorities and stressed as one of the objectives of our institutions of higher learn­ ing. This does not mean that students may not participate in the plan­ ning and organization of the program or course. However, it does mean that educational authorities must accept responsibility for spectators,

135 must supervise and direct them, and regard then as an integral part of the educational system.

Spectator conduct and the degree of appreciat'on is far from ideal.

Watching continues to develop coextensivelv with competitive sports and the formation of the right habits of conduct and a sincere appreciation of sports can hardly be over estimated* The exact method of organi­ zation and procedures to secure wholesome spectator appreciation of the game in it3 entirety may vary; the essential thing is that the necessary attention Oe given. However, the writer recommends that cur college and

.universities meet the problem through a planned co rse in sports appreci­ ation for tne spectator,

hany educators stil: advocate that the teacher alone plan the pro­ gram or co ;rse of study. This idea m£>;r have much u.o commend it certain situations out it ^ s impractical in tej*ms of the m dorn concept of learn­ ing, A cur":rulum or course of study should oegin with students and their needs; these needs she Id oe felt oy the students mo their needs and not those of adults. The writer recommends that every educational method available snould be used to ^nstill in the students their mart in planning their program in sports appreciation.

This study suggests that the questions of students can be one of the richest and most inclusive sources of data for a c o t rse of study designed to meet the spectator reeds of college women. These questions or curiosities are rea1^ the purpose of the course and represent the felt needs of the students. The plans that the students develop for obtaining answers will be tr.e procedures.

The influence of adult judgment or adult opinion upon program content and planning should not oe overlooked. The ivise adult or

136 teacher is influential as a puide and stimulates the student to d\ scuss her own needs, to respond, to quest on herself, and to question in­ telligently the opinions of adults if the occasion arises. This study has indicated that there tends to oe a close relationshi between the

spectator needs of students as felt by students and student needs as felt

by the adult or expert. The writer recommends that the adult or teacher

who plans to instigate a pro ••ram r 4' sports appreciation in his or iter institution use the teaching units in this study as a source of reference or a beqinninp; mr de to use to plan with students fho'r program in sports

appreciation.

13? APPENDIX

Step I - Determining Student Pelt Needs

The direction sheet oelow was given to the women enrolled

in the regular service classes in the twelve colleges and

universities involved in the study*

A STUDY OF THE INFORMATIONAL NEEDS OF SPECTATORS

Direction Sheet

Attention ladies:

We want you to help with a study to determine what women want to know about such sports as oasketball, football, baseball, track and field, and others wrich you watch as spectators*

Perhaps as you watch the games or contests in act on on the field or court, many questions regarding officials, f^uls, forma­ tions, signals, word3 or phrases used to explain the game, arise in your mind*

Please recall some of these questions now] Place the name of the sport and your question on the card or cards given you. Use one card for each question* Ask as many questions as you desire about any or all of the sports.

Place your age and classification in the upper right hand corner of each of the cards before turning it or them in* You need not sign your name* Your cooperation will De greatly appreciated*

Sincerely,

Vivian F. Lewis Central State College

136 Sample Three by Five Card

Football 17 - Freshman

What does "down" mean?

(Sample Card)

139 II - Final Selection of Questions Representing Student Felt Needs Based Upon Student and Adult Judgment

STUDENT JUDGMENT

Instruction Sheet No, 11

Dear ladies*

I am conducting a study on the informational needs of women spectators and I would like to use student opinion as one of the criteria for the selection of subject matter for a course of study in Sports Appreciation for College Women.

The following questions have been selected, according to frequency and feasibility, from questions on asked by freshmen and sophomore women enrolled in several Ohio colleges. They are evidences of curiosities among college women spectators about ______.

From the standpoint of a spectator in the game, which of these questions do you think college women ought to have the answers to in order to be appreciative and understanding ______spectators?

Please score each question, in the s;>ace on the left, on the basis of importance: 2 points, highly Important; 1 point, important; 0 points, no importance.

If there are any other points which you think the woman spectator should know, please list them in question form in the space provided for comments.

Thank you.

Sincerely,

(Mrs.) Vivian Lewis

U jO ADULT JUDGMENT

Instruction Sheet No* IV

Box 263 Central State College Wilberforce, Ohio May 18, 1953

Dear Sirt (Coach)

I am conducting a study on the informational needs of women spectators and I would like to use expert opinion as one of the criteria for the selection of subject matter for a course of study in Sports Appreciation for College Women.

The following questions have been selected, according to frequency and feasibility, from ______questions on ______asked by freshmen and sophomore women enrolled in several Ohio colleges. They are evidences of curiosities among college women spectators about your sport.

From the standpoint of an expert in the game, which of these questions do you think college women ought to have the answers to in order to be appreciative and understanding spectators?

Please score each question, in the space on the left, on the basis of importance* 2 points, highly important; 1 point, important; 0 points, no importance.

If there are any other points which you think the woman spectator should know, please list them in question form in the space provided for comments.

Thank you.

Sincere ly,

(Mrs.) Vivian Lewis

HI Questions Representing the Original Indication of Student Felt Needs snd Questions Used to Determine Student and Expert Judgment of These Needs

Football

A STUDY OF THE INFORMATIONAL NEEDS OF WOMEN SPECTATORS

1. When and where did football originate?

2. What is the two platoon system?

3. Is it true that there is a new rule wtiich says that a player must play offensive as well as defensive play?

L. What are the new rules on free substitution and how does this affect the platoon system?

____ $. Why was the two platoon system done away with?

6. What are the names and positions of the players?

7* What are the duties of each player?

d* Why can't any man on a team run out for a pass?

9• What is a "line backer"?

10. What is a "safety man"?

11. What is a "secondary"?

12. What does the announcer mean when he says 6-2-2-1, 5-L-l-l and "umbrella" defense?

13. What is "T" formation, Single wing, Split T, Punt formation, etc. ?

Hi. How does the opposite team know what defensive formation is set up for the offensive attack?

16. How are the different plays determined?

16. Who decides what play will be next?

17. What signals and timing devices are used by the teams to designate each play and when to begin it?

16. What is a "trap play", a "quarter oack sneak", and the "statue of liberty play"?

19. What is a screen pass, and a lateral pass?

11.2 Football (Continued)

20* What is a "flanker play", a "spinner play" and a "sweep play"?

21* Just what are off-tackle, end-around and reverse plays?

22* What is a quick opener and a cross buck?

23. What really happens in the huddle and how much time is allowed to huddle?

214. What is the meaning of the term "a handkerchief on the play", or "a flag on the play"?

29* Who are the officials in the game and Just what are their duties?

26. What are the requirements for being an official and how do they choose them so they will be sure of oeing impartial?

27. Sometimes I near a horn on the field, what is it for?

2o. Wnat cio the various signals of the officials mean?

29* How do the officials and the plavers determine when a play is finisned and the ball is dead?

3 0 * What are the fouls and the penalties imposed for them in football?

31* Why does a team sometimes refuse a penalty and other times accept it?

32. What does line of scrimmage mean?

33* What is a "down"?

3li. Why does a team usually kick tin the fourth down?

35. What does cut oack and stiff arming mean?

36. What is "decoy"?

37. What is a fair catch?

3 8 . What is skull practice?

39. What is a triple threat tail back?

liO. What is down field blocking?

hi. What is "to the weak side"?

U 3 Football (Continued)

1*2. What is pay dirt?

1*3* When one player kicks the ball and no one catches it, why do all the players run toward the ball w^th their arms in the air and yell "don't touch it, don't touch it"?

U u Why is a team permitted to kick the ball over at the start of the half?

U5* How is the decision made as to which tear should kick-off?

1*6. What is the exact duty of the coach during the game?

1*7. Is side line coaching legal?

1*8. What is the telephone on the side line for?

1*9* for what reason can a player be put out of the game?

50. What is the purpose of the turn over sign numbered 1 to 1* at the opposite sides of the playing field?

i?l* What is the playing time for a football game?

52. When can time out De called; how much time out can a team have?

53* Wien is the clock stopped in football?

51** What is the difference between a safety, touchback and touchdown?

55* What is a field goal and when may it be kicked?

56, How many ways can a team make an extra point?

57* What are eligibility rules?

58. How are the various conferences chosen?

59* Should the spectator follow the ball or the players?

60. Is it good to be a "side line coach"?

61. What should a spectator look for in terms of good team play and strategy?

1 M Baseball

A STUDY OF THE INFORMATIONAL N..EDS OF NOMEN SPECTATORS

1* What is the history of American baseball?

2. What are the official dimensions of the call field?

3. What is the little box for on the side of the first and third base line?

lu What are the names of the players, their positions, and their areas of responsibility?

5. How mai$r players and substitutes are allowed on a professional or intercollegiate team?

6. What is the "battery"?

7. What is "in the hole" and "on deck"?

8. What is a "waiter"?

9. Wliat is "stepping in the oucket"?

10. What is a "switch hitter"?

11. What is a "pull hitter"?

12. What is an illegally batted oall?

13. What is the penalty for batting out of turn?

liu What is "took it downstairs"?

15* When a batter is running to first base with the bat, is he allowed to carry it all the way tc first?

16. Is the batter automatically out on a called third strike and on a third strike foul tip?

17. Under what conditions is the batter entitled to a base?

18. On a "deliberate walk" car: the batter attempt to hit the ball?

19. Is the batter out if he hits the ball and it bounces back and hits him?

20. If the batter is hit by a pitched oall, is he always entitled to a base?

US Baseball (Continued)

21. Why is a foul ball sometimes called a strike and other times it is not a strike?

22. Is a batter allowed to bunt on the

23. What is a "crossfire" ball?

2U. What is a "hesitation" pitch?

25. What is a "knuckle" ball?

26. What is a "sinker"?

27. What is a "sailer"?

28. What is a "spit" Dali?

29. What is a "change-of-pace" pitch?

30. What is a "pitch out"?

31. What i3 a balk?

32. What is "balk motion"?

33. What does "on the rubber" mean?

3h. Can a pitcher throw side arm?

35. Why so much ado over right handed batters against left handed pitchers and visa versa?

36. How many pitchers can pitch in one game?

37. Wnat different signals do catchers use to ask for different pitches from the pitcher?

36. Under what conditions is a man on base entitled to another base?

39. What is the penalty for failing to touch a base?

Uo. How far can a base runner go off the base if he is "fooling" a steal?

U l . If a base runner is hit by a batted oall is he out?

U2. What is a "hit or take signal"?

U 6 Baseball (Continued)

_____ U3. When it is advisable to bunt?

_____ UU. What is a "sacrifice"?

U5. What is a "hit and run" play?

U6* What does "hitting behind the runner" mean?

_____ U7. What is a "squeeze" play?

1*8. What is a "suicide” play?

Li9. What is an "assist” play?

_____ 50, What is a "run-down"?

51* Why do you have to tag the runner sometimes anil just tag the base on other occasions?

52. Wliat does b to 3, and 5 to 1* mean?

53. Wliat is a triple and double play?

5U. What is "fielders" choice?

55. What is a "pick-off" play?

56. What is the "infield fly" rule?

57. Under what conditions can a base runner oe put out?

58. Under what conditions can a batter be put out?

____ 59. How many officials are there in an official game?

60. What are the duties of each official?

____ 61. Does the home plate umpire's decision take precedence over other decisions made by the base umpires?

62. What are the official signals for strike, base, out, safe, etc.?

____ 63. What are some of the signals used by the coaches on the base line to inform the batter and base runners what to do?

61±. Why are oaseball coaches permitted to signal plays while such action is considered unethical in other sports?

_____ 65. How does one determine an error?

Hi? Baseball (Continued)

66# Who determines whether or not an error has been committed?

67# If two people are involved in a play in which an error occurred, how does one decide who is guilty of the error?

6 6 # What is a "fungo"?

6 9 . What is a "rabbit" ball?

70. What is a "rally"?

71. What is interference and obstruction?

72. What is a "good glove" man?

73* What is a "good stick" man?

7i|. What is a "trapped" ball?

75. What is a "liner"?

7 6 # W e t are "ground" rules?

77# Are special gloves made for each position?

78# How is a fielding average figured?

79* Wny is #300 considered a good batting average?

80* How is the earned run average for a pitcher computed?

81# How can a spectator keep a record of hits, bases on balls, put outs, etc#?

82. What do the letters 0, RBI, etc# mean in the box score?

53. How are the various leagues AAA, ABC, American and National leagues organized?

8U# What is a "farm" team?

85. How is rooky of the year and most valuable player determined?

86# Why are fines placed on players?

87# How are foul balls determined?

1L8 Basketball

A STUDY OF THE INFORMATIONAL NEEDS OF WOMEN SPECTATORS

1* When and where did basketball originate?

2, The basketball courts seem to oe different sizes. Is there an official size?

3. What is the "key-hole"?

h* What are the names of the players and their positions?

5* Can any member of the team shoot for a basket?

_____ 6, How many substitutes can be used in a game?

_____ 7# Is it necessary for the players to line up any special way for the center jump at the beginninr of each half?

_ _ _ 8, What is a pivot play?

____ 9* What is "set offense"?

10, What is a "sleeper"?

11* Wnat is a "stalling attack"?

12, What is "position play"?

13* Wnat is a "screen play"?

lLu Is "freezing" tne ball considered a good offensive technique or is it considered as being too careful or even coward?

15* What is a "figure eight play"?

16* What is zone defense?

_____ 17* What is a shifting zone or a switching defense?

16, How do the players determine what defense or attack to use against an opponent?

19, What is the difference between a technical or personal foul?

_____ 20, What are some of the common fouls in basketball and what penalties are imposed?

21* What is "elbowing"?

_____ 22* How does the referee distinguish between charging aiid blocking? 1.9 Basketball (Continued)

23. What is slicing the post?

2iu Is it a foul if one player jumps up and touches the net while another player is shooting for the basket?

25. How many fouls disqualify a player?

26. There seems to be a considerable amount of personal contact that is not "called" during the game. Why isn't all personal contact recognized as a foul?

27. What determines whether a player gets one or two free shots?

23. Why do the players have a certain position to stand in when a player is takinr; a free shot?

29. What is a violation?

30. What does "three seconds" mean?

31. What is "back court"?

32. What is "palming" the ball?

33. How many steps can a player take before shooting or passing the oall?

3U. Is kicking the ball legal?

35. If a player steps on the boundary line, is he out-of-bounds?

3 6 . Can a player alternate hands while driobling?

37. What does "in the circle" mean?

38. What happens when a player who is in possession of the ball is forced out-of-bounds by his opponent?

39. What are the official signals for fouls and violations?

liO. Why does the referee always touch the ball after it goes out-of-bounds?

Ul. What are the various reasons for calling a jump ball?

U2. Does the referee's decision take precedence over the umpire's decision?

U3. If two or more fouls are called at the same time on different players, what happens? 150 Basketball (Continued)

Uu How many officials are necessary for a game and what are their duties?

U5. How long is a game played?

It 6. When is the clock stopped during the regular playing time?

1*7. What is the over-time rule?

u e . How many time outs are allowed for each team?

U9. When and for wnat reason can a team or the officials call time outs?

5o. How does one read the time clock?

51. Can a team have as many time outs as they want in an over time period?

52. How long can the players ’’stall" the ball?

53. Is it legal to guard a player who doesn't have the all?

5a. What is "screening”?

55. Why was the one and one foul shot rule put in men's basket­ ball?

56. What is the new two minute rule?

57. Isn't the two minute rule an unfair advantage for that team that is ahead?

58. If the visiting team has uniforms the sane color as the home team, what happens?

59. Can a coach have an official's decision changed?

6o. Is the short man loosing his place in nasketball?

61. Who is responsible for the conduct of a spectator who interferes with the game?

62. Is the point good if after the oall has left the hands of the shooter the buzzer sounds and then the ball enters the basket?

63. What is an "assist”?

351 A STUDY OF THE INFORMATIONAL NEEDS OF WOMEN SPECTATORS

1. What is the difference between track and field?

2, What are the various distances run in track?

3* What are the various types of relays?

lu What are field events?

5, What is "cross-country11?

6. What is a decathlon, marathon and a pentathlon?

7# What is a medley and a steeple chase?

8. What are the responsbillties of the various judges in a track and field meet?

9* How many times can a runner "jump the gun" before being disqualified?

10* What are the various types of fouls which can occur in track?

11* What are the penalties for the fouls committed in track?

12* What fouls occur in field events and what are the penalties involved?

13* How many events can an individual participate in?

lib How many trials are given in the broad jump, high jump, pole vault, discus throw, shot put, hammer throw, and the javelin throw?

15* How are the runners picked to run in their respective lanes?

16. What are "staggered starts" and why are they used?

17* When "staggered starts" are used, why do the runners some­ times remain in their own lanes and at other times ahead for the inside lane?

18, What is considered good time for the various track events and good distances or heights for the field events?

19« How strongly is the wind considered when records are announced? 20* What are the different ways of scoring a track and field meet? 152 Track (Continued)

21. Can a relay team win a race if the laat nan finishes without the oaton?

22. Is the clock started with the sound of the gun or with the snoke of the ;oui?

23. What is the difference between 1D0 yard dash and a 100 meter nan?

2lu What are shuttle relays?

23. What are the various distances run for hurdle races?

26. What are the heists of the hurdles?

27. Is there a difference in high school and college hurdles?

2o. What is the difference uetween a sprint medley relay and a distance medley relay?

29. How are runners chosen for the Olympics?

30. What are the weights of the shot puts used in college and high school?

31. What is a "blind pass"?

32. Wnat is the "back stretch"?

33* What is the "Eastern roll" and "Eastern layout"?

3I4* What is the "exchange mark"?

35• What is a "false start"?

3 6 . What is the "gun lap"?

37. What does "outside tbs passing zone" mean?

3 8. What is a "stitch"?

39» Wnat is "iiardware"?

llO. What does "anchor man" mean?

hX» What is the "chute"?

1*2. How are the points divided in a two-way tie for first, or a three-way tie for first in a track event?

153 Track (Continued)

____ How is the hop-3tep-jump race conducted?

UU. What is a stationary start?

_____ U5- Is it legal to high Jump head first over the cross oar?

lt6. What is the "straightway"?

hl» What are "heats"?

______It8* Why are preliminary trials conducted?

h9. What is "spiking"?

hO. What is the history of the Olympics?

lb h Tennis

A STUDY OF THE INFORMATIONAL NEEDS OF WO!TEN SPECTATORS

1. Where did tennis originate?

2. What are the different parts of the court called?

3* Wnat are the names and techniques of the various serves used in tennis?

U* What faults can occur on the service?

5. How many serves are taken by each player?

6. What is the order of service for singles and doubles?

7. What is a "let" service?

8. How are points earned in tennis?

9* What is the method of scorinr a game in tennis?

10* Where did the terms "love11 and "deuce" cone from?

11. Wnat is a set and a match?

____ 12. If a call strides a boundary line, is it good?

13. What is double "fault"?

1lb If the ball hits the top of the post, is it still good if it hits in bounds?

1;>. What does "ad in" and "ad out" mean?

____ 16. What is a "balk" in tennis?

_____ 17. What is a "court-hog"?

18. What ±3 a "cannonball"?

19* How many officials are required in an official match and what are their duties?

20. What is a "lob" shot?

21* What is a "slice" and a "smash"?

22* What is a "seeded" player?

23. What is "tennis elbow"? Tennis (Continued)

21. What faults may occur while the ball is in play?

2 :.» What is an "under cut"?

_____ 26. What is "up-and-back play"?

27* Is touching the net with the racket or body a fault?

28. What docs "set point" mean?

_____ 29* What is a "chop shot"?

30* When do the players change courts in a match?

31* v,ha t is an "ace"?

1 5 6 Coaches Who Participated in the Study

The following coaches acted as judges of the importance of the informational needs of women as indicated by the 2 questions!

Football Coaches

1* Glenn Fraser - Ohio -esleyan University 2, M. Eubanks, Ass't. Coach - Cleveland Browns 3* Caroll Widdoes - Ohio University iu Asa Parseghian - Miami University 5* Gaston Lewis - Central State College 6, Joe Gavin - Dayton University 7. Kenneth Cochrane - Akron University 8* Albert Baker - Central State College 9 • Woody Hayes - Ohio State University 10. Sid Gillman - University of Cincinnati 11. Don Mason, Ass't. Coach - Michigan State College

Baseball Coaches

1. Robert Wren - Ohio University 2* my Thromer - Oberlin Colloge 3* Les Michael - Ohio Wesleyan University i;. Benjamin Waterman - Central State College Sm Harry uaujan - Dayton University 6* I. S. Lane - Central State College

Basketball Coaches

1. G. Edwin Gibbs - Central State College 2. James Snyder - Ohio University 3# Floyd Stahl - Ohio State University L. Bob Strimer - Ohio Wesleyan University 5. John Wrethe - Cincinnati University 6. Benjamin Waterman - Central State College

Track and Field Coaches

1. Gaston F. Lewis - Central State College 2. Eddie Finnigan - Western Reserve University 3» Larry Snyder - Ohio State University h. Dan Kinsey - Oberlin College Sm George Gauthier - Ohio Wesleyan University

-*Note The first five coaches listed for each sport served as the primary Judges. Data received from the others was given incidental consid­ eration and all suggestions listed were weighed oy the writer.

157

158 University Dayton Ward- Paul , , University Capital - Landrum , Jack University Ohio - Johnson James • • Case - Germain St, Jack 1, 1, Case - Heim Phillip 6, 6, University Cincinnati - NLkoloff M, 0. 2* 2* University Denison - Coffin Tristram 3« George ?-fenafee - Cincinnati University Cincinnati - 3« ?-fenafee George 5, College Oberlin - Hutler Lvslc c— co "T\ hm Track and Field Coaches (Continued) Coaches Field and Track Tennis Coaches Tennis BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation* Developing Democratic Human Relations Through Health, Physical Educationand Recreation* First yearbook, 1951*

Baker, Gertrude, et al* "The Physical Education Program for College Women". Journal of Health and Riysical Education, £*337(June, 191*7).

Berry, Elmer. The Philosophy of Athletics. New York* A. S. Barnes and Company, 192 7.

Bucher, Charles. Foundations of Riysical Education. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Company^ !L95^*

Butcher, S. H. and Lang, A. The Odyssey of Homer. New York: P. F. Collins & Son Company, 1909.

Butler, Samuel. The Iliad of Homer. New York: Walter J. Black, Inc.. 191*2 . "California Designers Dream Up Styles Bound To Create Fans For Sports". Dayton Daily News. November 19, 1953.

Cozens, F., and Stumpf, F. "American Sports from the Sideline". Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 25*56 (November, 1952). ^ ^

Dintelmen, C. J. "For An Enriched Curriculum". American School Board Journal, 12:36-7(Octobdr, 1950).

Dulles, Foster. America Learns to Play. New York: D. Appleton-Century Compary, 191*0.

Educational Policies Commission. "American Education and International Tension". National Education Association, 191*9.

"Finns Open Homes To Ease Crowding". New York Times, July 13, 1952.

Forsythe, C., and Duncan, R. Administration of Physical Education. New York* Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

"Hot Springs Ousted After Refusal to Drop Negroes". Dayton Daily News. April 7, 1953, p. 13*

Howard, G. W. "The Possibility of Enriching Instruction in Service Classes". Forty-first Proceedings of the College Physical Educa­ tion Association.

Hughes, W. L. "Orientation in Physical Education". Journal of Health and Physical Education, 5*10 (December, 1935)# Leibee, Howard. “Sports Survey Course, P.E.M. 60a, Physical Education for men". University of Michigan, 1950#

"Major League Clubs Set For Opening Games". Columbus Dispatch, April 12, 1953.

McCormick, Hurbert. Enriching the Physical Education Service Program in Co lie gea and Universities! New York* Teachers College^ Columbia University, 191*2 •

______• "Orientation in Physical Education". Journal of Health and Physical Education, 1 0 March, 19li0)*

Menke, Frank* Encyclopedia of Sport3 . New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 19U7.

Nash, Jay B. Spectatoritis.

"Notre Dame Negroes Break Tradition". Dayton Daily News, November 17, 1953. Cbertsuffer, Delbert. Physical Education. New York: Harper and Brothers Company, 1951. . Ohio Health and Physical Education Series, Volume H I *

______. School Health Education. New York: Harper and Brothers, 19^9.

Rice, Emmett and Hutchinson, J. L. A Brief History cf Physical Education. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, Inc., 1952.

Rosenburg, John. "An Appreciation Course in Physical Education". Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, lLitl*99 (November, 19L3).

Sharman, Jackson. Modern Principles of Physical Education. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, Inc., 1937.

Staff of the Women's College, University of North Carolina. "An Orientation Program for College Freshmen". Journal of Health and Physical Education, 19 * 9U ( F abruar y, 19 W?) •

Staley, Seward. Program of Spertsmanafalp. Urbana: University of Illinois, Co 11b ge of 'Education, 19 2u.

Scott, Henry. Competitive Spcrts in Schools and Colleges. New York* Harper and Brothers Company, 195>1* "

"U.S. Cage Attendance New High of 82,81*8". Dayton Daily News, April, 1953. 1*0 "U.S* Soviet Grew Hit Friendly Note", New York Times, July 13, 19^2.

Weir, L, H, Europe at Flay. New Yorks A. S* Barnes and Company, 1937»

Williams, J. F. Principles of Physical Education, Philadelphia: W, S« Saunders Company, 19UtJ»

161 AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Vivian Floyd Lewis, was born in Memphis, Tennessee, April 30,

1919m I received my secondary school education in the public schools of Cleveland, Ohio, I received the decree of Bachelor of Science from

Wilberforce University in 19U2, In 19l>3* I received an appointment as a junior hiLii school teacher in the Cleveland school system. While holding this position for three years, I attended Western Reserve

University and received the Master of Science Decree from this Insti­ tution in 19145* In 19U6, I received an appointment as Associate

Professor in Physical Education at Central State Col3ec©» I have held this position for seven years, taking one year's leave to complete the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Ohio State University*

162