Untersuchungen Zur Rekombinanten Expression Und Faltung Pflanzlicher Tyrosinasen

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Untersuchungen Zur Rekombinanten Expression Und Faltung Pflanzlicher Tyrosinasen Untersuchungen zur rekombinanten Expression und Faltung pflanzlicher Tyrosinasen Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades Doktor der Naturwissenschaften am Fachbereich Biologie der Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz Julia Hörnemann geb. am 7. Januar 1976 in Wesel (Niederrhein) Mainz (2005) Inhalt 1 Einleitung 1 1.1 Pflanzliche Tyrosinasen 1 1.1.1 Nomenklatur und Einordnung der Tyrosinasen 1 1.1.2 Struktur der Catecholoxidase aus der Süßkartoffel (ibCO) 2 1.1.3 Reaktionsmechanismus der Tyrosinasen 4 1.1.3.1 Schematische Darstellung des Tyrosinase-Reaktionsmechanismus 4 1.1.3.2 Melanogenese 6 1.1.4 Latenz und Aktivität pflanzlicher Polyphenoloxidasen 8 1.1.4.1 Aktivierung 8 1.1.4.2 Inhibition 9 1.1.5 Genetische Organisation pflanzlicher Polyphenoloxidasen 10 1.1.6 Lokalisation der PPO in der Pflanze 11 1.1.7 Funktion der Tyrosinasen 12 1.1.7.1 Funktion pflanzlicher Polyphenoloxidasen 12 1.1.7.2 Bedeutung der Tyrosinasen für andere Organismen 13 1.2 Proteinfaltung 15 1.3 Ziele der Arbeit 17 2 Material und Methoden 18 2.1 Chemikalien 18 2.2 Geräte 18 2.3 Mikrobiologische Arbeiten 22 2.3.1 Verwendete Bakterienstämme 22 2.3.2 Medien 23 2.3.3 Anzucht von Bakterien 25 2.3.4 Kompetente Zellen 26 2.3.4.1 Herstellung kompetenter Zellen 26 2.3.4.2 Kompetenzkontrolle 27 2.3.5 Transformation 27 2.3.5.1 Transformation von JM101-Zellen 27 2.3.5.2 Transformation von BL21(DE3)(pLysE)- und Rosetta(DE3)-Zellen 28 2.3.6 Screening der Bakterienkolonien 28 2.3.7 Dauerkulturen 28 I Inhalt 2.4 Molekularbiologische Arbeiten 29 2.4.1 Klone 29 2.4.1.1 Vektoren 31 2.4.1.2 Herstellung der Klone 34 2.4.2 Plasmid-DNA-Präparation 38 2.4.3 Photometrische DNA-Konzentrationsbestimmung 39 2.4.4 Polymerasekettenreaktion (PCR) 39 2.4.4.1 DNA-Polymerasen 39 2.4.4.2 Primer und Oligonukleotide 40 2.4.4.3 PCR-Ansatz und PCR-Programme 42 2.4.4.4 Ortsgerichtete Mutagenese 44 2.4.5 Restriktion 45 2.4.6 Dephosphorylierung von Vektoren 46 2.4.7 Agarosegelelektrophorese 47 2.4.7.1 Agarose-Mini-Gele 47 2.4.7.2 Visualisierung und Densitometrische DNA-Quantifizierung 47 2.4.8 DNA-Aufreinigung 48 2.4.9 Hybridisierung von Oligonukleotiden 49 2.4.10 Phosphorylierung von Oligonukleotiden 49 2.4.11 Ligation 49 2.4.12 Sequenzierung 50 2.5 Proteinbiochemische Arbeiten 52 2.5.1 Inclusion Bodies (Einschlusskörper) 52 2.5.1.1 Protein-Überexpression 52 2.5.1.2 Präparation von Inclusion Bodies ohne His/Strep-Tag 52 2.5.1.3 Präparation von Inclusion Bodies mit His/Strep-Tag 53 2.5.1.4 Solubilisierung von Inclusion Bodies 54 2.5.2 Absorptionsspektroskopie / Konzentrationsbestimmung 55 2.5.2.1 Photometrische Proteinbestimmung bei 280 nm 55 2.5.2.2 Bradford-Assay 56 2.5.2.3 BCA-Assay 57 2.5.2.4 Chlorophyllbestimmung 58 2.5.2.5 Aufnahme von Absorptionsspektren 58 2.5.3 Polyacrylamid-Gelektrophorese (PAGE) 58 2.5.3.1 Herstellung von Polyacrylamidgelen 59 2.5.3.2 Denaturierende SDS-PAGE 59 2.5.3.3 Schwach denaturierende PAGE 60 2.5.3.4 Färbung von Polyacrylamidgelen 61 2.5.3.5 Digitalisierung und Molekulargewichtsbestimmung 62 2.5.4 Western Blot 62 2.5.4.1 Elektrotransfer (Blotting) 63 2.5.4.2 Ponceau S-Färbung 63 2.5.4.3 Blockierung der Membran 64 2.5.4.4 Proteinmarkierung mit Antikörpern 64 II Inhalt 2.5.4.5 Nachweisreaktion mit BCIP und NBT 65 2.5.5 Affinitätschromatographie 66 2.5.5.1 Strep-Tag/Strep-Tactin®-System 66 2.5.5.2 His-Tag/Ni2+-NTA-Sepharose 69 2.5.6 Versuche zur Faltung von Proteinen in Lösung 71 2.5.6.1 Verdünnungen 71 2.5.6.2 Dialysen 72 2.5.7 Aufreinigung nativer Tyrosinasen aus Blattgeweben 73 2.5.7.1 Pflanzenmaterial 74 2.5.7.2 Thylakoidpräparation 75 2.5.7.3 Solubilisierung der Thylakoidmembranen 76 2.5.7.4 Ammoniumsulfatfällung 77 2.5.7.5 Gelfiltration (Sephadex G-25) 78 2.5.7.6 Anionenaustausch-Chromatographie 79 2.5.8 Aufreinigung nativer Tyrosinasen aus Früchten und Knollen 81 2.5.8.1 Vorkondensation von Triton X-114 81 2.5.8.2 Enzym-Aufreinigung aus Äpfeln 81 2.5.8.3 Enzym-Aufreinigung aus Kartoffeln 82 2.5.9 Enzymaktivitätstests 83 2.5.9.1 MBTH-Enzymassay 83 2.5.9.2 Kinetiken 84 2.5.9.3 Tropfen-Test 85 3 Ergebnisse 86 3.1 Herstellung der Klone 86 3.2 Enzymassays 88 3.2.1 Tropfen-Test 88 3.2.2 Kinetiken 89 3.2.2.1 Optimierung des MBTH-Enzymassays 89 3.2.2.2 Einfluss verschiedener Substanzen auf den MBTH-Enzymassay 90 3.3 Rekombinante Tyrosinase (PPO A) aus Tomate 93 3.3.1 Faltungsversuche mit dem nicht modifizierten Protein 93 3.3.1.1 Präparation und Solubilisierung von Inclusion Bodies der PPO A 94 3.3.1.2 Faltungsversuche über Verdünnung und Dialyse 95 3.3.2 PPO A aus Tomate inklusive Strep-Tag 96 3.3.2.1 Insertion des Strep-Tags in die PPO A-Sequenz 97 3.3.2.2 Bindung des Strep-Tag-Proteins an Strep-Tactin®-Sepharose 97 3.3.2.3 Einfluss der Anzuchttemperatur auf die Bildung von löslichem Protein 100 3.3.2.4 Einfluss von Denaturierungsmittel auf die Bindung an Strep-Tactin® 102 3.3.2.5 Aktivierungsversuche mit dem löslichen Protein 102 III Inhalt 3.3.3 PPO A aus Tomate mit His-Tag 105 3.3.3.1 Insertion des His-Tags in die NsiI-Schnittstelle 105 3.3.3.2 Charakterisierung des Klons pDS12-ppoA-His 106 3.4 Rekombinante Tyrosinase (PPO A) aus Spinat 109 3.4.1 Charakterisierung des PhxA-Gens aus Spinat 109 3.4.2 Expressionsversuche in JM101-E.coli-Zellen 110 3.4.2.1 Überführung des PhxA-Gens in einen Expressionsvektor (pDS12) 110 3.4.2.2 Insertion eines His-Tags und Austausch einer Aminosäure 112 3.4.2.3 Insertion eines Peptids aus der PPO A (Tomate) in das Spinat-Protein 114 3.4.2.4 Versuche zur Verbesserung der Überexpression 115 3.4.2.5 Versuch zur Bindung von Inclusion Bodies auf Ni2+-Säulen 120 3.4.3 Expression in alternativen E.coli-Zellen 122 3.4.3.1 Überführung des PhxA-Gens in den pT7-7-Vektor 122 3.4.3.2 Optimierung der Überexpression 123 3.4.3.3 Molekulargewicht und Löslichkeit des überexprimierten Proteins 125 3.4.4 Versuche zur Faltung des PPO A-His-Proteins aus Spinat 126 3.4.4.1 Art der Kupfer-Zugabe und Stabilität des Glutathion-Cu(I)-Komplexes 127 3.4.4.2 Dialysen zur Proteinfaltung 128 3.4.4.3 Versuche zur Proteinfaltung über Verdünnung 130 3.4.4.4 Versuche zur Proteinfaltung auf Ni2+-NTA-Sepharosesäulen 132 3.4.5 Fazit zur Expression und Faltung der PPO A aus Spinat 135 3.5 Native Tyrosinasen 136 3.5.1 Native Tyrosinasen aus verschiedenen Pflanzen 136 3.5.2 Native Tyrosinase aus Spinat 137 3.5.2.1 Charakterisierung der Proben aus den ersten Aufreinigungsschritten 137 3.5.2.2 Weiterführende Aufreinigung 140 4 Diskussion 141 4.1 Expression rekombinanter Tyrosinasen in E.coli 141 4.1.1 Vergleich der Expression der PPO A aus Tomate und Spinat 141 4.1.2 Optimierung der Expressionsbedingungen 143 4.1.2.1 Auswahl geeigneter Bakterienzellen 144 4.1.2.2 Einfluss von Medium und Glucosekonzentration auf die Expression 144 4.1.2.3 Beeinflussung der Überexpression durch die Temperatur 144 4.1.2.4 Einfluss der Induktorkonzentration 145 4.1.2.5 Induktionskinetik 145 4.1.2.6 Fazit aus den Optimierungsversuchen zur Proteinexpression 146 4.1.3 Bedeutung von Cofaktoren für die heterologe Expression 146 4.1.3.1 Expression bakterieller Tyrosinasen 147 IV Inhalt 4.1.3.2 Expression der Tyrosinasen bei Säugern 147 4.1.3.3 Expression pflanzlicher Tyrosinasen 148 4.1.3.4 Chaperone und Fusionsproteine 148 4.1.3.5 Überexpression des PPO A-Proteins aus Spinat 149 4.1.3.6 Einfluss von Kupfer auf die rekombinante Expression der Tyrosinase 150 4.2 Rückfaltung rekombinant exprimierter Tyrosinasen 151 4.2.1 Solubilisierung von Inclusion Bodies 151 4.2.2 Verschiedene Rückfaltungsansätze 152 4.2.2.1 Verdünnung 152 4.2.2.2 Pufferaustausch 154 4.2.2.3 Adsorption an eine Matrix 155 4.2.3 Die Rolle niedermolekularer Additiva bei der Rückfaltung 158 4.2.3.1 Aggregation versus Proteinfaltung 160 4.2.3.2 Einfluss des Redoxpotentials auf die Ausbildung von Disulfidbrücken 161 4.2.4 Einbau des Cofaktors (Kupfer) 162 4.2.4.1 Kupferproteine in vivo 162 4.2.4.2 Einbau von Kupfer in Proteine in vitro 163 4.2.4.3 Bedeutung der Oxidationsstufe des Kupfers für den Einbau in Proteine 164 4.2.4.4 Einfluss der Thioetherbrücke am AZ auf die Koordination des Kupfers 165 4.2.5 Indikatoren für den Erfolg der Faltung 166 4.2.6 Fazit aus den Rückfaltungsexperimenten der Spinat-PPO A 167 4.3 Aufreinigung nativer Tyrosinasen 168 4.3.1 Lokalisation der Tyrosinasen in der Pflanze 168 4.3.1.1 Transport der Tyrosinasen in die Plastiden 168 4.3.1.2 Luminale Lokalisation oder Assoziation an die Thylakoidmembran 169 4.3.2 Heterogenität der Polyphenoloxidasen in der Pflanze 171 4.3.3 Latenz und Aktivierung der Polyphenoloxidasen 172 4.3.3.1 Proteolytische Aktivierung 173 4.3.3.2 SDS und andere Aktivatoren 174 5 Zusammenfassung 176 6 Literatur 177 Anhang Abkürzungen 203 Chemikalien 207 Hydropathiewerte nach Kyte und Doolittle (1982) 211 Sequenzierungen 212 Sequenzen 227 V Einleitung 1 Einleitung 1.1 Pflanzliche Tyrosinasen Quer durch alle Organismenreiche, von Bakterien bis hin zum Menschen, katalysieren Tyrosinasen die Synthese der Melanine, jener gelb bis schwarzen Pigmente, die sowohl aus der menschlichen Haut, als auch aus der Bräunung z.B.
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