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The Legacy of Wetland Drainage on the Remaining Peat in the Sacramento – San Joaquin Delta, California, Usa

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The Legacy of Wetland Drainage on the Remaining Peat in the Sacramento – San Joaquin Delta, California, Usa WETLANDS, Vol. 29, No. 1, March 2009, pp. 372–386 ’ 2009, The Society of Wetland Scientists THE LEGACY OF WETLAND DRAINAGE ON THE REMAINING PEAT IN THE SACRAMENTO – SAN JOAQUIN DELTA, CALIFORNIA, USA Judith Z. Drexler1, Christian S. de Fontaine1, and Steven J. Deverel2 1U.S. Geological Survey, California Water Science Center, 6000 J Street, Placer Hall, Sacramento, California, USA 95819-6129. E-mail: [email protected] 2Hydrofocus, Inc., 2727 Del Rio Place, Suite B, Davis, California, USA 95618-7729 Abstract: Throughout the world, many extensive wetlands, such as the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta of California (hereafter, the Delta), have been drained for agriculture, resulting in land-surface subsidence of peat soils. The purpose of this project was to study the in situ effects of wetland drainage on the remaining peat in the Delta. Peat cores were retrieved from four drained, farmed islands and four relatively undisturbed, marsh islands. Core samples were analyzed for bulk density and percent organic carbon. Macrofossils in the peat were dated using radiocarbon age determination. The peat from the farmed islands is highly distinct from marsh island peat. Bulk density of peat from the farmed islands is generally greater than that of the marsh islands at a given organic carbon content. On the farmed islands, increased bulk density, which is an indication of compaction, decreases with depth within the unoxidized peat zone, whereas, on the marsh islands, bulk density is generally constant with depth except near the surface. Approximately 55–80% of the original peat layer on the farmed islands has been lost due to land- surface subsidence. For the center regions of the farmed islands, this translates into an estimated loss of between 2900–5700 metric tons of organic carbon/hectare. Most of the intact peat just below the currently farmed soil layer is over 4000 years old. Peat loss will continue as long as the artificial water table on the farmed islands is held below the land surface. Key Words: bulk density, compaction, marsh, microbial oxidation, organic carbon, radiocarbon age determination, subsidence INTRODUCTION peat soils can liberate vast quantities of CO2 (Armentano 1980, Stephens et al. 1984). Extensive tracts of wetlands have been drained for The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta (hereafter, agriculture, creating major agricultural regions in the Delta) of California is a prime example of a huge the United States and many other places around the wetland area that was drained for agriculture and world (Schothorst 1977, Penland and Ramsey 1990, has subsequently experienced land-surface subsi- Ibanez et al. 1997, Nieuwenhuis and Schokking dence. The Delta, situated at the confluence of the 1997, Hambright and Zohary 1999). In these Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, was once a regions, the former wetland soils are often subject 1400 km2 tidal marsh region with land-surface to major changes in structure and function, which elevation near local mean sea level (Gilbert 1917). ultimately result in land-surface subsidence. The In the central and western Delta, accretion of consequences of land-surface subsidence are numer- inorganic sediment and organic matter for a period ous including mass loss of soil, reduction in soil of approximately 7000 years resulted in a peat layer fertility, lowering of land-surface elevation relative of between 2–15 m thick (Dachnowski-Stokes 1936, to sea level, reduction in ecosystem services such as Weir 1950, Atwater and Belknap 1980, Drexler et al. flood control and sediment trapping, and property 2007). Beginning in the mid-1800s, the Delta was damage due to settling of structures (Stephens et al. drained for agriculture. By the 1930s, the entire area 1984, Prokopovich 1985, Penland and Ramsey 1990, was transformed by extensive levee-building into an Conner and Day 1991). In addition, land-surface agricultural landscape with about 57 farmed islands subsidence in farmed areas adjacent to waterways and tracts (Thompson 1957, Ingebritsen et al. 2000). necessitates continuous maintenance of levees be- Such alteration of the landscape initially resulted in cause of the increased elevation differentials between primary land-surface subsidence through mechani- waterways and adjacent farmlands (Ingebritsen and cal settling of the peat surface due to loss of buoyant Ikehara 1999). Finally, land-surface subsidence also force (Everett 1983, Ewing and Vepraskas 2006). contributes to global warming because oxidation of Subsequently, secondary subsidence occurred due to 372 Drexler et al., LEGACY OF WETLAND DRAINAGE 373 shrinkage upon drying, burning of peat (a discon- surface for soils with identical organic matter tinued agricultural practice), wind erosion, anaero- content and temperature regimes. Other key factors bic decomposition, dissolution of soil organic that influence the rate of subsidence include the matter, ongoing consolidation due to increased percent of organic carbon in the peat and the drainage ditch depth, and oxidation of organic thickness of the remaining peat layer (Prokopovich carbon in the peat (Weir 1950, Prokopovich 1985, 1985, Rojstaczer and Deverel 1995, Ingebritsen and Deverel and Rojstaczer 1996, Deverel and Leighton, Ikehara 1999). Rojstaczer and Deverel (1995) 2008). Of these factors, the chief cause of secondary demonstrated a significant positive correlation subsidence in the Delta has been microbial oxidation between soil organic matter content and historic of organic carbon, whereby organic carbon in the subsidence rates on Sherman Island in the Delta. In peat is converted by microorganisms into carbon addition, Deverel and Leighton (2008) showed a dioxide (Deverel and Rojstaczer 1996, Deverel and significant, positive correlation of subsidence rates Leighton, 2008). Land-surface subsidence continues and soil organic matter content from 1978 to 2006 to this day and has resulted in over 20 farmed Delta on Bacon Island in the Delta. ‘‘islands’’ with land-surface elevations between 3– Although there have been several studies on 8 m below sea level (California Department of subsidence rates and related processes, there have Water Resources 1980, Ingebritsen et al. 2000). yet to be any studies that have examined the in situ The pace of land-surface subsidence in the Delta impacts of long-term subsidence on the remaining has decreased substantially over time. Maximum peat in the Delta. However, without such knowledge historic rates in the mid-twentieth century ranged it is not possible to determine how agricultural from 2.8–11.7 cm yr21 (Weir 1950, California De- practices have and will continue to affect the partment of Water Resources 1980). In the late remaining peat resource. We present data from four 1980s and 1990s, rates were found to be between drained, farmed islands and four relatively undis- 0.5–4 cm yr21 (Rojstaczer and Deverel 1993, 1995, turbed, marsh islands (hereafter farmed and marsh Deverel and Rojstaczer 1996, Deverel et al. 1998). islands, respectively) in order to compare the The latest estimates show that rates of land-surface changes that have occurred in the peat since subsidence have continued to decrease, and now drainage for agriculture. The analysis is focused on range between 0.5–3.0 cm yr21 for selected islands peat thickness, bulk density, and percent organic (Deverel and Leighton 2008). Such slowing in the carbon content of the remaining peat layer in the rate of subsidence in the Delta has been attributed to Delta. cessation of peat burning, changing land manage- ment practices, and reduced organic carbon content STUDY SITES of surface soils (Deverel and Leighton 2008). Several factors exert control over land-surface The Delta is located at the confluence of the subsidence in drained wetlands such as the Delta. Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, at the landward The height of the artificial water table on farmed end of the San Francisco Bay Estuary, California islands determines the depth to which the peat is (Figure 1). The climate in the Delta is characterized oxidized (Prokopovich 1985, Rojstaczer and Deverel as Mediterranean with cool, wet winters and hot, 1993), and therefore, exerts strong control over the dry summers (Atwater 1980). Mean annual precip- rate of secondary subsidence. Deverel et al (2007) itation is approximately 36 cm, but actual yearly showed that drainage ditches on farmed islands in precipitation varies from half to almost four times the Delta are regularly excavated and cleaned in the this amount. Over 80% of precipitation occurs from late spring, summer, and fall in order to maintain November through March (Thompson 1957). Be- necessary ground-water levels of 1 m or deeper for ginning in the mid-1800s, the Delta was drained for agriculture. During the rainy winter, however, agriculture (Thompson 1957, Atwater 1980), result- ground-water levels are allowed to recharge, rising ing in its current configuration of over 100 islands close to the land surface. This practice results in an and tracts surrounded by 2250 km of man-made oxidized layer of peat approximately 1 m thick, levees and 1130 km of waterways (Prokopovich which remains unsaturated most of the year 1985 (Figure 1). (Deverel et al. 2007). In the Everglades, Stephens In total, four pairs of study sites were chosen et al. (1984) quantified the relationship between including four marsh islands (Browns Island, Franks subsidence and depth of the water table. In their Wetland, the Tip of Mandeville Tip, and Bacon study, a water table of about 30 cm below land Island Channel Island) and four farmed islands surface resulted in about 20% of the subsidence rate (Sherman Island, Webb Tract, Venice Island, and compared to a water table at 120 cm below land Bacon Island) (Figure 1). Such pairing of nearby 374 WETLANDS, Volume 29, No. 1, 2009 Figure 1. Map of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta showing all the marsh and farmed island coring sites and inset showing the location of the Delta in California, USA. Drexler et al., LEGACY OF WETLAND DRAINAGE 375 Table 1. Basic descriptions of coring sites in the Delta.
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