Volume 5, Issue 8(3), August 2016 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 8-43-7/1, Chinna Waltair Visakhapatnam – 530 017 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr.K. Victor Babu Faculty, Department of Philosophy Andhra University – Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Andhra Pradesh – India
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Vice Chancellor Founder and President Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Research Lima Peru Mumbai Prof. Igor Kondrashin Prof.Y.C. Simhadri The Member of The Russian Philosophical Vice Chancellor, Patna University Society Former Director The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Studies, New Delhi & Formerly Vice Chancellor of Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Rector Nagarjuna University, Patna University St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute
Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater
Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Andhra University Visakhapatnam Prof.K.Sreerama Murty Department of Economics Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Vizianagaram Prof. K.R.Rajani Department of Philosophy Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Asst. Professor Dept. of Zoology Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Department of Anthropology Delhi Andhra University – Visakhapatnam I Ketut Donder Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Political Economy Indonesia University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Prof. Roger Wiemers Austria Professor of Education Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Prof. Alexander Chumakov Chair of Philosophy Dr. N.S. Dhanam Russian Philosophical Society Department of Philosophy Moscow, Russia Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Economics GITAM University Andhra University Campus, Kakinada Visakhapatnam Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education Coordinator University of Education, VNU, Hanoi A.P State Resource Center Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar Department of Computer Science Dr.S.Kannan University of Pune,Pune Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of Pharmacology Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur
Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of Education Department of English North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong GITAM University Hyderabad Dr.K.Chaitanya Department of Chemistry Prof.Francesco Massoni Nanjing University of Science and Department of Public Health Sciences Technology University of Sapienza, Rome People’s Republic of China Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Dr.Merina Islam Al-Mustansiriyah University Department of Philosophy College of Education Cachar College, Assam Department of Mathematics, Iraq
Dr. Bipasha Sinha Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Department of Mathematics University of Calcutta, Calcutta University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines
Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dr.Senthur Velmurugan .V Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Librarian Dravidian University, Kuppam Kalasalingam University Andhra Pradesh Krishnankovil Tamilnadu
Dr. K. John Babu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Assistant Professor Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought. C O N T E N T S
Volume 5 Issue 8(3) August 2016
S. Page
No No 1. Weaknesses, Setbacks and Failures of Community 1 Opiew Omot Cham
2. Improved Health Seeking Behaviour - A Study of 5 Empowered Women in Sex Work in Chikballapur District G.Santhalakshmi
3. Panchayati Raj - A Historical Perspective 14 Anantha Murthy .R
4. A study on Opportunity and Hazards on the Labour 51 Force to Women: With Special Reference to Marketing Sector of Dindugal District in India Anji. A
5. Theories of Elections 65 Kuramana Swarna Latha
6. Bull Symbol Depicted on Vijayanagara Coins 77 Karamthur Venkatesu Naik
7. Population Explosion Impact on Sustianabale 91 Development – A Study C. Ramanjaneyulu
8. The Relationship Between Anxiety and Academic 103 Performance among B.Ed Students Isha Narula 9. In An Clever Vigor Effective Clustering Wi-Fi Sensor 115 Networks Lokesh. A 10. To Analyse & Optimize the Distortion of two Dissimilar 122 Metals Stainless Steel & Mild Steel Using Taguchi Technique Narender Kumar and Krishan Kumar 11. Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable and Narendra Jadhav’s 141 Outcaste: A Memoir- A Critical Evaluation V. Hanumanthaiah
12. Fuzzy Intersection and Difference Model for 148 Identification of Topological Relation Between Two Fuzzy Region H.C. Chamuah and B.C. Chetia
13. ,d leL;k % ^fpUrk* 167 uhjt dqekj “kekZ
14. Role of Dairy Co-Operatives in Economic Empowerment 175 of Rural Women of Rajasthan Sandeep Narula
15. Financial Resource Mobilization for the Development of 211 Mettu Town Sekata Kenea, Geda Misganu and Geleta Merera
16. A Research Paper on Relationship Marketing through 236 Customer Loyalty by Mobile Service Providers Situn Krushna Sahu
17. Administrative Steps and Efforts towards Education 249 S.P.Pullanna
18. Vamadevedi Panchaavataranam varnanam in Sri Siva 274 Mahapurana P.Kali Prasad
19. Indira Gandhi A Biography 282 T.Sukanya
20. Propagation of Rayleigh Waves Under Gravity of Their 299 Effect A. Chandulal
Dr. K. VICTOR BABU ISSN : 2277 – 7881 M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Impact Factor :3.318(2015) Faculty of Philosophy and Religious Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Studies & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Pin - 530 003 , Andhra Pradesh – India
Editorial……
You will be happy to know that we have entered the fifth year of publication of IJMER, since its inception in April 2012. Focusing on many interdisciplinary subjects, the published papers are spreading the knowledge with fervent hope of upholding the holistic approach. With all my heart, I reiterate to echo my sincere feelings and express my profound thanks to each and every valued contributor. This journal continues to nurture and enhance the capabilities of one and all associated with it.
We as a team with relentless efforts are committed to inspire the readers and achieve further progress. Aim is to sustain the tempo and improve. We acknowledge with pleasure that our readers are enjoying the publications of Sucharitha Publishers. We solicit to receive ideas and comments for future improvements in its content and quality. Editor –in-Chief explicitly conveys his gratitude to all the Editorial Board members. Your support is our motivation. Best wishes to everyone.
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016
WEAKNESSES, SETBACKS AND FAILURES OF COMMUNITY
Dr. Opiew Omot Cham President Gambella University Ethiopia
Today, our achievements speak for themselves. However, when it comes to our setbacks, failures and weaknesses, we feel uncomfortable talking about them. All of us have failed at some time to equal our dreams of perfection or to perform well. The big issue is not your weaknesses; they are part of life. The issue is how you manage these imperfections so that they do not dictate you. Setbacks and weaknesses can be robust stepping stones that lead to growth and maturity. Our society educational backwardness, literacy and failure of leadership won't be compromise and non-excusable, it is a part of development and something we all have to consider. However, utmost care should be taken while mentioning your weaknesses in a discussion so that we do not inadvertently present ourselves in poor light. 'We all have an obligation to teach ourselves, community and also it's our duty to make our community a better society. Therefore, we cannot keeping depend our weakness forever; we have to find a solution. The solution won't be argued; it is a process of learning.
Consider the following piece of an advice:
I was shy; I didn't make a very good first impression and wanted to change this. I noticed that when I spent some time with people, I could open up. People appreciated my sense of humor and trusted me. This gave me the confidence to overcome the problem by taking it head on. In 2006, I took up a 'teaching ' job, and once I was into it, it didn't take long before I was building new contacts for the organization and won the best new employee award in six months.
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It's very human to have weaknesses and failures but it is your job to tell to yourself and your community how you transformed your shortcomings into your strengths. When talking appropriately, instances of failure can strike a responsive chord with the personhsten the discussion. Let the community know that you are the kind of person who refuses to mull over your weaknesses; you would much rather work on your deficiencies and overcome them. If you can manage to do this, you can be sure that you're heading for success.
I encourage you to relate instances of failures and setbacks from your personal life, unless the discussion question specifically asks for a professional incident.
If you are narrating a professional experience, let the incident be kind of trivial: a small mistake that could have had wide-ranging implications (but you rectified it in time, of course). You can get away with confessing some minor errors but only as long as you can demonstrate that you learned a good deal from this fiasco. Explain your position well and put the best of your talking skills into play so that your argument makes interesting listening and projects you as a learner.
Don't miss this: Let the communities know that you have the inherent ability, drive and Commitment to move on in the face of failure. You will not let mistakes and disappointments of the past direct and control your future. Yes, you had defaulted once, but you learned quite a bit in the process. You're learning cost you time, energy, setbacks and failures, but in these days of rapid change, it is the learners who inherit the future.
It is good to be honest in your argument, but there are some kinds of failures and weaknesses you must avoid. These are the, ones that could either adversely affect your discussion performance or interfere with your career plans.
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Each incident that sets forth a weakness, setback or failure, must also be balanced with some positive comments about yourself. Look at the two examples given below and unearth similar incidents from your life.
I have two examples. The first example is: My former boss and I never saw eye to eye on any issue because we were so different. We had frequent rows at home, which caused boss a lot of pain. But some time later when I saw him tide over a very difficult phase, I realized just how strong he was. My boss took the first step to start the process of reconciliation between us. As we opened our hearts to each other, we realized how similar we really were. It did not take long for me to start admiring my boss. Then he has become a great source of inspiration for me. I understand he so well that I am able to anticipate him response to a situation and act accordingly.
The second example is: I never trusted anyone with anything, so I believed in doing everything myself. I felt others would never 'measure up to my standards. But a particular situation ‘in community drove me up the wall. I had nearly given up in despair when a person in my team, whom I considered quite incapable, helped me tide over the situation. I was touched. That day I resolved to trust others, especially my team members. My career has followed an upward trend for the last four years mainly because of my ability to motivate and trust others, and develop unique solutions through positive interactions with team members.
Notice the positive turn that each of the above examples took. Observe that in the second example, by mentioning the last four years, we have succinctly conveyed that the negative trait is now a thing of the past. I have made it clear that we have been unsuccessfully practicing the positive outcome for a fairly long time. Refusing to recognize the weakness and failure of leadership won't solve our problem. We will
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deal with them forever. Let wake up, look around the place where we lived in. Today the world community looking for educators and they are very hunger. So be us?
In the end, put on your thinking cap and recall some of the, new traits you've picked up over the last few years. Did these come naturally to you or did you have to work on developing them? How did you handle things before you developed these new skills? We know what we are doing in community. We know what we are doing in the churches. We know what we are doing in the nonprofit organizations. We know what we are doing in political organizations. We know who we are in general. We know what we say and what we doing. We cannot run from our weakness and failure. Somewhere in the answer to the last question lies a weakness or failure that is appropriate to be listen in our discussion.
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IMPROVED HEALTH SEEKING BEHAVIOUR- A STUDY OF EMPOWERED WOMEN IN SEX WORK IN CHIKBALLAPUR DISTRICT
G.Santhalakshmi Ph.D Research scholar Dept. of Rural Development and Social Work S.K.University, Anantapuram
Introduction
India is a country with low HIV prevalence, it has the third largest number of people living with HIV/AIDS. HIV epidemic in India is concentrated in nature and heterogeneous in its spread. The HIV prevalence among Female Sex Workers is about 20 times higher than the general population(NACO annual report 2010-11). Based on HIV Sentinel Surveillance 2008-09, it is estimated that India has an adult prevalence of 0.31 percent with 23.9 lakh people infected with HIV, of which, 39 percent are female and 3.5 percent are children. The estimates highlight an overall reduction in adult HIV prevalence, HIV incidence (new infections) as well as AIDS related mortality in India.
The primary drivers of HIV epidemic in India are commercial female sex workers, unprotected sex between men who have sex with men, and injecting drug use. It is estimated that there are 12.63 lakh Female Sex Workers, 3.5 lakh Men who have Sex with Men with high risk behaviour and 1.86 lakh Injecting Drug Users in India. Sex work continues to act as the most important source of HIV infection in India due to the large size of clients who get infected from sex workers. Clients of sex workers further transmit HIV infection to general population particularly low risk women(NACOannualreport2010-11).
In India, women account for around 10 lakshs out of 23.9 lakhs estimated number of people living with HIV/AIDS. Their heightened vulnerability has both biological and socio-economic reasons. Early
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marriage, violence and sexual abuse against women are the major socio- economic reasons of their vulnerability to HIV infection (NACO HSS 2010-11). Their biological construct makes them more susceptible to HIV infection in any given heterosexual encounter.
The major drivers of HIV epidemic in Karnataka are Female Sex Worker, Men who have Sex with Men and to small extend Injecting Drug User. There are 70,000 FSWs, 21000 MSM and 1208 IDUs registered under various targeted intervention programmes in Karnataka (2010-11).
In India it is estimated the number of FSWs as 8.68 lakh in 2009. In Karnataka recent estimates shows that 1, 34,691 FSWs, with almost an equal proportion in urban and rural areas. There are about 6.17 FSWs per 1,000 adults in the urban areas with a corresponding ratio of 3.99 in rural areas. The FSW estimates are available for 95% of the cities and towns in the state compared with for only 51% of the villages according to KSAPS AAP 2011-12.
HIV prevalence is 10 or more times higher among various risk groups: 5.1% among female sex workers (FSWs) according to HSS 2010-11. HIV prevalence among FSWs in Karnataka has come down from 14.4 in 2003 to 5.1 in 2010 according to KSAPS AAP 2011-12.
The HIV prevalence among the low risk general population in Chikballapur district is moderate at 0.26% (PPTCT, 2009). The prevalence is high among the bridge population at 2.11% (ICTC walk-in males, 2009) and women at 1.98% (ICTC walk-in females, 2009). HIV positivity in walk in females during 2011 is 1.5 in the district which shows declining trend in the districtaccording to chikbalapur district profile by IHAT.
Provision of health services related to STI/RTI care services is a very important strategy to prevent HIV transmission and promote sexual and reproductive health under the National AIDS Control Programme
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(NACP) and Reproductive and Child Health programme (RCH) of the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM). The project for reduction of transmission of HIV/STIs among Female sex workers (FSW) and their sexual partners was initiated by the NGO since 2004 and it was scaled up in 2006, covering FSWs across all Taluks of the district. The efforts to promote a local level institution to take over responsibility of its community's health needs were realized with the formation of small affinity groups at the site level, federations at taluk level and the registered CBO of FSW at the district.
Objectives:
To study the health seeking behaviour of women in sex work
To study the utilisation of the project services by the women in sex work
Methodology:
This study comprised a quantitative progress reports data from April 2012 to January 2013 and qualitative data of discussions with the affinity groups of women in sex work in the Chikballapur district. Unpublished mapping data is used for estimation of FSWs in the district by the donor and the implementing agency. First step was taken to identify and register the FSWs in the NACO standardised MIS formats. It was examined from the registered data of 1362 FSWs out of which 94 per cent solicit in the street and 6 per cent solicit at home. The overall study was conducted in two phases; qualitative research and the quantitative research by using the project reports.
Results:
Profile of FSWs
The study has done with 1362 women in sex work in chikballapur district of Karnataka. Among them 15 percent are in below 24 years of
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age, 62 per cent are in 25-34 years of age, 22 percent are in 35-45 years of age and remaining are above 45 years of age. The Project has been working with the women for the last eight years and more and more women are getting registered every year.
The sex work is a never ending process in the society and along with the general population, number of women in sex work also in progressing trend. The women in sex work most of them reside in rural areas, are married, mobile and have a small income-earning occupation, in addition to sex work. All these women visit urban areas due to several reasons out of which, one reason is to get the handsome income through sex work and the diversified urban society where the women can be anonymous. Most of these women are in 25-45 years of age group.
Different age group of women in sex work
1% 15% 22%
>20 25-34 35-45 < 45
62%
Fig1: Distribution of women by age
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Improved health seeking behaviour
The project is continuously working with the women in sex work from 2004 to till date. The women have undergone all the difficulties in the field and finally reached to a stage where they started perceiving their risk and their future about them and their family. The project is continuously outreaching to change the women behaviour in terms of their health and public health. The women were educated on prevention of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) by educating them on consistent and correct condom use in each sexual encounter either with the paid client or unpaid client or the regular partner. In the process 10 private and government doctors were identified, sensitised and trained to treat the STIs among the women in sex work. Studies show that the women with STIs are prone to get infected with HIV according to the chikbalapur TI project report. The women have been motivated by her Peer educators to undergo the STI screening once in three months to diagnose the STIs with or without symptoms and treated by a qualified doctor. As a result of early diagnosis and the complete treatment of STIs the STIs have come down in these women after a period of time. However the women are self motivated to go for the routine check up. Currently the women are very comfortable to go to the government hospital and tested themselves for any unseen STIs and demand for the proper care from the government set up.
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120% 101% 103% 104% 100% 92% 86% 81% 80%
60%
40%
20%
0% Apr-Jun12 Jul-Sep12 Oct-Dec12
Regular contact* STI screening* Figure2:
As part of the HIV prevention program the women have been educated to get counselling and testing for HIV at the Integrated Counselling and Testing Centre (ICTCs). It helps the women for early diagnosis and treated with Anti Retroviral Treatment (ART) for further care. Since these women are involved in risky activities they are educated to get repeat testing for HIV once in six months.
% of Women attended for Repeat Testing for HIV
68% 67% 66% 64% 62% 60% 58% 58% 56% 54% 52% Apr-Sep12 Oct-Jan13
Figure3: Percent women attended for HIV repeated testing
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Self Help Groups:
Though the women are involved in risky activities the women in sex work too have problems like other general women have and in fact it is more. These women are not only vulnerable for health and also vulnerable to family problems, stigma and discrimination and more to poverty. The younger women have more income along with more vulnerability to all kind of health problem as perfocus group discussion analysis.The profession has demand only till the women gets in to forties and then she has to survive with out any income in her old age. The women are more exploited by the pimps, brokers, regular partners, family and all kind of power structures. All these factors made women to come together and form their affinity groups with ten to fifteen members. It gave them good platform to discuss about their personal and professional problems, as all of them are involved in sex work. With the unity they were able to improve their self confidence and power to face the problems with their families, police and the pimps and brokers. In the long run the women also thought about the savings as they get older there will be no income through sex work to survive. Hence they started savings and small loans and finally linked with many nationalised banks. Currently the women are receiving loans for their children education, children marriages and income generating activities etc. Thus these groups made them self sustain, gave more power to advocate with different stake holders. All these site level self affinity groups formed the Taluk level federation and all taluk federations formed the district level federation which is registered under the societies registration act. Now the Community Based Organisation (CBO) has been recognised as the powerful structure at the district level. The groups and the federations are looked as health groups than the sex workers groups by the external people. There are 66 groups formed across the district with 931 women in sex work. These women don’t need the Peer educator to motivate them for either regular STI
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screening or repeat testing for HIV. The group itself is a motivating factor to get all the health services as the primary objective of the group is to be healthy.
Self Affinity Group members
931
66
No.of Aff inity groups No.of members in the group Figure4:
The CBO SoukhyaSanjeeviniSamasthe itself is partnering with Karnataka State Aids Prevention Society (KSAPS) to implement the program of prevention of HIV/Aids among their members.
Discussion
Conclusion:
Targeted Intervention with the women in sex work had achieved high scale of coverage, accurate knowledge, and consistent condom use with the clients, improved health seeking behaviour among women in sex work. The impact of the long time intervention with the women shows the women empowerment through groups, group interaction and the registered body at the district level.
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References:
1. National Aids Control Organisation(NACO), Annual Report 2010- 11, New Delhi;Availablehttp: //nacoonline. org/upload /REPOR TS/N ACO %20Annual%20Report%202010-11.pdf accessed on 4th March 2013
2. National Aids Control Organisation(NACO), HSS 2010-11 Technical Brief, New Delhi; Available from http://nacoonline .org/upload/S urveilla nc e/Reports%2 0&%20Publ ication/H SS%20 2010-11_Techni cal %20B rie f_3 0%20Nov%2012.pdf
3. Karnataka State Aids Prevention Society(KSAPS), Annual Action plan 2012-13
4. Unpublished Chikballapur District profile 2012
5. Unpublished Project reports of Chikbalapur district 2012-13
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PANCHAYATI RAJ - A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Dr. Anantha Murthy .R Assistant Professor Dept. of Political Science Govt.First Grade College, Malur Kolar District,Karnataka State
Introduction Panchayati Raj is an age-old Indian indigenous politico- administrative institution for village autonomy and development. It is a framework to adopt the democratic system in the rural India and ultimately to bring the villagers into the mainstream.
Conceptually, panchayats can be described as an assembly of the village people or their representatives. Gandhiji equated panchayats with 'Village Republics'.1 He explained his concept of village panchayats thus: "... The government of the village will be conducted by the panchayat of five persons annually elected by the adult villagers, males and females, possessing minimum prescribed qualifications. These will have all the authority and jurisdiction required. Since there will be no system of punishment in the accepted sense, the panchayat will be the legislature, judiciary and executive combined to operate for its office. Any village can become such a republic without much interference even from the present government whose sole effective connection with the villages is the execution of the village revenue. Here there is perfect democracy based on individual freedom. The individual is the architect of his own government."2
The term 'panchayati' literally means a Council of Five. The principle of 'panchayati' is Panch Parmeshwar, which means God speaking through the Five. 3 It seems the panchayat was invented with a spiritual tone to take up politico-developmental programmes for the Indian villages. However, the term 'Panchayati Raj' came into vogue in
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the late 1950’s. It referred to a process of governance, which links the people from village to state (in other words, from the Gram Sabha to Lok Sabha). Precisely, the Panchayati Raj system functions as the rural local government in India, ensuring grassroots democracy and decentralised planning. It devolves power to the villages. In the language of Mahatma Gandhi: “When Panchayati Raj is established, public opinion will do what violence can never do. The present power of Zamindars, the capitalist and the rajas can hold sway people non-co- operate with the evil of Zamindari or capitalism, it must die of inanition. In Panchayati Raj only the Panchayat will be obeyed and the Panchayat can only work through the law of their making".4 The concept of Panchayati Raj has developed from the idea of a close knit village community to that of an organic base for a three fold revolution social, political and economic.5 Briefly, Panchayati Raj means a statutory multi-tier institutional structure endowed with a corporate status by a competent (state) legislature performing functions pertaining to local governments. As such the Indian Panchayati Raj institutions have been designed on the theory of rural local government for the civic development of the villages.6 And "local government is that part of the government of a nation or state which deals with mainly such matters as concern the inhabitants of the particular district, or place together with those matters which the Parliament has deemed it desirable should be administered by local authorities, sub-ordinate to the central government."7 As the rural local government, the Indian Panchayati Raj is based on the organised social feelings of common neighbourhood involving the basic necessities of the villagers and also common requirements of rural life. Thus, for the villagers this institution is considered as a necessary good. The rural society is conservative and always feels scarce of the presence of progressive urbanities. That is why the villagers remain united for the common objectives of their own socio-economic development with a separate rural identity. The basic necessity of the Panchayati Raj can be better
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explained in the Chart:3.1. Accordingly, the basic socio-economic and the common problems of the local villagers necessitate the village local government, i.e. Panchayati Raj in India.
Chart:3.1
Necessity of Panchayati Raj
The Local Villagers
Basic Socio-Economic Needs
Common Local Problems
Agency for Solution
Village Local Government
Apart from its developmental orientations, the Panchayati Raj system essentially exhibits a political character. The panchayati bodies induct the rural people into the political culture of the nation. In a democratic set-up, they provide the training ground for the village people to participate effectively in the democratic process. In a way, these institutions are the extension cords of democracy to the villages.
Panchayati Raj Institutions in India: A Retrospective
Panchayati Raj is an age-old indigenous Indian politico- administrative institution. It owes its origin to the different traditional patterns of governance, in the phases of history, in many parts of India. Being associated with the Indian culture and heritage, the panchayati bodies have been working for the Indian villagers, in some form or other, since ancient times. Villages have been playing pivotal role in the Indian life through the ages and so also the different types of panchayati bodies. A chronological analysis of these bodies will reveal a comprehensive picture of village autonomy and village development in India. However, the Indian Panchayati Raj has been developed on the basis of traditional society and polity of India with a Vedic approach.
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Vedic-Traditional Basis
Since Vedic days the village (Gram) in India has been considered as the basic unit of local-self administration. The will of the village people had dominated every village republic. In the words of Dr.Altekar, “form most ancient times, villages in India have been the axle of administration”.8 The evidences, of primitive republican forms of government, are found in certain parts of ancient India especially during the Rig Vedic period.
In Vedic literature, references are available on the popular village assemblies controlling the kings of the numerous states. These popular assemblies for the villages were known as ‘Sabha’ while the ‘samiti’ was a popular assembly for the whole people or the state at the capital. Both of these bodies were treated with high esteem and equated with the twin daughters of 'prajapati'-the creator. The 'Sabha’ was the simplest example of village government and all the village disputes were settled by it in addition to other functions like security, political as well as socio-cultural matters.
As has been mentioned, India had small states with republican structure during the Vedic period. The village republics existed with in these small Republic State-fully autonomous, more or less self- sufficient communities, functionally interdependent but based on patron client-relationship, Even after the kingship came into existence, with elective character, the state remained a republic. The king exercised his powers over the villages through the village panchayat headman called 'Gramin' or 'Gramik' who had civil as well as military powers and functions for the village. In ancient Hindu polity the activities of the village administration were to manage tanks, pastures, temples, markets, dispensation of justice, taxation, etc.
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The Arthasastra of Kautilya gives the examples of some village organizations. Several accounts are also available on the exercise of sovereign functions by the village organization over the king, in election or re-election on behalf of the people. The patriarchs of different families formed the governing class and a number of such families formed a canton. A number of cantons formed a Jana presided over by a Janapati or king. The 'Vayu-Puranas' give an account of 120 Janapadas of Bharatvarsha' organized on the basis of social traditions, racial compositions, geopolitical profile and dialects, etc. These were autonomous and self-sufficient, practicing different methods of self-governing.
Shriman Narayan, one of the protagonists of Indian Panchayati Raj movement, tracing its origin describes: "It is believed that the system was first introduced by king Prithu while colonizing the doab between the Ganges and the Jamuna. In the Manusmuriti and the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, there are many references to the existence of gramsangha or rural communities. A description, of these rural communities is also found in the Arthasatra of Kautilya who lived in 400 BC. In the Ramayan of Valmiki we read about the Janapada, which was perhaps a kind of federation of village republic. An account of the village common wealth during the 17th century is found in Sukracharya's Nitisara. In fact, the village in India has been looked upon as the basic unit of administration since the earliest Vedic times...”9
With the rise of the Mauryan Empire (324 BC), the republican and representative institutions declined. The few, which survived, collapsed during the Gupta period (320-511 AD). Accounts of early village communities are available even in the middle ages. South Indian inscriptions relating to Tamil kingdoms of 10th century tell us of the existence of several small committees for local administration in the same village, e.g. six committees, viz. Annual Committee, Garden
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Committee, Tank Committee, Gold Committee, Committee of Justice and Panch-Vara Committee.10 However, the village organizations (panchayats) sustained through the centuries till the Mughal rule (1526-1857), as some kind of consultative machinery.
Under the Mughals, their judicial powers were minimized but the local affairs remained un-administered from the top. The village officers and village level servants remained answerable to the Panchayats. Thus, these institutions went into oblivion but certainly could not be scraped.
British period
During the British period, the local government system passed through two distinct phases. The first phase commenced with from the advent of the British rule and lasted till the Constitutional Reforms of 1919 and the second phase from 1919 to the end of the British rule.
First phase
During the first phase, the advent of the British rule saw the slow disappearance of the self-contained village local government system and the emergence of a local government as the direct projection of the British rule. They used this system to extend their own rule. As a result, the attitude of the people changed. People seemed to lose faith in the age old system of local government. Other conditions too had changed. Direct taxation gave way to indirect taxation. As Mathew rightly points out that “the Village Panchayats were not the first priority of the British rulers. Concentrated as they were mainly around the trading centres, their interest in the beginning was limited to the creation of local bodies of nominated members in the major towns.”11 The revolt of 1857 seems to have been largely responsible for creating the conditions for the adoption of Lord Mayo's resolution on local self-government reviving the traditional village Panchayati system in Bengal. The transfer of authority to the local institutions, was a
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financial necessity in the context of imperial financial strains and stresses in the wake of the mutiny, and that it called for, 'a comprehensive political philosophy involving the transfer of authority from the imperial level to the local representatives with legal, administrative and financial implications. 12
Lord Rippon's Resolution (1882)
The report of the Famine Commission of 1880, pointing to the absence of institutionalized local bodies, as a major impediment in the process of bringing relief supplies to the affected people, further strengthened the case for the transfer of authority to local bodies. As a result in 1882, the Government of India Resolution on local self- government was announced. It envisaged a comprehensive geo- administrative country-wide principle for the local self-government institutions. "Lord Rippon's government sent circulars to the governments in the provinces on the subject of local self-government, in order to seek the popular, public opinion. The issues in the circular became the basis for the Government of India Resolution (1882). Then came into being the Local Bodies Act of 1885. This was the basis for setting up of local self-governing institutions, but they had a majority of nominated members down to the village level.”13
Royal Commission on Decentralization
Lord Rippon was liberal in his outlook towards the problem of local self-government. He thought the local self-governing institutions would act as instruments of political and popular education. Another major step in this direction was the report of the Royal Commission on Decentralization. This Commission was set up in 1907 and it submitted its report in 1909. The Commission recommended that it could be desirable for effective decentralization to associate people with local tasks and village affairs through the village panchayats. The Commission recommended that, "it is most desirable, alike in the
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interests of decentralization and in order to associate the people with the local tasks of administration that an attempt should be made to constitute and develop village panchayats for the administration of local village affairs.”14 Both the recommendations contained in the Rippon resolution as well as those made by the Royal Commission on Decentralization, were not implemented and remained on paper only.
Lahore Resolution of 1909
In 1909, the 24th Session of the Congress was held at Lahore. It adopted a resolution urging the government to take early steps to have elected local bodies from village panchayati upwards with elected non- official chairmen for the local bodies and to provide them with necessary financial support. But all these efforts remained largely on paper.
Second phase
During the second phase various reforms were introduced largely as a consequence directed result of the developments that characterized from the first phase. The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms Act of 1919, under the proposed scheme of dyarchy, made local self- government a transferred subject. This meant that local self- government was brought under the control of Indian Ministers in the provinces. The idea was to make the local bodies’ representative with popular control. However, it did not make the panchayati institutions truly democratic because of various constraints. A large number of Acts were passed for the establishment of village panchayats, almost in all provinces, in order to fulfill the condition of transferring this subject to the domain of Indian Ministers in the provinces.
These included "Bengal Village Self-Government Act of 1919, Madras, Bombay and United Provinces Village Panchayat Act of 1920, Bihar and Orissa Village Administration Act, Assam Rural Self-
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Government Act of 1926, and Punjab Village Panchayat Act of 1935, etc".15
In subsequent years, similar laws were adopted by some other states. These Werei-Bikaner (Village Panchayat Act,1939), Karauli (Village Panchayat Act,1939), Hyderabad (Village Panchayat Act, 1940), Mewar (Gram Panchayat Act, 1940), Jasdan (Village Panchayat Act, 1942), Bhavnagar (Village Panchayat Act, 1943), Porbandar (Village Panchayat Act, 1943), Bharatpur (Village Panchayat Act, 1944), Marwar (Gram Panchayat Act, 1945), Wadia (Village Panchayat Act, 1946), Dharangadhra (Village Panchayat Act, 1946), Morvi (Village Panchayat Act, 1946), Sirohi (Village Panchayat Act, 1947), and Jaipur (Village Panchayat Act, 1948). However, these statutory panchayats covered only a limited number of villages and had, generally, a limited number of functions.16
These Acts aimed at looking after the village affairs and their development only. The local self-government even had the powers to try minor cases also. But these bodies were not democratic in the real sense because most of their members were not elected but were nominated by the government. They had few powers given to them and their financial resources were also limited. It was the time when Gandhiji categorically defined his vision of village panchayat thus-his idea of village Swaraj is that it is a complete republic independent of its neighbours for its own vital wants and yet interdependent for many others in which dependence is a necessity. The government of the village will be conducted by the panchayats of five persons annually elected by the adult villagers, men and women, possessing minimum prescribed qualifications. These will have all the authority and jurisdiction required. Since there will be no system of punishment in the accepted sense, the panchayats will be the legislature, judiciary and executive combined to operate for its year of office. Any village can become such a republic today without much interference even from the
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present government whose sole effective connection with the villages is the execution of village revenue. Here there is perfect democracy based upon individual freedom. The individual is the architect of his own government.17
Although the last few decades of the British rule witnessed a large number of state acts being passed for the establishment of village panchayats, the situation remained more or less the same till India achieved her independence.
Post-Independence period
All through the freedom struggle, the Indian National Congress perceived the Panchayats as people's institutions. Local self-governance was seen as the true voice of democracy. Village Panchayats were central to the ideological framework of India's national movement. Many of our leaders, mainly Mahatma Gandhi were wedded to the concept of Gram Swaraj. The idea was to have democratic process operating at the grass roots level as much as at the state and national levels. However, all this could not be translated into action, when India got her independence.
Article-40 of the Indian Constitution - 'Organisation of Village Panchayats'
It is what Mathew (1994) calls a “sad commentary on India's national commitment to democratic decentralisation that despite the village, having a history as the basic unit of administration and despite the nationalist movement's commitment to Panchayats and Mahatma Gandhi's unequivocal propagation of the ideal, the first draft of India's Constitution did not include a provision for panchayats.”18 This was in spite of the fact that Gram Swaraj (village self-rule) was a major slogan in the national liberation movement. It is unfortunate that the founding fathers of our Constitution did not
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take notice of these facts, while preparing the first draft of the Constitution.
It is said that 'When Mahatma Gandhi came to know about it, he felt both disturbed and depressed'. Rightly so, because 'Gram Swaraj' was the post-independence model of governance in rural India that Mahatma Gandhi had dreamt of presumably, noticing his distress, an amendment was moved for inserting Article 40 in Part IV of the Indian Constitution-Directive Principles of State Policy which says that, “the state should take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such power and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government.” This provision of the Constitution was primarily advisory in nature and therefore not taken seriously both by the Central and the State Governments. It is a fact that the Indian State, immediately after attaining independence, was more committed to industrialization and rural transformation through economic growth than democratic decentralization through Panchayati Raj. As a result, what followed was not an effort to usher in Panchayati Raj in the country, but to bring about socio-economic transformation through the 'Community Development Programme (CDP)',-a bureaucratically controlled state funded development intervention.
The First Development Initiative-CDP
The introduction of Community Development Programme (CDP) in 1952 with people's participation as its central concern was thus conceived as an instrument to transform the social and economic life of the village community. Right from the beginning, the programme was blown out of proportion as one of the most beneficent revolutions (Toynbee) and one of the major experiments of the 20th century (UN Mission). The CDP was soon strengthened by a National Extension Service to tackle the problems of growth and development at different local and functional levels. Even this could invoke only token public participation. It is, however, true that CDP was the first
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comprehensive programme for socio-economic transformation of rural areas. It is also a fact that it succeeded in establishing, for the first time, an organized administrative set-up at the national, state, district and block levels for the implementation of development programmes. It is equally true that the objective of self-reliance and people's participation could not be achieved through CDP, as it did not pay adequate attention to the objective of developing responsible' and responsive leadership. The CDP followed a 'top-down' approach; thus, there was, relatively speaking, only token public participation effected through nominated representatives of the public.
The programme raised immense expectations. The expectations so raised could, however, not be fulfilled. There was also a lack of enthusiasm among people in the Community Development Programmes because of the non-association of the people, particularly the disadvantaged rural poor and their representatives, in the planning and execution of development schemes meant for them. The people were not sufficiently motivated and there was a lack of strong commitment to the interests of the people among the inadequately trained development workers. As a result, dependence of the people on the government for material resources continued, and self help did not take roots at the expected level.19 People continued to ask the government for material resources.
There was a growing feeling among the policy makers that the development schemes would perhaps work only if the masses participated in them. It became increasingly self-evident that socio- economic transformation could not be achieved without democratic participation. Thus a study team on Community Projects and National Extension Service was set up in January, 1957 to assess the situation and to make necessary recommendations.
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Birth of the Panchayati Raj System in Independent India
The study team on 'Community Projects and National Extension Service' headed by Balwanth Roy Mehta was set up in January, 1957. In its report the study team observed that, “Development cannot progress without responsibility and power. Community Development can be real only when the community understands its problems; realizes its responsibilities; exercises the necessary powers through its chosen representatives and maintains a constant and intelligent vigilance on local administration.”20 It will be pertinent here to refer to some of the observations made by the study team in its report, which are relevant even today. On the state of resources the report states that, “one of the most important reasons for comparative lack of success of our non-urban local self-governing bodies is their exceedingly limited and inelastic resources.” Similarly, on the role of panchayati samities the report mentions that, "the establishment of the panchayati samities with a wide devolution of power by the State government has to be an act of faith-faith in democracy.”21 The team expressed concern about the lack of popular participation in the Community Development Programme and made a strong plea for establishing elected local bodies as soon as possible and for the devolution of power to lower levels through Panchayati Raj. Basic principles suggested by Mehta team were: 22
It should be a 3-tier structure from village to the district bodies having organic linkage with each other.
There should be genuine transfer of powers and responsibility to them.
Adequate resources should be transferred to the new bodies to enable them to discharge their responsibilities.
All development plans/programmes at these levels should be channelled through these bodies.
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The system evolved should be such as will facilitate further devolution and transfer of powers and responsibilities in future, and
The higher level body, the Zilla Parishad, would play an advisory role.
Planners and policy makers realized that the development efforts in rural areas could be fruitful only if the development strategy is based on invoking people's participation through panchayats as recommended by the study team. The study team report aptly sum up its findings in the following words, “Development cannot progress without responsibility and power. Community Development can be real only when the community understands its problems, realizes its 'responsibilities, exercises the necessary powers through its chosen representatives and maintains a constant and intelligent vigilance on local administration.23
Rise of Panchayati Raj (1959-1964)
The states of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh were the first to adopt this system. On the occasion of inaugurating Panchayati Raj System in the country on 2nd October, 1959 at Nagaur in Rajasthan, Pandit. Jawaharlal Nehru hailed it as the most revolutionary and historical step in the context of new India.
By 1959, all the states had passed Panchayat Acts, and subsequently Panchayats were set up in all parts of the country. “More than 2, 17,300 village Panchayats, covering over 96 per cent of the 5, 79,000 inhabited villages and 92 per cent of the rural population had been established. On an average, a Panchayat covered a population of about 2,400 in two to three villages. There were 4526 Panchayat Samities at the Block/Tahasil level covering 88 per cent of the blocks in the country. On an average a Panchayat Samiti covered about 48 Gram Panchayats. There were 330 Zilla Parishads covering about 76 per cent
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of the districts in the country and each Zilla Parishad had on an average 13 to 14 Panchayat Samities and about 660 Gram Panchayats.”24
No doubt it was an impressive beginning. “There was a lot of enthusiasm generated in rural India and the people started feeling that they could have a say in affairs affecting their daily lives. Those were the promising days of Panchayati Raj Institutions in India.”25 Thus the period between 1959-1964 (some call it Nehru...S.K. Day period) was a period of ascendancy as far as the Panchayati Raj system in India is concerned.
Stagnation and decline (1965-1977)
Unfortunately this enthusiasm could not be sustained as it did not develop the requisite democratic momentum and failed to cater to the needs of rural development. The system was faced with several problems. These among others included,
i). change in development priorities,
ii). lack of clarity about the concept of local self-government,
iii). lack of funds,
iv). the Panchayati Raj system adopted by the various states was not uniform, and
v). political and bureaucratic resistance at the state level in to the sharing of powers and resources with the local level institutions. One explanation given is that, “strengthening of local government institutions and adoption of community development approach did not go hand in hand with adequate delegation and devolution of powers, particularly in respect of planning and administration.”26 On the other hand, national development planners were busy experimenting with other development initiatives, like Green Revolution in the 1960’s and Target Group Approach in the
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1970’s. This was partly due to their anxiety to show over night results in food situation and partly to reach target groups to contain poverty. As a result, the Panchayati Raj system passed through a period of stagnation between 1965 and 1969 and went through a phase of decline from 1969 to 1977. It seems that perhaps power holders were not ready to share power with people. With the possible exception of Maharashtra, Gujarath, Karnataka and West Bengal, elsewhere these institutions were either superseded or allowed very little freedom to operate, which inevitably led to their decline.27 As a result, local self-government system nourished through history and promised through the Constitution of India started languishing. It was only when development planners again realized that community participation in development planning was not forthcoming on expected lines and the poverty situation was showing little signs of recovery that they started looking back at local self-government through Panchayati Raj during the late 1970’s as a possible way out to catalyze rural development. With the change of government at the national level in 1977, Ashok Mehta Committee was constituted to have a fresh look at the Panchayati Raj System.28
Ashok Mehta Committee, 1977
The appointment of Ashok Mehta Committee in 1977 marked a turning point in the growth of Panchayati Raj.29 It recognized the importance of the recommendations of earlier committees and reviews undertaken and clearly defined its focus stating that India has gathered wide experience in the practice of democratic decentralization in the wake of recommendations of Balwanth Roy Mehta study team.
The committee, after a comprehensive review of the literature and the situation, provided a definite philosophical treatment to the Panchayati Raj system. On the performance of Panchayati Raj during 1959-1977, the Committee observes: “The story of Panchayati Raj has
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been a story of ups and downs. It seems to have passed through three phases-the phase of ascendancy (1959-1964); the phase of stagnation (1965-1969) and the phase of decline (1969-1977)” .30 It observed that rural India was the backbone of all development programmes. The future of India would depend on the welfare of the villages. Panchayati Raj as a system should contribute to the philosophy and functions of rural life in India. The main recommendations of the Committee were the following.31
The district should be the first point of decentralization and tender popular supervision below the state level. Below the district there should be Mandal Panchayats comprising a group of villages with a total population of 15,000 to 20,000. The Block level Panchayat Samities should be converted into non- statutory executive committees of Zilla Parishad, and most of their functions would be taken up by Mandal Panchayats when the latter becomes active. At the village level, the people would be involved in Mandal Panchayats through Village Committees which would look after municipal functions and the related welfare activities.
Election to Panchayati Raj bodies should be conducted by the Chief Election Officer of the State in consultation with the Chief Election Commissioner. Political parties should be allowed to participate in the elections as it would “facilitate healthier linkages with higher level political process.”
With the district as the strategic level for economic planning, the Zilla Parishad should be made responsible for planning at the district level. A professionally qualified team should be stationed at the district level for the preparation of district plans.
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The Zilla Parishad should consist of six types of members, viz., members elected from suitably demarcated electoral divisions, Presidents of Panchayat Samities as ex-officio members, nominees of bigger municipalities, nominees of district level cooperative federation, two women who get the highest number of votes in the Zilla Parishad elections and two co-opted members. They are, one who is especially interested in rural development and the other drawn from University/College teachers.
All the development functions relating to a district would have to be placed under the Zilla Parishad. Some of the functions which could be so decentralized including agriculture and allied sectors, health, education, communications, rural industries, marketing, welfare of backward classes, family welfare, etc.
Mandal Panchayats would be responsible for implementation of schemes and projects assigned by the Zilla Parishad.
The most significant recommendation of the Committee was the two-tier Panchayati Raj system. According to this recommendation, the Zilla Parishad at the district level was to be established as the first point of decentralization. It recommended the formation of Mandal Panchayats. A Mandal Panchayat was conceived to cover a group of villages, which would make necessary links with the system in developing focal points. It was also expected to develop links between rural and urban areas. One major weakness of the Ashok Mehta Committee was that it ignored the importance of the Gram Sabha.32
The States of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal passed new legislation based on the Committee's Report. Even though the experiences of Karnataka and West Bengal were encouraging there was hardly any follow up at the Central level. The
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Chief Ministers’ Conference in 1979 rejected the idea of two-tier system and favoured the continuation of the three-tier system.
G.V.K. Rao Committee, 1985
The G.V.K. Rao Committee was set up in March, 1985 by the Planning Commission to review the then existing administrative arrangements for rural development and poverty alleviation programmes, and to recommend appropriate structural mechanism to ensure that they are planned in an integrated manner and implemented effectively. The terms of reference of the committee, among other things included the study of the role of Panchayati Raj bodies and their relationship with the proposed administrative set up, and to make appropriate recommendations in this regard. The Committee noted “States have been generally lukewarm to the process of democratic decentralization. In most states the Panchayati Raj bodies have been allowed to languish without powers and resources. The Committee is of the opinion that there should be a significant decentralization at the district level.”33 The major recommendations of this committee were:34
a. The Committee felt that the time had come to take a total view of rural development, so that it encompasses all economic and social development activities handled by different agencies at the field level,
b. Panchayati Raj institutions have to be activated and given all support needed so that they can become effective organizations for handling people's problems. Elections to these bodies should be held regularly,
c. The district should be the basic unit for policy planning and programme implementation. The Zilla Parishad should, therefore, become the principal body for the management of all development programmes that could be handled at that level,
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d. Panchayati Raj institutions at the district level and below should be assigned an important role in respect of planning, implementation and monitoring of rural development programmes,
e. Some of the planning functions at the state level might have to be transferred to the district level for effective decentralized district planning.
Dr. L.M. Singhvi Committee, 1986
The Government of India set up a committee in June, 1986 headed by Dr. L.M. Singhvi to prepare a concept paper on the revitalization of the Panchayati Raj Institutions. The Committee felt that the concept of Panchayats was a part of the philosophy of Purna- Swaraj and Gram Swaraj. It considered Panchayati Raj institutions as basic units of self-government. The Committee was of the view that, “It has been a fundamental error to regard Panchayati Raj institutions primarily as convenient tools for administrative programmes and development projects. That error had the effect, in greater or lesser measure, of devaluing and downgrading the role of these institutions as units of self-government and relegating them to a secondary position, harming and hampering both democracy and development.”35 The committee believed that the concept of Panchayati Raj institutions must draw its inspiration from the quintessential concept, of Gram Swaraj. This according to the committee is the explicit mandate and background of Article 40 of the Constitution. The committee was of the view that the concept of village panchayats as units of self-government is central and integral to the Constitutional mandate and is vital in terms of the living rural reality. The Committee attached a lot of importance to Gram Sabha and considered it as the embodiment of direct democracy.36 Some of its major recommendations were:
Local self-government should be constitutionally recognized, protected and preserved by the inclusion of a new chapter in the
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Constitution. Local self-government and more particularly, Panchayati Raj institutions should be constitutionally proclaimed as the third-tier of government.
Elections to the Panchayati Raj bodies should be held promptly at the end of the specified term. A Constitutional provision should be made to ensure, regular, free and fair elections for Panchayati Raj bodies and the task should be entrusted to the Election Commission of India operating through State Commissions or similar apparatus. No Panchayati Raj Institution should be allowed to, remain superseded for more than six or seven months.
In order to avoid apprehensions and charges of political bias or interference, the Committee recommended that Panchayati Raj Judicial Tribunal should be set up in every state to adjudicate controversies in relation to elections, suspensions, supersessions, dissolutions and other matters relating to the working of Panchayati Raj institutions and their elected personnel.
Ways and means should be found to ensure availability of adequate financial resources for Panchayati Raj Institutions to function effectively. The Committee suggested that the Finance Commission appointed by the Union Government under the Constitution should make an adequate earmarked provision for Panchayati Raj Institutions.
Participation of individuals attached to political parties should be discouraged. The Committee noted that it is neither practicable nor desirable to injuct the participation of individuals associated with political parties in Panchayati Raj Institutions by law.
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The Nyaya Panchayat should be given the functions of mediation and conciliation in addition to adjudication. The committee was of the view that the institution of Nyaya Panchayats is a valuable aid to the development of social habits of self-government and rule of law. It suggested that there may be a Nyaya Panchayat for a cluster of villages constituted by election or appointed from a special panel to be prepared for the purpose.
P.K.Thungon Committee, 1988
By the end of 1988, a sub-committee of the Consultative Committee of Parliament under the chairmanship of P.K. Thungon made recommendations for strengthening the Panchayati Raj system. One of its important recommendations was that Panchayati Raj bodies should be recognised constitutionally.
V.N.Gadgil Committee, 1989
Similarly, a Congress Committee headed by V.N. Gadgil was set up in 1989. The committee recommended a three-tier system of Panchayati Raj, a fixed term of 5 years and reservation for Scheduled Castes/ Scheduled Tribes and women. These recommendations became the basis for drafting the constitutional amendment bill.
The Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1993
The amendment phase began with the 64th Amendment bill (1989), which was introduced in Parliament for constituting panchayats in every State at the village, intermediate and district levels. It proposed that the Legislature of a State could by law endow the panchayats with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as institutions of self-government. Unfortunately, though the Bill got a two-thirds majority in the Lok
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Sabha, it was struck down in the Rajya Sabha on October 15, 1989, by just two votes.
The next government headed by V.P. Singh also made an abortive effort to provide Constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj system through the introduction of 74thAmendment. These failures notwithstanding, the government declared its commitment to the philosophy of Power to the People and to achieve this objective provided the much needed constitutional status to Panchayats. The then Congress-I government headed by P.V. Narasimha Rao initiated the 73rd Amendment to the Constitution in 1991. A comprehensive amendment was introduced in the form of Constitution (72nd Amendment) Bill in September 1991, which was subsequently referred to a Joint Select Committee of the Parliament in December 1991 for a detailed examination.
Finally, after including the necessary amendments, the amendment was passed with near unanimity in the Lok Sabha on December 22, 1992 and in the Rajya Sabha on December 23, 1992. The bill got the President's assent on April 20, 1993 and the Constitution 73rd Amendment Act came into effect from April 24, 1993. This Amendment has, in effect, made the transfer of power to Panchayats a part of the most basic document of this nation the Constitution of India.
The Seventy-Third Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992, poured new vigour to Panchayati Raj Institutions in all parts of rural India. As per the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, the Panchayati Raj Institutions are working in 28 States and 7 Union Territories of India with slight modifications.
Development activities and 73rd Amendment
Act gives powers and responsibilities to the panchayats to plan and execute economic development programmes. It involves making
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plans for economic development, social justice and the implementation of schemes listed in the XI Schedule, The activities earmarked for Panchayat Raj Institutions may be grouped under five categories for academic purposes.
1. Economic Development: There are 11 items which talk about economic development. One of them relates to anti-poverty programmes, such as JRY, IRDP, etc. Other areas are agriculture, land improvement, minor irrigation, animal husbandry, fishery, social forestry, minor forest produce, small scale and cottage industry, fuel and fodder.
2. Education: There are five items under this category. Primary and Secondary Schools, non-formal education, libraries, technical training, cultural activities, etc.
3. Health: There are two items related to health, such as health and sanitation and family welfare.
4. Welfare, including Women and Child development: There are four items which include social welfare: welfare of weaker sections, public distribution system, women and child development.
5. Infrastructure Development: There are seven items here such as roads, housing, drinking water, markets, electrification, maintenance of community assets, etc.
Among these, there are certain items (apart from the items on anti-poverty programme) which are meant for the poor or the under privileged. Schemes for weaker sections or programmes for women and child development fall under this category. The benefits of public distribution system should also go to the poor. Land reforms is central to all, particularly distribution of waste-land enforcement of the tenancy laws constitute a frontal attack on poverty.
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Evolution of Panchayati Raj System in Andhra Pradesh
Ancient and Medieval Period
Often it is claimed that the Panchayati raj of today has descended from the Panchayats of ancient India. Much of the inspiration for the system of rural local government comes from the Panchayats that existed in the past. Information on the subject is, however, not easily available. It is from a close study of the inscriptions of the time and of stray references it found in literature that historians have been able to get some idea of it. Historical records reveal that Panchayats were flourished in villages from the days of the Satavahanas, who ruled Andhra from 271 BC. to 174 AD. to the days of the Kakatiyas, from whom power was wrested by the Muslim invaders in 1323 AD. Although this long period villages enjoyed a great deal of autonomy in the sense of freedom from the control of the state. Even though the ruling dynasties changed tune from time to time, there was not much of a change in the nature and degree of village autonomy, through the internal structure. The village was the lowest unit of settlement and administration in early times.
The people in each village were divided into a number of castes and professional groups. The principle of mutual duties and obligations was accepted and all worked together in a spirit of harmonious unity. There was little room for caste and personal rival. The spirit of unity was responsible for the construction of many works of public utility- wells, tanks, choultries, schools and hospitals without any consideration as to which caste or class would be benefited by it.
Every village had a number of functionaries known as Ayagars or Grama Bhatas. The normal number of Ayagars was twelve but it might be a little less or more according to size of the village, its population and its prosperity. The twelve Ayagars were: (1). Reddy or Peda Kapu (2). Karanam (3). Talari (4). Purohit (5). Blacksmith (6).
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Goldsmith (7). Carpenter (8). Potter (9). Washerman (10). Barber (11). Vetti and (12). Shoe-Maker.37
Among the Ayagars, the Reddy occupied a position of primacy. He was the Pedda Kapu or the Head Man of the village, He was the successor of the Gramani, the Gramunda, the Gramika, the Gramakuta or the Pabbalika, the names used for the holder of the headship of the village at different times and in different places. In early times the Reddy represented the villagers in their dealings with the state ruler and he also represented the ruler in dealings with the villages. He, thus, served as a link between the two. He was responsible for the collection of all taxes due from the village to the ruler.
The Talari was the policeman of the village working under the Reddy. It was his duty to go on rounds day and night and bring offenders and bad characters to book. In addition to him there was also a Barikapu (corrupt form of Prahari Kapu) the person keeping a watch over the Prahara or boundary wall of the village and over the cultivated fields.
There were many territorial divisions above the village like Nadu, Mahanadu, Vishaya, Seema, Rajya, Sthala, etc. But the information available on these divisions is scanty.
The biggest local assembly was known as Mahanadu which brought different local corporations under its organization and created common understanding among them in pre-Vijayanagar Andhra. Mahanadu was the largest assembly corresponding to Mahanadu in medieval Karnataka and Periyanadu in Tamil Nadu. G.S. Dikshit says that, the Mahanadu was the district assembly, 38 While K.V. Subrahmanya Ayyer calls it the largest provincial organization.39 The Mahanadu met occasionally. Merchants took initiative in holding its meeting. Thus, its leadership remained with them.
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Andhra passed through several political vicissitudes after the fall of Warangal in 1323 AD. Part of the country came under the rule of Muslims, part under that of Vijayanagar, the Gajapatis of Orissa and several other dynasties. In the later days of Kutub Sahis the whole of Andhra came under their control and after their overthrow the rule of Mughals was established. Then came the rule of Nizam-ul-Mulk, who made himself independent of the Mughal emperor in due course and of his successor Nizams of Hyderabad. But the latter, like many other Indian rulers of the day, proved themselves incapable of defending their territory against the superior military strength of the British with the result that by 1300 AD a large part of Andhra (coastal area and Rayalaseema) came under the rule of the British. Telangana alone continued to be ruled by the Nizam. During the five centuries following the fall of Warangal there were no changes of any appreciable character in the system of rural local self-government. The situation, however, underwent a change with the establishment and consolidation of British rule.
Panchayati Raj Institutions in Andhra Pradesh under Colonial Rule
During the period of British rule the isolation of the village had completely broken and with that, age long economic self-sufficiency and the community spirit received a serve blow. The administrative policies pursued by the British strengthened the force leading to the disintegration of the village as a community. One prominent feature of British rule was the establishment of direct connection between the Central and Provincial governments on one side and the individual inhabitants of each village on the other.
The structure of rural local self-government created in Andhra region of Madras Presidency was along the lines suggested by Lord Rippon though on a restricted democratic foundations. In the Telangana region of the present state of Andhra Pradesh rural local
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governments similar to those established in the Andhra region of Madras Presidency were created since the promulgation of the Dastur- Ill-Amal in 1888 AD. However, in Andhra region the members of the local bodies were elected by those who possessed property or education while the local bodies of Telangana consisted of nominated non-officials only. There was considerable official domination over the local bodies in both the regions. Starting from 1920 villages panchayats have come to be established in the Andhra region, while legislation for the creation of similar institutions in Telangana was undertaken only in 1941. A close examination of the political events since the 1930’s reveals that with the intensification of the freedom struggle, the issue of local self-government receded completely in to the background. However, one important development, viz., the abolition of the Taluq Boards took place in the Andhra region in 1936. At the time of independence the rural local bodies were completely managed by the government officials with the District Collector directly taking over the charge of the District Board.40
Three-tier System of Panchayati Raj
The Andhra Pradesh Panchayat Samithi and Zilla Parishads Act, 1959 was an important landmark in the evolution of panchayati raj in Andhra Pradesh. This act was the outcome of the recommendations made by the Balwanth Roy Mehta team. The Government of Andhra Pradesh accepted almost all the recommendations of the Mehta team. A white paper was issued by the State government in November, 1957 pronouncing their new policy relating to rural local governments. Adhoc Panchayat samithis at the rate of one for each district were created in May 1958. Satisfied with the working of the adhoc bodies the Panchayat Samithis and Zilla Parishads Act was adopted on September 15, 1959. According to the provisions of the Act, 235 Panchayat samithis started functioning from 1st November, 1959, formation Day, and 20 Zilla Parishads from 1st
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December, 1959.41 The powers and functions discharged by the erstwhile District Boards along with their assets and liabilities were vested with the Zilla Parishads and Panchayat Samithis. By 1962- 1963, the entire state was covered by the three-tier system of panchayati raj with 448 panchayats are concerned two separate acts were in force in Andhra and Telangana regions. They were amalgamated with the passing of the Andhra Pradesh Gram Panchayats Act in 1964.
Reforms to Panchayati Raj Institutions
Initially, people evinced keen interest in the system and the representatives of the people participated in various development activities, by offering liberal contributions in cash and kind for laying roads, providing drinking water facilities, establishment of primary schools, primary health centres and for provision of various other amenities in the rural areas. The initial euphoria did not really last long. As Prof. Ram Reddy, a serious analyst of Panchayati raj noted that, "the enthusiasm lasted about a decade and was then followed by a decade of criticism”.42 The initial enthusiasm and public participation which were in evidence in the earlier period of panchayati raj seem to have gradually diminished on account of politicization of these bodies.
In 1960’s several bureaucrats of the top and middle echelons who had all along been irked by the erosion of their authority, seized the opportunity to convey to the political chiefs about the need for reform. Accordingly, a scheme envisaging the formation of Zilla Development Boards was introduced in 1967.43 Under the scheme a Zilla or District Development Board (ZDB) was constituted with the District Collector as Chairman and Chairman of the Zilla Parishad as a Member. The Zilla Development Board was made responsible for the formulation and implementation of policies relating to the agricultural and industrial growth of the district. This measure went contrary to the country wide trend of devolution of development functions to
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elected rural local bodies. To that extent, it subordinated the Zilla Parishad to the Zilla Development Board.
There was disenchantment with the structure and functioning of Panchayati raj in Andhra Pradesh, particularly after the introduction of ZDB Scheme. So there is a growing concern for reform of rural local government. Perhaps, the attempts at reform and their fruition are characterized by a high frequency. Several steps were taken to improve the functioning of the rural local bodies and attempts were made to remove the structural bottlenecks in the functioning of these bodies since the early 1960’s.
Committees were appointed to go into the working of these institutions and suggest changes in their organizational structure. The important committees which expressed views on various aspects of the panchayati raj are the J. Vengal Rao Committee (1968) and the C. Narasimham Committee (1972 and 1981). While reiterating their faith in the pandhayati raj these committees had suggested structural changes to make the panchayati raj institutions more democratic and also more effective as instruments of rural development.
Jalagam Vengala Rao Committee (1968)
The creation of the new institution of District Development Board and the enhanced role of bureaucracy was bitterly criticised and resented by the politicians. It was alleged that the functioning of the above Board was counter to the recommendations of Balwanth Roy Mehta and further never synchronized under these circumstances a committee of the Congress Legislature Party under the headship of J. Vengala Rao consisting of 13 Members of Legislative Assembly was set up in 1968 to consider all aspects relating to the Panchayati Raj and to suggest improvements and amendments to the concerned Acts. It felt that the DDBs could not justify their existence or claim superiority of performance by merely planning castles in the air.
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The committee identified certain factors that accounted for public dissatisfaction with Panchayati Raj. It pointed out that Panchayati Raj had,
(a). lost its dynamism mainly because of paucity of funds.
(b). that the mode of constitution of its different tiers and the pattern of Election to its bodies left much to be desired, and
(c). it suffered from lack of functional freedom.
Further, the committee felt that strengthen of the hands of the bureaucracy at the district level had demoralized the entire setup. Lack of independent and adequate financial resources had also made mockery of the concept of local self-government. Hence, committee made the following recommendations:
MPs and Legislators should be debarred from holding elective posts in the two upper tiers. They could have membership in the Zilla Parishads but with out voting rights.
The Sarpanch, the Samithi President and the chair person of the Zilla Parishad should not have any independent powers and should act strictly in accordance with the decisions of the committees of the respective bodies.
Use of party symbols should not be permitted in elections at any level, and
The Panchayats should be provided with adequate resources so that their perpetual dependence on the government for funds can be removed. For this purpose government lands, road margins, tank bunds, and similar other areas within a Panchayats territory ought to be handed over to the Panchayats for plantation, fisheries and other income generating activities.
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The major recommendation of the committee to improve the financial position of the Zilla Parishads was that the annual per head grant to them be raised from 25 paise to one rupee. However, very minor changes were made in the Panchayati Raj structure in the state.44
Narasimham Committee
In 1971 the Government of Andhra Pradesh appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Sri C.Narasimham to examine the working of Panchayati Raj system and make proposals for reorganising it. This Narasimham Committee submitted its report in 1972. Here are some important recommendations made by the committee.
(1). The members of legislative members of parliament should be kept out of Panchayati Raj system.
(2). The Panchayati system must be modelled on that of the Maharastra pattern.
(3). In the place of District Collector, another IAS officer should be appointed as the Chief Executive Officer of the Zilla Parishad.
(4). The Village Panchayat Sarpanch be elected directly by the people.
(5). The members of Panchayati Samithi be elected directly by the people.
(6). The members of Zilla Parishad should also be directly elected by the people.
The Ashok Mehta Committee had also submitted its proposals for reorganization of panchayati raj so as to equip it to play a larger role in planning and implementation in the field of rural development. Keeping the recommendations of these committees and also the views of the panchayati raj functionaries the state government amended the
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Panchayat Samithis and Zilla Parishads Act of 1959 and Gram Panchayats Act of 1964 several times.
Andhra Pradesh Mandala Praja Parishads, Zilla Praja Parishads and Zilla Pranalika Abhivrudhi Mandals Act, 1986
A Cabinet Sub-Committee was set-up by the Telugu Desam Party government to suggest measures to reorganize the Panchayati Raj institutions in the state. The Cabinet Sub-Committee examined the mandal system, recommended by the Ashok Mehta Committee, and also the functioning of the Panchayati raj administration in Andhra Pradesh and other states and made its recommendations. Based on the recommendations of the committee, the Andhra Pradesh Mandal Praja Parishads, Zilla Praja Parishads and Zilla Pranalika Abhvrudhi Mandals Act was enacted and the Andhra Pradesh Panchayat Samithis and Zilla Parishads Act, 1959, was repealed in July, 1986. Under the provisions of the act 1104 Mandal Praja Parishads (MPPs) came into existence on 15th January, 1987, the pongal day of sankranti in the place of 330 panchayat samithis. In other words, there are 3 or 4 Mandal Parishads in the place of one panchayat samithi. The Mandal Parishads were constituted for a population of 35,000 to 55,000 covering 20 to 25 villages with certain relaxation in tribal areas. Ranga Reddy District bordering state capital has the minimum number of 33 Mandal Parishads while the maximum number of 65 in the Southern district of Chittoor, closely followed by Mahaboobnagar district in Telangana with 64 Mandal Parishads.45 The changes brought by 1986 act continued till the enactment of Andhra Pradesh Panchayati Raj Act in 1994. The Andhra Pradesh Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 (Act 13 of 1994) came into force with effect from 27.05.1994. The present structure of the Panchayati Raj institutions is based on this act.
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Andhra Pradesh Panchayati Raj Act, 1994
In order to incorporate the mandatory provisions as envisaged in the 73rd Constitutional amendment, the Government of Andhra Pradesh enacted a comprehensive law on Panchayati Raj institutions entitled Andhra Pradesh Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 and the salient features of this Act are as follows46:-
1. There will be Gram Panchayati at the village level composed of members elected from the wards carved out on territorial basis.
2. The Sarpanch for every Gram Panchayati shall be elected by the persons, whose names appear in the electoral roll for the Gram Panchayati and his term of office would be five years.
3. There will be a Gram Sabha consisting of all electors in the village, which will meet twice a year.
4. There will be Mandal Panchayati to every Mandal composed of the members directly elected from the territorial constituencies carved out for the purpose (MPTCs).
5. The President of Mandal Parishad would be elected from among the elected members of the Mandal Panchayati.
6. There will be Zilla Panchayati for every district consisting of Zilla Parishad Territorial Constituency members.
7. All members elected from the Mandals in the district and each Mandal will be a territorial constituency for the purposes (ZPTCs).
8. Only the elected members of the Zilla Parishad will elect the Chairman of the Zilla Panchayati.
9. There will be reservations of seats of members as also the offices of Sarpanch, President, Mandal Panchayats and Chairman, Zilla Panchayats for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Women
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as provided in the Constitutional Amendment Act and at 33 per cent to Backward Classes.
10. There will be election commission for the conduct of elections to conduct elections for Panchayati Raj bodies headed by a person, who is holding or has held an office not less in rank than that of a Principal Secretary to Government.
11. There will be Finance Commission headed by a person who has experience in public affairs.
References
th 1. Gandhiji at a Prayer Meeting, New Delhi, 6 January, 1948, Kurukshetra, Vol. XLIII, No.7, April, I995, p.45-47. 2. George Mathews (ed.), Status of Panchayati Raj in the States of India 1994, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1995,p.4. 3. Gurumurthy, U., Panchayati Raj and the Weaker Sections, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi, 1987, p.2. st 4. Gandhi, M.K. , Harijan, 1 July, 1947, p.5. 5. Nandekar, V.G. Local Government its Role in Development Administration, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1979, p.l. 6. Mathur, P.C. "Re-Modelling Panchayati Raj Institution in India", in S.L. Verma (ed) Panchayati Raj, Gram Swaraj and Federal Polity, Rawat Publications, Jaipur, 1990, p.72. 7. Clarke, J.J., The Local Government of the United Kingdom, London, 1948, p.1. 8. Altekar, A.S. Ancient India: Administrative System, Bharati Bhandar, Allahabad, 1948, p.168. 9. Narayan, Shriman, “The Panchayat system of India”, in B.N.Verma (ed.), Contemporary India, Kanishka Publishers, New delhi,1964, pp.201-202. 10. Rajput, R.S., and Meghe, D.R., Panchayati Raj in India, Deep and Deep, New Delhi, 1984, p.38. 11. George Mathew, (Ed.) Status of Panchayati Raj in the States of India, 1994, Institute of Social Sciences, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1995, P.1 12. Muttalib, M.A. Decentralisation, Local Government Institutions and Resource Mobilisation edited by Hasnat Abdul Hye, BARD, Comilla, 1985, p.174. 13. Aslam, M. & Singh, R.P. Evolution of Panchayati Raj and the Constitutional (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 in Panchayati Raj,The www.ijmer.in 48 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE UGUST V 5, I 8(3), A 2016
context, Panchayati Raj Project material, IGNOU, New Delhi, 1995.p.11. 14. Malaviya, H.D, Village Panchayats in India, Economic and Political Research Department, All India Congress Committee, New Delhi, 1965, p.258. 15. Aslam, op.cit,p.21. 16. George Mathew, op.cit, p.3. 17. George Mathew’s, op.cit. p.4. 18. George Mathew, op.cit, p.4. 19. Bandyopadhyay. D, Panchayats and Democracy in New Issues in Panchayati Raj, Task Force on Panchayati Raj, Rajiv Gandhi Foundation Concept Publishing House, New Delhi,2004, p.147. 20. Aslam, M. Decentralisation and Development Effort, The Hindu, May 24, 1994. 21. Panchayati Raj in Rajasthan-Report, Seventh, Administrative Reform Commission, Department of Administrative Reforms, Govt. of Rajasthan, March, 2001, p.21. 22. GOI, Committee on plan projects: study team (Chairman: Balwanth Roy, G. Mehta). New Delhi, Planning Commission, Government of India, 1957. 23. Panchayati Raj: concept and approach, Extract from Reports of various Committees on PRIs-Balwanth Roy Mehta Committee, Kurukshetra, Vol.XXXVII No.5, February, 1989, p.1. 24. Ibid, p.38. 25. Panchayati Raj in Rajasthan-Op.cit p.14. 26. Ibid, p.33. 27. George Mathew, op.cit, p.15. 28. Hye, Hasnat Abdul, (Ed.) Decentralisation, Local Government Institutions & Resource Mobilisation, BARD, Bangladesh, 1985.p.25. 29. Planning at Grassroots Level, An Action Programme for the Eleventh Five Year Plan, Report of the Expert Group, Ministry of Panchayati Raj, March, 2006, New Delhi. 30. George Mathew, op.cit.p.33. 31. Panchayati Raj: Review and Evaluation, Extract from Reports of various Committees on Panchayati Rai institutions Ashok Mehta Committee-1978, Kurukshetra, Vol.XXXVII No.5, February, 1989, pp.54-59. 32. Ibid, p.19. 33. Ibid, p.20. 34. Indira Gandhi National Open University, Panchayati Raj in Rural Development-Indian Context, Block-3 on Rural Development Administration, New Delhi, 1992. p.59. 35. Aslam, M. Panchayati Raj in India, National Book Trust, 2007, p.30. www.ijmer.in 49 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 OLUME SSUE UGUST V 5, I 8(3), A 2016
36. Ibid, p.30. 37. Narayana, E.A. “Panchayati Raj in Action”, Kalpaz Publications, Delhi, 2008, p.28. 38. Dikshit, G.S. Local Self-Government in Medieval Karnataka, Dharwar, 1964, p. 29. 39. Subramanya Ayyer, K.S. "The Largest Provincial Organizations in India", QJMS, Vol. XLV, p. 29. 40. Ibid, p.93. 41. James. P.A., "Democratic Decentralization in Andhra Pradesh", Quarterly Journal of Local Self-Government, Vol. XXXI, No. 3, January 1961, pp. 452-464. 42. Rami Reddy, G. "Panchayati Raj Proposals", Seminar paper, February, 1979. 43. Report on the Reorganization of District Administration, (Chairman: M.T. Raju), Board of Revenue, Government of Andhra Pradesh, April, 1967. 44. V. Srinivasan, State Administration in Andhra Pradesh, Creative Education Systems Society, Hyderabad, 1986, p. 459. 45. Narayana, E.A. Op.Cit; pp.104-105. 46. Krishna Rao, I.V.R. (Secretary) “Rural Local Bodies” Panchayati Raj and Rural Development Department, [email protected].
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A STUDY ON OPPORTUNITY AND HAZARDS ON THE LABOUR FORCE TO WOMEN: WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MARKETING SECTOR OF DINDUGAL DISTRICT IN INDIA
Dr. Anji. A Teaching Assistant Dept. of Research Centre for Women’s Studies Karnatak University,Dharwad
Abstract
Over the last century, the issue of women in the workplace has been a confused one. A lot has been written about the India growth story; relatively little, however, about the ongoing radical transformation in the Indian economy. This transformation has much to do with education rather than growth; with women rather than men; with inclusion today and growth tomorrow. Among all the “revolutions” taking place in India today, this is, and will be, the most far reaching. It is not an exaggeration to state that the entire dynamic of man woman and family relations is changing in India. This has obvious implications for fertility, labour force participation, jobs, and family income in India. In recent years, women are playing an important role in economic development. They contribute significant proportion in Gross Domestic Product through actively participating in industries, services and marketing sector. What is worse with women workers is that they still lag behind in achieving job opportunities in comparison to men. The present paper tries to look at the extent of disparity in women work and labour force participation across the states of India. The study uses data from different rounds of National Sample Survey. The analysis depicts that women workforce and labour force participation has declined in recent years and the gap between female and male work participation ratio has increased in India. The
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study also reveals the controversy in the context of women lobour force in India.
Key Words: Labour force, Workplace, Marketing, Women, Gender disparity
Introduction
Over the last decades, many countries experienced an increase in the labour force participation of women. Presents econometric evidence from NSS surveys to justify the forecast. Documents the trend in Labour Force Participation Rates (LFPR) in India since the early 1980s. It is shown that the LFPR for females in urban India has stayed constant at a low level of around 25 percent for the last twenty five years. Examines wage differences between men and women since 1983. One of the assumed determinants of low LFPR is the belief that women get far lower wages than men for comparable jobs and ability. The National Sample Survey (NSS) data suggests that this is not the case – there is only a 10 to 20 percent residual wage gap unexplained by human capital variables.
Female labour-force participation is much lower than men’s in many countries. These differences are to some extent rooted in culture and social norms but they also reflect economic incentives. The female participation behaviour has attracted increasing interest because of concerns that population ageing will put downward pressure on labour supply, with negative implications for material living standards and public finances. An increase in female participation could help mitigate this.
Women in India face enormous challenges for their participation in the economy in a way that mirrors the many injustices they suffer in the society at large. The labour participation rate of women that is, the number of women in the labour force as a proportion of the total female population provides an indicator of some of these challenges. In 2008,
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the labour participation rate in India was only 33 per cent for females as compared to 81 per cent for males. According to 2011 census, in rural India in the agriculture and allied industrial sectors, females account for as much as 89.5% of the labour force. In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at 55% to 66% of the total labour. By way of comparison, it was 68 per cent for females in China. Among Indian States, the female labour participation rate is one of the lowest in Delhi, a region also known for its harsh treatment of women is one of the reason for gender discrimination.
The labour force includes not only the employed but also unemployed persons who are actively seeking jobs. In India, substantial numbers of women who are not counted in the labour force are, as described in the official statistics, ‘attending to domestic works’ in their own households. National Sample Survey reports tell us that, in 2009- 10, out of every 1,000 females (all ages) in India’s rural areas, 347 were attending to domestic works. In the case of urban females, this number was even bigger: 465 per 1000. Compare this to the number of rural and urban men who were attending to domestic works: only 5 per 1,000 and 4 per 1,000 respectively. In India, social factors play a significant role in reducing women’s labour participation.
Amartya Sen has written about the ‘Missing Women’ in India, highlighting the low female-male ratio in the country’s population. Sen argues that this issue points to the severe disadvantages faced by the female child in India. The issue of the missing women in India’s population has a parallel in the problem relating to the missing women in India’s workforce. That is, the shocking numbers of women who have withdrawn from the labour force and attend to domestic works.
In 2009- 2010, the total number of women attending to domestic works in India was 216 million, which was larger than the entire
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population of Brazil. Of these, women with graduate degrees or higher numbered 12.7 million, this was more than twice the population of Singapore. Clearly, the large-scale withdrawal of women from the labour force involves enormous wastage of talent and causes a huge opportunity cost to the nation. Creating more jobs and ensuring better working conditions for women will encourage greater female participation in the economy. As more women join the workforce, the voices against gender-based inequalities will grow louder. Equally importantly, there will also be more hands and brains to take the Indian economy forward.
WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE IN INDIA
Currently there are over 1, 219, 300, 00 people living in India, which makes it the second most populous country in the world, following China. Women are 48.5% of the general population of India. In 2020, India will have a disproportionate number of young people entering the labour force (the median age will be 29). Today, 29.7 percent of the population is between 0-14 years of age, 64.9 percent between 15-64 years of age.1
REVIEW OF LITERATURES
Numbers of studies have been conducted to find out the reason behind disparity in the women works participation in India using econometric analysis. Using employment data from quinquennial rounds of the National Sample Survey (NSS), a number of papers/reports have examined the employment situation in India in the post-reform period in comparison with that in the pre-reform period (Chadha and Sahu, 2002; Sundaram and Tendulkar, 2002; Dev, 2002; Chadha, 2003; and Bhattacharya and Sakthivel, 2005). A major conclusion that one may draw from these studies is that there has been
2. http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/women-labour-force-india
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a marked slowdown in employment growth in India in the post-reform period compared to the pre-reform period, and that this slowdown has been relatively more marked in the case of female employment in rural areas.
However, the literature discussed above, only explore labour participation ratio and their empirical result. What is necessary for any developing economy like India, the problem of women work participation and disparities in women work participation has not been analysed by researchers. Women have always been excluded in society and labour market in terms of employment, low wage, less participation in work force and other way. This study tries to see the trend of women work participation in different sector and disparity between urban- rural as well as across the states of India. The paper also provides some suggestion on how to reduce the gender gap in work participation in India.2
GENDER GAP
In India why women’s labour force participation dropping? More women in India of working age are enrolling in secondary school but that is only one reason why the number of women who are either working or looking for a job is decreasing. (ILO News) – Women in South Asia are far less likely than men to have a job or to be looking for one. While 80 per cent of men in the region are either employed or searching for a job, the number for women is a lot lower, 32 per cent. These low rates are largely due to cultural attitudes and social norms about women in the workplace. But in some parts of South Asia, women’s participation in the labour market is dropping further and is
2 Journal of Community Positive Practices 1/2012 21.
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increasingly being seen as one of the main causes behind the slow growth in employment. One such place is India.3
According to the ILO’s Global Employment Trends 2013 report, India’s labour force participation rate for women fell from just over 37 per cent in 2004-05 to 29 per cent in 2009-10. Out of 131 countries with available data, India ranks 11th from the bottom in female labour force participation. “Despite very fast economic growth in India in recent years, we’re observing declining female labour force participation rates across all age groups, across all education levels, and in both urban and rural areas,” said ILO economist Steven Kapsos during a presentation of the report in India.4
METHODOLOGY
Feminist Research Methodology
Methodology reveals the methods and practices in research investigations, the gathering of evidence in the process of knowledge and theory formation. Feminist research methodology critiques the theoretical principles and applications of traditional methodology from a variety of perspectives. Semi-structured interviewing has become an important element in feminist qualitative methods for its ability to record women’s thought, beliefs and values employed in the development of feminist theory.
3 The ILO is collaborating with the Indian Ministry of Labour and Employment (MOLE) to host a two-day workshop in New Delhi on 14-15 February entitled "Women's Labour Force Participation in India and South Asia". 5.http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/comment- analysis/WCMS_204762/lang--en/index.htm
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OBJECTIVES
1. To study the job hazards among the marketing sector women workers.
2. To identify the satisfaction level of the workers in their working place.
3. To suggest suitable measures to reduce the work stress. TOOLS FOR DATA COLLATION Primary Data (Main Tools)
Participatory scientific observation, Interview schedule, Secondary Data was collected from
Books Journals Periodicals New Paper Census and Internet, etc… SAMPLE SIZE
The study will be drawn by using simple random sampling method. Total sampled 50 respondents have been randomly for the study. In this study, marketing women workers from different age groups, caste groups and geographical areas will be selected as respondents.
TECHNIQUES
Interview schedule was used as the tool for data collection from the respondents. Percentage method was used for analysis.
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SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The main scope of this study is to identify the job strain among the marketing women workers. It helps to know about the workers involvement and job satisfaction of the marketing women workers. Workers problem must be identified for the purpose of reducing risk. Stress reduction is the important one to increase the job involvement and decline the gender disparity and wage.
PRESENT SCENARIO OF STUDY AREA
The study grasps the following sections that deals with the present circumstances existing at the study area to bring the complete picture under what situation the respondents are working and what condition is prevailing then in the women’s workers for marketing sector at Dindigul District.
Table: 1 Personal detail of the respondents
No of the Percentag Characteristics respondent e s 1 Age 18-25 09 18 25-30 19 38 Above 30 22 44 Educational 2 qualification primary 03 06 secondary 28 56 graduate 19 38 4 Marital status Married 30 60 Unmarried 11 22 Widow 6 12 Separated 3 6 5 Designation 18 36 Workers 11 22
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Manager 09 18 6 Type of family Joint 14 28 Nuclear 36 72 7 No of family members Below 4 18 36 Above 4 32 64
CHART- 1
Personal Detail of the Respondents Percentage 72% 60% 64% 44% 56% 38% 38% 36% 36% 28% 18% 22% 22% 18% 12% 6% 6% Age Joint 18-25 25-30 Widow Nuclear primary Below 4 Below Married Above 4 Above graduate Workers Above 30 Above Manager Separated secondary Unmarried Educational… Designation Marital status Marital Type of family of Type
No of family members family of No From the above table, it is clearly found that, 18percent of the respondents belonged to the age group of 18 – 25 years. 38 percent belonged to 25 -30 years, 44 percent belonged to 30 years.
The respondents were asked about their educational qualification, 56 percent of the respondents are completed their higher secondary education, 38 percent are UG holders, and 6 percent are completed their primary school education.
The respondents were asked about their marital status, 60 percent of the respondents had got married, 22 percent of the
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respondents are unmarried, 12 percent are widows, and 6 percent are separated.
The respondents have some designation on the basis of their ability. 36 percent of the respondents are workers. 18 percent of the respondents are manager.
The respondents were enquired about their family type, 72 percent of the respondents are reported that, they are from nuclear family. Only 28 percent are from joint family.
Most (64 percent) of the respondents said that their family have more than four members, 36 percent of the respondents have less than four members.
TABLE - 2 HAZARD AND STRESSES FOR MARKETING SECTOR WOMEN’S WORKERS
Total S. Characteristics No. of the respondents Percent No Yes % No % age 1 Did you like doing this job 14 28 36 72 100 2 Affected Sexually abuse from 18 36 32 64 100 customer and shop owner. 3 Getting full safety from your 31 62 19 38 100 work 4 Having the proper water and 28 56 22 44 100 toilet Facility
5 If the working condition affect 10 20 40 80 100 your health 6 You feel work and wage 26 52 24 48 100 disparity 7 You feel proud to work 14 28 36 72 100
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From the above table, it’s clearly found that, 28 percent of the respondents only like for doing this job reaming 72 respondents dislike this job.
The respondent was asked about sexually abuse from customer or shop owner. 36 percent respondent said sexually affected from customer.
62 percent of the respondents the getting the full safety from their workplace. 38 percent said that self employment is the said not getting that much safety from workplace.
The respondents were enquired about the proper water and toilet facility. 56 percent reported that to having these facilities, 44 percent said that they want water, toilet facility, because it’s a very fundamental facility.
The respondents were asked about their working condition affect your health? Only 20 percent said yes, remaining 80 percent of the respondents said that answer for no. so this researcher found in this study. More respondent said severe back pain.
The respondents were enquired about their wage disparity, 52 percent of the respondents said having disparity, 48 percent said that not consider like that.
The respondents were asked about the you feel proud to work, 28 percent said that they are proud, 72 percent respondents feel not proud, due to the they are expecting more self respect, salary, delimit the outside environment and personal problems.
FINDINGS
Majority (72 percents) of the respondents hate their job
36 percent of the respondents said sexually affected from customers
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Majority [62 percent] of the respondents felt that they get full safety from their job.
56 percent of the respondents said that the management provide proper water and toilet facilities
Majority [80 percent] of the respondents said that the working conditions are affecting their health condition.
More than fifty percent (52 percent) of the respondents said having wage and gender disparity
72 percent of the respondents not proud to do this work SUGGESTIONS
Government must provide the free education up to Degree level to women’s
Provide proper welfare facilities and recreation facilities to motivate the workers.
Encourage the workers with positive motivation techniques
Followed the time concerned must be provide favorable working conditions
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has explored various aspects of labour force determination in India. Some of the more important findings are as above marketing women worker is the very important in this society. The woman must be given the necessary support and encouragement in their work and household. Although can make a contribution to empowerment of women, this cannot be assumed to be an automatic outcome. There underlies the course of a good approach to solving the incapacitation of the poor class people in rural to move out of poverty.
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For this to materialize, the worker must develop the capacity so, women earnings a essential role in empowering in our country income.
Reference:-
1. Chandraiah, K. (ed al), (1997). “Occupational stress and Job Satisfaction among Middle and senior Managers” Indian journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol. 23, No.2, PP. 140-145. 2. Swaminathan, M., (2003). “Stress Management” Tamil Nadu Journal of Cooperation, Vol.5. No.4 February, P. 11. 3. Agarwal, B. (1997). "Bargaining and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household", Feminist Economics 3(1): pp. 1-50. 4. Developments in women's labor force participation, Monthly Labor Review, 1997, 5. pp. 41-46. 6. Economic Political Weekly (1994). “Are Women Leaving the Labor Force?” Monthly Labor Review, pp. 37-39. 7. Economic Political Weekly, (1999). Marriage, children, and women's employment:what do we know? Monthly Labor Review, pp. 22-31 8. Economic Political Weekly, (1995). Effect of intermittent labor force attachment on women's earnings, Monthly Labor Review, pp. 14-18 9. The Saylor Foundation, (2012). "Unemployment Rate." Retrieved June 20, pp. 1. 10. Chen, Martha Alter. “Women in the Informal Sector: A Global Picture, The Global Movement.” World Bank: 1-10. World Bank Info. Web. 5 Apr. 2011. 11. Bhalotra, S. & Umana-Aponte, M. (2010). “The Dynamics of Women’s Labour Supply in Developing Countries” IZA Discussion Paper No. 4879 – The Institute for Study of Labour (IZA), Bonn – Germany. 12. Bhalla, Surjit S and Tirtharanmoy Das, (2005-06). “Pre- and Post- Reform India: A Revised Look at Employment, Wages and Inequality”, India Policy Forum, p.183-253. 13. Bloom, D.E., (ed al.,) (2007) “Fertility, Female Labour Forc Participation, and the Demographic Dividend” NBER Working Paper – 13583.
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14. Bose, A. (2007) “Beyond Population Projections: Growing North- South Disparity” Economic and Political Weekly. 15. Dev, S.M. (2004) “Female Work Participation and Child Labour” Economic and Political Weekly. 16. Fang, H., (ed al.,) (2010) “Female Employment and Fertility in Rural China” NBER Working Paper – 15886. 17. Guilmoto, C.Z. & Rajan, S.I. (2001) “Spatial Patterns of Fertility Transition in Indian 18. Districts” Population and Development Review 27(4): 713 – 718. 19. Guilmoto, C.Z. & Paris (2007) “Characteristics of Sex Ratio Imbalance in India, and Future Scenarios” UNFPA, Presented at the 4th Asia Pacific Conference on Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights – Hyderabad, India. 20. http://www.tradingeconomics.com/india/labor-force-female-percent- of-total-labor-force-wb-data.html 21. http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/media-centre/press- leases/WCMS_214173/lang--en/index.htm 22. http://www.government.nl/issues/gender-equality/womens-labour- force-participation 23. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/76309/dc2002/proceedi ngs/pdfpaper/module6mc.pdf 24. http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/servlet/SurveyOutputServlet?data_tool=la test_numbers&series_id=LNS11300000&years_option=specific_ye ars&include_graphs=true&to_month=1&from_month=2.
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THEORIES OF ELECTIONS
Dr. Kuramana Swarna Latha Department of Political Science and Public Administration Andhra University Visakhapatnam
Elections in India, whether for local, state or national, are massive operations involving millions of people in the political process. Some theory of elections in India provides an opportunity to study the political system of India in action. In the opinion of Rajan Kotharai, “The electoral and democratic process has shifted the levels of power from the hands of first generation leadership to those in charge of state and district organizations, caste federations, rural panchayats and cooperatives.”1The state in India cannot be understood simply by looking at the machinations in New Delhi. Therefore, one must examine elections at different levels i.e. the state and district levels. Though, the district, state and national stages are all of the constituents in India society, the events at the local levels have placed severe constraints on the ability of the state to govern Indian society.2 Elections in India provide an occasion for the widest degree of popular participation. V.M. Sirsikar has stated that elections have become a part and parcel of the Indian political life. Elections are now taken for granted.”3
The study of electoral process has become the prominent area of Interest for Scholars of Political Science. The acceptance of democracy as wide sharing of power in the community seems to be determined on what should be called as the base values. The perception, that all political responses in any state are ultimately linked to the perspective of electoral performance of the participants. The strategies employed in the electoral process often reflect the redistribution or a new distribution of the base values. In many of the modern democracies,
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elections are frequent and participation is overwhelming. The perspectives of the electorate and the base values may change from one election to the other. A shift in the values may or may not present a meaningful pattern amenable for extrapolation. Electoral process involves people as both individuals and collectivities. The collectives would be either organized or unorganized. The factors which influence the individuals or the groups during the electoral process require to be identified.
The significance of the district studies has been greatly recognized by the social scientists. Among several others Myron Weiner, Das Gupta, Morris Jones, Paul R. Brass, Angela S.Burges and Marry C. Carras have all emphasized the importance of the district as a unit of study.4 Therefore, the present study considers district level electoral politics as crucial for the understanding of political phenomena.
1.1 Theories of Elections:
Political theory inhabits the realm of our ideals and not the messy world of everyday politics. Perhaps this is even truer during an election year. This is the time when lofty expressions of political ideals are invoked, but it is also when our political cynicism is at its highest; when politicians peddle, plead, and pander to win our votes and when we see the contradictions in their promises and their policies or their values and their personal histories. A focus on theory or philosophy seems an unnecessary extravagance, a distraction even. The best ideas can help us to better understand our practices and perhaps guide and improve them.5
Political theorist, David Runciman certainly thinks so. In fact, Runciman thinks that the history of political thought from Thomas Hobbes to George Orwell should disabuse us of some of our loftier notions of politics and give us a healthy dose of realism about what we
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can and should expect from our politicians. In Political Hypocrisy, Runciman argues that we must give up our search for the truly authentic political candidate and accept the fact of political hypocrisy. Far from being a call for cynical resignation, Runciman thinks we should instead learn to tell the difference between those hypocrisies which are benign and those which truly matter to our collective political futures. Our apathy is not unique to our political and historical circumstances argue Ben Berger in Attention Deficit Democracy. Rather, a lack of energy and attention are endemic to democratic societies and Berger has some ideas as to what we can do to alleviate, if not eliminate, these tendencies.6
Jason Brennan, in his thought-provoking book, The Ethics of Voting, argues that we do not. In fact, Brennan argues that there is such a thing as “bad voting” and that some citizens under certain condition have an obligation to abstain from casting a ballot. They may have a right to vote, but not a duty. Brennan does think that we could all do better in thinking about how and who to vote for and he provide us with some tips for making better and more informed choices.7
In an election year, partisan differences are starker than ever. There is, of course, talk of “bipartisanship,” “reaching across the aisle,” and “moving to the center,” but in the end candidates do all that they can to make voters see a clear and distinct difference between the parties. And this how it should be argues Nancy Rosenblum in On the Side of the Angels, her rousing defense of parties and partisanship. The term “partisan” is no dirty word here. On the contrary, it is the locus of our political identities and helps to make our politics focused and meaningful.
But in the end, we must cross party-lines and get down to the business of governing, Campaigning is never over in our all-access, all- the-time political culture where politicians’ every word and every vote
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is scrutinized for ideological purity and where re-election requires strict allegiance to the party line. Such a state of perpetual campaigning makes compromise extraordinarily difficult, a politically dirty word even. But compromise we must Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson argue in The Spirit of Compromise if we are to govern effectively in a democracy and they have some strategies for reducing the gridlock stopping up the works of government.8
A democratic government derives its legitimacy from the people, which implies that its mandate is inevitably limited both in scope and in time. The people decide at the end of the mandate whether the government put in power last time should be given another term or should be replaced by another parts or group of parties the mechanism employed for this purpose in election. Election is the barometer of democracy, indeed, its life-breath. It invests the system of governance with the consent of the people and legitimizes its existence. It is the only acceptable device to determine who are to be accorded the authority for governance for a defined period of time. 9
Besides deciding on who would rule, elections impart intensive political training to the people. They are thus the powerful agents of political socialization. By raising issues and canvassing for support, they become an instrument of political communication in the society. Elections rejuvenate politicians; invariably each election inducts some new blood into politics and thus becomes a source of political recruitment. Elections are particularly conspicuous and revealing aspects of most contemporary political systems. They highlight and dramatize a political system, bringing its nature into sharp relief, and proving insights into other aspects of the system and the basic nature and actual functioning of the system as a whole.10
Elections are complex events involving individual and collective decisions, which directly affect and are affected by, the total political
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and social process. They open up channels between the politics and the society, between the elites and the masses, between the individual and his government. They are major agencies of political socialization and political participation.
Elections and voting are not only among the “Most political of political acts”, they are conditioned by deep seated historical and societal factors.
Elections provide opportunities to study a political system in action. They are generally been conceived as a dependent variable, as the end product of political process, shaped by the nature and operations of the larger political system, and especially, by the party system or, less frequently, as an intervening variable, linking the citizen and the polity, the parties and the government, but seldom as an independent variable which has profound effect on parties, the government, the political system and the general nature and spirit of political life. As suggested by James. N. Rosenau, in his book the dramas of politics election might be viewed as an independence variable in a model explaining the strength of political parties, as an intervening variable in a hypothesis anticipating the nature of public policies and as a dependent variable in a proposition predicting the consequences of political campaigns. In a feedback model, moreover, the same attribute, attitude of behaviour might be conceived to operate simultaneously as all three types of variables.11
Elections are broadly considered as complicated political processes, which must be analyzed within the context of the total political and social system. According to V.O. Keyjr, ‘an election itself is a formal act of collective division that occurs in a stream of connected antecedent and subsequent behaviour, not a single event but a concatenation of thousand of events, some, of great significance, and some, more trivial.
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An election, it is thus obvious, is an exercise in politics. Politics is the concern-rather full time concern – of a small group of people called politicians; and never is this concern more pervasive than at the time of election. It is also an affair people engage themselves in very prominently when they vote.
Conventionally, in voting behavior and other types of electoral studies, elections have been analyzed on the basis of the factors influencing and the motivations of the individual voter, the electorate as a collectivity, the representatives chosen through the electoral process, the process itself, the king of government that is produced and the nature and degree of its actual responsibility to the electorate, and the role of elections in the functioning and development of the political system. As Richard, Rose and Harve mossawir pointed ‘the study of voting and elections is now one of the major growth areas within the field of political science. Limited consideration, however, is, given to the relevance of voting and elections for the political system as a whole.12
Voting behaviour, many argue, reflects the socio economic structure of the society. Even if the claims made by this school of writers are not entirely valid, voting is not completely unrelated to class, family back ground, or environment. This is why certain stability is see as how the people vote. Likewise, a political party is not just a collection of politicians. It is a social group having a similar kind of corporate life in interaction with other and allied group in the society. In short, electoral politics and voting behaviour constitute the fabric of politics.
According to Sir Lewis Namier, ‘General Elections’ are the locks on the streams of British democracy, controlling the flow of the river and its traffic.13
Voting is the most common, the most conscious, and the most frequently studied act of political participation though it may not be a
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very meaningful act of participation at all. It is particularly ‘difficult to study and assess, for, since the advent of the secret ballot – a fundamental feature of free elections. It has became impossible to observe in its final stages, assuming that the conventional safeguards of secrecy are preserved. Stein Rokkan has pointed out, ‘the vote is no longer a responsible act, and the citizen could not longer be taken into account for what he had done, neither by his superior nor by his peers. As Rokkan noted the vote is a datum of human behaviour but it is an anonymous datum.14
Voting is only the final stage – the dramatic climax of electoral process and the electoral process, which is a complicated and multi stage process in any political system where elections are held, is the central mechanism of the even broader and more complex electoral system.
Mauris Duverger felt that the electoral system must, influence political life. The radical changes brought about in the structure of various states by the adoption of universal suffrage of the machinery of arranged elections, for instance, sufficiently indicate the importance of this factor. It is, however extremely difficult to analyze that influence scientifically. The factors conditioning the political life of a country are very closely interrelated, so that any study of the efforts of one of these factors considered in isolation is necessarily artificial. All such a study can do is to define tendencies, likely to be influenced by the operation of other factors.15
Elections are among the most ubiquitous of political participation under taken by a majority of adults in a majority of the nations today. In most of the democratic states of the west, in the few non-western democracies and some non-democratic politics, elections have became a normal feature of the political system, eve though their
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role and place in the system, and their actual significance, may vary greatly.
Elections obviously have different meanings and play different roles in different political systems. In some they are central, in others peripheral. In some they have definitely stabilizing effects, in others definitely destabilizing; in some, they seem clearly to contribute to political development, in others to political decay. They may be used as thinly veiled disguises for various forms of authoritarian rule, and institutionalized procedures for system maintenance in established democratic societies, or as instruments for the increasing democratization of political systems.
They may be considered variously as devices for legitimacy, identification, integration, communication, participation, socialization and mobilization, as well as for political chose and political control. Because elections serve many purposes, and because they cannot be understood except in a systematic context, they should be analyzed not only with relation to the general theory and the general knowledge that have accumulated as a result of extensive voting behaviour and other electoral studies in many political system, but also with relation both to political systems generally and to the distinctive characteristics, traditions experience, values, and goals of individual systems. The voting behavior of mass electorate can be seen within the context of a larges political system. The electoral process is a means of decision that lies within a broader political order and in research on voting it is valuable to have explicitly in view of the wider political system in which the electoral process is found.
In the dreams of politics ‘James N. Rosenan identifies found broad functions which ‘must be performed in order for a political system to persist and achieve its goals. These are “The normative function where by basic attitudes and loyalties are developed and
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sustained; the sovereignty function where by action is taken and final decisions are made, the bureaucratic function whereby action is taken and final decisions are implemented; and support building function whereby pre-existing norms are activated and consensuses are fashioned around proposed or decided courses of action. 16
Elections, like political parties, are agencies for interest, aggression, which inevitably mean that the choice for the both on election day is a limited one. Moreover, it is usually made more or less in a proforma manner, without conviction or insight. In highly developed democracies, where elections have became routine and usually rather undemocratic events, the choice that is exercised is circumscribed by the factors that have determined the nature of the vote and by the limitations of the choice, under such circumstances as professor Meckenzie has observed, the kind of choice. 17
As Myron Weiner has pointed out, most governing elites in the developing areas have chosen to restrict rather than enlarge political participation… most of the authoritarian elites governing the developing areas seek active rather than passive support and view some forms of a political “participation” as desirable. Such governing elites often try to find new forms of political “participation” of the sort that will encourage or even mobilize citizens to support the regime and its goals without allowing them to makes any demands upon it”.18
1.1.1 A Behavioral Theory of Elections:
Most theories of elections assume that voters and political actors are fully rational. While these formulations produce many insights, they also generate anomalies most famously, about turnout. The rise of behavioural economics has posed new challenges to the premise of rationality. A behavioral theory of elections based on the notion that all actors politicians as well as voters are only boundedly rational. The theory posits learning via trial and error; actions that surpass an
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actor’s aspiration level are more likely to be used in the future, while those that fall short are less likely to be tried later.
Based on this idea of adaptation, Jonathan Bendor and Daniel Diermeier construct formal models of Party competition, turnout, and voters’ choices of candidates. These models predict substantial turnout levels, voters sorting into parties, and winning parties adopting centrist platforms. In multiparty elections, voters are able to coordinate vote choices on majority-preferred candidates, while all candidates garner significant vote shares. Overall the behavioral theory and its models produce macro implications consistent with the data on elections, they use plausible micro assumptions about the cognitive capacities of politicians and voters.19
1.1.2 Special Theory of Elections:
The spatial theory of elections is based on the premise that the policy positions of voters and candidates can be represented by points in an issue space and that voter’s evaluation of a candidate’s policy positions is measured by the distance between voter and candidate in this space. If candidates have spatial mobility, the purpose of the theory is to predict where each candidate will locate in the issue space if he wishes to win the election. Whether or not it is possible to assess the policy positions of voters and candidates, there are always unobservable variables that affect voter choice. Furthermore, policy positions are always measured with error. These considerations suggest the need for a behaviourally reasonable theory of voting which incorporates the essential uncertainty that candidates have about voter choice and that voters have about candidate positions.
The voter’s uncertainty about the candidates may arise from several sources. Candidate policy positions may be imperfectly perceived or may be perceived as a random variable. Uncertainly about new issues and future events may also complicate the voter’s decision
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016 problem. A voter who is future-oriented must face this inescapable uncertainty, even if he is confident that he knows the candidate’ positions on current policy issues.
A candidate, on the other hand, faces the uncertainty of never knowing all the factors that affect citizens’ vote decisions. Even when voters are rational, informed, and have clearly defined views on policy issues, the candidate still cannot be certain about how the votes will be cast. In addition, the data he possesses are likely to contain a large amount of error.20
References
1 Rajan Kothari., Politics in India, Orient Longmans Limited, Bombay: 1985, p. 9
2 Atul Kohli., Democracy and Discontent:- Indian’s growing crisis of governability, Cambridge university press, 1991, p. ix
3 V.M. Sirsikar, “Electoral Process in Poona 1967”, A Study in parties, politics and Voters, University of Puna, p. 182.
4 Myron Weiner., Party Building in a New nation: The Indian National Congress, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 1967, B. Das Gupta and W.H. Morris Jones., Patterns and Trends in Indian Politics. An Ecological Analysis of Aggregate Data on Society and Elections, Allied Publishers, Bombay: 1975. Paul R. Brass., Factional Politics in Indian State The Congress Party in Uttar Pradesh, Oxford University Press, Bombay: 1966. Angela S. Berger., Opposition in a Dominant Party System. A study of Janasangha and the Praja Socialist Party in Uttar Pradesh, India, Oxford University Press, Bombay: 1969. Marry C Carris., Dynamics of Indian Political Elections: A Study of District Counsels in State of Maharashtra, Cambridge University Press, London: 1972.
5 Rob Tempio., Political Theory., Princeton University Press, Princeton: 2011, p. 24.
6 Ibid., p. 25. www.ijmer.in 75 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
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7 Jason Brennan., The Ethics of Voting, Princeton University Press, Princeton: 2011, p. 45.
8 Amy Guttmann and Dennis Thompson, The Spirit of Compromise, Princeton University Press, 2011.
9 S.R. Maheswari, Electoral Politics in the National Metropolis, Ritu Publishers, Delhi, 1982, P.1
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid., The Dramas of Politics, Little Brown, Boston, 1973, p.171.
12 Richard Rose and Harve Mossawir, ‘Voting and Elections; A functional Analysis’, Political studies, XV (June 1967), 173.
13 Sir Lewis Namier, Avenue of History, Hamish Hamilton, London, 1952, p.183.
14 Rokkan, Citizens, Elections, parties, Angus Campbell, Per Torsvik, pp. 418, 419.
15 Maurice Duverger, ‘The influence of the Electoral System on Political Life’, International Social Science Bulletin, III (Summer 1971), P. 314.
16 James N. Rosenau, The Dramas of Politics, Little Brown, Boston, 1973, p.171.
17 W.J.M. Mackenzie, ‘The Functions of Elections, International Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Macmillan, New York, 1968, v. 5.
18 Myron Weiner, ‘Political Participation: Crisis of the Political Process’, in Leonard Binder et al., Crises and sequences in political development, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1971, p. 197.
19 Jonathan Bendor and Daniel Diermeier., A Behavioral Theory of Elections, Princeton University Press, Princeton: 2011
20 James M. Enelow, Melvin J. Hinich., A General Probabilistic Spatial Theory of Elections, Presented at the Advanced Study Institue on Incomplete Information and Bounded Rationality Decision Models, Anacapri, Italy, 8-18, June 1987 www.ijmer.in 76 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
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BULL SYMBOL DEPICTED ON VIJAYANAGARA COINS
Dr. Karamthur Venkatesu Naik Academic Consultant Dept. of AIHC & Archaeology Sri Venkateswara University Tirupati
The Vijayanagara Empire was established by Harihara I and Bukkaraya I in 1336. A. D. with the advice of sage Vidyaranya. The Vijayanagara Empire represents the last glorious epoch in the annals of south Indian history. The main object of the Vijayanagara Empire was to consolidate Hindu power, and act as a bulwark to Muslim danger. After the Gupta dynasty, the Vijayanagara rulers were the first to issue gold coins in large numbers and denominations. They also issued silver and copper coins for business and day to day transactions. Denominations include the pagoda, fanam in gold, tara in silver, pana, jital and kasu in copper. The present study deals with the bull type of coins issued by the Vijayanagara rulers. These coins are issued in silver and copper, except Mallikarjuna all Vijayanagara rulers issued coins in copper.
Bull is the guardian of the East and a symbol of royalty right from the earliest Indus culture. Depicting Bull on the coins was quite popular with the kings of Vijayanagara. The bull is also a much venerated animal and treated as holy. The Saivite temples frequently depict the figures of bull. The bull is known as Nandi, the Vahana of Lord Siva, who is shown, carved along with the bull in the form of Vrishbarudhamurthi. The bull type of coins generally contained a circle of dots within which is found a bull either to left or right with bells hanging from its neck; crescent moon above and a dagger in front are portrayed. The Vijayanagara kings who belonged to Sangama, Tuluva
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and Aravidu dynasties issued a large number of bull type coins in silver and copper metals with small variations.
COINS OF HARIHARA I
Harihara I issued bull type of coins in copper only with small variations.
First type
On the obverse of the coin is shown a fine humped bull facing to right, stylished conch in front of the bull. Above the bull Kannada single letter ‘Ha’ (The first letter of Harihara I) is noticed. On the reverse of the coin is shown standing man stylished from Chola design1.
Second type
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On the obverse of the coin is shown highly ornamented bull facing to left, Sun and Moon above, a lamp stand in front of the bull. On the reverse of the coin in a dotted linear circle, two lines Nagari legend, a dagger placed horizontally above the legend is follows:
Sri Hari hara2.
COINS OF BUKKARAYA I
Bukkaraya I issued bull type of coin in copper only.
On the obverse of the coin is depicted couchant bull to moving left, Sun and Moon above the bull. On the reverse of the coin is shown Kannada single letter ‘Bu’ (The first letter of the Bukkaraya I) for Bukkaraya3 is noticed.
COINS OF HARIHARA II
Harihara II issued bull type of coins in copper only.
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On the obverse of the coin is shown within a circle of dots the figure of Vrishaba or the fine humped bull moving to left with bells hanging from its neck, crescent moon above and the dagger in front. Probably standing symbolically for the Trisula of Lord Siva is front. On the reverse of the coin is shown within a circle of dots a legend in Nagari in two lines sometimes with the rules between the lines as follows:
Pratapa
Ha ri ha ra4.
COINS OF BUKKARAYA II
Bukkaraya II issued bull type of coins in copper. His coins are similar to the coins of Harihara II. He continued the tradition of Harihara II in having bull on his coins. But for the legend on the coins of Bukkaraya II and Harihara I they are identical.
On the obverse of the coin is shown a fine humped bull moving to left with bells hanging from its neck. Above the Sun and Moon it differs from Harihara II coins. On the reverse of the coin is shown within a circle of dots Nagari legend in three lines as follows:
Vija
ya Buka
ra ya5.
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COINS OF DEVARAYA I
Devaraya I also issued bull type of copper coins with variations.
First type
On the obverse of the coin is depicted a fine humped bull moving to the left with crescent Moon and Sun above in a circle of dots. Some specimen’s have the Nagari letter ‘De’ in front of the bull perhaps it represents the name of the king Devaraya I. On the reverse of the coin is shown within a circle of dots Kannada legend in three lines as follows:
Sri De va A dagger between Sankha and Chakra ra ya. It has been stated that a symbol in the centre with letters on top and below is a limitation of the Chalukya and the Pandyan issues. Some coins show the moon with a dot in the centre along side of the sun and some show fine humped bulls6.
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Second type
On the obverse of the coin is, in a circle of dots bull to right with Crescent Moon and Sun above Nagari letter ‘De’ in front of the bull. On the reverse of the coin is Nagari legend in three lines as follows:
Sri
Nila
kantah7.
Third type
Another type of coin is depicted on the obverse is shown in a circle of dots, a fine humped bull moving to left with the bell hanging from its neck; moon above and dagger in front. On the reverse of the coin represents two lines Nagari legend as follows:
Sri Deva
raya8.
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COINS OF RAMACHANDRA
Ramachandra issued bull type of coins in copper only.
On the obverse of the coin is seen fine humped bull moving to right, Sun and Moon above dagger in front. On the reverse of the coin we find Kannada legend in two lines as follows:
Rama
chandra9.
COINS OF VIJAYARAYA I
Vijayaraya depends entirely on the reverse of the coins which contains the legend Sri in Kannada. Only one copper coin of this ruler has come to light. On the obverse of the coin is shown in a circle of dots a fine humped bull moving to left, with crescent Moon and Sun above. On the reverse of the coin we find within a circle of dots Kannada legend in two lines as follows:
Sri Jaya
raya10.
COINS OF MALLIKARJUNA
For the first time, Bhandare has reported silver coins of this ruler.
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On the obverse of the coin is shown in a linear circle, a fine humped bull moving to left, Sun and Moon above. On the reverse is shown sword and three line Nagari legend as follows:
Mali
ka rjuna
raya11.
COINS OF SRI KRISHNADEVARAYA
Sri Krishnadevaraya issued bull type of coins in copper. These coins are more similar to the Devaraya I coins.
On the obverse of the coin depicted in a circle of dots a fine bull standing to the left with ornamental covering cloth on its back secured by a girdle. On its neck there are folds of fat and gingle on the throat. The Sun and the Moon are shown above the bull. On the reverse of the coin is shown a conventionalized sword looking like as arrow flanked by the Sankha and Chakra with two Kannada legends above as follows:
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Sri Krishna
raya12.
COINS OF SADASIVARAYA
Sadasivaraya issued bull type of coins in copper. On the obverse of the coin is shown fully caparisoned charging bull moving to left. On the reverse of the coin is shown three lines Nagari legend as follows:
Pra ta
pa Sa
(dasiva)13.
COINS OF RAMARAJA
Mukunda Prabhu has been able to identity three bull types of copper coins of this ruler. On the obverse of the coin is shown seated bull under an arch. On the reverse of the coin is shown two line Nagari legend as follows:
Rama
raja14.
COINS OF TIRUMALARAYA I
Tirumalaraya I issued bull type of coins in copper with small variations as follows.
First type
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On the obverse of the coin is shown within two borders of dotted circle surrounded by linear circle, a fine humped bull moving to left; a dagger in front Sun and Moon above. On the reverse of the coin is shown within two borders of dotted circle and floral design, the Nagari legend in three lines as follows:
(Cha)
la ma
raya15.
Second type
Another type of coin is depicted on the obverse is shown couchant bull moving to left with a dagger in front, sun and Moon above the bull. On the reverse of the coin is shown Nagari legend in three lines with interlinear rules as follows:
Sri Ti
rumala
raya16.
COINS OF SRI RANGARAYA I
Sri Rangaraya I issued bull type of coins in copper. On the obverse of the coin is shown in a linear circle a couchant bull moving to
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right. On the reverse of the coin is shown Kannada legend in circular way as follows Sri Rangaraya17.
COINS OF VENKATAPATIRAYA II
Venkatapatiraya II issued bull type of coins in copper.
On the obverse of the coin is shown within a linear double circular lines bull moving to left with up lifted tail. Bull is standing. On the reverse of the coin is shown within an ornamental square, three line legends in Nagari and Kannada with interlinear rules as follows:
Sri
Venkata
raya18.
COINS OF SRI RANGARAYA II
Sri Rangaraya II issued bull type of coins in copper with small variations.
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First type
On the obverse of the coin is shown a fine bull in a couchant posture as in Tirumalaraya coins. On the reverse of the coin we find Telugu legend in two lines as follows
Chi ra
ya lu
Sri Rangaraya II was popularly known as Chikaraya or crown prince and the Telugu legend on the couchant bull suggests that the specimen was issued from the Udayagiri area19.
Second type
Another type of coin is depicted on the obverse of the coin is shown couchant bull moving to right, Sun and Moon above. On the reverse of the coin is shown two line Kannada legend as follows
Chikka Ra
yalu20.
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COINS OF SRI RANGARAYA III
Sri Rangaraya III issued bull type of coins in copper.
On the obverse of the coin is shown bull standing to right with a lamp stand in the front. Two persons may be Siva and Parvathi seated on the bull. On the reverse of the coin is shown Kannada legend in three lines as follows
Sri
Ram
ga21.
The presence of bull on Vijayanagara coins shows the prevalence of Saivism. The Saivites attach great importance to this emblem for it is the vahana of Lord Siva. Vrishabha symbolized the very essence of energy and represents the Great god Siva22. The crescent moon stands for Siva as Chandrasekhara wears crescent in his jatamakuta. The Sun and the Moon are sometimes reproduced as symbols of eternal duration and the success of the empire. The above study shows that the Sangama dynasty rulers mostly followers of Saivism, the Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties were staunch followers of Vaishnavism but they also patronized Saivism. This study shows the religious tolerance of the Vijayanagara rulers.
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References
1. Girijapathi, M. The Coinage and History of Vijayanagara Empire, Bangalore, 2009, p.16.
2. Ibid. p. 23. 3. Ibid. p. 30. 4. Narasimha Murthy., A. V. Coins and Currency System in Karnataka, Mysore, 1997, p. 258.
5. Ramesan, N. A Catalogue of the Vijayanagara Coins of the Andhra Pradesh Government Museum, Hyderabad, 1962, p. 58.
6. Ibid. p. 61. 7. Sankara Narayana., N. Catalogue of Vijayanagar Coins in the Madras Government Museum, Madras, 1977, p. 32.
8. Narasimha Murthy., A. V. Op.cit., p. 263. 9. Venkatesu Naik, Karamthur. A Cultural Study of the Vijayanagara Coins, Thesis submitted to Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati, 2015, p.45.
10. Sankara Narayana., N. Op.cit. p. 15. 11. Narasimha Murthy., A. V. Op.cit. p. 271. 12. Girijapathi, M. Op.cit., p. 74. 13. Venkatesu Naik, Karamthur. Op.cit. p. 46. 14. Narasimha Murthy, A.V. Op.cit. p. 286. 15. Girijapathi, M. Op.cit., p. 123. 16. Ibid. p. 124. 17. Narasimha Murthy., A. V. Op.cit. p. 293. 18. Girijapathi, M. Op.cit., p. 123. 19. Ramesan, N. Op.cit., pp. 76 - 77. 20. Girijapathi, M. Op.cit., p. 144. 21. Venkatesu Naik, Karamthur. Op.cit. p. 46. 22. Agrawala., V. S., Siva Mahadeva, The Great God Siva, Varanasi, 1966, p. 14. www.ijmer.in 90
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POPULATION EXPLOSION IMPACT ON SUSTIANABALE DEVELOPMENT – A STUDY
Dr. C. Ramanjaneyulu Associate Professor Dept. of Political Science SSBN College Ananthapuramu, Andhra Pradesh
Abstract
Rapid population growth is called “Population Explosion” population expulsion have become an impediment to good governance and sustainable development. However since the 19th century the population grew up very rapidly. According to “World Population Clock Census” World population reached 713 crores. It was six times larger than the population of 1800 A.D. yearly nearly 98 million people are being added now. The population growth is just like an explosion. Half of the population is concentrated in the developing countries such as India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc., Population grows at geo metric rate but the production of food only grows arithmetically. Malthus gloomily predicted that growth of poverty and social conflict was inevitable. Rapid population growth has resulted in many environmental problems such as raising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, depletion of resources. Other problems associated with over population include increased demand for resources like fresh water and food, starvation and malnutrition, consumption of national resources faster than the rate of regeneration. It has resulted in unemployment, poverty, equitable quality education, housing, transportation, health care and education, crowded hospitals and traffic congestion have become common features in the developing countries in India. Population explosion can result from an increase in births, a decline of mortality rates, an increase in immigration, or a sustainable biome and depletion of resource. The human population has been
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growing due to a significant advancement in medical facilities, increase in agricultural productivity, and in some Asian countries such as India and China, due to lack of education, social awareness, poverty and religious fundamentalism among other reasons.
INTRODUCTION:
Rapid population growth is called “Population Explosion” population explosion has become a hindrance to development and growth. However since the 19th century the population grew up very rapidly. According to “World Population Clock Census” World population reached 713 crores. It was six times larger than the population of 1800 A.D. yearly nearly 98 million people are being added now. The population growth is just like an explosion. Half of the population is concentrated in the developing countries such as India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc.,
Population grows at geo metric rate but the production of food only grows arithmetically. Malthus gloomily predicted that growth of poverty and social conflict was inevitable. The excess leads to several disadvantages like preserve on the Globe, scarcity, food material which results leads into poverty. In view the scarcity of food malnutrition causes immense loss to the younger generation both physically and mentally. It has resulted in unemployment, poverty, equitable quality education, housing, transportation, health care and education, crowded hospitals and traffic congestion resulting deterioration in overall development of the country.
The Government is taking several measurements for the health of its citizens providing free medical specialities and arranging health awareness programmes like Polio drops, Anti TB treatment and the latest is anti Zika serum are dwindling the opportunities of life expectany. Due to all these efforts the population is raised and the good habits and other some religious belives and two some extent ignorance
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in some communities and tribes, the population scale continuously reached the satisfactory point.
A great event is took place at the United Nationals Headquarters, New York, between September 25-27, 2015 more than 150 world leaders, including our Prime Minister, attended the UN Sustainable Development Submit, adopt the new sustainable development agenda. This agenda serves as a template for action for all governments of the world for then next fifteen years, to promote prosperity among their people, and to protect the planet for posterity. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) took lead over the Millennium Development Goals that expired in 2015. International discussions regarding SDGs started in 2012 and resulted final document. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted in UN sustainable development Summit. This document contains seventeen goals, based on a consensus of 193 countries, which cover almost all the priority concerns of societies across the world. They may be grouped as:
Poverty related – to end poverty, hunger, malnutrition to satisfy the hunger of people by providing a source to have income through agriculture or other work and to lead an independent and free life with gender equality.
Growth World Population - Historical perspective:
As per the historical account it took thousand of years for world population to reach one million, first ever. The population explosion to place slowly and as per the available data there were only 10 lakhs of human being before 10 thousand B.C. that to segregated small groups. Then it rose to 50 lakhs to 1 crore during 5000 B.C and reached 25 crores by the beginning of 1st century. And it reached 50 crores by 1650 A.D. During this period wars, Epidemics and floods and other natural calamities contributed slow growth rate of human beings.
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During 1650 A.D to 1920 A.D. due to agriculture and industrial revolution and availability of food products and increased in living standard due to changes in Economic and Social changes. Willkaks and Carsender estimated the population growth particularly in Latin America, Africa and Asia. Their estimation revealed raise of population by three times in 250 years that is from 1752 A.D to 1900 and which touched to 180 crores by 1920. The world witnesses unnatural and unexpected growth of population to 713 crores by 2014 and 800 crores by 2015.
According to Broke, Webb, willkakes and Carsender estimated the world population growth.
Years World Population growth
10000 BC 1 Lack to 10,00,000 lakhs
5000 BC 50 lacks to 1 crore
1300 AD Rapidly decreased the population growth
1650 AD 50 crores
1700 AD 60 crores
1750 AD 76 crores
1800 AD 96 crores
1900 AD 160 crores
1920 AD 180 crores
1970 AD 360 crores
1987 AD 500 crores
1992 AD 550 crores
2014 713 crores
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Population growth in India:
The population Data in India is available from 3000 B.C. It is understood density of population was high even before 4000 B.C. and history reveals existence of civilization of Harappa and Mohan Zodare. As per the estimation of Davis and Premnath India had 12.5 crores of population by beginning 17th century. During 1800 A.D. Due to failure of Monsoons, political instability during the period of Moghal and owing to taxes the population did not rise as per expectation. But by the starting of 19 century the huge developments in industrial and agricultural and medical fields and increasing literary and people coming out from superstitions belief and increase in human standards raised the population. There is a every possibility India’s population reaching to 148 crores occupying in position in the world.
The world population will estimate to reach 9 Billions by 2050 A.D. Later it will reach 10 Billions by 2100 A.D. The population explosion will impact on natural resources, water, traditional fuels, food, shelter and cloth
For thousands of years, the earth’s total human population changed little. Since the eighteenth century, it began to increase alarmingly. The United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), in its Report 1993 warned the world that if the population growth was not controlled, it would effect on ecologic, economic and social disasters. World population was 548 crores in 1992. As UNFPA feared, it reached 600 crores in 1998. The report also warned that annual average 98 million, the highest in history is included to the population per year. Nearly all of this population growth will be in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Over half will be in Africa and South Asia. If it is continued it reaches 850 crores by 2025, and 1000 crores by 2050. Some 85 per cent to population growth in the coming decade will
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be in urban areas. Cities have grown faster where national populations are growing faster.
The population growth primarily started to increase abnormally since eighteenth century, after industrial development. The world population is now at least five times greater than it was in 1800. Before that period, the primitive peoples, being few in number, require less quantity of natural resources, energy and space. They had only basic tools. Traditional consumption of energy in low quantity. Thus they did not alter environment. Population totals changed little for thousands of years.
As the population grew, it affected adversely on environment. In turn it affected on the people. Pollution pressures cause soil, air, water pollutions. For the fuel, furniture, construction purposes, the people cut the forests. Deforestation causes dryness in the atmosphere. The cultivable and fertile lands are converted into concrete jungles in the urban areas. The people require huge quantity of water. The underground water is going to be exhausted.
The population explosion is an added factor for the environmental pollution. Modern and technical knowledge created more and more hazardous and dangerous threat to the environment. The new inventions in the automobiles are being for quick transportation. They are the major pollutants, releasing carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur, lead etc., toxic and dangerous gases in the environment. The Automobiles cause the air pollution, noise pollution.
Now the people use more energy in several ways, ie., by consuming coal, wood, gases, oils nuclear atoms etc., Thus the central point to the environmental pollution is that the development of technology paved the ways for more efficient use of energy. Larger and larger amounts of energy that made the earth’s human population
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uniquely altered the environment. This was happened only after industrial Revolution.
Impact of Population and Environmental balance:
Maintaining environmental balance is essential to reach sustainable development goals by controlling the population effect to the check the raising poverty. The continuous raise of poverty has its own ill-effects by the simultaneous growth of population and shortage of food material. The judicious use of available resources by maintaining the population to reach the needed goals to achieve continuous sustainable development is only solution to attain the balance between environment and population. The migration of rural poor has to be stopped by providing loans at cheaper interest to have self-sufficiency and control over the expenditure. The social awareness programme like de-alcholisation and discouragement to the gambling and restricted supply of drugs will reduce the rural poverty which unable the people to move towards prosperity. This move reduces much in balance between the population and environment.
The mechanization of agriculture and community cultivation brings much change in the financial strength of the rural poor. The availability of river water or preservation of rain water keeps the rural people to remain in their villages by concentrating on the agriculture. The other point to be concentrated to relive the farmers from debt trap is providing necessary seeds and regular advice by agriculturists to have a bounty harvest. The enthusiasm provided to the ryots (farmers) in all these fears automatically generate hope in the sustainability of the ryots by utilizing the welfare schemes and encouragement given by the Government goes a long way and its successfully repair the damage done to the environment.
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Impact on Industrialization:
In the traditional era, the people were limited in number. They knew limited and traditional technology. The people were scattered far away, and mainly were residing in villages. There were abundant natural resources around the people, such as forest, water, open land, agricultural lands, fresh air, etc., The natural resources were more and their utilization was less. Hence, the people before 19th century did not invade on environment. They loved the environment. They worshipped it. Their limited technology and use of natural resources did not bring any changes in the environment.
However since 19th century the population grew up very rapidly. The developed countries people have been exploiting the natural resources since the 19th century up to now continuously. The developed countries established industries in huge numbers, for their domestic uses and also for exporting. Their technology has been increased. Hence, they released abundant quantity of Noxious and hazardous pollutants into the atmosphere. For the millions of years the World environment was not affected. It is miserable to say that within two centuries the world has been polluted abnormally.
Developed countries caused major environmental pollution and ecological imbalance on one side. In the second side the developing countries also have been participating in polluting the environment.
The heavy growth of population destroyed the village structure. Urbanization and industries are the modern phenomenon. The people from villages began to migrate to the cities. Thus the urban cities swelled just like balloons and expanded. Large number of people accumulated in the cities. Thus the huge qualities of goods, food etc., are required to manufacture these goods a large number of factories are established. In the process of food and goods, huge qualities of wastages, pollutants have come out. These wastages are thrown out in
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the environment. The people’s excretions and wastage water, including the industrial sludge, wastes, and also animals, dung etc., are thrown into municipal canals drainages, rivers and seas. These excretions and industrial wastages created much more pollution in the water and air. The fish in the lakes, reservoirs, rivers, seas are dying gradually.
Impact on Urbanization:
From the beginning of 19th century, the urbanization has been increasing. Now it is faster and faster. In the villages, the people are lesser in number, and perform their natural calls in open places. Sufficient open places are available to the villages. The human exertions are naturally decomposed and do not harm environment. However, in urban areas, the population density is high, and concentrated at one place. The human excretions thrown in the municipality drainage. The domestic and industrial wastes, including human excretions are accumulated in abundant quantity. The sewage cause major environmental problems to the inhabitants. Sewage is a ubiquitous pollutant, which continues to be released untreated into many of the world’s waterways, disrupting the aquatic environment through its impact on the biochemical oxygen demand, causing health problems and constraining human use of rivers and lakes. All the rivers of India, including Ganga River, are heavily polluted. Hussain Sagar is an eye-witness for the pollution.
Impact on Food:
All the States, especially the developing countries, have to produce more and more food grains to meet the demand of ever growing population. The agricultural and cultivable lands are converted into residential colonies and concrete jungles in the urban areas. The villages are not excepted. The population of villages too is increasing day by day. The increased population is spreading into the other areas, cutting the forests, Thus the deforestation is going on. The forests are
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cut down in a speed way. The trees are being turned into wooden furniture and industrial appliances. The area of forests is shrinking day by day. The excavation of mines in the forests also causes the deforestation. The area of the forest is being decreased day by day. The agriculture, industries and residential colonies are creeping into the forest area. The ecology is destroyed to a great extent. The environmental pollution destroys the forest animals. Most precious species of animals and plants are destroyed mercilessly and indiscriminately.
Impact on Energy:
In the traditional era, the people used the energy in a limited extent. Their necessities were limited because the people were lesser in number. The traditional people used charcoal, wood for their energy purposes. After the 19th century began, new sources of energy were invented. Coal, Petrol, Diesel, Kerosene, Gas, Nuclear thermal energy, etc. were invented and introduced in the world. These new sources of energy have accelerated the economic and industrial growth. In the initial stage, the coal brought industrial revolution. Trains were invented. Trains consume coal, diesel. The automobiles were also introduced in the modern era, have began to consume the petrol, diesel in huge quantities. The people have been excavating these natural resources in a very abundant quantities. Their requirements are growing day by day.
These natural resources are not renewable. They are going to be exhausted within a short period i.e., within fifty years. These sources already caused major environmental pollution. The developed countries exploited the major portion of the natural resources.
The technical development in the agricultural fields improved the production, quantity and quality. This development is necessary to feed the growing population. The modern technology in agriculture
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used pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers etc., In the manufacturing of these materials, and in the process of using these substances etc., environmental problems are being created. Today the breast milk of a mother is not free from the remnants of these toxic substances.
Impact on Technical progress:
Modern science brought more and more technology to the world. Besides the traditional substances naturally available, about fifty lakh substances were invented and produced by the modern man. Out of these fifty lakh substances about seventy thousand are more popular, demanded, and marketed. Some of them are produced in huge and enormous quantities. These substances have become very much essential to the human beings. They are helpful for the agriculture, health, safety, medicines etc. They are helpful for better standard of living. They are essential for modern man in every walk of life. The traditional man did not assume about these modern appliances, facilities, good. He did not imagine Railways, Automobiles, Aero planes, Rockets, etc., These have become in prominent place in this modern era. Now we cannot imagine our lives without these modern appliances, transportation etc.,
The modern technology is the symbol of the rapid growth of development. However at the same time it has side affects, that too in a graver form. To produce the substances, goods, appliances, automobiles etc., tens of millions of tones of toxic and hazardous substances are thrown into the atmosphere, land, rivers, seas, open space. Thus the major problem of environment is created. These noxious, toxic and hazardous wastes and sludge’s of industries created much more environmental pollution. Thus the result is ozone depletion, acid rains, droughts, floods, cyclones etc., For the production of the substances and appliances all the nations have been exploiting the natural resources, forests, water and air. Not only exploitation of these natural resources,
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the industrial wastages and human excretions are thrown again into the environment. As the population and technology are growing very rapidly, at the same time they are destructing the environment and ecology.
Conclusion:
The man made obstacles and the obstacles caused by the nature have to be faced by utilizing modern technology in the cultivating the lands and acquiring knowledge to control the population explosion by social awareness programmes and implementing the same for sustainable development and achieving the desired end.
References:
1. Sunarla Madhavi, Frelench Journalist “World Population – Scientifically thinks” (Telugu Edition) Yozana July, 2014. 2. Ibid 3. Gade Veera Reddy “The Environmental Law” Sujatha Law Books Ltd., Kothi Hyderabad. 4. Ibid 5. Dr. K. Bhaskar “Indian Rural Economic Scene, Part-II, Dept of Rural Development, Sri Krishna Devaraya University, Ananthapuramu, A.P. 6. Prof. K. Nageswara Rao “Indian Economy” Paper IX Department of Economics, Sri Krishnadevaraya University. 7. Debarati Das “Population Explosion in India” Internet connections. 8. The Eminent personality and distinguished Advocate, Supreme Court, Ram Jetmalani interviewed with Indian Express why isn’t sustainable population part of S.D.Gs? Indian Express 26 Sep, 2015 9. Interview with Senior Advocate V.J. Ravikumar, Ananthapuramu (Dt) APS 10. Daily News Papers, Hindu, Sakshi, Deccan Chronicle, Eenadu, Andhra Jyothi, Surya, Andhra Prabha.
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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ANXIETY AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONG B.ED STUDENTS
Ms. Isha Narula Research Scholar Panjab University Chandigarh Abstract
Anxiety is one of the major predictors of Academic Performance. Students with anxiety disorder display a passive attitude in their studies such as lack of interest in learning, poor performance in exams, and on assignments. This research observes the relationship between anxiety level and students’ academic performance. The test to find out a significant correlation of anxiety and academic performance was carried out among B.Ed students. A total 100 B.Ed students (50 males and 50 females) participated in this test. The study anxiety level was measured using Sinha’s comprehensive Anxiety test. Meanwhile, students’ academic performance was measured by collecting the marks of the B.Ed. students. The results showed that there was a negative relationship between anxiety and academic performance among B.Ed students
Keywords: Anxiety; Academic Performance, Student.
Introduction
Today, anxiety is a common phenomenon of everyday’s life. It plays a crucial role in human life because all of us are the victims of anxiety in different ways. . The word anxiety has been derived from Latin word “ANXIETAS” which commonly connotes an experience of varying blends of uncertainty agitation and dread. Anxiety refer to a subjective experience of the individual, a painful uneasiness of mind, anxiety is series of symptoms which arise from faulty adaptation to the stress and strains of life. Everyone suffer from anxiety in greater or
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lesser degree from time to time as a result of specific situations for which the anxiety is reasonable response. Generally, anxiety can either be a trait anxiety or a state anxiety. Trait anxiety is a stable characteristic or trait of the person. State anxiety is one which is aroused by some temporary condition of the environment such as examination, accident, punishment etc. Academic anxiety is a kind of state anxiety which relates to the impending danger from the environment of the academic institutions including teachers, certain subjects like Mathematics, English etc (Meetei, 2012). The research found that anxious individuals find it harder to avoid distractions and take more time to turn their attention from one task to the next than their less anxious fellow students. This research was conducted by Eysenck (2009). Anxiety is a painful uneasiness of the mind concerning anticipated ill. It represents a danger or threat within the individual rather the danger. Apart from its clinical significance, anxiety has been found to affect an individual’s performance and behavior in variety of situation. Anxiety is generally due to imaginary irrational senses rather than real ones and it arises due to some subjective problem. Students with low level of anxiety usually perform better. So Anxiety is usually defined as a diffuse vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension. The anxious person worries a lot about unknown danger. The symptoms which anxious person shows; rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, loss of appetite, fainting, dizziness etc. The present age of competition increases life stress which is a constant source of anxiety. Anxiety works as a drive like other drive of an individual. Mild anxiety may be useful, but its excess causes hindrances in the study and performance of the individual. Rathus and Nevid (2002) “Anxiety as a feeling of fear and dread. A psychological state characterized by tension and apprehension. It is generalization response to stress.” Dan (2010) “Anxiety disorder are a potentially disabling group of disorder which are prevalent in childhood and adolescence. The recognition of the early
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onset of anxiety disorder, and their successful treatment with medication in adult, has led to the growing interest in using medication for pediatric anxiety disorder.” In the light of various definitions it can be concluded that anxiety is an unpleasant emotional state with qualities of apprehension, dread, distress and uneasiness. It is an internalized fear aroused impulse to commit. It is a danger signal to the ego that dangerous impulse is not to break. It is, in fact, unconscious reactions to depressed tendencies.
Academic performance refers to the accomplishments or production of the pupils/students in the school work (Webster, 2006) Academic performance is a complex student behavior and underlies several abilities, e.g., memory, previous knowledge or aptitude as well as psychological factors such as motivation, interests, temperaments or emotions, to name a few (Deary et al. 2004). Educational psychologists and researchers have argued that there are many determinants of academic performance, one of them being academic behavior (Chamorro & Furnham, 2003). In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance, or how well a student meets standards set out by local government and the institution itself. As career competition grows ever fiercer in the working world, the importance of students doing well in school has caught the attention of parents, legislators, and government education departments alike. Although education is not the only road to success in the working world, much effort is made to identify, evaluate, track, and encourage the progress of students in schools. Schools, though invested in fostering good academic habits for the same reason, are often influenced by concerns about the school's reputation and the possibility of monetary aid from government institutions, which can hinge on the overall academic performance of the school. Departments of education are charged with improving schools, and so devise methods of measuring success in order to create plans for improvement. (Bell,
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2010). Academic performance constitutes a major and salient sphere of child’s life. His career, status, income as well as understanding knowledge, personality and happiness directly or indirectly depend on education. It is regarded as an important goal of education. It is the prime and perennial responsibility of a school or any other educational institution established by the society to promote whole scholastic growth and development of a child. Lack of favorable atmosphere leads to negative feelings and attitudes, which in turn affect Academic performance. Academic performance should be considered to be a multifaceted construct that comprises different domains of learning.
Researchers have been looking at the correlation of anxiety and the effect of academic performance among school students, they found that among high school students with higher level of anxiety have lower academic performance (McCraty, 2007) and greater anxiety would be associated with poorer academic achievement (Luigi et al., 2007). Students with high level of anxiety have a reduced memory span, lose concentration, and lack confidence, and poor reasoning power. The element can be described as anger and regret in engineering students when feel anxiety in difficult situations related with their study. Generally, high level of anxiety was more closely associated with lower performance among low ability students (Sena et al., 2007).
Significance of the study
It is a fact that a nation's progress depends upon its students’ academic performance and development. The academic performance of the students are badly affected due to increase in anxiety in the society. There is no denying to the fact that anxiety has increased in the society it not only affects education but also students’ personalities which linger throughout their lives.
The investigator feels that anxiety may affect the academic achievement of individual. A person, who is free from anxiety, can
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make academic achievement in better way and person who is anxious faces many academic achievement problems. So, it is very important to know how far this feeling of anxiety among B.Ed. students can affect academic achievement. This study aims to find the relationship of anxiety with academic achievement among B.Ed. students.
Objectives
1. To compare the level of anxiety of boys and girls of B.Ed.
2. To compare the level of academic performance of boys and girls B.Ed.
3. To study the relationship between the anxiety and academic performance of B.Ed. students.
Hypotheses
1. There is a significant difference between anxiety of boys and girls of B.Ed.
2. There is a significant difference between academic performance of boys and girls of B.Ed.
3. There is a significant relationship between the anxiety and academic performance of B.Ed. Students.
Sample of the study
The sample of the study consists of 100 students (50 boys and 50 girls) studying colleges of education in Ferozepur district.
Tools
In order to collect data, following tools will be used :-
1. Sinhas comprehensive Anxiety test by A.K.P. Sinha.
2. Collect the marks of the B.Ed. students.
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Statistical Technique
For analysis the study the statistical technique will be used are Mean, Standard Deviation, Correlation, t-test etc.
Delimitations
1. The study is conducted only on B.Ed. students of Ferozepur district only.
2. The study is delimited with respect to the sample of 100 B.Ed. students (50 boys and 50 girls).
Analysis
1. There is a significant difference between anxiety of boys and girls of B.Ed. students
Table 1 showing the significant difference between anxiety of B.Ed boys and girls
Sr. Variable Gender N Mean S.D. t-ratio Significant no. level
1. Anxiety Boys 50 15.52 15 Significant at both levels. 2. Anxiety Girls 50 18.1 11.52 0.165332
Table 1
Table 1 shows mean value of boys and girls which are 15.52 and 18.1 respectively. S.D. of boys and girls are 15 and 11.5 respectively. The calculated t-value is 0.165332 and t-table value at 0.01 level is 2.63 and 0.05 level is 1.98. The table value is greater than the calculated value at both levels. Therefore it is significant at both levels at 0.01 and 0.05 level of significance
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Discussion
From the above result it is clear that obtained t-value is significant at 0.01 and 0.05 level. Therefore the hypothesis no. 1“There is a significant difference between anxiety of boys and girls of B.Ed. students.” is accepted at both levels.
Graphical Representation
The graphical representation of mean score of anxiety of B.Ed boys and girls
18.5
18
17.5
17 Girls mean 16.5 Boys mean 16
15.5
15
14.5
14 1
Figure 1
The graph represents that the mean of anxiety of B.Ed boys is less than the mean of B.Ed girls.
2. There is the significant difference between academic performance of B.Ed boys & girls
Table 2 showing the mean scores of academic performance of B.Ed boys and girls
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Sr. Variable Gende Mea t- Significant no. r N n S.D rati level . o 1. Academic Boys 50 58 5 0.5 Significant Performance at both 2. Academic Girls 50 59 4.1 levels. Performance Table 2
Table 2 shows mean value of boys and girls which are 58 and 59 respectively. S.D. of boys and girls are 5 and 4.1 respectively. The calculated t-value is 0.5 and t-table value at 0.01 level is 2.63 and 0.05 level is 1.98. The table value is greater than the calculated value at both levels. Therefore it is significant at both levels at 0.01 and 0.05 level.
Discussion
From the above result it is clear that obtained t-value is significant at 0.01 and 0.05 level. The Hypothesis no. 2 “There is the significant difference between academic performance of B.Ed boys and girls” is accepted at both levels. Graphical Representation
The graphical representation of mean of boys and girls are given below:-
59
58.8
58.6
58.4 Girls mean Boys mean 58.2
58
57.8
57.6
57.4
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Figure 2
The graph represents that the mean of academic performance of B.Ed boys is less than the mean of B.Ed girls.
3. There is significant relationship between the anxiety and academic performance of B.Ed. students.
Sr. Variable N Mea r Level of No. n S.D significance .
1. Anxiety 10 17 13. - Not significant at 0 2 0.5 both levels.
2. Academic 10 59 4.5 Performance 0
Table 3
Table 3 represents that mean score of anxiety is 17, academic performance score is 59. The correlation of anxiety and academic performance of B.Ed. students is -0.5. The calculated value is smaller than the table value as calculated value is -0.5 and table value at 0.01 level is 0.254 and 0.05 level is 0.195. Therefore it is not significant at both levels at 0.01 and 0.05 level. Discussion
From the above result, it is clear that obtained value is not significant at both levels (0.01 and 0.05 level). Anxiety and academic performance have negative correlation with each other. If anxiety increases, academic performance will be decreased and vice versa. So, it is concluded that Hypothesis no. 3 “There is significant relationship between the anxiety and academic performance of B.Ed. students.” is rejected.
Graphical Representation
The graphical representation of mean scores of B.Ed boys and girls
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60
50
40 academic achievement 30 anxiety
20
10
0 1
Figure 3
The graph represents that the mean of anxiety is less than the mean academic performance of B.Ed students.
Findings:
1. There is significant difference of anxiety among B.Ed boys and girls.
2. There is significant difference of Academic performance among B.Ed boys and girls.
3. There is negative relationship between anxiety and academic achievement of B.Ed students.
Educational Implications
Psychologically anxiety is dangerous for proper growth and development of personality of the child. The teacher can use the new methods and techniques for better academic achievement of students without giving stress. The parents should provide congenial home environment to increase their self confidence which definitely helps in
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decreasing the anxiety level of students. By increasing their confidence level, the anxiety also can be removed.
References
1. Bell, M. (2010, September 5). Defining Academic Performance. Retrieved 2010 from www.ehow.com/ about_4740750_define- academic-performance.html/
2. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., and Furnham, A. (2003). Personality traits and academic exam performance. European Journal of Personality, 17, 237-250
3. Dan, J. Stein (24 Jun 2010). Cochrane Review Pharmacotherapy for anxiety disorder children and adolescents.
4. Deary, I. J., Whiteman, M. C., Starr, J. M., Whalley., L. J., and Fox, H. C. (2004). The impact of childhood intelligence on later life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 130-147
5. Eysenck (2009). The effect of anxiety on academic achievement of students. Retrived data on 15-07-2012 from http://www.sciencedaily .com/r lease s/2009/06/090623090713.html
6. Luigi, M., Francesca, D., Maria, D.S., Eleonora, P., Valentina, G.D. and Benedetto, V. (2007). The Role of Anxiety Symptoms in School Performance in a Community Sample of Children and Adolescents. BMC Public Health 7 (347) doi: 10.1186/1471-2458r-r7- 347
7. Mayya, S.S., Rao, A.K., and Ramnarayan, K. (2004). Learning approaches, learning difficulties and academic performance of undergraduate students of physiotherapy. The Internet Journal of Allied Health Science and Practice, 2 (4). (online) http://ijahs p.nova .edu /articles/vol2num4/mayya.html
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8. McCraty, R. (2007). When Anxiety Causes Your Brain to Jam, use Your Heart. Institute of Heart Math. HeartMath Research Center, Institute of HeartMath, Boulder Creek, CA.
9. Meetei, Rohen (2012). A ciritical study of impact of academic anxiety on academic achievement of class ixth students. http://www. Scribd .com/doc/23767970/A-Ciritical-Study-of-Impact-of-Academic- Anxiety-on Academic-Achievement-of-Class-Ixth-Students-Bareilly.
10. Rathus, S.A. and. Nevid, J.S (2002). Modren practical psychology, Amritsar 44, Model Town.
11. Sena, Whitaker, Lowe, Patricia, Lu, and Steven. 2007. Significant predictors of test anxiety among students with and without learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(4), 360-376
12. Webster (2006). New Explorer Encyclopedic Dictionary. Merriam- Webster, Inc. FederalStreet Press. Springfield, MA
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IN AN CLEVER VIGOR EFFECTIVE CLUSTERING WI-FI SENSOR NETWORKS
Lokesh. A Dept.of Computer Science Magadh University Bodhgaya
Abstract
Some of the fundamental challenges of Wi-Fi sensor community is the right way to reinforce its life time. The restrained power of nodes is the predominant difficulty. We may just overcome this hindrance through optimizing the nodes' power consumption. A solution is clustering; however, ideal clustering of Wi-Fi sensor network is an NP- hard obstacle. This paper proposes a hybrid algorithm based on Genetic Algorithm and Particle Swarm Optimization to overcome this clustering main issue by finding the quantity of clusters, the cluster heads, and the clusters contributors. Simulation outcome exposes that this algorithm outperforms LEACH and Genetic Algorithm established clustering scheme.
Index Terms: Clustering, Genetic algorithm, Lifetime, Particle swarm optimization, Transmission, Wireless sensor network
INTRODUCTION
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) includes a huge the quantity of sensor nodes where these nodes are low power, cheap and power confined with limited conversation and computational capabilities [1]. WSN is employed in monitoring a detailed neighborhood particularly places which are rarely accessible corresponding to battlefields [2] and volcanoes [3], detection of fire movements in forests and jungles [4], measuring temperature and humidity in specific places [5] and lots of other functions. At the same time replacing or recharging the batteries of nodes is infeasible, vigor consumption of nodes is the primary aspect
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of WSN throughout conversation. A bad influence is WSN lifetime reduction. A system to make stronger the lifetime is to slash the a number of transmissions by clustering the nodes. However, choosing cluster-heads, their quantity and cluster contributors are the NP-tough problem. The LEACH protocol, a self-prepared, hierarchical, cluster- headquartered approach used to be proposed with the aid of Heinzelman et al. [12]. LEACH divides the date collection subject into a number of pre-determined clusters, randomly. The sensor nodes transmit knowledge to the cluster heads centered on time division multiple access (TDMA), and cluster heads combination and transmit the data to the base station. After exact time intervals, LEACH chooses a brand new set of cluster heads. Simplest when the entire last candidates have been elected, then a node will also be re-elected. Genetic algorithm (GA) is an adaptive system which is often employed to remedy search and optimization problems [6]. It's centered on the genetic tactics of organic organisms. We employ it to search out the number of clusters and their heads. Particle Swarm optimization (PSO), encouraged by the social behaviors of animals such as chicken flocking and fish schooling, it's generally utilized in optimization [8]. We rent PSO to beat the obstacle of assigning nodes to cluster heads and constructing the clusters. GA is widely employed in clustering. Sajid Hussain and et al [7] effectually utilized a genetic algorithm process to cluster the nodes but they used GA simply in making a choice on the cluster heads. There are a couple of factors why PSO centered approaches are more ultimate in evaluation to Genetic algorithm tactics. For illustration, GA is inherently a discrete system and each and every entity have no communique with the worldwide optimization method. On the other hand, PSO employs the best and best units to check the next speed vector and is inherently steady in nature. PSO converges to the solution faster and with less computation
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than a commonplace genetic algorithm [8]. Accordingly, we employed PSO in clustering. Ying Liang and et al [9] utilized PSO for clustering.
They proposed a hybrid algorithm utilizing PSO and LEACH, however, their simulations show little improvement in comparison with LEACH. Yang and et al proposed an improved PSO to construct power effective clusters without simulating their works on WSN [10]. This paper employs GA and PSO algorithms in WSN. The simulations disclose significant efficiency of the novel algorithm over LEACH or GA. The relaxation of our paper is prepared as follows. Part II describes the proposed synthetic intelligence situated clustering. We will be able to speak about normal steps of knowledge gathering in section III. Section IV discusses the simulations outcome and subsequently, part V concludes the paper and suggests additional study.
II. Artificial INTELLIGENCE founded CLUSTERING
This section introduces GA, PSO and their utility innclustering WSN in brief. We remember a network with N nodes named S1,S2,…,SN and a base station (BS). Each and every node has an exact identity from 1 to N and the identity of BS is 0.
Genetic Algorithm
A genetic algorithm is an adaptive system that is ordinarily employed in optimization issues. It's situated on the genetic approaches of organic organisms. GA upholds a population of chromosomes that boost in step with determination, mutation, crossover, substitute principles, and many others. Each chromosome has a measure of goodness called fitness. Decision perform specializes in excessive fitness chromosomes. Mutation and crossover present customary heuristics that simulate the copy approach. We utilize GA to examine the quantity of cluster heads and picking out the best ones. Every chromosome consists of a sequence of bits in which each bit is represented as a sensor node that can be zero or 1. Indexes of the chromosome are the
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nodes id. The existence of 1 within the index of the chromosome signifies that node i is a cluster head and 0 way that the corresponding node is best a member of a cluster.
a) Sum of the cluster Heads Distance (SHD) to base station: SHD is the sum of all cluster heads from the base station and is defined as Equation (1):
SHD = ∑ Where k is the number of cluster heads and Deni is the density of the cluster head i. C) Sum of the cluster Heads Centrality (SHC): When a couple of neighbor nodes have the equal density parameter, the node on the center is the first-class alternative to be the cluster head. SHC is the sum of centrality of cluster heads.
SHC = ∑ In Equation (3) k is the quantity of cluster heads and Centi is the centrality of cluster head i.
D) Sum of the cluster Heads Residual vigour (SHRE): As cluster heads acquire extra packets and transmit them to long distance than member nodes, these nodes with a excellent residual power are higher choices to grow to be cluster heads. We define SHRE as sum of the residual vigour of the cluster heads.
SHRE = ∑ In Equation (4) k is the number of cluster heads and REi is the residual energy of cluster head i.
Fitness function uses all the explained parameters to evaluate the goodness of each chromosome, Equation (5).
1SHD2 SHC 3 3 (5)
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Where coefficients are initialized first and then updated as Equation (6),
Wc= (6)
are the previous and current and coefficients, and
the fitness values of the previous and current best
Wp are Wc
Chromosomes respectively.
Particle Swarm Optimization
Particle swarm optimization is likely one of the present day population centered evolutionary optimization procedures which are headquartered on the behaviors of chicken flocking and fish education [11]. PSO is based on this scenario: there is a staff of birds (fish) who search for meals without abilities in regards to the designated position of it but, they know the way some distance it's. Each bird (particle) will also be instructed about its first-class prior role and the excellent earlier position of all different birds and complies with these two positions. In PSO, each solution (particle) behaves like a fowl within the search area. Every particle has a speed too, which shows the course of its flying and also has a health that shows how just right this particle is. This health is calculated with the aid of a operate. PSO initializes the populace by means of randomly generated solutions and saves the best-discovered role via all of the particles and the finely observed function by means of particles in iterations. A-abilities resolution may also be executed via the particle who updates its role and speed centered.
= w * Vi(t) + c1 *
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Vi(t+1) rand1() * (Pi – Xi(t))
+ c2 * rand2() * (Pg – Xi(t))
Xi(t+1) = Xi(t) + Vi(t+1)
The place Xi(t)and Vi(t)are the functions and the pace of article I in the ith new release, respectively, and Pi is the exceptional prior position of particle I and Pg are the satisfactory earlier function of all the particles which were found thus far. W is the inertia component that controls the alternate off between the nearby and world function course. Rand1 () and rand2 are two particle which actually is a clustering.
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS
This paper proposed a hybrid GA-PSO based clustering algorithm that improved the lifetime of WSN effectively. We utilized GA to decide on the cluster heads and their quantity and PSO to decide upon the clusters’ participants. Simulation outcome showed that this process used to be much better than traditional LEACH and Genetic algorithm clustering process.
Additional investigations may just comprise the usage of other shrewd algorithms as an alternative of PSO. Also, information aggregation tree may be developed in WSN which presents higher outcome in energy consumption when compared with clustering.
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References
1. I.F.Akyildiz, W.Su, Y.Sankarasubramaniam, E.Cayirci,“Wireless sensor networks: a survey”, Computer Networks 38, pp. 393 422, 2002.
2. Tatiana Bokareva, Wen Hu, SalilKanhere, ”Wireless Sensor Networks for Battlefield Surveillance”, Land Warfare Conference Brisbane, October 2006.
3. Werner Allen, G. Johnson, J. Ruiz, ”Monitoring volcanic eruptions with a wireless sensor network “, Proceedings of the Second European workshop on Wireless Sensor Network,2005.
4. Junguo Zhang, Wenbin Li, Zhongxing Yin, Shengbo Liu, XiaolinGuo, “Forest fire detection system based on wireless sensor network “, 4th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, 2009.
5. Lee Angeles, Talampas Sison, “MotesArt: Wireless Sensor Network for Monitoring Relative Humidity and Temperature in an Art Gallery “, IEEE International Conference on networking, sensing and control,.ICNSC 2008.
6. D. Goldberg, B. Karp, Y. Ke, S. Nath, and S. Seshan. Genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning. AddisonWesley, 1989.
7. SajidHussain, Obidul Islam, AbdulWaseyMatin, “Genetic algorithm for energy efficient clusters in wireless sensor networks.”
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TO ANALYSE & OPTIMIZE THE DISTORTION OF TWO DISSIMILAR METALS STAINLESS STEEL & MILD STEEL USING TAGUCHI TECHNIQUE
Narender Kumar Mr. Krishan Kumar Univ.Roll No:7257265 Assistant Professor Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Dept. of Mechanical Engineering M.R.K. Institute of Engineering & M.R.K. Institute of Engineering & Technology, Saharanwas,Rewari Technology, Saharanwas,Rewari
Abstract
Distortion and residual stresses are two major perennial problems faced by fabrication engineers. The change of shape and dimensions that occur after welding is termed as distortion, leading to various undesirable consequences. So there exists a necessity to control distortion within limits. When distortion exceeds acceptable limits, correction of distortion after the complete fabrication results in major reworking operation that consumes both fabrication time and cost. Distortion control in complex structures has always been a challenge to fabrication engineers, especially to those dealing with ship structures, machinery constructions, railroad, aerospace, pressure vessels, pipes and automotive etc. In order to deal with this problem, it is necessary to predict the specific type and amount of distortion resulting from the welding operations.
In this study, the Taguchi’s method of four factors and two levels (L8 array) has been used to develop mathematical model to correlate angular distortion in TIG welding. The distortion is found to be significantly influenced by welding current, time gap between successive passes, electrode diameter and length of the work piece. A mathematical equation is developed relating the distortion with various parameters. .
Angular distortion decreases with the increase the length in the design
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range of parameters.With the increases in diameters of electrodes, the angular distortion increases within the design range of parameters.Angular distortion decreases with the increases in time gap between successive passes in the design range of parameters.With the increase in current, the angular distortion increases in the design range of parameters.The process parameter current has the highest effect on angular distortion in TIG welding.Within the design range of parameters, the least effect on angular distortion is found by diameter of electrode.
The angular distortion is minimum when the length of plate is 135, electrode diameter is 1.5 mm, time between successive passes is 7, and welding current is 80 amp.
INTRODUCTION
Distortion and residual stresses are two major perennial problems faced by fabrication engineers. The change of shape and dimensions that occur after welding is termed as distortion, leading to various undesirable consequences. So there exists a necessity to control distortion within limits. When distortion exceeds acceptable limits, correction of distortion after the complete fabrication results in major reworking operation that consumes both fabrication time and cost. Distortion control in complex structures has always been a challenge to fabrication engineers, especially to those dealing with ship structures, machinery constructions, railroad, aerospace, pressure vessels, pipes and automotive etc. In order to deal with this problem, it is necessary to predict the specific type and amount of distortion resulting from the welding operations.
In such structures, butt-joints are very common. The angular tilt is predominant in these types of joints. To arrive at an appropriate control method, an in-depth analysis of the shape change deformation behavior of the component and the key factors that influence the
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distortion are essential. This angular distortion is mainly caused by the non-uniform extension and contraction through thickness direction due to the temperature gradient. Restriction of this distortion by restraints may lead to higher residual stresses. However, if the magnitude of the angular distortion is predictable, these can be reduced by providing initial angular distortion in the negative direction. It is difficult to obtain a complete analytical solution to predict angular distortion that may be reliable over a wide range of processes, materials and process control parameters.
In this study, the Taguchi’s method of four factors and two levels (L8 array) has been used to develop mathematical model to correlate angular distortion in TIG welding. The distortion is found to be significantly influenced by welding current, time gap between successive passes, electrode diameter and length of the work piece. A mathematical equation is developed relating the distortion with various parameters. Effects of these process parameters are also analyzed and presented in the graphical form.
Literature Review
A review of optimization parameter of TIG welding joint of dissimilar metals has been reported in the literature. The literature review has been taken from books, research papers and articles related to parameters optimization of TIG welding joint for dissimilar ( stainless steel & mild steel) metals. The review is based upon extensive research in the academic literature. The proposed method specifically accommodate for parameters optimization of TIG welding joint for dissimilar metal.
2.1 Review of the Existing Literature
To identify the new field of research work, and to know the state-of-the-art, extensive literature is collected in all the diverse fields of parameters optimization of TIG welding joint on stainless steel and
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mild steel.
2.2 Objectives of present work
1 To study various types welding methods and TIG welding to join dissimilar metals.
2 To study various welding parameters to analyze the effects on metals by TIG welding and parameters on angular distortion while welding of dissimilar materials using TIG.
3 To Develop a mathematical model for TIG welding parameters affecting angular distortion of welded joint by TIG.
4 To Optimize the various parameters affecting angular distortion with TIG welding of dissimilar metals. Experimental Procedure
The experiments were conducted on mild steel and stainless steel plates of size 100 x 75 x 8 mm and 125 x 75 x 8 mm plates as par the design matrix . A 30o V- grove was made on each plate so as to make butt joint. Each plates should be clean from the rust or burrs. Cleaned plate was welded employing an electrode positive polarity. Weld beads were deposited in the V- groove using Stainless steel wire. The plates were cleaned mechanically to remove oxide layer and any other source of hydrogen, before welding. Weld bead were deposited using a Tungsten inert gas (TIG) machine to ensure the reproducibility of the data.
The complete sets of eight trials were performed to determine the variation in optimization parameters for the model. The experiments were performed in a random order to avoid any systematic error. The work limits of the parameters are selected as:
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Table 2.1: Limits of the process parameters
Parameters Symbols Units Limits Low(-1) High(+1) Length L Mm 100 125 Dia. D Mm 1.5 2 Time between T min. 0 5 passes Welding C Amp 70 90 Current
As per Taguchi experimental design philosophy a set of two levels assigned to each process parameter has two degree of freedom (DOF). This gives a total of 4 degree of freedom for the process parameters selected in this work. The nearest two level orthogonal array available satisfying the criterion of selecting OA is L8. For each trial in the L8 array, the levels of process parameters are indicated in Table 2.1.
Fig 2.1Tungsten arc welding Set Up Fig 2.2Tungsten arc welding process
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Fig 2.3 Photograph showing angular distortion during experiment
Fig.2.4Measuring of angular distortion with dial gauge
Results and Discussions
The TIG experiments were conducted by using the parametric approach of the Taguchi method. The effects of individual TIG process parameters, on the selected quality characteristic – angular distortion have been discussed in this section. The average value and S/N ratio of the response characteristics for each variable at different levels were
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calculated from experimental data. The response curves (main effects) are used for examining the parametric effects on the response characteristics. The Analysis of Variance and S/N data is carried out to identify the significant variables and to quantify their effects on the response characteristics. The most favourable values (optimal settings) of process variables in terms of mean response characteristics are established by analyzing the response curves and ANOVA tables.
Design array with experimental values of distortion
Table 3.1: Design Matrix with Distortion Values
S.no L D T c S/N Distortion Ratio
1 100 1.5 0 90 7.235 0 -17.1888
2 100 1.5 5 70 3.6240 -11.1838
3 100 2.0 0 70 5.6710 -15.0732
4 100 2.0 5 90 6.9130 -16.7933
5 125 1.5 0 70 4.1690 -12.4006
6 125 1.5 5 90 4.6210 -13.2947
7 125 2.0 0 90 6.3310 -16.0294
8 125 2.0 5 70 3.8450 -11.6979
Mathematical model
Assuming a linear relation between distortion and various parameters, the mathematical relation between them can be assumed of the form:
……………(a) = + + + + The above equation is a general linear equation with four variables.
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From the regression analysis, we got the values for the above coefficients as:
Table 3.2: Calculated values of Coefficients
Serial No. Coefficient Values of Coefficient
1 b0 0.37
2 b1 -0.0448
3 b2 1.56
4 b3 -0.220
5 b4 0.0974
Thus our return equation becomes:
= . − . + . − . + . (5.1) By putting the values of various parameters, we found the theoretical values of the distortion for various set of design parameters.
Regression Results
Predictor Coef SE Coef T P
Constant 0.375 1.994 0.19 0.863
L -0.04477 0.01139 -3.93 0.029
D 1.5555 0.5697 2.73 0.072
T -0.22015 0.05697 -3.86 0.031
C 0.09739 0.01424 6.84 0.006
S = 0.402822 R-Sq = 96.6% R-Sq(adj) = 92.0%
Table 3.3: Analysis of Variations
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Source DF SS MS F P
Regression 4 13.7260 3.4315 21.15 0.016
Residuals Error 3 0.4868 0.1623
Total 7 14.2128
DF – degree of freedom, SS – sum of squares, MS – mean square (Variance), F – ratio of variance of a source to variance of error, P <0.05 – determines significance of a factor at 95% confidence level.
By calculating values of distortion from mathematical model (eq. 5.1):
Distortion can be calculated by putting the values of l, d, t and c in the mathematical model (eq. 5.1).For example, putting values from first experiment,
Table 3.4: Calculated values and observed values of angular distortion
D1 D2 Observed values of Calculated values Angular distortion of Angular distortion
7.235 6.99612
3.624 3.94762
5.671 5.82612
6.913 6.67313
4.169 3.92912
4.621 4.77613
6.331 6.65463
3.845 3.60613
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D 0.37 0.0448*100 1.56*1.5 0.220*0 0.097 *70 6.99612o The variation of calculated values of distortion with the experimental values can be seen in a scatter plot of between the two. Such scatter plot is shown below.
The validity of the proposed model can be judged from the scatter diagram given in figure 3.1.The calculated values using the proposed values have been plotted on X-axis and the observed values have been taken on Y-axis. It is evident from the scatter diagram that almost all the points are close to 450 line.
Figure 3.1: Scatter diagram for Angular distortion between observed and calculated values
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Main Effects Plot for Means Data Means
l d 6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0 s n
a 4.5 e M
f 100 125 1.5 2.0 o
n t c a 6.5 e M 6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
0 5 70 90 Fig.3.2 Main Effect Plot for Means
The main effects plot for means is shown in the above figure. From above we can see that the angular distortion decreases with the increase in length of the work piece and increase in time between the successive passes. And it increases with the increase in diameter of welding road and increase in welding current. Individual effects of different factors are discussed further.
Table 5.5: Response Table for Means
Level l D T C
1 5.861 4.912 5.851 4.327
2 4.741 5.690 4.751 6.275
Delta 1.119 0.778 1.101 1.948
Rank 2 4 3 1
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Main Effects Plot for SN Ratios
Main Effects Plot for SN ratios Data Means
l d
-13
-14 s o i -15 t a r
N -16 S
100 125 1.5 2.0 f o
t c n a
e -13 M -14
-15
-16 0 5 70 90 Signal-to-noise: Smaller is better Fig.3.3 Main Effects Plot for SN ratios
In the main effects plot, if the line (represents the grand mean of S/N ratios with respect to response) for a particular parameter is nearly horizontal, the parameter has no significant effect. The highest average S/N ratio defines the optimal level for that parameter. Therefore, the optimal parameters for our welding test are 125 mm for length, 1.5mm for electrode diameter, 5 minutes for time between passes and 70 amp for welding current. On the other hand, a parameter for which the line has the largest slope has the most significant effect. It is clear from above that c (welding current) is the most significant parameter while parameter d (electrode diameter) is least significant.
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Table 5.6: Response Table for Signal to Noise Ratios
Level l D t C
1 -15.06 -13.52 -15.17 -12.59
2 -13.36 -14.90 -13.24 -15.83
Delta 1.70 1.38 1.93 3.24
Rank 3 4 2 1
The ranks indicate the relative importance of each factor to the response. The ranks and the delta values for various parameters show that welding current has the greatest effect on angular distortion and is followed by time between successive passes. Angular distortion follows “smaller is better” type of quality characteristic.
Figure 3.4: Effect of change inlength (l) on Angular distortion
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As shown in figure 3.4, the angular distortion decreases from 5.870 to 4.760 with the increase in length of the plate (l) from 100 to 125. This shows direct effect of length on angular distortion(D). From this, it is clear that the D decreases with increase in l. This may be due to the reason that the increased weight of the work piece acts as self restraint and opposes the distortion.
Figure 3.5: Effect of electrode diameter (d) on Angular distortion
It can observed be from the figure 3.5 that angular distortion increases from 4.940 to 5.700 with the increase in diameter of electrode from 1.5 mm to 2 mm. It is due to the fact that with the increase in the size, more amount of metal is deposited in the V-groove. As the diameter increases the heat input increases. Due to this increased heat input, the distortion increases.
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Figure 3.6: Effect of time b/w passes (t) on Angular distortion
It can observed be from the Figure 3.6 that angular distortion decreases from5.860 to 4.760 with the increase in time gap from 0 min to 5 min. It is clear that D decreases with increase in t. When t is longer more heat is lost by the plate and the plate temperature is lower as compared to that when t is less. So some of the heat applied to the plate during the next pass will be utilize in pre heating the plate. Hence the net heat added to the plate is less compared to when the plate temperature is high.
When t is longer, a large amount of heat is lost by the plate and the temperature is lower compared to when t is shorter. So, the heat applied to the plate during the next pass will result in a marginal rise in temperature of the plate, and hence, D is less.
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Figure 3.7: Effect of current (c) on Angular distortion
It can observed be from the figure 3.7 that angular distortion increases from 4.350 to 6.27 with the increase in current from 70 amps to 90 amps. It is clear that D increases with increase in c.This is due to the fact that with the increase in current the heat input also increases which results in increased distortion.
Conclusions
The following conclusions were arrived in the above investigation:
1. The Taguchi’s design of orthogonal arrays can be employed easily in order to developing mathematical model for optimizing the distortion within the workable region on the workpiece of the control parameters like length of workpiece, diameter of electrodes, times gap between successive passes & welding current in Tungsten arc welding.
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2. Angular distortion decreases with the increase the length in the design range of parameters.
3. With the increases in diameters of electrodes, the angular distortion increases within the design range of parameters.
4. Angular distortion decreases with the increases in time gap between successive passes in the design range of parameters.
5. With the increase in current, the angular distortion increases in the design range of parameters.
6. The process parameter current has the highest effect on angular distortion in TIG welding.
7. Within the design range of parameters, the least effect on angular distortion is found by diameter of electrode.
8. The angular distortion is minimum when the length of plate is 135, electrode diameter is 1.5 mm, time between successive passes is 7, and welding current is 80 amp.
0 9. The optimum value of angular distortion is 2.828 . Scope for future Work
When it comes to the scope for future work, it is mandatory to talk the following points:
1. Only four parameters were considered here to assume all other factors constant. The other parameters can also be considered for optimization of distortion in various welding like wire feed rate, welding speed, welding voltage (amp.) etc.
2. The experiment can also be done on different materials like Aluminum and Stainless steel and other dissimilar metals, to analyze their effects and to optimization distortion in various process.
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3. Distortion can also be optimized in other processes like MIG, Submerged arc welding, electric arc, Electro slag welding etc.
References
1 Patel Ujjval Arvindbhai, U.J. Patel, Dr. V.B. Patel, Dr. P.H. Shah (2015) Optimization of Process Parameter in MIG Welding Process on Dissimilar Material By Using Artificial Neaural Network International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 11- 13
2 Yellappa, B. E., Satyamurthy, B, G., & Puneet. (2014). Studies On The Effect Of Electrode Extension And Process Parameters On. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 3, 333- 339.
3 Tamrin, K. F., Nukman, Y., & Zakariyah, S. S. (2013). Laser Lap Joining of Dissimilar Materials: A Review of Factors Affecting Joint Strength. Materials and Manufacturing Processes , 857- 871.
4 Li, C., Chen, M., Yuan, S., & Liu, L. (2012). Effect of Welding Speed in High Speed Laser-TIG Welding of Magnesium Alloy. Materials and Manufacturing Processes , 1424-2428.
5 Tseng, K.-H., & Hsu, C.-Y. (2011). Performance of activated TIG process in austenitic stainless steel welds. Journal of Materials Processing Technology , 503-512.
6 Do-Hyun, P., Chen, M., Yuan, S., & Liu, L. (2009). An Investigation for Introducing Welding Imperfection in Elastic- plastic Large Deformation Analysis. Transactions of JWRI, 38, 87-93.
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7 Vural, M., Muzafferogl, H., & Tapic, U. (2007). The effect of welding fixtures on welding distortions. Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering , 211-514.
8 Cheng, P., Birnbaum, A. J., & Yao, Y. L. (2006). Correction of butt-welding induced distortions by laser forming. Transactions of NAMRI/SME, 34, 579-586.
9 Murgan, V. V., & Gunaraj, V. (2005). Effects of process parameters on Angular Distortion of Gas Metal arc welded steel structural steel plates. American welding society and Welding research council , 166-172.
10 Tseng, K., & Chou, C. (2003). The study of nitrogen in argon gas on the angular distortion of austenitic stainless steel weldments. Journal of Materials Processing Technology , 139-144.
11 Vanli, O. A., & Michaleris, P. (2001). Distortion Analysis of Welded Stiffeners. Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, 307 Reber Building, Pennsylvania State University , 1-37.
12 Michaleris, P., Dantzig, J., & Tortorelli, D. (1999). Minimization of Welding Residual Stress and Distortion in large structure. Supplement of The Welding Journal , 361-366.
13 Cui, W., & Mansour, A. E. (1998). Effects of welding distortions and residual stresses on the ultimate strength of long rectangular plates under uniaxial compression. Marine Structures , 251-269.
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MULK RAJ ANAND’S UNTOUCHABLE AND NARENDRA JADHAV’S OUTCASTE: A MEMOIR- A CRITICAL EVALUATION
Dr.V. Hanumanthaiah Principal Veda and Sanskrit College Nellore
The essence of literature is to attain immortality with a strong base of humanism. An artist or a scholar can build a citadel of peace and beauty on this earth by skillfully blending the literary and human values together with visible thread of love towards mankind.
The Dalit literature emerges from the relationship of domination - sub-ordination, involving the command of sacred texts and is centered on the notion of untouchability. This paper attempts a comparative study of Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable(1935) and another text of the same genre, Outcaste : A Memoir (2003) an autobiographical novel by Narendra Jadhav an exuberant Marathi Dalit novelist of India of the day. It seeks to examine the similarities of a shared concern expressed by both the writers. The focus of the two text books is on depicting the real troubled lives of the suppressed, depressed, and oppressed Indians.
India, the cradle of an ancient civilization, is now beset with a number of social evils. They are so numerous that one shudders to think of them. True, some social reformers had fought against social evils but these were so deep rooted, that try as they did, some of them persist to this day.
Discriminatory and cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment of a vast global population has been justified on the basis of caste and this is faithfully reflected in the two novels. Over 250 million people
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worldwide continue to suffer under what is often a hidden apartheid of segregation, modern day slavery and other extreme forms of discrimination, exploitation and violence. Anand says that the novel Untouchable poured out ‘like hot lava from the volcano of my crazed imagination’.
Untouchable provides a most comprehensive outlook on the evils of the society. It seeks to stress on the evils of untouchability by focusing attention on the miserable plight, suffering, poverty, degradation and exploitation of the outcastes, who from a large section of the Indian Hindu society. The novel still remains a social document of relevance even today vide some recent atrocities being committed on ‘Harijans’ by caste Hindu.
The novel begins with a description of the outcastes’ colony- a group of mud walled houses outside the town, a concrete symbol of the age old traditional practice of untouchability, a startling picture of the conditions in which untouchables live. Altogether the ramparts of human and animal refuse that lay on the outskirts of this little colony and the ugliness the squalor and the misery which lay within it made it an uncongenial place to live in.
As Narendra Jadhav says in his Outcaste: A Memoir, “Every sixth human being in the world is an Indian, and every sixth Indian is an erstwhile untouchable, or Dalit. Today there are 165 Million Dalits (nearly more than half the population of the United States) and they continue to suffer under India’s 3500 year old caste system, which remains a stigma on humanity”. Hindus believe that God created the caste system according to Lord Krishna’s “chatur varnayam maya srishtam” etc in the “Bhagavad Gita”.
Outcaste: A Memoir is a multilayered personalized saga of the social metamorphosis of Dalits in the context of the social movement led by Ambedkar. At one level, it is a loving tribute from a son to his
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father. At another, it gives an intelligent appraisal of the caste in India and traces the story of the awakening of Dalits traversing three generations.
Jadhav is good at helping us understand the power of Globalization and stands as an inspirational figure to those who had read or heard the remarkable story of his family’s struggle for justice, equity and equality in India.
Written in the first person, at times from the perspective of Narendra Jadhav’s parents, Damu and Sonu, and at other times, from his own, the book traces the remarkable Journey of Damu from a small village Ozar in Maharashtra to the city of Mumbai so as to escape and flee from persecution at his native village.
Firstly Outcaste: A Memoir is the story of a Dalit family and it was written by a Dalit author and therefore, it may be called an authentic Dalit text. Secondly, the story of this Dalit family is different from the Indian family stories that deal with the stories of Brahmins, upper caste.
In his Author’s note, Narendra Jadhav describes Damu, the central character of the Memoir as follows:
“Damu was not a leader… but he refused to define himself by circumstances and aimed shaping his own destiny. Damu had no formal education… yet he steered his children to educational heights and inculcated in them the spirit of excellence. Damu was not a Guru … but he taught his children to believe in themselves and reclaim human dignity. Damu was often humbled … yet he maintained, Goats are sacrificial offerings, not lions. Damu was an ordinary man, they said…but he did an extraordinary thing: he stood up against the tyranny of the caste system”. (p. XI, XII).
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These lines are self explanatory. Damu keeps doing his yeskar duties (Village duties for Mahars) in his native village, Ozar. Running in front of the Mamledar, a senior revenue official, Damu announces the latter’s arrival. Later Damu is ordered to guard the dead body of a woman found floating in a well. He is not allowed going home to inform his wife and to have his food. He is for no fault of his, abused, insulted and forced to stay near the well entire night.
The next morning Fauzdar (a police officer) arrives and orders Damu to get into the well to draw the corpse out. Damu refuses to do so under the pretext that he is not supposed to touch the body of an upper caste woman. He is then beaten up by the Fauzdar for refusing to obey his orders.
In Untouchable, Baka, the son of Lakha, has to keep on receiving the abuses, insults and rebukes where he should have in fact received rewards and this is as it should be merely based on the caste discrimination meted out by caste Hindus. The unintentional casual touch of a low-caste person like Baka attracts a big crowd and he soon becomes the centre of recrimination from several, on-lookers listening to the abuses made by the caste Hindu in a bombarding manner as follows:
“Keep to the side of the road, Oh! Low-caste vermin… why don’t you call, you swine, and announce your approach! Do you know you have touched me lock-eyed son of a bow legged scorpion. Now I have to go and take a bath to purify myself. And it was a new Dhoti and shirt I put in this morning” (Untouchable, P.40).
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I n contrast, Damu is stubborn and determined, when his cousins have reminded him that he is violating the age old tradition of yeskar duty; he rebels against the traditions saying:
“I spit on these in human traditions. I am not going to abide by such tradition. I am a man of dignity and I will not go from house to house begging for Baluta. What are all of you going to do? Kill me?”(Untouchables, p.10).
Thus, Damu who shaped his own destiny and that of his children through education is a rebel against ‘the caste system’. He believed in himself and declared that he is the master of his own will. What is striking here is the construction of Damu as an autonomous individual who carved out a life of his own.
Jadhav, son of Damu, thus stands out as a successful person who cleverly manages to get out of the oppressive conditions of Mahar life. Jadhav and his daughter Apoorva too acknowledge that they ‘belong’ to the Mahar community and yet distinguish themselves from it.
Outcaste argues for a universal identity. Let me quote Jadhav’s self-description to make this point clear:
“Yes, I do come from the Mahar caste. Yes, my father was an illiterate lowly employee doing menial jobs to earn a square meal for the family. Yes, my forefathers were untouchables. Yes my forefathers were required to wear clay pots around their necks to keep their spit from polluting the ground, and brooms were tied to their rumps to obliterate their footprints as they walked. Yes, as village servants, my forefathers were mercilessly forced to run… human pilots,
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foaming at the mouth under the scorching sun, to herald the carriages of government officials. So What? Have I not reclaimed my dignity through my achievements? Why should the caste into which I was born count now?”(Outcaste: A Memoir, p.207)
Jadhav is recognized by the fact that he is judged on the basis of his origins. The untouchable Mahar family, in a span of three generations, becomes ‘normal people’. This is a claim that Jadhav makes repeatedly; in his book and interviews. He insists that the process of globalization and the new speciality it represents is central to this transformation of untouchables into ‘normal people’.
Thus, we find in Damu’s rise a qualitative transformation of the Dalits ascending the social ladder through means of Education as the empowering tool in Narendra Jadhav’s Outcaste. This is in sharp contrast with Bakha’s resigned fate of total submission and yielding as delineated in Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable. As is Munoo of Coolie, who also shows no upward rise and who soon dies of consumption.
Mulk Raj Anand though belonging to the upper stratum of Hindu society in British India has great empathy as well as sympathy for down trodden Outcastes of society for their miserable, pitiable and unredeemed (If not unredeemable) plight. In spite of this and also despite the seeds of social revolutionary ideology propagated by the social reformers such as Rajaramohan Ray etc., Anand’s characters at best remain as little more than types that are almost static with no spirit of adventure that may improve their lot.
Interestingly Narendra Jadhav’s father, Damu has the great advantage of an urban mindset being gradually transformed by men such as Mahatma Jyoterao Pule and B.R. Ambedkar. Strikingly, Ambedkar’s great inspiring influence has directly benefited the Dalits
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help transform their lives by a revolutionary leap upward in the social ladder through a mindset influenced by Baba Sahib’s ideas motivating them. This is very true in the urban context of post independent India. However, it must be noted that the Chairman of the Constitution Draft Committed, Dr. Ambedkar has done much to advance the interests of the Dalits and made it possible for them assert their individuality and register their might and intellect to contribute to the development of the country. This aspect is clearly and unmistakably shown by Damu who perhaps is no other than Jadhav himself.
Also noticeable is the rise of a new generation that had sprung from out of the sacrificial ashes of adventurous spirits such as Jadhav’s father, Damu who had taken the right step of leaving his native village for good thus freeing himself from of the shackles of an age old caste system that keeps on oppressing the Dalits forever. Thus, Narendra Jadhav protests and falls out so as to free himself from off the shackles of the past. Also noteworthy is where as Mulk Raj Anand’s rendering is from an impartial stand point of a sympathetic outsider, Jadhav’s is an authentic first person, autobiographical account of pre generations, registering upward social movement through the passage of time. References
1. Ambedkar, B.R. Annihilation of Caste: Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches. Ed. Vasant Moon. Bombay : Department of Education, Govt. of Maharashtra, 1989. Print. 2. Anand, Mulk Raj Untouchable, New Delhi, Arnold Publications: 1981 3. Jadhav, Narendra. Untouchables : My Family’s Triumphant Journey out of the Caste System in Modern India. New Delhi : Penguin Books Pvt Ltd, 1993. Print 4. ------Outcaste : A Memoir. New Delhi : Penguin Books Pvt Ltd, 2003. Print. 5. Iyengar, K.R. Srinivasa. Indian Writing in English. New Delhi : Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1985. Print.
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FUZZY INTERSECTION AND DIFFERENCE MODEL FOR IDENTIFICATION OF TOPOLOGICAL RELATION BETWEEN TWO FUZZY REGION
H.C. Chamuah B.C. Chetia Research Scholar Principal Dibrugarh University North Lakhimpur Dibrugarh, Assam, India College,(Autonomous) Lakhimpur Assam, India
Abstract
In this paper a theoretical framework for modelling topological relations between fuzzy region based upon the Fuzzy Intersection and Difference (FID) Model is provided. A new topological model is formalized based on a Fuzzy Topological Space (FTS). To obtain fuzzy topological relations between two fuzzy spatial objects the fuzzy spatial object (A) is decomposed in four components the Interior, the Interior’s Boundary, the object’s Boundary, and the exterior’s Boundary of A. By using FID a qualitative model for the identification are proposed in topological relation between two simple fuzzy regions. Some examples are illustrated to show the use of these two models presented in this paper with results which can be applied for modelling GIS and geospatial database.
Key words: GIS, Fuzzy Intersection and Difference Model, 4*4 Intersection Matrix, Fuzzy Objects, Topological Relations.
1.Introduction :
Topological relations play an important role in GIS modelling since they are the basis for spatial modelling spatial query, analysis and reasoning. To identify the topological relations between spatial objects is a critical point in GIS modelling. Now a days, topological relations have been much investigated in the crisp and Fuzzy topological space. The well known 4- intersection approach described in [1,2] as well as
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the 9- intersection approach as discussed in [3] and the Intersection and Difference (ID) model studied in [4,5,6], were proposed to formalize topological relation between two simple regions in the crisp topological space (CTS). The 4- intersection model is extended in [7] to deal with the topological relations between spatial objects with holes. Geographical phenomena in GIS with uncertain boundaries can be modelled by regions with Broad Boundaries (BBRS) as in [8]. A region with broad boundary is an extension of a region with a crisp boundary refer to simple regions with holes as in [7] objects with broad boundaries as defined in [8] are spatial objects, whose crisp boundaries as defined in [8] are spatial objects, whose crisp boundaries are replaced by an area expressing the boundary’s uncertainly. The 9- intersection model is extended in [9] to describe, topological relations between BBRS by replacing the crisp boundary in the 9- intersection with the broad boundary.
More recently fuzzy spatial objects have been emphasized since there are spatial features which are not always crisp. Fuzzy spatial objects are those with indeterminate boundaries. For fuzzy boundaries that is boundaries that are by nature not crisp, the broad boundary represents their minimum and maximum extent.
In order to derive the topological relations between fuzzy spatial objects, the 9- intersection approach was updated into the 3*3- intersection approach in the fuzzy topological space [1], [2]. Further more, in these works, a 4*4 intersection matrix was built up by using the topological properties of fuzzy sets.
2. Fuzzy Topological Space (FTS).
Let X be a non empty ordinary set and I= [0,1], ∂ ⊂ ,∂ is called a I-fuzzy topology on X, and ( , ∂), is called I- fuzzy topological space (I-fts), if ∂ satisfies the following conditions: (i)0,1 ∊ ∂ ;
(ii)If A,B ∊ δ, then A ∧ B∊∂.
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(iii Let { A : i J } A i ∊ ⊂ ∂, where J is an index set, then ˅ ∈ i∈∂.
Where 0 ∊ ∂ means the empty set and 1 ∊ ∂ means the whole set X.
The elements in ∂ are called open elements and the elements in the component of ∂´ are called closed elements and the set of the complement of open set is denoted by ∂´. 2.1 Definition
For any fuzzy set A, we define .
(i)The interior of A the joining of all the open subsets contained in A, denoted by A˚, i.e A˚ =∨{B∊∂; B≤A} (ii)The closure of A as the meeting of all the closed subsets containing A, denoted by Ā, i.e. Ā=Λ{B∊∂΄ : B≥A} (iii)The exterior of A is the complement of the closure of A. Figure is given below
Figure 2 : indicates the concept of interior ,exterior and boundary of a set. 2.2 Definition:
For any fuzzy set A. We define the complements of A by A΄(x)=1-A(x) 2.3 Definition
The boundary of a fuzzy se A is defined ∂A= Ā Λ Ā´ The above are the commonly used definition of fuzzy topological space, fuzzy interior, fuzzy closure, fuzzy complement and fuzzy boundary .
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The boundary of a subset may also have its interior and its boundary of the boundary. On the other hand, the interior and the closure of a subset also have their boundaries. For example the boundary of the boundary of a fuzzy set is the union of the boundary of the closure and the boundary of the interior of a fuzzy set[14]. i e ∂(∂A)=∂( Ā )∪∂(A˚ ). 3. Some work about Topological Relation Models and Spatial Objects.
Crisp spatial objects have been formally defined in GIS, Point, line and polygon are three primitives in GIS. Fig.1 represent the closure, interior and boundary of a closed disk as crisp spatial objects. [2]. The 4- intersection and 9- intersection matrix are well known approaches to identifying topological relation models between these two spatial objects using the concept of the interior, boundary and exterior.
Closure Interior Boundary
Figure 2 : closure, Interior and Boundary of a Crisp object. By using some topological invariance’s of the intersection such as the empty/non empty contents, the topological relations between two crisp spatial objects can be identified. This approach implies the following facts in CTS : (1) the interior, boundary and the interior of a subset are topological invariants, (2) these topological invariants are mutually disjoint in CTS, and (3) the empty/ non empty contents of these intersections between these three topological parts of two subsets are topological invariants. Then the 4- intersection and 9- intersection models are defined as :
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I (A,B) = A ∩ B A ∩ B 4 ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ I (A,B) = 9 ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ Eight topological relations of the spatial ressoning system (Region Connection calculus) RCC8 (DC, EC, EQ, PO, TPP, TPPi, NTPP and NTPPi;) have been idfentified between two simple regions by using these two models in [2,3].
In ID model [4,5,6], a crisp spatial object is defined by its interior and boundary; two intersection acts are ∩ and ∩ ; two difference sets are A-B and B-A. This model can also distinguish the eigth topological relations.
This crisp topological model is represented by :
ID(A,B) = ∩ − − ∩ The main difference between the 4- intersection model and ID model is that both intersection sets ∩ and ∩ of 4- intersection model are replaced by two difference A-B and B-A.
However, the fact (2) in CTS cannot hold in Fuzzy Topological space (FTS). That means the interior ; the boundary and trhe exterior of a fuzzy set may not be disjoint with each other. Therefore the 4 intersection, 9- intersection and ID models cannot be directly applied for the identification of relations between two fuzzy sets.
The 9- intersection matrix can be formalized as :
∩ ∩ ∩ I (A,B)= 9 ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ The above 3*3 – intersection matrix is derived based on the interior boundary and exterior of a simple fuzzy spatial object. By use
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Figure 3 : Two Fuzzy Spatial objects. In [4], it was shown that fuzzy spatial objects can be decomposed into four parts, the interior, the boundary of the boundary ( ), the interior of the boundry ( ) and the exterior, which are mutually disjoint as in Fig 4.
Closure: definition of a A Simple Fuzzy simple fuzzy region region in reality
Interior of Boundary of Interior Boundary the boundary the boundary
Fig: 4: Interior, Boundary, Interior of the Boundary and Boundary of the Boundary of a simple Fuzzy Region ( After X-Tang and W. Kainz in [14].
Therefore, they introduced a 4*4 intersection matrix between two simple fuzzy spatial objects follows:
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∩ ∩ ∩ ( ) ∩ ⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ( ) ∩ ( ) ∩ ( ) ∩ ( ) ( ) ∩ ⎥ I4*4= ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ( ) ∩ ( ) ∩ ( ) ∩ ( ) ( ) ∩ ⎥ ⎣ ∩ ∩ ∩ ( ) ∩ ⎦ Under certain conditions, 152 relations are identified by using the 4*4 intersection approach (See Apendix 2.in [14])
After investigation about the topological relations between two simple fuzzy regions compared with these models studied in the literature, we can see that some topological relations can’t be identified by these models. Here are some relations presented in fig 5.
Figure 5 : Some of Topological Relations to identify.
The question is how many topological relations are there exactly between two simple fuzzy objects. To answer this question, we will extend the 4- intersection and the ID models with a new definition of the fuzzy boundary for fuzzy regions.
The disadvantage of the 3*3 intersection and 4*4 intersection models is that the intersection operator (∩) is the most expensive one in terms of computation. In order to reduce the computational cost of the 3*3 intersection and 4*4 intersection models; and to reduce the computational complexity by avoiding spatial operations between topological components with different dimensions (1-D and 2-D). We will try to reduce the member of intersection by introducing the difference operator (-).
Finally, the motivation of the paper is Trying to build a topological model for identification of all fuzzy topological relations between two fuzzy regions.
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4. Definition of simple Fuzzy Regions and properties of fuzzy Boundary.
In this section we develop a definition of simple fuzzy region, fuzzy boundary and their properties.
4.1 Definition of Simple Fuzzy Region
A crisp region is defined in CTS correspondingly a fuzzy region should be defined in FTS. Fuzzy region in FTS is defined in a simple way.
A simple fuzzy region is made up of two regions A and A with A A 1 2 1 ⊂ 2 0 0 (See fig 6) where : (1) the interior of A is the interior of A1 A = (A1) and A0 is an open subset and connected; (2) the interior’s boundary of A
is boundary of A as Ai = A , and Ai is a closed subset and 1 ( ) = 1 connected; (3) the boundary of A is A defined as the interior of the difference between as the interior between A and A as A –A ) , 1 2 = ( 2 1 ˚ and is an open subset and connected; (4) the exterior’s boundary of A is the boundary of A as Ae= e( A , and Ae is a closed subset 2 ) = 2 and connected ;and (5) the intersection of all closed sets containing A is
called the closure of A, denoted by Ā . Fig 6 shows four components of simple fuzzy regions.
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Fig 6: Interior, Boundary, Interior Boundary and exteriors Boundary of a simple Fuzzy Region.
With the condition that the interior of the boundary couldn’t be a non empty set, the definition is considered as the decomposition of the boundary in [14] into disjoints subsets such as the interior boundary of the boundary, the exterior boundary of the boundary and the interior of the boundary.
We called the boundary ( A) of A by the fuzzy boundary. This definition of fuzzy regions is very interesting to identify all topological relations between two simple fuzzy regions that models [8,9,14] can’t identify.
That will be proved by 4*4 intersection matrix in the next section. The properties of the fuzzy boundary will also be defined in next part.
4.2 Properties of fuzzy boundary
Let A be a fuzzy set in FTS (X, ). Based on the definition of simple fuzzy regions, we find the properties of the fuzzy boundary ( A) as follows ; (1) A is an open subset of A (2) A= Ø is a non empty ; ¬ subset; (3) the boundary of A ( A) is the interior of the difference A 0 e =( - ) between the exterior’s boundary (A ) and the interiors i boundary (A ) of A; (4) the union ∪ ∪ of the interiors boundary ( ), the boundary ( ) and the exteriors boundary ( ) of A is a closed subset of A, (5) the interior boundary of the boundary ( A)ofA ( A) i 0 i = A = (A ) is the interior boundary (A ); and (6) the exterior boundary
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0f the boundary ( A) of A ( A) = = (A) is the exterior’s boundary( ) .
i We also find that the intersections between A˚, A , , are .respectively always empty and the union of these parts is equal to A as
follows: ∩ = ∅; ∩ = ∅; ∩ = ∅ ; ∩ ∩ ∩ = ∅ ;
and ∪ ∪ ∪ = . It also can be easily proven by the above intersections that the interior
0 i (A ), the interior’s boundary (A ), the boundary and the exterior’s boundary (Ae) of a simple fuzzy region (A) are mutually disjoint.
In order to identify all possible topological relations, the condition of the mutual disjointness of these four parts of simple fuzzy regions is important to propose and construct a new method to form the intersection matrix. In the next section, a new 4*4 – intersection matrix and fuzzy intersection and difference model are proposed based upon this definition of simple fuzzy region.
5. Contribution : 4*4 – intersection and Fuzzy Intersection and Difference (FID) Models
In this section, we will develop two models to identify the topological relations between two simple fuzzy regions.
Supposing there are two simple fuzzy objects A and B in the FTS, we adopt the interior, boundary, interior’s boundary, and exterior’s boundary to formalize two new topological models as in the next.
5.1 Contribution 1:4*4 – Intersection Model
In the first contribution, the first model is a new 4*4 – intersection matrix which uses the operator (∩) of intersection. Between these two simple fuzzy spatial regions A and B, the 4*4 – intersection matrix will be as presented in Table 1:
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Table 1: 4*4 – Intersection Matrix
i e ∩ B° B B B
i e A° A°∩ B° A°∩ B A°∩ B A°∩ B
i i i i i i e A A ∩B° A ∩ B A ∩ B A ∩ B
i e A A ∩B° A ∩ B ∩ A ∩ B Ae Ae B° Ae B Ae Be ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ And the 4*4 – intersection model applied to simple fuzzy objects is expressed by the following expression:
∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ I (A,B) = ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ 4*4 ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ This new 4*4- intersection matrix (I4*4) is considered as an extension of the 4-intersection model [1, 2] for simple fuzzy spatial regions.
The intersection operator (∩) is perhaps the most expensive one in terms of computation. In order to reduce the computational cost of this 4*4-intersection model, we will extend this model to the fuzzy intersection and difference model in the next part.
5.2 Contribution 2: Fuzzy Intersection and Difference (FID) Model
In this model, we will introduce the difference operator (-). in order to avoid spatial operations between topological components with
i i e e different dimensions (A°, B°, A, B as 2-D; and A , B , A , B as 1-D), we i e i will replace the intersection between the terms A°∩ B , A°∩ B , A ∩B°, i i e e e A ∩ B, A ∩ B , A ∩B , A ∩B° and A ∩ B in the 4*4- intersection model by the differences as in the matrix (see Table 2).
The four intersections (A°∩B°, A°∩ B, A∩B°, A∩ B) with topological components with dimension 2-D and the four intersections
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i i i e e i e e (A ∩B , A ∩B , A ∩B , A ∩B ) with topological components with dimension 1-D remain unchanged as similar as in [4, 5, 6] for the ID model.
Table 2: 4*4 - Intersection and Difference Matrix
i e ∩ B° B B B -
i i i e A° A°∩ B° A - B A°∩ B A - B A°
i i i i i i i i e i A B - A A ∩ B B - A A ∩ B A Be – Ai
e i e e A A ∩B° A - B A ∩ B A - B A
Ae Bi - Ae Ai - Bi Ai - Be Ai - Be Ae
e i e e e e A ∩ B B - A A ∩ B
By simplification and arrangement of this 4*4 – Intersection and Difference matrix, we obtain two intersection matrices and two difference matrices (Table 3):
Table 3: Intersection and Difference Matrices
∩ ∩
∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩ ∩
− − − − − − − − − −
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At the end, the Fuzzy Intersection and Difference (FID) model is written as follows:
∩ ∩ − − FID ( A,B ) = ∩ ∩ − − 4*4 ∩ ∩ − − ∩ ∩ − − The FID model combines two different operators (intersection and difference). The FID has two advantages: first, it reduces the computational complexity by avoiding spatial operations between
i e topological components with different dimensions, e.g., A°∩ B , A°∩ B , i i i e e e A ∩B°, A ∩ B, A ∩ B , A∩B , A ∩ B° and A ∩ B, with A°, B°, A, i i e B as 2-D, and A , B , A , Be as 1-D; and second, it reduces the computational cost due to only eight intersections in the
matrix of FID model. This FID model is considered as an extension of the ID model [4, 5, 6] for simple fuzzy spatial regions. In general, there are 216= 65536 relations between two fuzzy regions by using the 4*4- intersection matrix and FID model. For GIS applications, some conditions will limit the number of these relations as in [7, 8, 14]. However, how to find all possible topological relations between two simple fuzzy regions needs more investigation. It’s done in the next section for the 4*4-intersection matrix and FID model.
This FID model is considered as an extension of the ID model [4, 5, 6] for simple fuzzy spatial regions. In general, there are 216= 65536 relations between two fuzzy regions by using the 4*4-intersection matrix and FID model. For GIS applications, some conditions will limit the number of these relations as in [7, 8, 14]. However, how to find all possible topological relations between two simple fuzzy regions needs more investigation. It’s done in the next section for the 4*4-intersection matrix and FID model.
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6 Identification of Topological Relations based upon 4*4 - Intersection and FID Models
In this section, we focus on the identification of all fuzzy topological relations between two simple fuzzy regions by 4*4- intersection and FID models. Let A and B be two simple fuzzy regions. For relation identification, each intersection or difference in 4*4- intersection and FID matrices takes value of either empty ( Ø ) or non- empty ( ¬Ø ). Every different set of 4*4- intersection and FID matrices describes a different topological relation. Some values of these two matrices have no sense on the topological relation.
6.1 Identification by 4*4 - Intersection Model
For identification by 4*4-intersection model, by respecting the definition in section 3, we scan all possible configurations for A and B in two different steps as following: (1) If the exterior’s boundary of A
e e intersects with the exterior’s boundary of B ( A ∩ B = ¬Ø ), then, we search all possible topological relations between A and B, we find 105 relations; (2) If the exterior’s boundary of A doesn’t intersect with the
e e exterior’s boundary of B ( A ∩B = Ø ), then, we search all topological relations between A and B, we find 47 relations. The total number of topological relations identified between A and B is 152 relations. Some of these topological relations are not identified and determined in [8, 9, 14]. Here are some examples in Fig .7 and Fig .8.
e e Figure 7: Examples for A ∩B = ¬Ø
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Figure 8: Examples for Ae ∩Be = Ø
The 4*4-intersection matrices correspondent for (1), (2) and (3) in Fig .7, and for (4), (5) and (6) in Fig .8 are given, respectively, by:
ф ф ф ф ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ф ф ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф (1) (2) (3) ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ф ¬ф ф ф ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ф ф ф ф ф ¬ф ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ф ¬ф ф ф (4) (5) (6) ф ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ф¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф We note that the separateness between these relations can’t be realized by other models studied in [8, 14]. In the next part, we will identify all relations by the FID model.
6.2 Identification by FID Model
For identification by FID model, by respecting the definition in section
e e 3, we apply the same two steps in previous part (6.1) for A ∩ B = ¬Ø e e and A ∩B = Ø . 152 topological relations can be identified by using the FID model. These relations identified by FID model is the same relations by 4*4-intersection model. We give some examples in Fig .9 and Fig .10.
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(7) (8) (9)
Figure 9: Examples for ∩ = ͉∅ ͉
(10) (11) (12)
Figure 10: Examples for ∩ = ∅
The FID matrices correspondent to (7), (8) and (9) in Fig .9, and to (10), (11) and (12) in Fig .10 are given, respectively, by:
ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ф ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф (7) (8) (9) ¬ф ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф (10) (11) (12) ¬ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ф ¬ф ¬ф ф ф ф ф ¬ф ф ф ф ¬ф ф ф ф ¬ф ф 8 Conclusion
In this paper, we have proposed a new definition of simple fuzzy spatial region by decomposing the spatial region into four components: interior, interior’s boundary, boundary and exterior’s boundary. Based upon these four components, a 4*4-intersection matrix is introduced to identify all topological relations between two simple fuzzy regions. Then, in order to reduce the computational complexity of the 4*4- intersection model, the Fuzzy Intersection and Difference (FID) model
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is developed based on the 4*4- intersection matrix. The main contribution of this work is these two models 4*4-intersection and FID. 152 fuzzy topological relations can be identified by using the 4*4- intersection and FID models. Among these 152 relations, 100 new relations can’t be discriminated or identified as different relations by other models [8, 9, 14].
Appendix
Some Topological Relations between Two Simple Fuzzy Regions by Using the 4*4-Intersection Model (I4*4 Matrix) and the Fuzzy Intersection and Difference (FID Matrix) Model
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uhjt dqekj “kekZ ih0,p0Mh0 Nk= Mh0oh0,p0ih0,l0 /kkjokM+] dukZaVd
vkt izR;sd O;fDr vk/kqfudj.k dh nkSM+ esa “kkfey gSA vkt lekt izxfr dh vksj vxzlj gSA ge vkt ftl ;qx esa jg jgs gSa] ml ;qx esa izR;sd O;fDr nwljs O;fDr ls vkxs fudy tkus dks rRij gSA O;fDr ds Åij vR;f/kd dk;ZHkkj c<+ jgk gSA c<+rs dk;ZHkkj o HkkxnkSM+ ds dkj.k O;fDr esa fpUrk] ruko] dqaBk] ncko vkfn vusd leL;k;sa mRiUu gks jgh gSaA vkt dk ;qx rduhdh ;qx gS ijUrq c<+rh gqbZ rduhdh o vU; lq[k lqfo/kkvksa ds chp O;fDr Lo;a dks HkkSfrd :i ls rks izlUu eglwl djrk gS] ijUrq vkt O;fDr dh ekufld fLFkfr vR;f/kd fcxM+rh tk jgh gSA O;fDr Lo;a dks ekufld :i ls vlgk; eglwl dj jgk gSA vkt ds nkSj dh O;Lrrk Hkjh ftUnxh esa O;fDr vius O;ogkj esa ifjorZu ykdj vius okrkoj.k ds e/; lUrqyu cuk;s j[kus dk iz;kl djrk gS] ijUrq tc O;fDr lUrqyu cukus esa vleFkZ gks tkrk gS rks og rukoiw.kZ fLFkfr esa vk tkrk gSA tc O;fDr fdlh rukoiw.kZ
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016 esa ikbZ tkrh gSA ,slk ugha gS fd fpUrk flQZ O;Ldksa esa gh ikbZ tkrh gS cfYd ;g ckydksa esa] fd”kksjksa esa] efgykvksa esa] izkS<+ksa esa] lHkh esa ikbZ tkrh gS] ijUrq fpUrk dh ek=k lHkh esa vyx&vyx gksrh gSA fpUrk ds dkj.k fd”kksj vuSfrd dk;ksZa esa layXu gks tkrs gSaA blh fpUrk ds dkj.k fd”kksjksa esa vkRegR;k dh izo`fÙk ikbZ tkrh gSA izsfedk ;k izseh lekt ds Mj dh fpUrk ds dkj.k vkRegR;k dj ysrs gSaA dHkh&dHkh Nk= vuqÙkh.kZ gksus ij lekt ds Mj ls fd lekt mUgsa gs; n`f’V ls ns[ksxk] vkRegR;k dj ysrs gSaA blh fpUrk ds dkj.k fd”kksj ?kj ls Hkkx tkrs gSa ;k vuSfrd dk;ksZa esa layXu gks tkrs gSaA fpUrk dh izo`fÙk fd”kksjksa esa cgqr vf/kd ikbZ tkrh gSA ftldk izHkko muds O;fDrRo ij cgqr vf/kd iM+rk gSA fd”kksjksa esa Mj] vk”kadk;sa o ijs”kkuh dh Hkkouk vf/kd ikbZ tkrh gS vkSj ;s lHkh fpUrk dks mRiUu djrs gSaA ckydksa o fd”kksjksa esa fpUrk cgqr ikbZ tkrh gS ftldk izHkko mudh cqf) ij izHkko iM+rk gSA ckydksa o fd”kksjksa esa ijh{k.k fpUrk vR;f/kd ikbZ tkrh gSA ijh{kk nsus ls iwoZ] ijh{kk nsrs le; o ijh{kk ds ckn Hkh fpUrk lekIr ugha gksrhA ijh{kk nsus ls iwoZ ckydksa esa ijh{kk esa vkus okys iz”uksa dh fpUrk jgrh gSA ftlds dkj.k ijh{kk nsrs le; ckydksa esas
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016 vR;f/kd gM+cM+h ikbZ tkrh gS vkSj bl gM+cM+h ds dkj.k ijh{kk nsrs le; Hkh ckyd fpUrk ls gh xzLr jgrs gSaA ijh{kk nsus ds ckn ckydksa dks vius ifj.kke dh fpUrk gks tkrh gSA ifj.kke vkus ds ckn ckyd vius Hkfo’; ds izfr fpfUrr gks tkrs gSaA ijh{kk fpUrk lHkh Ldwyh] dkWfyt ds Nk=ksa esa lkekU; :i ls ikbZ tkrh gSA fpUrk ds dkj.k mPp cqf) ds fo|kFkhZ Hkh de vad izkIr djrs gSa tcfd ,d lkekU; cqf) dk fo|kFkhZ tks fpfUrr ugha gksrk vPNs vad izkIr djrk gS] D;ksafd fpUrk ds dkj.k fo|kFkhZ dh ekufld fLFkfr esa dbZ cnyko gks tkrs gSa tSls fpUrk ds dkj.k fo|kFkhZ v”kkUr gks tkrk gS vkSj og fo|ky;h dk;ksZa esa viuk eu ugha yxk ikrk gS vkSj u gh viuh ckS[kykgV ds dkj.k i<+kbZ esa Bhd izdkj ls /;ku yxk ikrk gS tcfd ,d vfpfUrr fo|kFkhZ lHkh phtksa dks ldkjkRed n`f’Vdks.k o “kkUr eu ls ns[krk gS vkSj vf/kd miyfC/k vftZr djrk gSA fpUrk dk ckydksa dh cqf) ij vR;f/kd izHkko iM+rk gSA ,d vfpfUrr fo|kFkhZ fo|ky; ds izR;sd dk;Z dks ldkjkRed rjhds ls izlUu gksdj o vkuUn ysdj djrk gS tcfd ,d fpfUrr fo|kFkhZ izR;sd dk;Z dks ckS[kykgV] v”kkUr eu o vleatl dh fLFkfr esa djrk gSA
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www.ijmer.in 171 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016 oLrqxr fpUrk ls Ýk;V dk rkRi;Z ml ckgjh Hk; ls gS tks euq’; dks fpUrk esa Mky nsrk gSA lkekftd fpUrk ls Ýk;V dk rkRi;Z yTtk (Shame) ls gS tks nwljksa ds }kjk fuUnk ,oa vkykspukvksa ls mRiUu gksrh gSA mnkgj.k ds fy, ;fn fdlh e/;oxhZ; O;fDr dh ;qok iq=h fdlh nwljh tkfr ds O;fDr ds lkFk pksjh&fNis Hkkx tk;s rks lEiw.kZ lekt mldh fuUnk djrk gSA bl fpUrk ls O;fDr yfTtr gksrk gS vkSj ;g yTtk fpUrk dk dkj.k cu tkrh gSA og vius dks yTtk ds dkj.k lekt esa eq¡g fn[kkus yk;d ugha le>rk gS vkSj ;g fpUrk mlds O;fDrRo ij fo’ke rFkk izfrdwy izHkko Mkyrh gSA vUr% Hkkouk fpUrk okLro esa ,d izdkj dh vijk/k Hkkouk (Guilt Feeling) gSA O;fDr esa ;g vijk/k Hkkouk ijkge (Super Ego) dh vkykspuk ds dkj.k mRiUu gksrh gSA oLrqxr] lkekftd ,oa vUr% Hkkouk fpUrk okLro esa laosxkRed voLFkk,¡ gh gksrh gSa fdUrq tc dksbZ O;fDr thou dh okLrfodrkvksa ls gVdj fdlh [krjs dks cgqr vf/kd xEHkhj rFkk rhoz le>us yxs rks mlds O;ogkj esa Hkh ifjorZu vkus yxrs gSaA blh voLFkk dks :X.krkfU=d fpUrk dgrs gSaA bl izdkj dh fpUrk esa O;fDr fdlh fujk/kkj ,oa foosdghu Hk; ls ihfM+r gks tkrk gSA bl Hk; dks Qksfc;k dgrs gSaA Qksfc;k O;fDr ds O;ogkj dks vLr&O;Lr dj nsrk gSA
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016 lek/kku djuk ljy gks tkrk gSA fd”kksjksa dh fpUrkvksa ds lek/kku ds fy, dkmUlfyax cgqr egRoiw.kZ gSA dkmUlfyax }kjk fd”kksjkoLFkk esa fd”kksjksa esa ruko vkSj la?k’kZ dh fLFkfr dks de fd;k tk ldrk gS vkSj mudh izLQwfVr gksrh ÅtkZ dks ldjkjkRed dk;ksZa esa yxk;k tk ldrk gSA ftlls mudh fpUrk de gks ldrh gSA
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Dr.Sandeep Narula Associate Professor The IIHMR University Jaipur
Abstract:
Operation Flood has played a pivotal role in making India a surplus producer in milk production. Most of members of dairy cooperatives are small or marginal farmers and dairy income for them is vital source of their livelihood. Traditionally women are involved in dairy activities and constitute a important part of the work force and their role in economic activities was restricted .Since last two decades women economic autonomy and participation in dairy federation activities has seen an upward swing and lot of policy measures have been build around enhanced women participation and empowerment. The Women Empowerment Agriculture Index (WEAI) launched by IFPRI, Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI), and USAID's Feed the Future, February 2012 is initiative in the same direction.It is a comprehensive and standardized measure to directly capture women’s empowerment and inclusion levels in the agricultural sector.In the present study the same index but customized according to the study is used to assess the economic and social status differences between women who are dairy members and those who are non members.based on the WEAI five domains, the empowerment index is developed.
Key words: WEAI, economic autonomy, dairy cooperative membership, dairy farming, Women empowerment.
Introduction
Women plays a very important role in shaping and developing a society. The word empowerment of women means the process of giving power
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to women so that they can stand up of their own and can lead a prosperous and successful life. Although the role of women in shaping the social and economic development of society is established, but the equal opportunities, gender inequalities are deeply imbedded.
In India and in Rajasthan Agriculture is primarily characterized by small and marginal farm-holder’s As per Department of agriculture and Cooperation- land with less than two hectares, account for ~82% of farms; large farms with more than 10 hectares in size are very rare and the agriculture land is not only highly fragmented but the operational land holdings has reduced by half from 2.28ha(1970-71) to 1.16 ha in 2010-11.
The rural population in the state of Rajasthan (India) consists of primarily tribal(68 per cent) and other disadvantaged communities whose resources are severelylimited. People are mostly dependent upon agriculture, animal husbandry, andwage labor for their livelihoods(Nepak, 2003).Of a total populationof685,48,437 in Rajasthan 75 per cent are living in rural areas, with 638,000 villagesrecorded throughout the area (www.census2011.co.in, 2012).
Situation of Women in Rural India:
In Indian society, preference is given to male child((Bennett, 1993)(Kishor, 2009) and this preference is visible in health and nutrition status and even they have less access to education.(Banerjee Abhijit, 2004,May) .Women have either little or restricted access to financial resources and transactions and decision making. As per (Kishor, 2009), nearly 15% of Indian females have their bank accounts.
Rural women work for very long hours like fetching water, working in agriculture fields,taking care of animals and fodder collection, their work if often neglected and is not recorded in wage statistics((Bennett, 1993).
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Since their access to resources is restricted and information, hence their contribution to economic development is prevented.
Dairy production is traditionally an important source of livelihood for the rural population of India and an integral part of the crop-livestock production system,women are traditionally responsible for livestock and dairy production, Majority of the work related to live stock care and management is done women((Kurup, 2001).
Women can contribute to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger and promoting gender equality and empowering women((Birchall, 2004).
Although efforts have been made to include women in diary cooperatives, but still their presence at management level is very limited or negligible (Cunningham, 2009).
In India, there are very few studies to analyze the effect of dairy cooperatives on social and economic impact of women.
In India, the government and non-government organizations (NGOs) are playing an active role to improve the opportunities available to women, by focusing on empowerment strategies to move women from a stateof dependency to a state of independence (Dollard, 2004).
The major objective of the study is to effect of economic empowerment of women by their participation in diary cooperatives.
Literature review:
In dairy sector, worldwide the cooperative business models are prevalent and running successfully. Operation Flood in 1970 was carried out to in India to promote dairy co-operatives Success of Anand- model drew the blue print for the dairy cooperatives in India(Verhagen, 1990).The Anand model uses three tier organizational structure of Anand Cooperative. At primary level, Dairy Cooperative Societies(DCS) works as a central collection point of milk in the village; at the second
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tier the Dairy cooperative societies are connected to district cooperative unions and then finally District cooperatives are connected to the apex Sate body federation, responsible for marketing and coordinating activities(Verhagen, 1990)(Rajendran, 2004).
Based on Anand –model, Dairy Development in Rajasthan comprises of village level 10,351 Primary Dairy Co-operative Societies affiliated to the existing 19 District Milk Producers Co-operative Unions spread all over the State and a State level apex body Rajasthan Co-operative Dairy Federation Ltd. Jaipur.The Dairy Co-Operative Societies have 6,48,124 producers as members(www.sarasmilkfed.rajasthan.gov.in/index.aspx)
To involve womenin dairy development programmes, RCDF launchedthe “Rajasthan Women Dairy Project” in the statein 1991-92 as a part of “Support to Training andEmployment Programme” for women (STEP) schemeof Ministry of Human Resource Development.
Under the “Rajasthan Women Dairy Project” districtmilk unions were entrusted theresponsibility oforganizing women dairy co-operative societies atvillage level in their respective districts.Womendairy co- operative societies were thereforeorganized by the union officials in their respectivedistricts((Upadhyay, 2009 & 2010).
Proponents of OF claim, that the increase in milk production shows clearly the programs“positive impact”-but deep research and analysis lead and attribute to the other factors too –mainly improved cattle breed and technology upgradation(Candler, 1998).Moreover, GOI and various international bodies have supported Operation Flood, and still continues to support Dairy cooperatives. The question here arises, whether these funding and expenses can be justified in terms of incomeand employment generation in rural poor?. Most of the (`75%) DCS members (Kurup, Smallholder dairy production and marketing in India: Constraints and opportunities National Dairy Development Board. In , 2001)are either landless or are marginal farmers and only
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Assessing the impact of DSC on gender, literature review suggests that there are differences in men and women participation, although marketing opportunities has provided economic possibilities, but increased workload and social barriers has prevented women from participating in cooperative institutions(Cunningham, 2009).
The problem statement here is how dairy cooperatives can play role for women empowerment?
In today’s context, role of women in agriculture and development is established (Boserup Ester, 2007).This lead to the development of concept Women in Development ,and to focus more narrowly on women esp. in context to social relations, it lead gradually to Gender and Development (GAD) and eventually to Gender mainstreaming(Okali, 2011)
Women empowerment is a stated goal and there is no specific definition for the same. The term empowerment suggests it is about power relations, which is a mode of relationships between individuals and groups, thus empowerment is more than participation in decision making
(Rowlands, 1997)
(Alsop, 2006)definedempowerment as a “ group’s or individual’s capacity to make effective choices, that is, to make choices and then to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes.”
(Golla, 2011)concept and definition in context to economic empowerment is more closer to the problem which needs to be
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Fig1: A Framework to Measure Women Economic Empowerment (source: Golla et al ,2011,pg6)
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Since, women empowerment requires women control over decisions that can affect their life and between the options they can choose, hence the process of empowerment also includes greater awareness of women about their abilities and rights. It is widely believed that membership of a DCS has a positive impact on the internal household and decision making of a women.(Burchi, 2014).
(Meera, 2013) et al interviewed women of different WDCS in a before and after study and reported that there was a significant change in economic empowerment in terms of increase in income, access to cash, access to credit, knowledge of husband's income, confidence in financial transactions and aspiration for economic autonomy.
In another study in Punjab it was observed that women have more access to information and get more payment from WDCS, however in other areas it has not bought any change in women empowerment.(Kaur, 2010)
Lijjat women cooperative reported their economic well being and entrepreneurial skills was improved significantly because of autonomy and non interference of government(Datta, May 2012).
Based on the literature review, the overall response is not significant-in some case it has delivered results and in some cases the response is not encouraging, hence becoming member of DCS is not a guaranteed success towards economic empowerment.
Based on the literature review,following alternative hypothesis are proposed:
1.Becoming member of DCS,leads to women empowerment as the membership result yields to economic benefits and greater participation in overall decision making.
2.By becoming member of DCS, it leads to enhanced earnings leading to greater economic autonomy among women.
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Conceptual Framework:
To measure women empowerment, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) proposed a measuring tool Women Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) in 2012.The IFPRI framework included following five domains:
1.Production
It includes input in production decisions and autonomy in decision making about food,crops, livestock and agriculture production.
2.Resources
The domain includes decisions regarding ownership of assets, purchase, sale or transfer of assets, access to and decision on credit.
3.Income
This domain involves decisions of Control over use of income
4.Leadership
Leadership domain includes group membership and speaking in public community
5.Time
This domain includes distribution of time in workload or productive activities leisure activities (like watching TV)
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.WEAI has been developed and tested in 2011 in pilot surveys in Guatemala, Bangladesh and Uganda.
WEAI can be customized as per the local conditions and specific cultural settings.
As compared original IFPRI index, the WEAI used in the study was customized due to time and money constraints. The following changes were introduced in the index:
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2.The production decisions domain was extended further to production decision in dairying too.
3.In the time domain, the interviewer was record last 24 hrs activity only.Simultaneously, it was asked to have an overview of the same with last 15 days activity( to record major deviations)
4.The WEAI index was used as a comparison tool of economic empowerment between members and non-members.
The modified questionnaire used in the study is attached in the appendices.
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The rating scale used in the questionnaire scale for the domains Production, Income and Resources have values as 1 (for women) and 5 (for men/male family member). While using WEAI the values are converted as per the details given below in the table:
Varia Value Interpretation Sco ble assigned re 1 4 Decision solelytaken bywoman 100 2 3 Decisiontaken mainlybywoman 75 3 2 Joint decision 50 4 1 Decisiontaken mainlybyman 25 5 0 Decisiontakenonlybyman 0 % Table1: Interpretation and conversion of variable into WEAI value
Research Methodology:
Questionnaire Development
Based on the above conceptual framework, WEAI was developed as per the need of the study and customized questionnaire is attached in the appendix.
The factors influencing the women empowerment outcomes were included in the questionnaire esp. keeping in context to the diary production. For better handling and usage convenience, the questionnaire was divided in following parts:
A1- basic information of respondent
WEAI 1: (a) Cropping pattern (b)Dairy cooperative membership (c) Milk production (d) dairy production/income
WEAI 2 &5: Role in Household decision making around production and income generation.
(control over and use of income and input in productive decisions)
WEAI 3: Access to productive capital; Access to and decisions about credit.
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WEAI 6: Time allocation; overall satisfaction.
The interview with rural females were organized and conducted by local university MBA girl students and these girl students were accompanied with local Asha workers who actually facilitated the entire interview process and if required converted the questions in the local language. The first part of the questionnaire was about the basic information of the respondent.
In the second part, the questions were related to the Dairy cooperative membership.In the same section, further questions were about milk production, dairy income and generation. The remaining other parts of the questionnaire were about empowerment, mostly closed ended questions were asked questions pertaining to assets and land ownership, directly the questions were asked and specific responses were recorded, a scale of 1-5 was employed where 1 means female and 5 means solely male.
Study Area:
The sample respondents were shortlisted fromMuhana and Barmohanpura villages which fall underTehsil Sanganer,(Jaipur district,).These villages are around 16kms south of Jaipur. In Jaipur district there are ~2336 DCS’s and PDCS’sand Jaipur Milk Union is procuring over 7.09laks kg/day from these DCS’s,contributing around 10.37% of total milk production in the state. The operational area of the Union covers around 14.4 sq.kms covering around 82 lakhs of population(as per Census2011) and per capita availability of milk is around 488gms/day. Estimated milch animals owning households in Jaipur District are ~3.6lakhs.(source:http: //www.jaipu rdairy.co m/ho me/about)
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The major agricultural crops are: Wheat, Barley, Gram, Mustard, Rabi crops) and Pearlmillet,Ground (Kharif crops).Total geographical area is :~1105.5(‘000ha) and cultivable area is 895.5(‘000ha). Total livestock in Jaipur as per Dept.of Agriculture and production is ~1286000(including cattle and buffaloes)
Sampling and Data Collection:
The prime objective of this study is to understand and analyse how dairy cooperative membership enhances economic empowerment of rural women. In these type of studies, a longitudinal/ time series study would have been a better approach, but due to paucity of time and money this approach could not be adopted. Hence, in this study two groups of women were considered-one who are member of DCS and one who are not member of DCS, hence this approach generated an opportunity of two equal members with same social and living conditions and formed an ideal opportunity for comparative analysis. Since no formal list of DCS members was available, hencePurposive sampling and snowball samplingwas found to be more suitable for this type of study. Purposive sampling also helped in locating identifiable number of women dairy cooperative members and non- members.(members sell the milk produce through DCSand non- members sell through private channels)
Both the villages-Muhana and Barmohanpura are ~17kms south of Jaipur.Vital stats of both the villages are as follows:
Table2:Demographic Characteristics of Study Area
Village Muhana Barmohanpura Population 7417 522 No.of houses 1107 75 Males 3863 288 Females 3554 234 Literacy 72.99% 84.91% (source: Census 2011)
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Description of Measures:
Since questions were related dairy milk production and income generation and role in household decision making and access to capital, it was very difficult to extract the information, hence the questions invariably were reframed to get an estimate of the same. Data on milk production was calculated on the basis of per litres milk sold to DCS/channels multiplied by the price per litres of milk. Gross crop income information was not available with female respondents hence approx. crop production ( in quintals) were noted and then it multiplied with the crop market selling price.Since Muhana is a big vegetable wholesale market,hence the crops and vegetables invariably attract reasonable good prices round the year. To estimate time and workload women asked to describe the 24 hrs activity schedule they had realized a day before.
Results and Analysis:
The socio-economic characteristics of the respondents are as follows:
Of the 73 members interviewed, 28 respondents are members of DCS and 44 members are non members.The classification of farm size done on bigha size is given in Table 1 and in fig1.Nearly 60% of the respondents have farm size less than 20 bigha.
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Fig4: Farmsize of Respondents
2 5 6 Small 30 Medium Extra Medium Big 29 Bigger
Table 3: Economic characteristics of farmers as per farm size
Avg. share Avg. Avg. ofdairy number numbe Small (N=30; size <3 32% 4.5 2 Medium(N=29; size 3- 41% 3.3 0.9 Extra 29% 3.5 1.5 Big(N=2; size 50- 24% 4.6 2.1 Bigger (N=5; size > 15% 8.3 3.3
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Fig4: Farmsize: Members vs Non members 80 72 70 60 50 44 40 RCDF Member 30 29 28 30 24 Non Member 20 1415 Total 10 6 5 6 5 5 1 2 0 2 0 0 30 29 6 2 5 72 Small MediumExtra MediumBig Bigger Total
Ha1.Becoming member of DCS, leads to women empowerment as the membership result yields to economic benefits and greater participation in overall decision making.
Ha2: By becoming member of DCS, it leads to enhanced earnings leading to greater economic autonomy among women.
The group statistics suggests that 20 respondents are DCS members and 44 are non members. The non members are have higher mean yrs of schooling,asnon members are younger in age than DCS members;but the land area owned by DCS members is much higher non members.The gross income of DCS members is 6 times than non members suggesting that DCS membership has benefitted them, but we cannot ignore the land area owned by members which is 3 times higher than non-members Table4: Dairy Cooperative membership Frequenc Valid Cumulative y Percent Percent Percent Valid Member 28 38.9 38.9 38.9 Non 44 61.1 61.1 100.0 member Total 72 100.0 100.0
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Table5: Group Descriptive Statistics Dairy Cooperative Std. Std. tsignif. membership N Mean Deviation Error Mean What is your age di Member 28 43.7143 14.44493 2.72984 .001 me Non member 44 31.5682 14.71496 2.21836 nsi on 1 What is your literacy state di Member 28 .7857 .41786 .07897 .394 me Non member 44 .8636 .34714 .05233 nsi on 1 Years_of_Schooling di Member 28 9.2857 6.38782 1.20718 .113 me Non member 44 11.6818 6.03005 .90906 nsi on 1 Landarea_Owned_bigha di Member 28 18.4286 22.26928 4.20850 .001 me Non member 44 6.0909 7.64798 1.15298 nsi on 1 Total number of household di Member 28 8.1071 3.60390 .68107 .000 members me Non member 44 5.2500 2.87026 .43271 nsi on 1 Total Gross Income of di Member 28 183428.5714 2.25888E5 42688.90258 .000
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Household members me Non member 44 26495.7727 28525.00271 4300.30596 nsi on 1 Total Land area owned di Member 28 18.3571 20.72611 3.91687 .000 me Non member 44 4.7955 4.34463 .65498 nsi on 1 Households by farmsize di Member 28 2.5000 1.40106 .26478 .000 category(based on B7) me Non member 44 1.5682 .69542 .10484 nsi on 1
Table6: Differences in Economics of Dairy Production by Membership Dairy Cooperative Std. Error t-signif. membership N Mean Std. Deviation Mean D1B_Total_buffalos di Member 28 8.6071 7.62228 1.44048 .000 me Non member 44 3.9545 1.64182 .24751 nsi on 1 Yield per animal per( di Member 28 1.5089 .64499 .12189 .017 litres/day) me Non member 44 2.0216 .97581 .14711 nsi on 1 Quantity of milk in litres for di Member 28 13.0000 16.28906 3.07834 .020 all cows me Non member 44 7.0909 2.51339 .37891 nsi on 1
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TOTAL_INCOME di Member 28 194129.8929 2.32381E5 43915.81605 .000 me Non member 44 24317.3636 28535.97635 4301.96030 nsi on 1 Share of gross income from di Member 28 15.6786 15.25129 2.88222 .075 dairying production(%) me Non member 44 2.4841 36.65230 5.52554 nsi on 1 INCOME_from_diarying di Member 28 10635.5000 13155.32138 2486.12206 .000 me Non member 44 1153.3409 5794.76830 873.59419 nsi on 1 Cost of Dairy di Member 28 9821.9643 9621.55686 1818.30333 .000 production(Rs/day/animal) me Non member 44 3246.3864 2522.62937 380.30069 nsi on 1 Share of milk for home di Member 28 7.2857 7.97615 1.50735 .014 consumption me Non member 44 4.1364 1.77307 .26730 nsi on 1 Available_milk_perperson_ di Member 28 .5378 .31649 .05981 .485 perday me Non member 44 .5903 .30481 .04595 nsi on 1
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Since the earnings of the DCS members is significantly higher than non-members and the same is also validated by t-test as the results are highly significant. It clearly shows that DCS membership has benefits the members This is also reflected in terms of assets too-as dairy members have almost 3 times cattle fleet than non-members Due to higher number of milche animals the available milk for home consumption of dairy members is also high in quantity,but the overall milk availability per person is same. Moreover the perceived benefits of DCS membership are also enormous as the members have revealed that the membership of DCS offers higher price, credit, marketing, training and most importantly qualitative veterinary services.
Hence, both the alternative hypothesis are accepted that DCS membership benefits and also it leads to enhanced economic benefits. But whether this economics benefits gets transferred to economic autonomy and freedom in decision making still needs to elaborated in hypothesis no.3
Fig5:Perceived Benefits of Cooperative membership
HigherPrice Input Supply Processing Vet.Services Credit Marketing Training Others
0%
14% 26% 11%
9% 17%
6% 17%
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Ha3.Dairy cooperative membership leads women to a stronger position within the house and give her enhanced opportunity to participate in decision making.
An independent sample t-test results between dairy members and non- members suggest that there is not difference between the decision making power. The t-test gave significant different results only for in terms of inputs, construction of cattle shed, selection of breed, management of fodder ,healthcare of and selling large live stock of animals, minor house hold expenditures and in participation and speaking in few public forums.
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Table7:Independent Sample Test and Group Statistics (Members Vs Non members)
Dairy Cooperative Std. tsignf. membership Deviatio N Mean n E17_whichinputs_whomakes_decision di Member 28 1.9286 1.01575 .000 m Non member 44 1.2045 .59375 en si on 1 E17_whichinputs_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 3.1429 1.04401 .200 m Non member 44 2.8409 .91355 en si on 1 E18_whichcropstogrow_whomakes_decision di Member 28 2.5714 .79015 .145 m Non member 44 2.2500 .96749 en si on 1 E18_whichcropstogrow_extentofpaticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 2.9643 .83808 .780 m Non member 44 3.0227 .87574 en si on 1 E19_when_who_cropstomkt_whomakes_decision di Member 28 1.3929 .73733 .121 m Non member 44 1.1591 .52576 en si on 1 E19_when_who_cropstomkt_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 2.9643 1.03574 .093
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m Non member 44 3.4091 1.10639 en si on 1 E10_constrnof_cattleshed_whomakes_decision di Member 28 2.3214 .86297 .000 m Non member 44 1.4773 .84876 en si on 1 E10_constrnof_cattleshed_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 3.1429 .97046 .296 m Non member 44 2.9091 .88444 en si on 1 E11_selectionofbreeds_whomakes_decision di Member 28 2.0000 .94281 .005 m Non member 44 1.4091 .78705 en si on 1 E11_selectionofbreeds_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 2.8214 .72283 .226 m Non member 44 3.1136 1.12510 en si on 1 E12_mgtofodder_whomakes_decision di Member 28 2.3571 .86984 .040 m Non member 44 1.8864 .96968 en si on 1 E12_mgtofodder_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 3.2500 .88715 .261
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m Non member 44 3.0227 .79207 en si on 1 E13_healthcareofanimals_whomakes_decision di Member 28 2.5357 .83808 .005 m Non member 44 1.8864 .96968 en si on 1 E13_healthcareofanimals_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 2.7143 .76290 .876 m Non member 44 2.6818 .90920 en si on 1 G3.02_whowouldyousayowns_agricultural_land di Member 28 3.1429 1.55669 .080 m Non member 44 2.5227 1.37229 en si on 1 G3.03_Largelivestock_whowuldusay_candecide_tosell_most di Member 28 3.7143 1.86304 .036 ofthe_time m Non member 44 2.9545 1.16048 en si on 1 G3.03_House_whowuldusay_candecide_tosell_mostofthe_ti di Member 28 3.3214 1.67892 .528 me m Non member 44 3.1136 1.10424 en si on 1 G3.03_con_durab__whowuldusay_candecide_tosell_mostoft di Member 28 3.5000 1.47824 .387
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he_time m Non member 44 3.2045 1.35680 en si on 1 G3.03_meansof_trpn_whowuldusay_candecide_tosell_mosto di Member 28 1.5714 .63413 .000 fthe_time m Non member 44 2.5227 1.19083 en si on 1 G3.06_whocontributes_decisions_purchase_agricultural di Member 28 3.3214 1.51666 .075 m Non member 44 3.9318 1.31887 en si on 1 G3.06_whocontributes_decisions_purchase_livestock di Member 28 3.1786 1.51666 .956 m Non member 44 3.1591 1.39673 en si on 1 E8_minorHH_expendit_whomakes_decision di Member 28 2.2857 .85449 .014 m Non member 44 1.7500 .89248 en si on 1 E8_minorHH_expendit_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 3.2143 .91721 .634 m Non member 44 3.1136 .84126 en si on 1 E9_LargeHH_expendit_whomakes_decision di Member 28 2.2857 1.01314 .083
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m Non member 44 1.8636 .97863 en si on 1 E9_LargeHH_expendit_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 3.1071 .87514 .240 m Non member 44 3.3409 .77589 en si on 1 E15_useof_income_whomakes_decision di Member 28 2.5357 .83808 .000 m Non member 44 1.7500 .89248 en si on 1 E15_useof_income_extentofparticpn_Decmaking di Member 28 3.0714 1.01575 .929 m Non member 44 3.0909 .83019 en si on 1 G4.01_feel_comfrtbl_publspeakng_infrastruct di Member 28 4.7500 .44096 .035 m Non member 44 4.5000 .50578 en si on 1 G4.02_feel_comfrtbl_publspeakng_ensure_properwages di Member 28 4.1786 .54796 .517 m Non member 44 4.0455 .98723 en si on 1 G4.03_feel_comfrtbl_publspeakng_toprotest_misbeh_puboff di Member 28 4.2857 .59982 .167
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_authorit m Non member 44 4.1136 .44282 en si on 1 G3.08_whomade_decisiontoborrow_source di Member 28 2.1071 1.66309 .086 m Non member 44 2.9091 2.04392 en si on 1 G3.09_whomade_decision_whattodo_with_money di Member 28 2.6786 2.21198 .920 m Non member 44 2.7273 1.87224 en si on 1
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The type of responses obtained clearly reflects that inspite of the economic advancements, women still are struggling to obtain their autonomy in intra household decision making and other places of societal importance. Women still has to take decision/s taking into confidence their male family members, as evident from the results. The alternative hypothesis keeping in view the mixed response cannot be accepted, as there is not much gap in terms of empowerment between the dairy members and non-members especially when empowerment index was calculated in term of five domains(as shown in table7).
Crop production:
In terms of crop production, the female counterparts still have to depend on the male members of the society. The bar charts clearly implies the male dominance in crop production, in both the groups- dairy members and non-members group.(graphs attached in appendices).In crop production-which crops to grow(in cases of members 29% joint decisions and in case of non members 37% joint decisions), the extent of decision making, which inputs to use(54%males in non members and nearly 40% males in case of members), invariably, these types of decisions are taken jointly, but the decisions to sell the crops in markets and the extent of participation in decision making in all these areas are exclusively male domains(45% males in case of members and 56% males in case of non-members).But certainly the extent of participation in crop selling decision making of women by both the groups members(29%) and non-members (40%) was observed. The reason to sell the crop by males can be attributed as outside house activity, hence women participation may less.
Dairy production:
In dairy production also, in both the groups, members and non embers, the decisions are more less taken by males. In the construction of cattle shed, males members constitute around 40% and 48% in case of dairy
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and non dairy members respectively. Similarly in the same area, the extent of participation by women is 14% and 16% in case of dairy members and non members respectively. Likewise in selection of breeds, women participate only 3% and 6% in decision making in case of dairy members and non-members respectively, but he extent of participation in decision making by women in both the groups -dairy members and non dairy members is considerably high 36% and 51% respectively. The management of fodder decision is again male dominated activity but the extent of participation in decision making is again highly influenced by women,37% and 57% in case of dairy members and non-members. Similarly the decisions pertaining to healthcare of animals joint decisions are taken but the decision making power of non dairy members women is low(28%), as compared to dairy members(32%).
Resources:
In the ownership agricultural land, dairy members own 8% land as compared to non dairy members 19%.Likeise in the case of ownership of live stocks also, dairy women members have only 6% ownership rights and compared to 8% in vase of non dairy members. Women of both the groups , dairy members and non members group confessed that their role in house, consumer durable selling activity is very limited , nearly 5%. But in the case of means of transportation activity, e.g two wheeler or four wheeler, it is joint family decision, a decision in which all family members including elders of the family participate. The decisions pertaining to large household expenditures is more or less male dominated activity , in both the cases diary members and non dairy members,13% and 33% respectively.
Income:
Male dominance is visibly significant in both the groups-dairy members(8%) and 33% in case of non dairy members. Although the
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percentage of male dominance is low in dairy members highlighting the fact that probably the women counterparts are inching towards empowerment, but still it is a long way to go. But the extent of participation is significantly high in the usage of income highlighting the women dominance, 17% and 27% by dairy members and non dairymembersrespectively.The decisions what to do with the money gives access of only 20% to women in both the cases.
Leadership :
Women of both the groups are fairly comfortable in public speaking ,30% in both the cases.Even in demanding fair wages, both the group women members are fairly comfortable in speaking publicly-around 36% and 45% , in ase of dairy members and non members respectively.
Time:
Most of the women in both the groups were having constraints in terms of free time and grossly were occupied in the dairy production and household activities. The women in both the groups have only 10.5- 11hrs as the free time which includes sleeping,nap,watching TV and other social activities. Majority of the women were satisfied with their nature and quantum of free time.
Discussions and Conclusion:
After analysing the results, the women empowerment index computed and shown in the table below.Overall, the impact of diary membership on women is influential as it gives them a wider exposure in terms of healthcare, living conditions, higher savings. The marketing and trading activities of diary cooperatives give a learning opportunity,as diary union meetings enrich them by sharing new breeding and lactating methods, recent methods and medicines to take care of health of cattle and exposure to marketing and supply chain activities of diary federation. The dairy cooperatives also give them access to new and
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better ways of getting finance not only from nationalized banks but from various Self help groups and NGOs.So, overall the women dairy members to some extent if not empowered ,still they are in better condition than non dairy members.The women empowerment index, clearly highlights in all the five domains dairy women members are more empowered than non-dairy members women. Although in economic terms, the women, in both the groups do not have open access to the Income and banks, but they have a big say in decision making and participation in intra-household matters.
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Table8: Women Empowerment Index Domain Average level of Difference empowerment in each domain Members (A) Non members(B) Production Crop Production 42% 29% 13 Dairy Production 39 % 26% 13 Resources Ownership of land 13% 3% 10 Purchase and Sale of Assets 19% 7% 12 Access to and Decision on credit 27% 8% 19 Income Control over use of Income 32% 14% 18 Leadership Group member and Speaking in 44% 27% 17 Public Time Free and restingtime(in hours) 11.4hrs 10.5hrs 0.50hrs Total (source: Author)
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The gap is significantly large in the domains measured in empowerment index esp.in context to Income and Production generation.Women belonging to dairy membership used DCS as means for economic advancement (Candler, 1998)(Kurup, 2001).The small and marginal women farmers are although benefited by supplying the milk to DCS and anticipating that sooner dairy union benefits will make them economically stronger as their association with DCS is recent activity. The small and marginal women members accepted that after taking DCS membership the productivity of the animals has increased and they are more aware of their marketing and economic rights.(Shukla, 1999).The dairy women members hinted that the income was increased, and due to the learnings shared by the dairy members it helped them in household activities and they could also spend quality time with their family and children esp. they could take care of the children education well.(Sharma, 1993).In the long run it is anticipated that the dairy membership, even though at present its results and impact is not pronounced, but certainly it will lead to gender equality as at least the women members of both the groups have started participating actively in the intra-household activities. It was observed that as long as dairying is restricted to small economic activity, the ownership was of women,(Mayoux, 1995) but as it eventually scale up , male participation increased and it granted women the economic rights and bigger say in intra-household matters. Probably this incentive/motivation is big factor for women to join DCS membership.(Kantor, 2003).It was also observed that although women participation in the decision making activities has increased considerably, but the market access and market related activities participation is still very poor as it is considered as a male dominated activity(Hunt, 2001).
Over a period of time diary cooperatives are getting more organized and also the intent of DCS is make women home based work more visible by
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From the above discussions and analysis it can be concluded that dairy membership offers enormous advantages and benefits, but if its operations and implementation is handled more seriously and with dedicated socio-economic objectives, then probably the women empowerment can be successfully achieved. The study clearly suggest and recommends that Income generation alone cannot meet the empowerment objectives, it should be further interlinked with other social norms and the gender parity objective should practiced with broad mind and clear vision.
References
1. Alsop, R. B. (2006). Empowerment in Practice. From Analysis to Implementation. Directions in Development. . The World Bank. 2. Banerjee Abhijit, D. A. (2004,May). Wealth,Health and Health Services in Rural Rajasthan. NCBI, PubMed Central, 94(2): 326–330. 3. Bennett, L. (1993). Women, Poverty and Productivity in India. Economic Development Institute of The World Bank. 4. Birchall, J. (2004). Cooperatives and the Millennium Development Goals. . Geneva.: International Labour Office. 5. Boserup Ester, T. S. (2007). Women's role in Economic Development. Kentucky,USA: Routledge. 6. Burchi, F. V. (2014). To be or not to be a member of a primary cooperative in Brazil: Any differences in household decision-making and gender equality? Oxford Development Studies: 1-22. 7. Candler, W. K. (1998). India: The Dairy Revolution. The impact of dairy development in India and the World Bank‟s Contribution. Washington DC: The World Bank. 8. Cunningham, K. (2009). Rural and Urban Linkages. Operation Flood's Role in India's Dairy Development . Discussion Paper 00924: International Food Policy Research Institute. 9. Datta, P. G. (May 2012). Empowering women through social entrepreneurship: Case study of a women‟s cooperative in India. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice; Vol36,Issue3, 569-587. 10. Dollard, M. S. (2004). Developing and Contextualising a Knowledge Base in Rural Work Psychology: Rural Development, Rural Women and
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Entrepreneurship in India and Australia’, . International Journal of Rural Psychology, 1-17. 11. Golla, A. M. (2011). Understanding and Measuring Women‟s economic empowerment. Definition, Framework and Indicators. . The International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW). 12. Hunt, J. K. (2001). Pathways to Empowerment? Reflections on Microfinance and Transformation in Gender Relations in South Asia. : . Gender and Development, Vol. 9, No. 1, 42-52. 13. Kantor, P. (2003). Women`s empowerment through home-based work: Evidence from India. Development and Change 34(3), 425-445. 14. Kaur, R. (2010). Institutional structure and Women Empowerment. . Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development, Vol. XX, No.2: , 103-124. 15. Kishor, S. G. (2009). Gender equality and women‟s empowerment in India National Family Health Survey India. . New Delhi: Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. 16. Kurup, M. (2001). Smallholder dairy production and marketing in India: Constraints and opportunities National Dairy Development Board. In . Smallholder dairy production and marketing: Constraints and opportunities. ,. ILRI proceedings: Ranegar, D., Thorpe, W.(ed.). 17. Kurup, M. (2001). Smallholder dairy production and marketing in India: Constraints and opportunities,. National Dairy Development Board. In: Ranegar. D., Thorpe, W.(ed.) ILRI Proceedings. 18. Makita, R. (2009). The visibility of women‟s work for poverty reduction: implications from non-crop agricultural income-generating programs in Bangladesh. Agriculture and Human Values ( 26), 379-390. 19. Mayoux, L. (1995). Alternative vision or utopian fantasy?: Cooperation, Empowerment and women‟s cooperative development in India. : :. Journal of International Development Vol.7, No.2, 211-228. 20. Meera, M. K. (2013). Towards economic empowerment: Study of rural women in dairy cooperatives of Heggada Devana Kote Taluk in Mysore District. Journal of Media and Social Development Vol. 1, Issue 1 , 17-36. 21. Nepak, S. a. (2003). ‘Seva Mandir: Organisation Understanding’. Anand: Unpublished MA paper. 22. Okali, C. (2011, 09). Searching for new pathways towards achieving gender equity. Beyond Boserup and “Women‟s role in economic development. FAO ,ESA Working Paper. 23. Rajendran, K. M. (2004). Dairy cooperatives and milk marketing in India:Constraints and Opportunities. . Journal of Food Distribution Research 35 (2), 34-41. 24. Rowlands, J. (1997). Questioning empowerment. Working with women in Honduras. Oxfam.
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25. Sharma, M. V. (1993). When more means less: Assessing the impact of dairy „development‟ on the lives and health of women in rural Rajasthan (India). . Social Science and Medicine Vol. 37, No. 11, 1377-1389. 26. Shukla, R. K. (1999). Impact Evaluation of Operation Flood on the Rural Dairy sector. New Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic Research. 27. Shukla, R. K. (1999). Impact Evaluation of Operation Flood on the Rural Dairy Sector. New Delhi: National Council of Applied Economic Research. 28. Upadhyay, R. S. (2009 & 2010). Income Generation among women through Dairy Cooperatives and Constraints thereof. Rajasthan Society of Extension Education 17 & 18, 74-78. 29. Verhagen, M. (1990). Operation Flood and the rural poor. . In M. N. Dornboos, In Resources, institution and strategies: Operation Flood in Indian Dairying. Sage Publications. 30. www.census2011.co.in. (2012). Rajasthan Population Census data 2011. Government of India.
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FINANCIAL RESOURCE MOBILIZATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF METTU TOWN
Sekata Kenea Geda Misganu Dept of Accounting and Finance Dept of Management Faculty of Business and Economics, Faculty of Business and Economics Mettu University Mettu, Ethiopia Mettu University, Mettu, Ethiopia
Geleta Merera Department of Management Faculty of Business and Economics Mettu University, Mettu, Ethiopia
Abstract:
The research was conducted on the title “Financial resource mobilization for the development of Mettu Town”. The main objective of the research was to find ways of improving the resource mobilization of the town, especially tax and non-tax revenues. To achieve the objective, schedule and interview were used as data collection tools. Stratified random sampling was used to draw the sample from the population. Schedule was used to get information from the business men of the town. The interview was conducted with the municipality mayor of the town, the revenue office head and the trade and market development office head. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. Based on the data, it was found that tax evasion was very high and it has reduced the tax revenue of the town. Based on the findings, the researchers recommended that modern tax systems should be used to reduce tax evasion so that the revenue of the town could be improved.
Keywords/Phrases: - Mobilization, Financial resource, Tax and non- tax revenues
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I. INTRODUCTION Resources can be defined as the human (skills, knowledge and attitude) and goods like money, materials, information, and energy essential for attaining the objective of an organization or individual. Resource mobilization is therefore the process of identifying and raising the resources essential for the development, implementation and continuation of works for achieving the organization’s mission (Vivien Chiam, 2011). In the same fashion, financial resource mobilization refers to the raising of funds from different sources. Simply put, financial resource mobilization needs expansion of relations with financial resource providers. Financial resource is essential in order to run the existing programs, pay cost of goods and services, and salary and carry out new development works. Specifically, an organization requires resources for the following reasons: In order to continue with its work and achieve the works and forgets, in order to begin or plan for new work, in order to enhance or maintain relationship with the community individuals, government organizations, private organizations or donor agencies and for development of various condition of the organization including its capacity (Ibid).
There are two major sources of finance for government organizations like the one in our case, Mettu Town Administration. These are tax and non-tax sources. Taxation is the main source for resource mobilization of the town. It is the main policy instrument for transferring resources to the public sector. The money obtained from taxes is necessary for preserving territorial integrity, maintaining law and order, to provide public goods and to regulate undesirable activities. From the efficiency view point, it can be said that taxes provide the best means of financing the bulk of public expenditures. However, taxes impose two major types of cost on society. These are revenue forgone as taxes since taxes reduce disposable income of tax payers, and compliance cost since tax forms,
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2002). In order to escape from these burdens, many people want to evade taxes. However, tax evading households and businesses get paid back in deficient, poor quality service from underfunded public goods, and end up paying additional sums in privately arranged services for security, garbage disposal and so forth. Businesses understating income to evade taxes cannot access capital markets with their disclosed supposedly weak financial statements, and crowd in to banks and financial institutions for borrowing, pushing up interest cost. Here, the tax evading well off are thus paid back in the same coin, while the less well off population segment suffer from high burdens of regressive indirect taxes like VAT and tariffs imposed due to low collection of direct taxes from the better off ( Rahman, 2010).
This situation is almost the same in Mettu Town. That is the collection of income tax has been given better attention than that of indirect taxes. Because of this and related issues, investment and economic growth of Mettu Town continue to lag below potential. Therefore, the intention of this paper is therefore to investigate and show the ways in which these financial resources are mobilized to the best possible potential of the community so as to bring sustainable development in Mettu Town.
Statement of the Problem
The mobilization of local resources is the foundation for self-sustaining development. Mobilization of financial resources plays the main role in financing local developments, investment and social programs. Mobilizing local public resources through fiscal measures, while not stifling private initiative, is the key in achieving sustained long-term growth. That is the generation of local resources to invest productively is the essential foundation of sustained development. Basically,
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A dual challenge lies in generating an increasing stream of local resources, and efficiently channeling them to development ends and to increased productive capacity. This requires an environment conducive to private savings, the consolidation of public finances, efficient and effective mechanisms for the allocation of public expenditure and adequate room for private initiative – in short, sound macroeconomic policies.
The primary responsibility for achieving stable growth and equitable development therefore lies with the town administration itself. This responsibility includes creating the conditions that make it possible to secure the needed financial resources for investment. Achieving such a positive environment is not simply a matter of political will. Capacity building and institutional development are an absolutely essential complement to finance in the effort to improve living standards of the
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The same is true for Mettu Town Administration. As explained in Mettu City Profile, (2004), trends of revenue planned and accomplished in the town during the periods of 1998-2003 show under performance. Although the town’s collection achievement increased in the above years, its collection efficiency in each year is below the planned ones. Accordingly, Mettu Town Administration shows better achievement in direct tax and indirect tax revenue collection with less success in non- tax revenues. This results in decreased expenditure made on the development activities undertaken in the town and the same as to job opportunity.
Therefore, the purpose of this research was to show the ways in which the town administration could improve its revenue collection techniques while promoting voluntary compliance of taxes by the tax payers.
Objectives of the study
The general objective of this study was to assess mobilization of financial resources for the development of Mettu Town.
Specific objectives
To assess tax payers awareness about taxation.
To examine control mechanisms on receipt issuance and accounting book of records of the tax payers.
To identify barriers to tax and non tax revenue mobilization in the town.
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To suggest ways of enhancing revenue mobilization of the town.
II. METHODOLOGY
Description of the study area
The study area is Oromia Region, Ilu Ababor Zone, Mettu Town. According to Mettu Town profile (2004), the town is located 600km from the capital city of the country on the main road to Jimma- Beddele-Mettu- Gambella and further to Southern Sudan. The year 1905E.C remarks the establishment of small rular market at the vicinity of Sor River (the river that now crosses Mettu Town) on the specific place called ‘Damozo’ the village by the local ruler known as Dejazmach Ganame. The name Mettu has come from one of the class of Oromo people in the area. Mettu is said to be a green town in that it is located in ever green and near yearly flowing Sor River. It is found at the altitude of 1460-1740m above sea level. The area is characterized by major rainy season with annual average temperature of 250c-320c as revealed by different studies. As the town is the center of Ilu Ababor Zone and also crossed by main road from Addis to Gambella and roads from SNNP (Masha) and from Wollega, from different directions, Mettu is the center for trade activities.
Population
The target population for this specific study was all tax and non-tax payers dwelling in Mettu Town whose actual number was 1358 and six officials from different governmental offices totaling to 1364.
Sample Size
From the total population, only 136 respondents which cover 10% of the tax payers were selected to respond to the schedule. In determining sample size, personal judgment was selected and used because it is
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Sampling Procedure
Stratified random sampling was preferred because the population is dispersed over different tax payer schedules A, B and C. The number of respondents drawn from each stratum was proportionate. That was to give equal chance for the tax payers in each stratum who involved in the sample. That is 10% of the population in each stratum were selected randomly using lottery method. The formula to be used to determine sample size from each stratum was
ni = pi x n.
N
Where, Pi = population in the stratum, n = sample, N = total population, ni = sample from each stratum.
Depending on the number of tax payers obtained from the revenue office, the sample size was calculated as follows.
Tax payers No of payers Sample
ni = (pi x n)
N
Schedule C 1120 112
Schedule B 162 16
Schedule A 76 8
Total 1358 136
Source: Mettu Town Revenue Office, 2013
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Source of Data and Methods of Collection
The data were gathered from both primary and secondary sources. The schedule as a tool of data collection from the tax payers was preferred to other tools because it was convenient for this study and reduces bias to possible extent. On the other hand, interview was conducted with Mettu Town Revenue Office head, municipality manager of the town, and trade and market development office head of the town to get additional information on tax and non tax revenues.
In addition, different documents were investigated in detail to obtain information on financial resources mobilization for development of the town.
Method of Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics like frequency, percentages and tabulation were used for analysis. Data were edited, coded and classified to have organized and classified data into similar characteristics to have a pattern of data. That was made using SPSS software. Percentage was used to express the result relative to relevant variables considered in order to make comparison on each variable among categories.
III. LITERATURE REVIEW
Resource mobilization
Fiscal decentralization – the devolution of revenue mobilization and spending powers to lower levels of government – has become a main theme of local governance in recent years (Fjeldstad 2005). A sound revenue system is essential and serves as a crucial tool for the successful running of local government (Oluwu and Wunsch 2003). In addition, local revenue mobilization has the potential to foster political and administrative accountability by empowering communities (Shah
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As a critical part of decentralization reforms, many countries are devolving revenue and expenditure responsibilities to local, including municipal, governments. Local governments, therefore, face the challenge of mobilizing appropriate levels of revenue mainly from local tax collection to enable effective service provision and better address poverty and inequality issues. One source of potential revenue is property taxes and business licenses. By their nature, business licenses and property taxes can be devolved (and can be more effectively managed under certain conditions) to local government level; effective administration is a key to this process. These revenue sources have a common set of administrative functions and procedures.
Moreover, the revenue collection administrations are often inefficient and large amounts of revenues are left uncollected whiles that collected are sometimes inappropriately managed (Fjeldstad 2005).
Empirical literature on Ethiopia
In Ethiopia, VAT was introduced in January 2003.The VAT Proclamation No.285/2002 states that VAT is collected from those VAT registered taxpayers whose annual turnover is above the threshold of Birr 500,000. It is applied at a uniform rate of 15% on all goods and services, with zero rates for exports. It provides tax exemption for services like transportation, education, finance and others, also for goods such as kerosene.
According to the Ministry of Revenue (2004 E.C), in 2003-2004 E.C, VAT revenue collection has shown an increase trend as compared to the replaced sales tax. However, the efficiency ratio (the ratio of VAT revenue to GDP divided to standard VAT rate) was about 14 % for the year 2003-2004, which was lower than the average efficiency ratio of Sub Saharan African countries (27%). Regarding revenue raised by
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IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The result on classification of respondents based on their job this implies that majority of the respondents are businessmen and self employed. Therefore the respondents are familiar with the agenda under discussion. They are tax payers and they are directly concerned about the mobilization of financial resource in the town.
Among these respondents, 79.1% of them are engaged in retail activities. That means they sale goods and services they bought from producers, individuals or business to the end user 17.8% of the total number of respondents responded that they are engaged in service business, they sell (render) services directly to consumers or other businesses, 0.8% of the total number of respondents who have their own business are engaged in production business, they are engaged in the business of transforming raw materials (components) in to finished products for sale. The rest 2.3% of the respondents revealed that they are engaged in construction and other mixed businesses.
When asked either they keep accounting book of records or not, 44.9% of the total number of respondents revealed that they keep their accounting book of records. 53.7% of the total number of respondents responded that they do not keep accounting book of records. The rest few portion (1.5%) of the respondents remained indifferent to the question. This shows that, the majority of the respondents do not keep their accounting book of records. This will result in a challenge to the revenue collectors and the tax payers themselves in deterring tax amount they are expected to pay. It will also result in lack of realistic
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means of assessing revenue potentials due to lack of accurate data. According to the tax regulation category A and B tax payers are expected to keep their accounting book of records, but there is not proper mechanisms employed by the revenue collectors to overcome problems associated with tax levying in this regard.
The frequency and percentage of responses of respondents whether they give receipts to their customers for the amount they paid.
Table-1 Classification of respondents based on whether they give receipts or not
Do you issue receipts to your customers upon Cumulative payment? Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 65 47.8 47.8 47.8
No 71 52.2 52.2 100.0
Total 136 100.0 100.0
As presented in the above table-1 above the majority of the respondents 52.2% do not give receipts to their customers for the amount they paid and 47.8% of them are giving receipts. This indicates that the majority of the respondents are doing mishaps on government revenue which is a great enemy of the development. In fact there is no amount of tax payers are expected not to give receipts for customers for the amount they paid, because a little amount of tax lagging results in a great crisis of the country. In general, majority of the respondents, 52.2% do not
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give receipts to their customers for the amount of birr they paid which is not less than doing crime on citizen and life of future generation.
On the other hand, for the question which was forwarded to identify the reasons behind those who do not pay taxes voluntarily (forced) are:-
Unfair amount of tax estimated by the tax collectors.
Lack of confidence on the continuity of their business.
Doubt fullness about the appropriate use of the collected revenue for development purposes are the major ones.
Major Problems observed in Resource Mobilization
Lack of Skilled Man Power
The majority of the respondents confirmed that there is a lack of skilled man power in the office, which is a cause for dalliance of overall tax collection system. Even though some of the workers try to serve customers well, most of the tax collectors lack the skill of tax collection. This implies that though, there is high demand for tax collection from the government side, there is no sufficient skilled man power that conforms to this demand.
Lack of Transparency
According to the data collected, the larger number of respondents revealed that lack of transparency is one of the major problems. In most cases, the tax collectors or revenue office do not give us pre hand information about when to pay tax and how much to pay which shades dark light not to cooperate & trust each other smoothly. This indicates that there is no transparent communication between tax collectors and payers which is a barrier to collect tax properly.
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Majority of the respondents assured that there is a delay on every service. There is no fast and timely service which may be because of that they are not supported by modern system. This implies that the office lacks a quick and quality service which is uncompromised by customers.
Inability to Beer Responsibility
As confirmed by many respondents, that inability to beer responsibility both from payers and collectors is another problem. Naturally it is known that paying tax and utilizing it properly is a citizen’s responsibility. But the data collected shown that some of the tax payers and some of the tax collectors are unable to beer responsibility which is mainly due to the care lessees.
Mixed Product Selling Problem
Majority of the respondents responded that, there are many merchants who sells and uses the income from the products they are not licensed for. They said “There some merchants who sells mobile in the house they are licensed for mobile cover”. This implies that there is no strict control over the businesses which paves way for improper tax utilization.
VAT Registration
Majority of the respondents responded that there are many problems concerning VAT registration. Firstly, they addressed that there are many businesses which are not registered for VAT though they fulfill the requirements secondly, the respondents pointed that there are also many business man who do not give VAT receipts and use other illegal receipts to deceive customers. The third problem addressed is even those who are registered for VAT is not giving receipts for customers.
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Rent Seeking
Rent seeking is one of the issues that have been addressed by the majority of the tax payers. According to them the tax collectors themselves and the responsible partners keep quite even while practically observing problems related to tax levying. Rent seeking in a sense means spending resources in order to gain by increasing one’s share of existing wealth instead of trying to create wealth. In this regard some of the tax payers deliberately increase their cost on paper, while calculating their income statement to reduce their net income. On the other hand few tax officials take bribes for lessening the tax burden of the tax payers, which may cause loss in revenue to the public exchequer.
Lack of Proper Supervision and Control
According to majority of the respondent’s response, the overall tax collection procedures, performances and activities lacks proper supervision and control from the tax authority. Due to this fact huge tax levying has been done in the Town and this will consequently reduce the town’s revenue.
Analysis of interview results
As indicated in the methodology section, one of the data collection tools used was interview. The interview was conducted with Mettu Town Revenue Office head, Mettu Town Municipality mayor and Mettu Town trade and Market development Office head.
Concerning the sources of revenue in the town he explained that there are different revenue sources in the town. These are direct tax, indirect tax and non-tax revenues. The direct tax revenue sources are mentioned as, tax from salary, profit obtained from different trades and
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Regarding the efforts made to find new revenue sources, he pointed out that the revenue office is trying to find new revenue sources, but the effort done in this regard is not sufficient. He explained that that tax on bank interest is decided to be collected by the revenue office (paid to the revenue office) and also it is already planned to collect tax from house rent in the town. This indicates that little effort has been done to find new revenue sources in the town. The data of the amount of total tax revenue income collected during the past three years in the town is shown below.
Year Revenue Collected
2009 10, 109, 986.12
2010 11, 545, 553.54
2011 17, 296, 529.64
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Source: Mettu Town Revenue Office
The result shows that there is an increasing trend from year to year starting from the year 2002.The trend of the revenue shown above doesn’t include the revenue for the year 2005, since the collection is on progress and not ended yet. With respect to the number of tax payers during the past years, the data obtained shows the following figures.
Year No of tax payers
2009 1,041
2010 1,340
2011 1,340
Source: Mettu Town Revenue Office
When the researchers wanted to know the mechanisms that the town uses to give tax education for awareness creation, the interviewee said that different mechanisms have been used at different times to create awareness for tax payers. Giving training at schools for students to make them convince their family, brochures have been printed and distributed, training had been given on tax policies, awareness creation is done for those who come to complain, short term training had been given. But he said the effort made in this regard is not sufficient. The reason behind this insufficient effort is lack of human resource. Only two workers are working on awareness creation but they have many additional works & lack of expected knowledge and attitude which may make them inefficient on awareness creation. Thus from this one can conclude that, even though efforts have been done, the result achieved is still low due to lack of human resource and lack of expected skills on awareness creation.
Concerning voluntary compliance of tax payers in Mettu Town, the interview explained that majority of the tax payers including those who
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are aware about the tax payment are not voluntary to pay tax. Particularly, those who have large businesses and income don’t like paying taxes which is against to the conceptual frame work of tax payment. There are many tax payers that try to evade taxes though very few of them are voluntary to pay taxes. According to the response of the revenue office head, about how the revenue office serves the tax payers, there is no schedule prepared to serve the tax payers. The reason, according to him, is because the number of tax payers in the town is not as such large. He added that the office does not give annual leave to their workers during the time of tax collection so that the customers can easily be served by the tax collectors. As to him, the tax will be levied on them fairly as much as possible based on their accounting book of records for those who have books. Some times when the tax payers need to evade, tax will be levied based on the report from the third party. Finally, the tax payers will be given clearance after paying tax. Thus from the interview made, even though the revenue office is struggling to better serve their customers, the efforts done here were not as well as expected. No any better procedure, structure and system had been used to delight the customers rather than serving them.
Regarding the determination of the amount of tax to be by the tax payers, Mettu Town revenue Office head described that, the tax will be determined based on the records on the tax payers accounting book of records, based on the documents (income statements, receipts etc) provided by the tax payers. The other method used to determine the amount of tax to be levied on the tax payers is estimation of their income based on their trade/ business capacity (presumptive taxation). If the tax payer agrees on the determination, but unable to pay within the time determined, according to him, the office gives additional time for payment, however, he explains, if the tax payers disagrees to accept the tax levied, he/she has the right to present his/her complaint. The
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Even though the tax determination is based on the records of the tax payer’s book of records and the documents they provide for the revenue office which is in most of the cases not a true (real) document, and simply prepared fictitiously to evade government taxes, nothing had been done to control tax evasion in this aspect. On the other hand, trying to estimate the income of the tax payers may lead to under estimation or overestimation which may in turn result in less fairness in tax levying.
Regarding efficiency of tax collection, the revenue office head explained in the interview that there is a poor tax collection system in the town. Specially, regarding the controlling of tax evasion, he said that the big problem in this aspect is that most tax payers are not faithful about their income. For example, many tax payers and businesses do not give receipts for their customers up on payment; this will consequently result in reduced amount of revenue to be generated in the town. In addition there is a very few volunteer payers in the town. Due to this and other related factors our tax collection system is not efficient as such.
Therefore, one can conclude that tax collection system in Mettu Town is not as efficient as it wants to be.
With respect to issuance of receipts, he said that majority of the VAT registered tax payers do not give receipts for their customers unless the customers ask them. Sometimes the VAT registered tax payers give their own receipts, not the VAT receipts. In addition they sometimes,
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do not give receipt for large payments. For example, it they sell mobile telephone, the receipts they give shows only the sale of mobile cover, not the mobile telephone. In order to minimize this problem, we have employed tax intelligence to control them, but still this problem is not solved as a result of: - less experience of the tax intelligence, rent seeking, and unfaithfulness of some of the tax payers. Up on getting information on this, we give oral and written warnings to them. All of us, including the community have to report when they find such problems and they have to help us in bringing such individuals to court. Thus, the response of the interviewee on this aspect shows that the revenue office is trying to control such problems, but the problem is too wide to be controlled by the revenue office alone. It requires the cooperation among different stake holders and the large community. In this regard huge gap had been observed and more effort is expected to be done.
Concerning the collection of TOT, he said that, the collection of TOT is basically depending on the TOT receipts given to the customers upon payments they make. As previously described majority of the business men (tax payers) in Mettu town do not give receipts to their customers. Some of them only give receipts upon the request from the customers. Due to this fact the collection of TOT is very difficult to control. On the other hand, the majority of the TOT payers do not keep accounting book of records and this also hinders the collection of TOT. The amount of revenue collected in this regard is very small, since there is no controlling mechanism developed to overcome the problem. The TOT payers bring the receipts each three months and the tax will be determined based on the amount shown on the receipts. Therefore, from the interview made with the revenue office head one can conclude that there is no effective and efficient mechanism developed and used by the tax collectors. He also witnessed that the amount of collection made on TOT is below the expected ones because the tax payers do not
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give receipts to their customers and they do not keep accounting records. This will result in reduced amount of revenue to be generated for the town.
When he was asked to give his suggestion on how to make tax collection management efficient, he said that, they are entering to the SIGTAS (Standard Integrated Government Tax Administration System). Consequently, they were working to start cash register system in the town and also to prepare data base for tax payers. He believes that the revenue expected to be generated after the installation of this systems will be better than the current amount.
Concerning the relationship with Trade and Market Development Office of Mettu Town, the revenue office head in his interview revealed that, there is a work based network between revenue office and trade and market development office. He said, “We plan together and work together on licensing issues”. In addition, he explained that they were working to create a link with Mettu Town Transport Office. The licensing procedure follows the law. The municipality facilitates the town revenue collection system. The revenue of the municipality was collected by the revenue office but there was a huge gap on that collection especially up on the request of professional support.
Regarding the new tariff improvement released by Oromia Revenue Bureau, he pointed out that they did not yet started implementing it but they were almost being prepared to start. Up to date the town is using the old tariff. Interview has also been conducted with Mettu Town Municipality major on tax issues. The revenue of the town, according to him, comes from two major sources. Revenue of municipality and other non tax sources, and the ones obtained from taxes.
Concerning control of revenue collection by concerned bodies, he said that reports, evaluation meetings and personal super vision are mainly
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used as means of control. He added that although there is control, there are barriers to the collection of tax and non tax revenues. Some of these are lack of awareness of tax payers and corruption (rent seeking) of employer. Regarding improvement of the revenue collection of the town, he explained that modern collection system, better control and support by the concerned bodies and improved awareness creation system should be placed in the society.
The other issue raised was the relationship between revenue office and trade and market development office of the town since this is essential for controlling traders. He said that the relationship was not firm and they are less integrated. This implies that there is a loophole for controlling traders. In order to control TOT and VAT payment, issuance of receipt for customers is the base. The major explained that there is a great problem related to issuing receipts. Most of the business men do not issue receipts. This implies that most of the TOT and VAT collected remains in the hands of traders rather than paid to the tax authority. For the question, how you control without receipts, he said that the control is very weak and it has been difficult.
One of the issues raised was land lease policy. He explained that the municipality is getting ready to implement land lease policy. He said that the town expects large income from land lease and works hard to implement it. However, it was only under study up to the date of data collection that was June, 2012.
The third interview was made with Trade and Market Development Office Head of Mettu Town. The interviewee assured that the sources of revenue that his office is responsible to collect are: revenue collected from registration and revenue collected from services. He also added that the trend of annual revenue for the last three years has shown slight progress and the revenue collected is showing increasing trend.
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Regarding the control mechanism of licenses, that is whether the businesses do only the business for which they have already been licensed, he said that control was being made by supervising and creating awareness using his office workers. He also said that they perform their work cooperatively with the revenue office of the town to accomplish in a better way.
V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusion
Under this section, short summary of the analysis was presented shortly. To start with, most of the businesses in the town were run by the owners themselves which might enhance tax evasion and avoidance. In the same way, most of them were found in service businesses, which is the most difficult sector for the purpose of controlling tax evasion and tax avoidance. Most of the businesses in the town were also found in category C tax payers who do not keep book of records by low and pay tax by estimation (presumptive taxation). Estimating annual sales of a business can be difficult not only for the revenue office but also for the owners themselves because of demand flexibility economic cycle and seasonal sales. These all issues might contribute to revenue loss for the office.
Almost 45% of the businesses said that they keep accounting book of records. However, most of them were not giving receipts to customers. Normally, if they keep books, they should give receipts as evidence for recording. Such kind of act helps them to evade taxes from both directions. That means, they declare and escape from estimation of daily sales on one hand and they never record their sales since they do not give receipts to escape from decelerating higher tax amount on the other hand.
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Most of the business people suggest that they were voluntary to pay tax but they were not willing to give receipts and keep appropriate records. That is what they say is quite different from what they actually work because they said that they had awareness about taxation but practically it was not practiced.
In general, the reasons behind those who do not pay taxes voluntarily (forced) are:-Unfair amount of tax estimated by the tax collectors, Lack of confidence on the continuity of their business, Doubt fullness about the appropriate use of the collected revenue for development purposes are the major ones. Problems Observed in the Payment of Tax & Non- Tax Payments are; Lack of Skilled Man Power, Lack of Transparency, Delaying Service, Inability to Beer Responsibility, Mixed Product Selling Problems, VAT Registration, Rent Seeking and Lack of Proper Supervision and Control.
Recommendations
After analyzing the data and drawing conclusions the researchers suggested remedial actions that they believed can solve the problems of revenue mobilization in Mettu Town.
Tax education should be given not only to the businesses but also to the public at large. If the people are made aware about taking receipt after paying for goods and services, the traders cannot easily evade taxes. Therefore, in addition to teaching the businesses, the public should be made aware about receipts detail.
Tax intelligence should strengthened by the revenue office. Since tax is levied without the interest of individuals, it needs strict control because everyone wants to avoid or evade taxes rather than voluntarily complying since it is involuntary payment in its nature. Therefore, the office should employ experienced employees for tax intelligence team. It should also facilitate conditions for them to get appropriate training so
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that they can be equipped with the necessary techniques required for a tax intelligence team.
The office should give appropriate training on the keeping of accounting book of records. Many of the traders pretend that they keep accounting book of records although there is no record at all. Others simply keep their own notes rather than keeping legally accepted books. Therefore, the office should give appropriate training and follow up its implementation through its tax intelligence team.
The office should start modern system of tax management including cash register and SIGTAS to enhance its revenue mobilization.
The offices which implemented modern systems like cash register and SIGTAS have increased their revenue collection significantly. Although the budget year was not ended by the date the data of this research was collected, all the bench marked towns expect 50% increase in revenue only because of the modern system and strengthened tax intelligence. Therefore, Mettu town revenue office should also need to implement so that its revenue can be increased by 50%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researchers would like to appreciate the individuals and also the offices for their cooperation during data collection. First, our thanks go to the mayor of the town, for his genuine responses during the interview. Secondly, we would like to be grateful to the Revenue Office Head of Mettu Town, for his considerable time and brief explanation for our interview. Next, we would like to appreciate the Trade and Market Development Office Head of Mettu Town, for giving us the necessary information. Last, but not least, we are thankful to the business people of the town who were cooperative to fill the schedule.
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References
ERCA .(2010). Revenue Performance reports during 2007-2010 [1] (Unpublished Document), Addis Ababa’
Fjeldstad, O.-H. (2005). Local Governance and Poverty Reduction in [2] Africa. Workshop on Local Governance and Poverty Alleviation in Africa, African Development Bank. Tunis: Joint Africa Institute.
HOPR, (2002). The Federal Democratic Republic Of Ethiopia House [3] Of Peoples Representatives, Value Added Tax Proclamation No 285/2002, Birhanina Selam Printing Press, Addis Ababa.
Oromia Institute of City planning. 2011. Mettu City Profile, Mettu. [4] Shah, A. (1998). Fostering Fiscally Responsive and Accountable [5] Governance: Lessons from Decentralisation. (pp. 83-96, in R. Picciotto & E. Wiesner (eds) Evaluation and Development. The Institutional Dimension). New Brunswick/London:: Transaction Publishers.
Suresh N. Shende. 2002. Improving financial resources mobilization [6] in developing countries and economies in transition. United Nations, New York.
Vivien Chiam. (2011). Resource mobilization. Telecentre.org [7] Foundation, Quezon City
Yesegat W., A., (2008) Value Added Tax Administration In Ethiopia. [8] A Reflection of Problems, Accessed 20 Oct. 2010
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A RESEARCH PAPER ON RELATIONSHIP MARKETING THROUGH CUSTOMER LOYALTY BY MOBILE SERVICE PROVIDERS
Situn Krushna Sahu Assistant Professor Kalam Institute of Technology GovindaVihar, Govindapur Po: Laxmipur, Berhampur Odisha,India Abstract
Research Paper is about significance of relationship marketing. It is knowing about how brand building by companies for tackling commoditization of voice based service and customer churn. The paper finds that the emergence of social media has empowered the users because they were able to comment and recommend the firm’s products more effectively than before. This paper applies netnography and collects primary data and also data for analysis is taken from different literatures studied from secondary data to access consumer behaviour by relationship marketing benefit framework. Information is analysed and finally given conclusion. It focuses on relationship marketing of firms for its customers. It favours building mutually satisfying long- term relations with customers. Aim of marketing should be to enlarge the firm’s customer equity. There is a chance that making the same value proposition for the customers while choosing a service provider, will commoditise the brand. Customer Churn can be negated by brand identity creation and brand building exercises that could become unique selling proposition makes the customer preference to the marketing of the brand easy. Even customer trends and issues has to be identified by the company continuously for making a impact. Through loyal Customers all these made possible.
Keyword: Brand Building, Brand Identity, Commoditisation, Customer Churn, Customer Loyalty, Relationship Marketing
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Building a base of committed customers who are profitable for the company by creating differentiation is the essence of relationship marketing. It advocates building mutually satisfying long term relations with customers. Focus of the firms are on attraction, retention and enhancement of customer relationship. One of the major dimensions of relationship marketing is customer preference. Firms are putting the bulk of their resources behind providing customised solution, and organising them in a way so as to produce and deliver value to customer segments.
Relationship marketing emphasises on forming strong bond with customers. Service provider logic must be understood that cost of servicing existing customers for repeat purchases is low compared to that of attracting new customers for new sale. Customer equity is more when there are loyal customers. India’s telecom services market is moving up in a growth trajectory. Customer churn is acute in this industry. Era of price wars and commoditisation of core voice-based services are the challenges. Service providers need to understand the benefits of relationships. In turn it will lead to development of long lasting bond.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
1Telecom services have been acknowledged globally as an essential tool for the socio-economic development of a nation. India is currently the world’s second largest telecommunications market.Initiatives taken by Indian mobile operators supported by regulatory policies have transformed the telecom landscape in the span of just over a decade.2Driven by strong adoption of data consumption on handheld
1Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia. Telecommunications_in_India. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_India. 2http://indiainbusiness.nic.in/newdesign/index.php?param=industryservices_la
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devices, the total mobile services market revenue in India is expected to touch US$ 37 billion in 2017, registering a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 5.2 per cent between 2014 and 2017, according to research firm IDC.India's mobile subscriber base is expected to cross 500 millionSubscribers by the end of FY2015 from 453 million subscribers at the end of FY2014.
Telecom service providers will contribute to the government’s ambitious Rs 1.13 lakh crore ’Digital India’ initiative where it plans to use national fiber optic network project to deliver e-services in areas such as health, education to every nook and corner of the country.On the last mile, these services can be accessed by all Indians via smartphones by 2019.3Also government’s decision to set up 100 smart cities and earmark an outlay of Rs7060 crore for the project is an idea that seems to have caught the imagination of various stakeholders.
Though Telecom Services has registered exceptional growth in the past few years, according to a survey, with 4churn of 2 per cent a month an operator is losing 24 percent of its customers every year, the fact remains that the telecom industries bottom line is getting affected significantly due to the high churn rate.
Raj Kumar and Harish (2011) have concluded that price has positive significant impact on consumer while choosing particular service provider. It is a challenge for many companies’ strategies. Parhmarajah (1993) has defined relationship marketing as “the process whereby the seller and the buyer join in a strong personal, professional and mutually profitable relationship over time”. Relationship marketing philosophy as viewed by Gronroos(1994) aims
nding/371/2 3Rakesh Joshi, (2014, August, 18-31). “Cracking the smart cities code”, Business India. 4Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia. Retrieved from http://en.wik ipedia. org/ wiki/Customer_attrition
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3. RELATIONSHIP MARKETINGRelationship marketing is making beneficial relationship with the customers. It focuses towards customer benefits side of the value creations. 6It epitomises a shift from traditional marketing which is transaction focus towards relationship focus.
5Philip Kotler. Marketing Management: Setting the product and branding strategy (PP.406-442). (11thEd.) New Delhi: Pearson Education 6Valarie A Zeithaml, Mary Jo Bitner, Dwayne D Gremler, Ajay Pandit. Services Marketing: Relationship Marketing (PP.184-185). (5th Ed.) New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill.
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incresed buying
employee reduced retention Benefit of costs customer retention
good increased word of profits mouth
Fig-1. Benefits of customer retention framework
As depicted in Fig-1, for organisations the benefits of customer retention are increased buying, reduced costs, increased profits, good word of mouth, and employee retention.
7Bringing customers through the customer database is the aspect important for a company. Attraction, retention and customer relationship is the emphasis. Proper segmentation in customer preference makes way for companies to deliver value. Buyer purchase a particular service with reduced cost which is in turn profit by the company then word of mouth of referral markets makes way for customer retention.
4. ISSUES & CHALLENGES
The issues and challenges faced by the mobile service providers are
7Icfai Centre for Management Research. Services Marketing: Relationship Marketing, (PP.139-149).
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8 . Increased network congestion and the consequent Quality of Service. The Mobile Number Portability (MNP), wherein a subscriber can retain their existing mobile number, while switching from one service provider to another by paying a nominal fee.
9 . The local penetration in urban and rural is important. The companies wants to expand. Airtel has operations in 20 countries across Asia and Africa. Globally, the company ranks amongst the top 3 mobile service providers in terms of number of subscribers.
10 . Internet usage by mobile phone users stands as low as 25% when compared with countries like USA and China stand at 85% and 46% respectively.
11 . Net Neutrality envisages that service providers will treat all data on the internet equally and not impose differential pricing or discriminate among users, content sites, platforms and apps such as Facebook and Twitter which use the telecom network to deliver services without paying the network operators.
. Though various telecom service providers are providing 2G, 3G and 4G services, there is currently a clear mismatch between the user experience one gets through fixed lines and that on mobile.
. While Wi-Fi is pervasive in Western countries, with plenty of public hot spots, it is limited to office infrastructure in India. Green field airports, swanky malls, and coffee shops in India
8www.coai.com 9 “World is taking note of India”, Economictimes. 22 January 2015. 10"Airtel Staff Turn Internet Guides for Consumers", Economictimes, 11 December 2014. 11 “Keep the Net Neutral”, Economictimes, 29 December 2014.
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provide Wi-Fi hotspots with free access. But Wi-Fi is still scarce in public areas like bus terminals and railway stations.
5. THIS STUDY WILL HELP
. To know about the significance of benefits of relationship marketing.
. Analyze gradual shift from churn model to relationship model in customer retention.
. Importance in brand identity the companies are projecting through its relationship marketing strategies.
5.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
. The major objective of the research is to understand the significance of relationship marketing. To find out what benefits the companies are giving for a better customer value.
. Knowing about commoditization of core voice-based services,&customer churn challenges.
. To understand brand identity of the companies through its relationship marketing strategies.
. At what point , should the firm start taking a long term view of the relationships and go for investing heavily in relationships
5.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methodology depends, to a large extent, on the target population, and how easy or difficult to access it. This paper applies netnography and collects primary data to access consumer behavior. It also uses for data collection in research and analysis of secondary data.
Netnography, a term coined by Robert V. Kozinets (1998), is a new qualitative research method that often uses online marketing research
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techniques to acquire useful insights to analyse the free behavior of individual and investigative consumer behavior in online communities.Netnography is different from traditional marketing research method, such as interviews, questionnaires and focus groups. It is less obtrusive, faster, easier, and cheaper than ethnographic methods (Kozinets, 2011). According to Xun and Reynolds (2010), netnography enables the organization to reach broader respondents thereby allowing the firm greater capacity and flexibility to observe and analyse consumption pattern and behavior.
This paper selects 12samples of online communities namely 13LocalCircles and Google report, and secondary data from which is collected through different websites, journals and newspapers.
5.3 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
This study is based onnetnographysamples of online communities from a large community poll and collects primary data &secondary data which is collected through different websites, journals and newspapers.
For this research the sample size was20,000 citizens. The target respondents of this research are from community “transform India with Modi”.
5.4 DATA SOURCES
. Netnography are samples of online communities from a large community poll and collects primary data.
. Secondary Data is the relevant data collected from:
a. Journals and Business Magazines.
b. Text books
12LocalCircles (https://www.localcircles.com/a/), India’s leading Community Social Media networkconcluded a large community poll to better understand the state of Telecom Services in India. 13http://tinyurl.com/Improving-Telecom-services
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c. World Wide Web,
d. Company Brochures,
e. Pamphlets etc. 5.5SCOPE OF THE STUDY
i. Contribute towards achieving personal and organizational goals.
ii. A Company can use the study as feedback.
iii. Retailers can use the study for updating their stores.
iv. A student may use the study for the help of their thesis. 5.6 LIMITATION
a) It may be outdated, if the information which is two years old, about consumer preferences, and these may have changed over time.
b) It may be done for a different purpose and therefore be biased.
c) It is based on personal observation we always cannot articulate it finale.
d) The sample or the methodology may be different from, or unrepresentative of, the target population we are studying.
6. FINDINGS A summary of the Onlinedata and analysis of primary data shown on figures 2& 3 ofLocalCircles, India’s leading Community Social Media network.
In fig-2 the Telecom poll provides quantitative insights into the quality of telecom services in India, the citizen grievances and India’s stand on Net Neutrality.In addition to the poll, detailed structured discussion was conducted on Telecom services in India.The poll and structures discussions were conducted in the 2, 00,000 strong community
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Here are the key takeaways from the state of Telecom Services poll
1) 19% of the citizens rate mobile voice services as good while 27% of the citizens rate them as poor
2) Only 11% of the citizens rate their data services quality as good while 43% rate them as poor
3) 53% of the citizens find telecom services expensive, 44% find them as value for money or cheap
4) Only 32% of citizens trust their telecom provider when it comes to correctness of charges levied
5) 77% of the citizens believe the Government/Telecom Regulator have not done enough to address issues
6) 77% of the citizens want Government/TRAI to do what is takes to ensure Net Neutrality
Fig-2 Online community LocalCircles
The survey said 43% of the phone users in India are dissatisfied with the quality of data services while another 43% have rated it as average.The community poll conducted found, 53% of the surveyed people said the quality of network coverage was average while 27% expressed discontent with the coverage. Another 53% stated the tariffs charged by the operators to be expensive while 38% voted it as “value for money”. As per the study, a whopping 77% of the respondents said the central government and telecom regulatory authorities have “not done enough” to address issues faced by the consumers and another 77% said they want operators to bill them based on usage and services opted for instead of generalised packages.
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14The Google India report for YouTube shown on fig - 3, over 60 percent of views were now coming from mobile phones. In the classifieds space, online job listings saw revival with over 41 percent job-related searches coming from mobile phones.
YouTube over 60 percent of views were now coming from mobile phones.
In the online job listings saw revival with over 41 percent classifieds space job-related searches coming from mobile phones.
Fig-3 Google
7. FINDINGS
Information collected from primary data andsecondary data is analysed. It was taken from netnographysamples of online communities from a large community poll andalso from available literature on development of relationship marketing. Knowing the concepts of relationship marketing, the information is studied. According to the collective view of the community, immediate efforts are needed by the Telecom Regulator and the operators to improve the voice and data service quality by reducing call drops, improving coverage and quality. Citizens also want the telecom Regulator to establish a robust grievance mechanism with effective processes in case the customer is not able to resolve the matter with the telecom operator.Net neutrality is something that the large majority of the citizens support and want the telecom regulator to ensure consumer interest is protected at all costs.Overall, the regulator should work towards taking some immediate steps to improve quality of telecom services and the consumer confidence in the regulator and telecom operators. Also most people are viewing popular websites by browsing mobile, which makes
14http://gadgets.ndtv.com/mobiles/news/mobile-growth-shaping-indias-internet- usage-google-survey-807154
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clear indication that the data browsing speed should be improved and technical compatible features should be added.
There is need for maintaining relationships with customers. Relationships are immensely beneficial both to the customers and the organisation if customer views are adhered. In customer management a company has to determine which of its customer groups are worth keeping and which ones are not. As shown in the data there are customer who are to be given extra care and attention and for whom standard service is sufficient.
Relationship marketing makes service providers to aim at having lasting affiliation with customer influencers like suppliers, recruiters, creditors, consumer associations, shareholders, government agencies, channel members, trade unions, community groups, environmental groups etc. The benefits of customer retention are immense for organisations. Brand identity is a company’s projection for the customers. It is the set of associations the company which represent what the brand stands for the customers. Brand building through differentiating services will do success in the market place. Loyalty programs should be designed with different themes. As companies effectively allocate resources to retain their most desirable customers, firms may also discover that it is harder to win customer loyalty and there is more competition for the same set of customers. Consumers are well known for picking loyalty programs for attaining incentives and discounts.Brand building, differentiation, customer loyalty is the way for making relationship marketing a success.
8. CONCLUSION Competition in the telecom sector, has made the customers receive the maximum benefit. In the present era of globalized competition every marketer has to perform the herculean task of getting the brand into the minds of the customers and therefore has to evolve novel ways by
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chewing over one or more ideas. Growing complexities and uncertainties at the market place along with intensifying global competition are forcing the business organization to invest in building customer relationships.
Companies are doing brand building exercise in differentiating their offers through advertisement and continuingly doing over time and again. This strategy makes customer choosing a particular company services easy. It’s continue focus makes the brand recall by the customers. The success of any organization primarily depends upon the sustaining the customer advantage that is retaining the customers for lifetime. New and sophisticated marketing tool kits are being designed to attract, satisfy and retain customers for achieving sustainable advantage. Customer choose different services from the same company become repeat buyers. Thus repeat buyers in turn become loyal customers for the companies.
Reference
th 1. Philip Kotler. Marketing Management (11 Ed.) New Delhi: Pearson Education th 2. VS Ramaswamy, S Namakumari. Marketing Management (4 Ed.) New Delhi: Macmillan nd 3. P.C. Jain, Monica Bhatt. Consumer Behaviour (2 Ed.) New Delhi :S. Chand nd 4. Harsh V Verma. Brand Management (2 Ed.) New Delhi : Excel Books th 5. Richard I. Levin , David S. Rubin. Statistics for Management (7 Ed.) New Delhi : Prentice Hall of India rd 6. Rajendra Nargundkar. Marketing Research (3 Ed.)New Delhi : McGraw-Hill 7. www.coai.com 8. www.dot.gov.in 9. www.ibef.org 10. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/ 11. www.business-standard.com 12. https://www.localcircles.com/
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ADMINISTRATIVE STEPS AND EFFORTS TOWARDS EDUCATION S.P.Pullanna Ph.D Research Scholar Dept. of Sociology S.K.University Anantapuram INTRODUCTION
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
“I beg to place the following resolution before the council for its consideration.…the state should accept in this country the same responsibility in regard to mass education that the government of most civilized countries are already discharging and that a well-considered scheme should be drawn up and adhered to till it is carried out.. The well-being of millions upon millions of children who are waiting to be brought under the influence education depends upon it…”
The above words are part of the resolution which Gopal Krishna Gokhale moved in the Imperial Legislative Council on 18th march, 1910 for seeking provision of ‘Free and Compulsory Primary Education” in India.
If Gopal Krishna Gokhle, one of the greatest sons of India, would have been alive today, he would have been the happiest person to see his dream of ‘Right to Education’ for the children of the country come true. It was he who, a hundred years ago, urged the Imperial Legislative Assembly confer such a right on Indian children. That goal has been realized a century later.
The present Act has its history in the drafting of the Indian constitution at the time of Independencebut is more specifically to the
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1. Free and compulsory education to all children of India in the six to 14 age group;
2. No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until completion of elementary education;
3. A child above six years of age has not been admitted in any school or though admitted, could not complete his or her elementary education, then, he or she shall be admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age; Provided that where a child is directly admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age, then, he or she shall, in order to be at par with others, have a right to receive special training, in such manner, and within such timelimits, as may be prescribed: Provided further that a child so admitted to elementary education shall be entitled to free education till completion of elementary education even after fourteen years.
4. Proof of age for admission: For the purposes of admission to elementary education. The age of a child shall be determined on the basis of the birth certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of the Births. Deaths and Marriages Registration Act,1856 or on the basis of such other document, as may be prescribed. No child shall be denied admission in a school for lack of age proof;
5. A child who completes elementary education shall be awarded a certificate;
6. Calls for a fixed student-teacher ratio;
7. Provides for 25 percent reservation for economically disadvantaged communities in admission to Class One in all private schools;
8. Mandates improvement in quality of education;
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9. School teachers will need adequate professional degree within five years or else will lose job;
10. School infrastructure (where there is problem) to be improved in three years, else recognition cancelled;
11. Financial burden will be shared between state and central government.
In a very brief, the Act provides for neighbourhood schools within reach, with no school refusing admission to any child. It also provides for adequate number of qualified teachers to maintain a ratio of one teacher for every 30 students. The schools have to train all its teachers within 5 years. They have to ensure proper infrastructure, which includes a playground, library, adequatenumber of classrooms, toilets, barriers free access for physically challenged children and drinking water facilities within three years. 75% members of the school management committees will comprise parents of the students who will monitor the functioning of the schools and utilization of grants. The school management Committees or the local authorities will identify the out of school children and admit them to standards appropriate to their age, after giving them proper training.
4.2 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
The SSA programme is an endeavour to provide an opportunity for improving human capabilities of all children, through the provision of community-owned quality education in a mission mode. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan had been set with specific targets. These are:
• All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School or ‘Back-to-School’ camp by 2003.
• All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007.
• Children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010.
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• Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life.
• Bridge all gender and social category gaps at the primary stage by 2007 and at the elementary education level by 2010.
• Universal retention by 2010.
More recently, the Government of India has launched in 2001 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan(SSA) a flagship pogramme in partnership with the state government to cover the entire country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1.1 million habitations. The SSA is an extensive scheme to universalize elementary education through district based, decentralized specific planning and implementation strategy by community ownership of the school system. The scheme subsumes all other major governmental educational interventions of the entire country. The SSA is to provide useful and relevant elementary education for children in the 6-14 age groups by 2010.
The SSA focused mainly on alternative Schooling, Children with special needs, Community mobilization, Girls Education, Quality of Elementary Education. The SSA is based on the premise that financing of elementary education interventions has to be sustainable. This calls for a long-term perspective on financial partnership between the Central and the State governments.
The programmes call for community ownership of school-based interventions through effective decentralization. This will be augmented by involvement of women’s group and members of Panchayati Raj institutions. The Programmed will have a community based monitoring system.
The Educational Management Information System will correlate school level data with community-based information from micro planning and surveys . Besides this, every school will be encouraged to share all
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information with the community, including grants receive. A notice board would be put up in every school for this purpose. SSA lays a special thrust on making education at the elementary level useful and relevant for children by improving the curriculum, child-centered activities and effective teaching learning strategies. It also recognized the critical and central role of teachers and advocates a focus on their development needs, setting up of block Resource centers, cluster resource centers, recruitment of qualified teachers, opportunities for teacher development through participation in curriculum-related material development, focus on classroom process and exposure visits for teachers are all designed to develop the human resource among teachers. As per the its framework, each district will prepare a District Elementary Education Plan reflecting all the investment being made andrequired in the elementary education sector, with a holistic and convergent approach. There will be a Perspective Plan that will give a framework of activities over a longer time frame to achieve aim. There will also be an Annual Work Plan and Budget that will list the prioritized activities tobe carried out in that year. The Perspective Plan will also be a dynamic document subject to constant improvement in the course of programmed implementation. SSA played an important role in making waking individual regard child education as well as child right. It affects the every level of administration to control and make aware of children welfare, right, interest etc.Though the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is being administered through government and government aided schools, some private unaided schools are also actively involved in contributing towards universal elementary education. Recently, the government entered into anagreement with the World Bank(External website that opens in a new window) for assistance to the tune of US $ 600 million to fund the second phase of the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is a valuable endeavour of the Government of India, in the universalization of elementary education, which strives to
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help citizens to realise the importance of elementary education. Social justice and equity are by themselves a strong argument for providing basic education for all. Provision of basic education also improves the standard of living, especially with regard to life expectancy, infant mortality and nutritional status of children.
4.3 Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan(RMSA) is aimed at expanding and improving the standards of secondary education classes’ eighth to tenth. The RMSA would also take secondary education to every corner of the country by ensuring a secondary school within a radius of five km for every neighbourhood. RMSA which is the most recent initiative of Government of India to achieve the goal of universalization of secondary education. The SSA program set up by the government to bring elementary education to millions of children has been successful to a large extent, and has thus created a need for strengthening secondary education infrastructure across the country. The HRD Ministry has taken note of this, and now plans to implement a secondary education scheme called RMSA during the 11th plan. “With the successful implementation of the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, a large number of students are passing out from upper primary classes creating a huge demand for secondary education,” the HRD Ministry said.
1. To ensure that all secondary schools have physical facilities, staffs and supplies at leastaccording to the prescribed standards through financial support in case of Government/Local Body and Government aided schools, and appropriate regulatory mechanism in thecase of other schools,
2. To improve access to secondary schooling to all young persons according to normsthrough proximate location efficient and safe transport arrangements and residentialfacilities, depending on local
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3. To ensure that no child is deprived of secondary education of satisfactory quality due togender, socio-economic, disability and other barriers
4. To improve quality of secondary education resulting in enhanced intellectual, social andCultural learning.
5. To ensure that all students pursuing secondary education receive education of goodquality.
6. Achievement of the above objectives would also, inter-alia, signify substantial progressin the direction of the Common School System.
4.4 Mid-Day Meal
The Mid-day Meal Scheme is the popular name for school meal programme in India which started in the 1960s.It involves provision of lunch free of cost to school-children on all working days. The key objectives of the programme are: protecting children from classroom hunger, increasing school enrolment and attendance, improved socialization among children belonging to all castes, addressing malnutrition, and social empowerment through provision of employment to women. The scheme has a long history especially in the state of Tamil Nadu introduced statewide by the then Chief MinisterK. Kamaraj in 1960s and later expanded by M. G. Ramachandran government in 1982 has been adopted by most of the states in India after a landmark direction by the Supreme Court of India on November 28, 2001. The success of this scheme is illustrated by the tremendous increase in the school participation and completion rates in the state of Tamil Nadu.
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Various orders and memos from the Ministry of the Rural Development during the last fifteen years have not been enough to feed the primary school children, specially the target group-the needy and the malnourished, through the National Programme for Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE), popularly known as Mid- Day Meal Programme(MDM).
The MDM is the world’s largest school feeding programme reaching out to about 12 crore children in over 9.50 lakh schools/EGS centers across the country.
MDM in schools has had a long history in India. In 1925, a MDM Programme was introduced for disadvantaged children in Madras Municipal Corporation. By the mid-1980s three States viz. Gujarat, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and the UT of Pondicherry had universalized a cooked Mid-Day Meal Programme with their own resources for children studying at the primary stage By 1990-91 the number of States implementing the mid-day meal programme with their own resources on a universal or a large scale had increased to twelve states.
The objectives of the MDM scheme are:
• Improving the nutritional status of children in classes I-V in Government, Local Body and Government aided schools, and EGS and AIE centres.
• Encouraging poor children, belonging to disadvantaged sections, to attend school more regularly and help them concentrate on classroom activities.
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• Providing nutritional support to children of primary stage in drought affected areas during summer vacation.
With a view to enhancing enrollment, retention and attendance and simultaneously improving nutritional levels among children, theNP- NSPE was launched as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme on 15th August 1995, initially in 2408 blocks in the country. By the year 1997-98 the NP-NSPE was introduced in all blocks of the country. It was further extended in 2002 to cover not only children in classes I -V of government, government aided and local body schools, but also children studying in EGS and AIE centers. Central Assistance under the scheme consisted of free supply of food grains @ 100 grams per child per school day, and subsidy for transportation of food grains up to a maximum of Rs 50 per quintal.
In September 2004 the scheme was revised to provide cooked mid-day meal with 300 calories and 8-12 grams of protein to all children studying in classes I – V in Government and aided schools and EGS/ AIE centers. In addition to free supply of food grains, the revised scheme provided Central Assistance for (a) Cooking cost @ Re 1 per child per school day, (b) Transport subsidy was raised from the earlier maximum of Rs 50 per quintal to Rs. 100 per quintal for special category states, and Rs 75 per quintal for other states, (c) Management, monitoring and evaluation costs @ 2% of the cost of food grains, transport subsidy and cooking assistance, (d) Provision of mid-day meal during summer vacation in drought affected areas. In July 2006 the scheme was further revised to provide assistance for cooking cost at the rate of (a) Rs 1.80 per child/school day for States in the North Eastern Region, provided the NER States contribute Rs 0.20 per child/school day, and (b) Rs 1.50 per child/ school day for other States and UTs, provided that these States and UTs contribute Rs 0.50 per child/school day.
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Today, MDM scheme is serving primary & upper primary school children in entire country.
Apart from these programmes, Government of India has been initiated National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Education. It is being implemented in educationally backward blocks, where the level of rural female literacy is less than the national average and the gender GAP is more than the national average. About 3286 educationally backward blocks are covered under the scheme in 25 states.
In April 2001 People’s Union for Civil Liberties (Rajasthan) initiated the now famous right to food litigation. This public interest litigation has covered a large range of issues relating to right to food, but the best known intervention by the court is on mid-day meals. In one of its many direction in the litigation the Supreme Court directed the government to fully implement its scheme of providing cooked meals to all children in primary schools. This landmark direction converted the mid-day meal scheme into a legal entitlement, the violation of which
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4.5 Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya
The Government of India launched a scheme called Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) with the objective to ensure access and quality education to the girls of disadvantaged communities by setting up residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level. In Bihar, till today, 385 KGBV centres have been set up since October 2005 and are functioning to serve the educational needs of approximately 35,938 girls from the disadvantaged communities.
The KGBV scheme is to be implemented in coordination with other existing schemes, and in Bihar, it is being implemented through the Mahila Samakhya (MS) Society in the districts where MS exists, and other districts by Bihar Education Project Council in collaboration with local NGOs/VSS.
The scheme is applicable in those identified Educationally Backward Blocks (EBBs) where, as per census data of 2001, the rural female literacy is below the national average, i.e. 46.58% and gender gap in literacy is more than the national average i.e. 21.7%. Among these blocks, residential schools are to be set up in areas with:
Concentration of tribal population, with low female literacy and / or a large number of girls out of school; Concentration of SC, OBC and minority populations, with low female literacy and/or a large number of girls out of school;with low female literacy; orAreas with a large number of small-scattered habitations that do not qualify for a school.
Objectives of KGBV
The objective of KGBV is to ensure access and quality education to the girls of disadvantaged groups of society by setting up residential schools
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Strategies
495 KGBV will be opened in a phased manner.
Such residential schools will be set up only in those backward blocks that do not have residential schools for elementary education of girls under any other scheme including that of Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment and Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
In the state, all the KGBV centres follow the same strategy, which is to provide the enrolled girls with hostel facilities, remedial teaching and life skills. While they learn upper primary level education curriculum at formal schools during schools’ operation period, the KGBV centres provide them with remedial teachers who support them to cope with the learning at schools and also facilitate them to gain life skills, ranging from critical thinking skills to bicycle riding. The KGBV centres that are managed by Mahila Samakhya are following the same functioning structure with the Mahila Shikshan Kendra, residential bridge course programme of Mahila Samakhya. The girls are divided into three groups based on their academic achievement, and being supported by the teachers based on their levels, and they are provided with empowerment programme following Jagjagi manual, vocational training, karate practice, yoga etc, all of which try to aim the empowerment and development of the girls in holistic nature.
Components of the scheme
i. Setting up of residential schools where there are a minimum of 50 girls predominantly from the SC, ST and minority communities available to study in the school at the elementary level. The number can be more than 50 depending on the number of eligible girls.
ii. To provide necessary infrastructure for these schools
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iv. To put in place appropriate systems to provide necessary academic support and for evaluation and monitoring
v. To motivate and prepare the girls and their families to send them to residential school
vi. At the primary level the emphasis will be on the slightly older girls who are out of school and were unable to complete primary schools (10+). However, in difficult areas (migratory populations, scattered habitations that do not qualify for primary/ upper primary schools) younger girls can also be targeted
vii. At the upper primary level, emphasis will be on girls, especially, adolescent girls who are unable to go to regular schools In view of the targeted nature of the scheme, 75% girls from SC, ST, OBC or minority communities would be accorded priority for enrolment in such residential schools and only thereafter, 25% girls from families below poverty line. Established NGOs and other non-profit making bodies will be involved in the running of the schools, wherever possible. These residential schools can also be adopted by the corporate groups. Separate guidelines are being issued in the matter
The National Literacy Mission has been launched recently as Saakshar Bharat in which at least 7 crore non-illiterates will be made literate to achieve 80% literacy and to reduce gender disparity in literacy from 21% to 10%. 365 districts in the country, with adult female literacy rate 50% or less, have been identified for the implementation of Saakshar Bharat.
Though all these plans are working well, but there are so many instance where many inconsistencies and lacunas are present, because nothing is absolute and perfect in this universe.
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4.6 Lacunas in Programmes
The RTE Model Rules under RTE Act, 2009 have finalized in February 2010 provide guidelines to be followed by the states to implement the RTE Act. Some of these rules, however, need to be reassessed in order to maximize the chances for success in their implementation.
There is provision mentioned under RTE such as, “No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until completion of elementary education”, this very provision is very bad in itself. As without obtaining proper ability and qualification, no child can understand in his next class. It will create similar effect of illiteracy and it may be possible that if he/she is not able to understand to what is going on, may create mental agony.
Second where a child above six years of age has not been admitted in any school and if such child is admitted in class appropriate to his age, it will create similar effect as the first one.
The Model Rules hardly provide any details on the implementation of the 25 per cent reservation in private schools. There are many unanswered questions such as;
1. How are weaker and disadvantaged sections defined and verified?
2. How will the government select these students for entry level class?
3. What will be the mechanism for reimbursement to private schools?
4. How will the government monitor the whole process?
5. Would the admission lottery be conducted by neighborhood or by entire village/town/city?
6. What would happen if some of these students need to change school in higher classes?
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The reimbursement to private unaided schools for the 25 per cent quota should be calculated not only on the basis of the recurring expenditure in government schools but should also include thefixed or capital expenditures with due allowance for depreciation of assets and interest costs including other costs related to elementary education at all levels of the State Government.
The actual position of Mid Meal Programme is also not very good. There are so many incidents and news about insufficient quality of foods/meal given to children. Various scams involving Mid-Day Meal Scheme have been unearthed since it was started.
In January 2006, the Delhi Police unearthed a scam in the Mid-Day Meal Scheme. In December 2005, the police had seized eight truckloads (2,760 sacks) of rice meant for primary schoolchildren being carried from Food Corporation of India (FCI) godowns in Bulandshahr District of UP to North Delhi. When the police detained the trucks, the drivers claimed that the rice was being brought all the way to Delhi to be cleaned at a factory. However, according to the guidelines, the rice has to be taken directly from FCI godown to the school or village concerned. Later it was found that the rice was being siphoned off by a UP-based NGO, Bharatiya Manav Kalyan Parishad (BMKP), in connivance with the government officials.
In November 2006, the residents of Pembong village under the Mim tea estate (around 30 km from Darjeeling), accused a group of teachers of embezzling mid-day meals. In a written complaint, the residents claimed that students at the primary school had not got midday meal for the past 18 months.
In December 2006, The Times of India reported a scam involving government schools that siphon off foodgrains under the mid-day meal scheme by faking attendance. The modus operandi of the schools was simple—the attendance register would exaggerate the number of
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Another instance is, that in April, 2010 in Pune more than 70 children – most of them aged between six and 13 – were hospitalized on Friday after having lunch under the mid-day meal scheme at their school at Bopodi, which is run by the PuneMunicipal Corporation (PMC). Shockingly, dead insects, flies and even tiny pieces of magnets were found in the food served to the children. PMCschool board chairman Sangeeta Tiwari, after visiting the school,said that”The khichadi (rice and daal preparation) was foul-smelling We were shocked to seethe quality of the food”.
Despite the success of the program, child hunger as a problem persists in India. According to current statistics, 42.5% of the children under 5 are underweight. This is due to simple reasons such as not using iodized salt. “India is home to the world’s largest food insecure population, with more than 200 million people who are hungry,” India State Hunger Index (ISHI) said, adding that the country’s poor performance is driven by its high levels of child under-nutrition and poor calorie count. “Its rates of child malnutrition is higher than most countries in Sub Saharan Africa,” it noted. A report released as part of the 2009 Global Hunger Index ranks India at 65 out of 84 countries. The 2008 report says that India has more people suffering hunger – a
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A Citizen’s Review Report (7th Jan, 2008) on “India’s Progress on the MDGs” showed that 55% of Muslims have never attended school compared to national average of 41% (rural); In Bihar 86% of enrolled children drop-out by Standard VI. 99% Dalit children study in Public schools & inadequate facilities and infrastructure as major problem for access to health & education. Whether SSA is performing well but the corruption is also there. The funds are misused.
The total budget for ‘SSA’ stands at Rs.131 billion and the scheme’s operation has come under severe flak from India’s official auditor, the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG). Out of Rs 8004.71-crore allotted for the development work of “Elementary Education” and “SSA”, only Rs 2,324.99 crore was spent through record. For rest of the money spent on the development work there no records available & Human Resource Department is clueless about rest of the money. It means rest of the money was simply siphoned off. In this Gujarat and Rajasthan governments come first in misusing the funds! Despite the success of the program, child hunger as a problem persists in India. According to current statistics, 42.5% of the children under 5 are underweight. This is due to simple reasons such as not using iodized salt. “India is home to the world’s largest food insecure population, with more than 200 million people who are hungry,” India State Hunger Index (ISHI) said, adding that the country’s poor performance is driven by its high levels of child under-nutrition and poor calorie count. “Its rates of child malnutrition is higher than most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa,” it noted. A report released as part of the 2009 Global Hunger Index ranks India at 65 out of 84 countries. The 2008 report says that India has more people suffering hunger – a figure above 200 million – than any other country in the world, it says. The
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Child labour is also a main problem. According to an article published in “Nyaya Deep” by Justice Ajit Prakash Shah :-
ALL INDIA
1. Census 2001- 5,79,841 children in the age group of 0-4 years are engaged in household activities in India.
2. Census 2001- 13 million child labourers in age group of 5-14 years i.e. children who are economically active.
3. NSSO’s 61st Report (2004-05)- estimated child labour in India at 8.6 million.
4. “Nowhere children” (i.e. children who are neither in school nor working)- 75 million children who are ‘nowhere’.
5. Education Statistics provided by MHRD, number of children who are out of school during 1997-98 to 2004-05 is 6.55 crores.
6. Proportion of out of school children in the 6-13 age group, computed on the basis of door to door annual surveys of teachers, is reported to about 3.5% (about 75 lakh children) in 2006-07 from 6.94% in September 2005.
IN DELHI
1. Dropout rate is 69.06%
2. In absolute numbers, there are 1.5 million children who are drop outs or who have never been sent to school. However, these children are not counted when calculating thenumbers of ‘out of school’ children. Therefore, the estimate of the Education Department of ‘out of school’ children remains at 54,220.
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3. 80% of Class V who pass out of MCD schools do not know how to read and write their names.
4. Only 14% of students who enter government school in Class I make it to Class X.
5. It is estimated that 25%-30% of children drop out between classes I to V.
The standards of the Government, municipal schools are appalling. Apart from the inadequacy of infrastructure, there is shocking incidents of absenteeism and neglect on the part of many teachers in Government schools. The school inspection system has practically broken down in many parts in India. Another disturbing element is that that the teachers in Government schools are forced to engage in variety of Governmental works like dise-dine census, elections to local authorities, state legislatures and Parliament and disaster relief duties.
Conclusion
In the context of globalisation, education assumes greater meaning. Greatness of a nation should not be measured by its ranking in global economic order, but by its ability to provide quality education. The last two decade have shown enormous improvement in the literacy scene in the country as reflected by the average literacy figures. Education is perhaps the most vital requirement for inclusive growth, empowering individual and society, opening up opportunities and promoting true public participation in the development process. It is an important factor that fuels both social change and economic growth.
How much education does India need, and for what purpose? We can readily agree that universal good quality basic education is a requisite and moral requirement of all modernsocieties, for the sake of social equity, cultural values, and economic functionality. India is actively pushing forward with its agenda for revamping and restructuring
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We have seen in this paper Right to Education is now a Fundamental Right for all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years. In simple word, it means that the Government will be responsible for providing education to every child up to the eight standards, free of cost, irrespective of class and gender. Part III of the Constitution of India gives all force to every child to get free and compulsory education through Art.21, and insertion of Art.21-A by 86th Amendment is also a landmark in this respect. Thanks to scheme like SSA and MDM Scheme, which are providing almost all necessary requirements to the ‘Future of India’ Enrolment rates in schools have gone up, as the number of schools is rising through these scheme. The progress rate in rural literacy is also rising through the initiative of SSA. The SSA, initiated to universalize quality education, has brought about positive changes by increasing accountability of schools to the community through greater involvement of village education committees and parent-teacher associations. In primary schools especially enrolment and attendance of girls is increasing. The MDM Scheme is helping in taking care of nutritional needs of the students. This is not only affecting positively the health of poor students but also improving learning outcomes by ending ‘school hunger’.
Despite everything is going upward in the right direction, there are so many instance as we have seen in the 5th chapter, though SSA is performing well, corruption is also involved, funds are misused. The quality of foods in the MDM Scheme is not so good.
Calories and nutrients in MDM are insufficient. There is also news that children are more interested in meal only not in education. The
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However, realization of the objective of ‘Education to All’ is not going to be very easy- not when the school system in the country, especially those rural areas continue to be plagued by problems of poor infrastructure, shortage of teachers, their lack of training motivation besides poverty and livelihood issues that are responsible for the huge drop out of rates. It is estimated that there is a shortage of nearly five lakh teachers, while about three lakh of them are untrained at the elementary school stage. Over 50% of schools have a student teacher ratio much poorer than the 1:30 prescribed under the RTE Act. About 46% schools do not have toilets for girls, which is another reason why parents do not send girl children to schools.
Though, the programmes are implemented in right directions and there are some inconsistency regarding implementation, I want to suggest some idea for better results and strengthening inclusive education.
Suggestions
Here are some of my (not so complete) ideas for effectiveness of Right to Education:
1. Compulsory free education should be made available till Class XII
The state and central governments should completely absorb the cost of providing free education till 12th standard to every child, irrespective of caste, religion and economic status. This should cover not just school fees, but also free books, food if necessary, uniform clothing and even a place to stay if the parents cannot afford that to their children. Those with money can always opt for their favourite private school, and feed their own children. Alternately, some rich may decide to send their children to the govt. schools.
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3. There should be some amendments in the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 as it is provisioned that “no child shall No child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board examination until completion of elementary education” because without having proper ability and knowledge, no child will able to survive in next class.
4. In villages the Panchayat members can play important role in promoting education. The village education committee should not be an ad hoc project arrangement and should be permanent.
5. There should be a teacher and parent interaction because a frequent parent and teacher interaction will enhance student enrolment and attendance rate.
6. The incentives like books, uniforms etc. available to the students must be made at the beginning of session.
7. The quality of MDM needs to be improved, which will attract children of the weaker sections of the society.
8. Village monitoring committees must be formulated so that they will monitor the enrolment and student absenteeism.
9. More Acts like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act should be started because only those parents who employed think about not to employ their children in any labour work.
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11. Improvement in the infrastructure like availability of water, sanitation and toilets in schools should be done on priority basis.
12. Propertraining for teachers and staff should be provided.
13. Training for teachers and staff at the residential schools will be coordinated by the District Institutes of Educational Training, Block Resource Centers and the Mahila Samakhya Resource Groups.
14. All education above higher secondary school level should be primarily dealt with by private entities.
15. If some state governments wish, they can run colleges, but it should be unnecessary. Students should be offered lenient education loans at very low interest rates. These loans are liable to be paid only after the students finish their education and find a job of their own.
16. That is, free education until higher secondary; but paid-for education after that. Those who can’t afford to pay for this higher education get low-cost and lenient loans. This kind of comfortable educational loans are made available to students in USA.
Though the state has the primary obligation to provide education for all children but non-governmental organizations and other civil society partners can make a vital contribution to education by mobilizing public demand and expanding participation. So, the government needs to build effective partnerships with all organizations and institutions that have an impact on children’s education.
I do not claim that these suggestions, if implemented, will remove all problems we have in our education sector. However I am hopeful that they can alleviate the problem considerably.
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Bibliography
1. Diksit S S, 1966, ‘Nationalism and Indian Education’, Sterling Publications, Jullunder. 2. M. P. Jain, ‘Indian Constitutional Law’, 6th Ed., Laxis Nexis Butterworth Wadhwa. 3. Jagdish Swarup, ‘Constitution of India’, 2nd Ed., Modern Law Publications. 4. H.M. Seervai, ‘Constitutional Law of India’ 4th Ed., Vol.2, Universal Law Publication. 5. V.N. Sukla, ‘Constitution of India’ 11th Ed., Eastern Book Company, Lucknow. 6. Kanta Maitra Pandit Lakshmi, 1995, ‘Constitution Assembly Debates’, Volume 7, Universal Publications, NewDelhi, 7. Mukerji S N, 1966, ‘History of Education in India: Modern Period’ Acharya Book Depot, Baroda. 8. Naik J P, 1975, ‘Equality, Quality and Quantity, The Elusive Triangle in Indian Education’, Allied Publisher, New Delhi. 9. Nurullah and Naik J P, 1943, ‘A History of Education in India’, Macmillan, Bombay. 10. Siqueira T. N, 1952, ‘The Education of India’, Oxford University Press, Bombay. 11. Kurukshetra, A Journal On Rural Development. 12. Sumeet Malik, Supreme Educational Institutional Cases, 8th Ed. Eastern Book Company, Lucknow. 13. http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/W/16/0W160401.htm 14. www.education.nic.in/cd50years/y/3P/45/3P450301.htm 15. http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/52/4U/524U0101.htm 16. http://www.education.nic.in/ssa/ssa_1.asp 17. http://www.indg.in/primary-education/policiesandschemes/the- national-policy-on-children-1974 18. http://india.gov.in/spotlight/spotlight_archive.php?id=31 19. http://www.niua.org/Publications/newsletter/uf_english_apr- jun07.pdf 20. http://blog.insightyv.com/?p=1137 21. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Mid-day-meal-sends- 70-schoolkids-to-hospital/articleshow/6208423.cms. 22. http://www.education.nic.in/ssa/ssa_1.asp
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T.Sukanya Ph.D Research Scholar Dept. of History S.K.University Anantapuram Introduction
THERE is little to distinguish contemporary Allahabad from other neglected, provincial Indian towns which have been torn roughly from their traditional moorings and cast into/the vortex of political and economic, change. There are the usual dusty and teeming bazaars and
malodorous, fly-infested slums, with an all-pervasive disregard for appearance and sanitation. Only a few neglected Mughal monuments, some gloomy official buildings and a few avenues of derelict villas remind one that Allahabad/was till recently one of the leading cultural and administrative centres of northern India.
Known in ancient, pre-Islamic times as holy Prayag, the town was sanctified by its association with the Ramayana and by its proximity to the sacred Triveni1 For many centuries it was a traditional place of pilgrimage for Hindus, and even today thousands of pilgrims congregate at the annual 'Kumbh Mela' in an attempt to wash away their sins at the sacred confluence. Renamed Allahabad (City of Allah) in the 16th century by the Emperor Akbar, the town became an important seat of Mughal Government as its surviving Mughal tombs and ruins bear witness. In the 19th'century the British chose it as the capital of their North Western Province, and later it became the second city of the United Provinces. In the early 20th century Allahabad, with a busy High Court and a large/contingent of British officials, remained an important centre of British administration and justice. Meanwhile, its university, famous throughout the country, was already the scene of nationalist agitation and a fertile breeding-ground for the Western-
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This exchange augured well for the future of the baby girl whom it concerned. It was normal for the birth of a daughter to be greeted as a misfortune in Indian families. A girl was an economic burden to her father, who had/to provide her with a dowry and find her a husband. Indian society had been male-dominated since Vedic times, and the traditional role of a woman was to serve her husband with absolute obedience. Indian history did, of course, provide instances of outstanding women who had played a leading role in politics and other spheres; but these were special cases, favoured by the accidents of royal birth and palace intrigue, for whom exceptions had Sheen made. Total
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Motilal decided to name his granddaughter 'Indira' after his own mother, who had been a formidable woman in her time. To this the young parents added Triyadarshini' (Dear to the Sight). When she was a few days old, Indira Priyadarshini, swaddled in a Kashmiri shawl, accompanied her grandfather on a solemn visit. Across the garden, in a cottage on the Nehru estate, lived Munshi Mubarak Ali, steward of Motilal's large establishment. Born of an aristocratic Muslim family which had fallen on hard times since the Great Revolt of'1857, Munshiji*2 had become an institution in the Nehru household, where he was loved and respected as an elder of the family. He had witnessed the birth of Motilal's children, and their earliest memories were of sitting on his knee and listening to his tales of the past. Now Munshiji lay dying of cancer. He had said to Motilal: 'Bhai Saheb (Brother) do not worry. I am not going to die until I have seen and held Jawaharlal's son in my arms and have given him by blessing. I live only for that day.’ And now, as he blessed Indira, the dying man is said to have whispered: 'May he be a worthy heir to Jawahar as Jawahar has proved a worthy and wonderful son to you, land may the child illuminate the name of Nehru,2 Munshiji died happily unaware that it was a girl he had held in his arms.
The Nehrus were Kashmiri Brahmins,*3 with a colourful and distinguished past of which they were proud. Their ancestor, Raj Kaul, renowned as a Sanskrit and Persian scholar, had attracted the
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At Agra the family had struggled to rebuild its fortunes. It was here that Motilal Nehru was born in 1861, a posthumous child who was brought up by his brother, Nandlai. A few years after the family migrated from Delhi, Nandlai had entered the service of the Raja of Khetri, a small princely state in Rajasthan, as his Diwan or Prime Minister. Later he started practicing law in Agra, and when the High Court moved to Allahabad the Nehrus moved with it. Motilal, whose educational career had been chiefly noted for his wild escapades, had eventually followed his brother into the legal profession. He had found his vocation, and his success at the Bar was spectacular. By the time his son, Jawaharlal, was born, he had become one of the most successful barristers in the United Provinces. 'No one can doubt my supreme contempt for money', Motilal once declared to a client;3 but success inevitably brought riches, and Motilal, who had received a pittance of five rupees*4 for his first brief, became one of the wealthiest men in his profession. 'Full of the spirit of play and fond of good living in every
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The Nehrus, at the time of Indira's birth, were one of the most cosmopolitan families in the country. Their outlook and way of life revealed a subtle mixture of three distinct cultural traditions: the scholarly and exclusive Brahminism of the Kashmiri Pandits, the Muslim culture of Mughal India, and the public-school virtues of the British Raj.
Though proud of his Brahmin origins, Motilal was full of the aggressive arid restless spirit of Western science and materialism. Impatient of religious and caste prejudice, he had crossed the seas to Europe, violating the customary taboo, and had refused to undergo a purification ceremony on his return, thereby winning a reputation as a social reformer. An ardent Anglophile, he had taken eagerly to Western dress and Western ways at a time when it was unusual for Indians to do so. His own early education had been confined to Persian and Arabic, and he had not learnt English till he was in his teens. But he compensated for this by employing English governesses for his daughters and by educating his son at Harrow, Cambridge and the Inner Temple, whence young Jawaharlal returned 'more an Englishman than an Indian'. Though Jawaharlal later recovered his 'Indianness' Britain was to leave an indelible mark on him. To his years there' he owed the liberal values which he was never able to shed, even at the height of his Marxist phase, and a peculiarly Anglo-Saxon sense of discipline and emotional reserve, qualities that he passed on to his daughter.
The Brahmin past died hard, however, and for all their westernised ways, the Nehrus could not escape its influence. For one thing, the older women of the family, especially Motilal's orthodox wife, Swamp Rani, did not share his crusading zeal for westernisation.
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'Hinduism clings on to its children, almost despite them,'6 Jawaharlal was to write; yet the Nehrus were peculiarly free from sectarian prejudice and bigotry. For two centuries the family had lived in the plains of Hindustan and had steeped itself in the courtly Muslim culture and manners that characterised upper-class life in Northern India. Urdu the lingua franca of Mughal India was the only Indian language in which they felt at home. Both Motilal and Jawaharlal counted Muslims amongst their closest friends, and neither would have dreamt of allowing religious differences to colour their choice of friends or political associates. In later years this secular outlook, translated into political terms, was perhaps the most valuable contribution of the Nehrus to a country divided by Hindu-Muslim rivalry.
The Nehru heritage was a rich and versatile one, combining in a fertile synthesis some of the finest attributes of East and West, of Hinduism and Islam. The family history revealed not only an ambitious and adventurous driving force, but a remarkable resilience and capacity for survival, qualities which are in any society the pre-requisites for successful leadership,
Anand Bhawan, home of the Nehrus, stood on a site hallowed by its associations with Hindu legend. According to some traditions, it was here that Rama, hero of the ancient Hindu epic the Ramayana, was
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met by his faithful brother Bharata on his return from exile. Nearby was Bharadwaj Ashram where the sage Valmiki, author of the Ramayana, is reputed to have once stayed.
Soon after the birth of his son, Motilal had moved with his family from the congested old quarter of Allahabad to the spacious European grandeur of the exclusive Civil Lines. A few years later, he had acquired a large estate with a dilapidated, old house, and had set about creating a home appropriate to his social status and his expensive tastes. The result was a whitewashed villa, sprawling round a paved, open courtyard, its terraced roofs and long verandahs enclosed by a series of colonnaded arches. Its rambling interior included over a dozen bedrooms, large reception rooms and a unique indoor swimming-pool. With its marble floors, massive Victorian furniture and silver, Persian and Kashmiri carpets, and scintillating Venetian glass and Dresden china, Anand Bhawan exuded an air of quiet opulence. Its grounds encompassed spacious lawns and gardens, orchards, tennis-courts, a second swimming-pool, outhouses for a battalion of servants, stables, kennels and garages. The estate was enclosed by a high wall, broken by imposing wrought-iron gates. By all accounts, Anand Bhawan was a palatial residence and, as Indira later recalled, it was also 'a delight to children for it had lots of space for play and hiding.'7
Here, in feudal splendour, Motilal Nehru held court; and British officials, Indian princes and other notables flocked to his lavish parties and banquets, lured by his magnetic personality and legendary hospitality. Handsome, brilliant and witty, with an imperious manner and strong likes and dislikes, Motilal, like a Renaissance prince, lived life to the fullest. Sir Frederick James, a former member of the Viceroy's Executive Council, has described him as 'a Grand Seigneur - such as those who have appeared in all the great epochs of history.... He was the perfect host.. . His home, which was always open, was the Mecca of all who enjoyed the good things of life and who looked to him
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as a great lawyer and national leader... Motilal was generous in everything that he did. There were no half-measures'.8
It was at Anand Bhawan, amid the ostentatious revelry that marked the hey-day of the British Raj, that Indira Gandhi spent her earliest years. One of Motilal's daughters has described him as a 'shepherd who though apparently unconcerned, kept a vigilant eye on all his flock;'9 and young Indira was no exception. Many years later, she recalled: 'In days of affluence or in days of hardship, the household was sternly governed by my grandfather his awe-inspiring temper softened by quick forgiveness and infectious laughter, his strict discipline tempered by his love for his family and his enormous zest for life.'10 Though famous for his violent temper, to his granddaughter Motilal Nehru was indulgence itself. He wrote to Jawaharlal: 'I am always thinking of Indira. The very thought of a personification of innocence is soothing. By a very easy slip it justifies idol worship and many other things which modern civilisation sets down for senseless superstition.'11
Motilal was fond of displaying little Indira to his distinguished guests, and she roamed freely among her grandfather's visitors, solemnly observing them, though she could not yet follow their conversation. Sarojini Naidu, poetess and future nationalist leader, to whom Indira was thus presented, later told her: 'You were the proudest-looking baby I have seen.'12 Indira Gandhi was later to testify that in these early years Motilal Nehru had a far greater impact on her than her father, whose influence began much later: 'I admired my grandfather as a strong person, and I loved his tremendous zest for life, which my father also developed later on; but I was tremendously impressed with my grandfather's bigness I don't mean physically... he seemed to embrace the whole world. I loved the way he laughed.'13
Motilal was by no means the only one who indulged Indira. In true Indian fashion, she was spoiled and petted by the whole family and
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by various friends and relatives who flocked to Anand Bhawan. The strict discipline that had ruled the lives of Motilal's children was waived for Indira, and there were no British governesses to enforce regular hours. When she tired of the dolls and toys with which she was showered, she could rely on the women folk of the family to entertain her: her fond grandmother, who fed her forbidden sweets between meals, thereby winning the title of Dol Ammo,5 and Bibi Amma, Swamp Rani's widowed sister, who was a permanent standby with her exciting tales from the Hindu epics.
The most obvious and the most formative influence on Indira at this time was her mother. It was Kamala Nehru who bathed, dressed and fed her and who initiated her at an early age into the religious mysteries of Hinduism. Tall and slender, with a dazzling smile inherited by her daughter Kamala came of old Kashmiri stock. Her family, the Kauls, were prosperous businessmen settled in Delhi and, though orthodox and untouched by Western ways, they could claim as old a lineage as the Nehrus. Kamala's marriage had been an arranged one, in the traditional fashion, and it was not an unqualified success. Years later her husband wrote candidly of their relationship:
'I was twenty-six at the time and she was about seventeen, a slip of a girl, utterly unsophisticated in the ways of the world. The difference in our ages was considerable, but greater still was the difference in our mental outlook, for I was far more grown-up than she was. And yet with all my appearance of worldly wisdom I was very boyish, and I hardly realised that this delicate, sensitive girl's mind was slowly unfolding like a flower and required gentle and careful tending ... our backgrounds were different and there was a want of adjustment. These mal-adjustments would sometimes lead to friction and there were many petty quarrels over trivialities ... Both had a quick temper, a sensitive nature, and a childish notion of keeping one's dignity.'14
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'Sensitive and proud, childlike and grown-up, foolish and wise,'16 as her husband described her, Kamala Nehru retreated into herself, spending long hours closeted in her bedroom, while little Indira sat beside her in silent sympathy. Kamala's pent-up emotions found an outlet in her devotion to her daughter; and Indira for her part, instinctively identified herself with her mother. For Indira, it was an early introduction to conflict and suffering. Her mother's unhappiness must have been a source of emotional insecurity and uncertainty in an otherwise sheltered and untroubled existence. Many years later Indira Gandhi told her mother's biographer: 'We were very close to each other. I loved her deeply, and when I thought that she was being wronged I fought for her and quarrelled with people.'17
Meanwhile, forces far greater than a clash of personalities were gathering momentum. In the course of a few eventful years, they would transform Anand Bhawan from 'a stately pleasure-dome' into the
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Towards the end of World War I, Annie Besant, Irish theosophist turned Indian nationalist, declared: 'Autocracy is destroyed in Russia, tottering in Germany; only under England's flag it is rampant.'18 India at the turn of the century was governed by an irresponsible and irremovable executive appointed by Whitehall. In the absence of representative institutions, unlimited power was exercised by the Anglo-Indian bureaucracy, an exclusive cadre that was as jealous of its privileges as it was contemptuous of 'natives'. The British Raj existed, not for the benefit of its subjects, but for the greater prosperity and glory of the mother-country; and lest anyone should forget this, Indians were not only denied any share in the government, but were excluded from the services, from clubs, and even from first-class railway carriages and park benches.
Nevertheless, the Raj, despotic as it was, had sown the seeds of its own dissolution. The economic and administrative needs of British imperialism had led to the introduction of Western education and this in turn had opened the way for the growth of a new class of Westernised Indians, eager for an ever increasing share in the administration and the economy. At the same time, the gradual growth of Indian industry, shackled and distorted as it was in a colonial situation, had provided this new class with an economic base. The Great Revolt of 1857 had been the last bid of feudal India to oust the foreigner. The battles of the future .would be fought by Western educated, middle class Indians, who claimed to be as aware as their masters that it was 'impossible to argue a man into slavery in the English language', and whose objective was responsible government.
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The Indian National Congress already had a long history when Indira Nehru was born. Founded in 1885, with the blessings of the then Viceroy, as an exclusive debating club rather than a nationalist movement, it had functioned as a loyal opposition, voicing the desire of India's tiny westernised elite for a larger share in the administration. The Nehrus had been long and actively associated with the Congress ever since Motilal Nehru had attended its Allahabad session in 1888. Motilal's legal background had made him a confirmed advocate of constitutional methods, as opposed to the 'extremism' of Tilak and his followers. But his son, Jawaharlal, had returned from England in 1912 with a more radical outlook, convinced that the elder Nehru was 'immoderately moderate'. He had accompanied his father to the various Congress sessions; but it is not surprising that these polite gatherings of verbose gentlemen in top-hats and morning-coats had failed to impress him. Jawaharlal had also dabbled in the activities of the two Home-Rule Leagues founded respectively by Annie Besant and Tilak. Lacking any clear sense of direction, however, he might well have lapsed into a gilded, dilettante existence, had it not been for the coming of Gandhi in 1915.
Fresh from his experiments with non-violent action in South Africa, Gandhi appeared on the Indian political scene at an opportune moment. Indian constitutionalists had been certain that they would be rewarded with a major instalment of constitutional advance in return for India's co-operation in the recent war-effort. Instead they were greeted by the disappointing Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms and the repressive Rowlatt Act. But while there was a good deal of disillusionment with the Raj, there was no clear conception of how to express it in terms of action. Gandhi showed a way out of the impasse with a method of direct action which was as far removed from the impotent Liberal verbiage of Congress resolutions as it was from sporadic and futile terrorism. When he issued a call for satyagraha*7
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against the Rowlatt Act, he captured the imagination of a large number of young nationalists, among them Jawaharlal Nehru.
Jawaharlal's desire to follow Gandhi- brought him into head-on collision with his father. The elder Nehru seems to have viewed satyagraha as a form of midsummer madness. The idea that his son should indulge in law-breaking, however non-violent, and court arrest outraged both his aristocratic temperament and his faith in constitutional means. Anand Bhawan rang with heated exchanges as father and son fought in vain to convince each other. According to Motilal's daughter. Krishna: The atmosphere was tense all the time and one hardly dared to utter a word for fear of rousing father's anger or irritating Jawaharlal.’19 These were trying days for the family, and especially for Kamala who was a constant source of strength and encouragement to her husband. Tempers ran high and, at one point, Motilal ordered his son to leave the house, though he soon relented. Although he stormed and raged, Motilal's chief concern was for his son's well-being. It was later discovered that the anxious patriarch would secretly descend from his bed in the dead of night and try sleeping on the floor, in an effort to sample the rigours of prison life which awaited his son.
Thus the conflict might have continued indefinitely had it not been for the massacre of Jallianwallah Bagh, generally rated as the most infamous atrocity in the annals of British rule. On 13 April 1919, at a public meeting organised by the Congress in Amritsar.*8 an unarmed and peaceful crowd of about 20,000 people men, women and children-were sealed off in an enclosed space and fired upon al point- blank range by British troops. According to the official estimate, 379 people were killed and 1,200 wounded before the troops ran out of ammunition. The massacre and its justification by the authorities had an electric impact on nationalist sentiment. Many who had believed in the ultimate beneficence of British rule found their illusions shattered
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Gandhi's impact was no less dramatic in the Nehru household. In accordance with the non-cooperation resolution, Motilal resigned his seat in the provincial legislature, wound up his legal practice and substantially retrenched his large household. He abandoned his Saville Row suits for a simple dhoti*10 and kurta*11 dismissed many of his servants, and sold most of his horses and carriages. For a man with his zest for good living, these must have been major sacrifices at the age of sixty. Nor could it have been easy for a self-made man, hitherto dedicated to his profession, to abandon his lucrative practice for the uncertain politics of non-cooperation. To many of his English friends Motilal's metamorphosis was something of a shock. Their feelings were said to have 'resembled those of a fond Edwardian father whose delightful daughter became a suffragette and broke his windows'.20
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'Many people know the part which was played by my grandfather and my father. But in my opinion, a more important part was played by my mother. When my father wanted to join Gandhiji and to change the whole way of life, to change our luxurious living, to give up his practice, the whole family was against it. It was only my mother's courageous and persistent support and encouragement which enabled him to take this big step which made such a difference not only to our family but to the history of modem India.'22
Indira has recorded that her earliest memory was of the day when, in response to Gandhi's nation-wide appeal, the Nehrus burned their foreign clothes: 'I can still feel the excitement of the day and see the large terrace covered with piles of clothes what rich materials, what lovely colours! What fun for a toddler to jump on, play hide and seek in the heaps of velvets and satins, silks and chiffons! '23 Although it was well past her bedtime, she was determined not to miss the bonfire and appealed to her indulgent grandfather. As always, he let her have her way; but when the flames rose, four-year-old Indira was already asleep.
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She was too young to know that the bonfire was symbolic. Among other things, it marked the end of her brief childhood.
References :
1. The confluence of the three rivers sacred to Hindus : The Ganges, the Jumna and the mythical Saraswati.
2. Ji’ is a suffix commonly used as a mark of respect.
3. The Brahmins, the Hindu priestly order and the highest of the four main castes in Hindu society, claim direct descent from the original Aryan settlers of India. The Kashmiri Pandits, who belong to the northern-most part of the sub-continent, take special pride in being racially the purest Brahmins in the country.
4. Ten rupees were then equivalent to one pound sterling.
5. A doli is a kind of meat-safe for storing sweets and other comestibles; whence 'Dol Amma,' literally 'Meat-safe Mother.'
6. Later known to the world as Mrs. Vijayalakshmi Pandit.
7. Literally ‘the path of truth, ‘satyagraha was Gandhi’s name for his brand of non-violent civil disobedience.
8. One of the chief towns of the Punjab.
9. At Gandhi's instance, the boycott of foreign goods and the promotion of indigenous cottage industries, especially spinning, became a fundamental part of the Congress programme. Khadi or homespun was, and still is, the hallmark of an orthodox Gandhian.
10. A long, unstitched length of cloth wound around the waist and legs.
11. A loose, knee-length tunic.
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12. A thick, wooden staff, used by the police to disperse demonstrators.
13. Little Moon, ‘Indira’s pet-name.
14. Indira’s name for her father.
15. Indira’s name for her grandfather
16. Kamala Nehru had been arrested that very day
17. Communalism, in the Indian context, denotes politics based upon the rivalry and competition between different religious or racial groups.
18. The capital of the Punjab province.
19. The Parsis are a small community of ancient Persian extraction, professing the Zoroastrian faith. They migrated to India in the 8th Century A.D., following the Arab conquest of Persia.
20. The family’s pet-name for Motilal’s younger daughter, Krishna.
21. A town in western India near Bombay; formerly the capital of the Maratha empire.
22. Tagore's ashram in Bengal.
23. God's people'; Gandhi's name for the Untouchables- the lowest and most oppressed caste in Hindu society.
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016
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VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286
VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ISSN : 2277-7881; IMPACT FACTOR – 3.318; IC VALUE:5.16; ISI VALUE:2.286 VOLUME 5, ISSUE 8(3), AUGUST 2016
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