Keyboard Instruments: “Their Evolution, Their Role in Chamber Music, and Their Impact on Society”
An Honors Program Thesis
by
Ashley L. Akl
Spring 2018
LIU Post Music Department 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface………………………………………………………………………………………….3
Chapter I: Types of Keyboard Instruments………………………………………….……… 5 The Organ…….……………………………………………………………………………….. 6 Organ Builders and CulturalPreferences.…………………..…………………………………10 Stringed Keyboard Instruments……………………………………………………………… 12 The Clavicytherium…………………………………………………………………….……. 18 The Harpsichord………………………………………………………………………..…… 20 Harpsichord Builders: The Ruckers Family…………………………………………………. 24 Other Harpsichord Builders…………………………………………………………………. 28 The Virginal and Spinet……………………………………………………………………….31 The Piano Forte……………………………………………………………………………….35
Chapter II: Solo Music For Early Keyboard Instruments…………………………………..44 Organ Music……………………………………………………….…………………………..44 The Prelude…………………………………….…………………………………………….. 48 Organ Composers of the Sixteenth Century…….……………………………………………. 49 Dance Music.………………………….……………………………………………………… 51 The Age of the “Colorist School”….…….…………………………………………………….51 The Clavier and the Rise of Secularism….……………………………………………………53 Johann Sebastian Bach……………….………………………………………………………. 55 George Frederick Handel…………….………………………………………………………. 58 The Sons of Bach…………………….………………………………………………………. 60
Chapter III: Solo Music for Later Keyboard Instruments……………………………….. 66 The Virginal and Spinet………………………………………………………………………..66 The Classical Era………………………………………………………………………………69 Franz Joseph Haydn……………………………………………………………………………70 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart……………………………………………………………………72 Ludwig van Beethoven……………………………………………………………………….. 75 Early Beethoven………….…………………………………………………………………… 76 The Middle Years of Beethoven….…………………………………………………………….77 Late Beethoven……………………………………………………………………………….. 78 The Romantic Composers: Chopin……….……………………………………………………80 Franz Liszt……………………………………………………………………………………. 81 Twentieth Century Music and Composers……………………………………………………. 83
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………. 86 PREFACE
Keyboard instruments have held a vital and collaborative position throughout their early creation, and have greatly contributed to the impact of music throughout the courses of both
European and American history. By discussing the roles of the earliest keyboard instruments in classical music, to the present-day keyboard instruments, each instrument’s impact on society and evolution through the ages will be examined by way of in-depth analysis. The instruments to be discussed through the course of this work include the following: Portative Organ, Regal,
Organ, Clavichord, Clavicytherium, Harpsichord, Spinet, Virginal, Piano-Forte, and Modern
Piano. In addition, each instrument’s vital position in the profession of chamber music journeying from the Medieval Period to the current century, will be discussed. Therefore, the research supporting both the position and influence of each instrument listed above has been validated and derived from a collection of historical books and original keyboard compositions, as well as documentation pertaining to historical, first-hand accounts and eye-witness records.
Throughout the ages, people all over the world have taken an interest in keyboard instruments. Originally starting from a simple-stringed design, the keyboard concept was modified and built-upon by various manufacturers of the ages. Beginning with the portative organ in the eleventh century, the keyboard concept was not nearly as developed as the modern- day piano. As a matter of fact, it was not until 1709 that the first “modern-day” piano was born.
Since there are various predecessors to the modern piano, records can conclude that there are shared characteristics between the instruments; however, aside from the fact that the keyboard concepts were in some way or another “related,” their mechanics differed pertaining to how their sound was produced.
Keyboard instruments can be classified into four different types of groups: organs, clavichords, harpsichords, and piano. Each different classification of keyboard instruments uses strings to produce sound with the exception of the organ group. Organ instruments produced sound through the use of vibrating pipes; therefore, among organ instruments, the tone quality had the ability to vary considerably.
The legacy of keyboard instruments have inspired composers throughout the ages to create historical manuscripts which, if performed properly, can unlock the secrets to the past. By exploring various elements of keyboard instruments, historical keyboard contexts, and keyboard chamber repertoire, a summation of the development and evolution of keyboard instruments will be concluded.
To the next generation of keyboard players,
A.L.A.
4 CHAPTER I: TYPES OF KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS
Beginning in the eleventh century, the first significant keyboard instrument known as the portative organ was introduced into early society. The portative organ is considered a primitive keyboard due to the fact that it was invented as a result of Ctesibus’s hydraulic organ in ancient
Rome. The ancient hydraulic instrument is one of the first-known keyboard instruments to have ever been invented. Little is known concerning the hydraulic’s origin; however, documentation claims that the Roman keyboard was operated by a series of keys, and was perfected by Ctesibus, a Greek inventor and mathematician from Egypt, in the second century B.C. The instrument is depicted on the back of Roman coins, and is the only true source of evidence to support the ancient invention. Since the instrument’s discovery, assumptions have been made pertaining to its operational structure. The ancient hydraulic instrument came to be known as the hydraulicon, and was conceived to be a type of primitive organ (see figure 1-1).
With the invention of the hurdy-gurdy (which was operated with a crank mechanism) in the early eleventh century, the concept of music creation using both strings and keys was introduced. This early, new (Figure 1-1) Ctesibus’s Hydraulicon Kirby, F. E. A Short History of Keyboard Music. New York: The Free Press. 1966. Print. Page 6. innovation gave rise to the small portative organ which was also known as the regal. The
5 small instrument was operated by the use of narrow keys, and was used throughout the remainder of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
THE ORGAN:
Artwork discoveries dating back to the eleventh and twelfth centuries reveal evidence to support the use of early keyboard instruments. Towards the end of the fourteenth century, paintings by the Renaissance artist Fra Angelico were uncovered. The written description of the portative organ fits the same visual description as the keyboard instrument illustrated in
Angelico’s paintings. The paintings portray the instrument as having a keyboard with supplemental keys to create whole steps and half steps. This evidence supports the early implication of the musical cadence. The production of sound using finger-stops and hand-stops aided in the operation of the early instrument. Strings were not introduced until the invention of the spinet later in the fifteenth century.
The exact date pertaining to the introduction of the organ into European society is unknown; however, clues and supporting evidence have been found throughout European documentation dating back to as early as the sixth century. Poems and other literary genres reference the organ’s early presence in Europe during the seventh and eighth centuries. An early conception of the organ can physically be viewed on the obelisk of the Emperor Theodosius in
Constantinople, dating back to the fourth century. The organ depicted on the back of the obelisk, portrays an instrument with eight equal pipes being operated by two men. This concept could very possibly reference the early Byzantine pneumatic organ. The Byzantine pneumatic organs possessed the potential to be built in very large sizes. Saint Jerome, a priest and theologian who is remembered for his translation of the Latin Vulgate Bible, lived near Dalmatia, gave a first
6 hand account of an organ that was present in Jerusalem. Jerome claimed that the instrument could be heard on the Mount of Olives over a mile away. The instrument was said to have
“twelve brazen pipes” and “a grand sound like thunder” (Kirby 7). From the brief description, early organs (such as the one depicted on the obelisk) were constructed to be operated by two organists. Other European organs dating back to the tenth century contained over four-hundred equal pipes which could only be operated in succession by seventy men.
It was not until around 1361 A.D. that the first organ called the Halberstadt came into existence. Early organ instruments pertaining to the period differed greatly from those in existence today. The original compass of the organ’s keyboard allowed its players limited access; however, modifications eventually lead to the spanning of over an octave in diameter. The keyboards of early organs included narrow keys, similar to the portative organ. The modal system that was used on sixteenth-century instruments made use of the Greek tetrachordal system; hence, the system used a combination of diatonic notes and enharmonic pitches.
Lettering on the individual keys of the portative keyboard allowed for many unique tuning features.
At the initial start of the sixteenth-century, new implications pertaining to the navigation of the organ instrument began to take shape. For starters, drone methods came into use, which called for a tuning of the instrument’s lowest octave. This concept led to the later use of pedal points and melody foundations, as well as distinguished harmonic background.
Contrary to the sixteenth-century organ, the modern-day organ in use today produces sound through pipes—hence the name pipe organ. Sound is produced on the pipe organ through the use of vibrating air within the pipes. Flu pipes and reed pipes are the two kinds of sound-
7 producing pipes found within the pipe organ. In a flu pipe, the air column itself simply vibrates in the pipe, and thus produces the sound, while in a reed pipe, there is a vibrating tongue, usually of metal, at the lower end of the pipe that sets the air in motion.1 Together, both types of pipes produce contrasting tone qualities. Flu pipes produce a high-pitched frequency while reed pipes produce a sharpened tone (see figure 1-2).
One of the most important components of an organ is its ability to produce sound. Inside an organ’s frame, there are a various assortments of pipes (Figure 1-2) Organ Pipes: Flu and Wooden Kirby, F. E. A Short History of Keyboard Music. New York: The Free Press. 1966. Print. Page 3. which are arranged from lowest to highest; therefore, every key on the keyboard corresponds to a pipe. An organ’s manual (keyboard) is accessed by the instrument’s foot pedals. For most original organs, the manual was employed to navigate the instrument’s registers; however, later organ models were produced in a way that allowed a player to access any register by the use of any manual. Aside from its many features, an organ’s most well-known trait is its registration.
The early portative organ, also known as the “moveable” organ, was coined so due to the fact that it was able to be moved from one place to another. Additionally, the portative organ was one of the first keyboard organs; however, its later relative, the positive organ, was a smaller
1 Kirby, F. E. A Short History of Keyboard Music. New York: The Free Press. 1966. Print.
8 form of the ancestral portative. Contrary to the portative organ, the positive organ was a stationary organ. The positive organ produced sound through the use of its keys, and the instrument’s navigation relied mainly on its flu pipes. The positive organ’s ancestor, the regal, employed reed pipes. A painting by Jan van Eyck, a Flemmish painter from Bruges, depicts the positive organ; therefore, several observations can be made from the painting. There are on the instrument two ranks of twenty-one pipes each so that the keyboard range may be assumed to compromise a thirteenth (assuming a full chromatic disposition, as seems evident from the painting); moreover, all pipes have the same diameter, and, since the timber of organ pipes varies by the ratio of the length to the diameter, there would be a gradual change over the gamut from the string quality of tone in the lower tones to the flu tone of the treble (Kirby 8).
Both types of organs, the large and small, co-existed; however, a third kind of organ known as the diminutive portative was employed. This instrument was also known as the organetto and was a small instrument that was in use for only a brief amount of time, and was employed to be operated by one person using both hands. The player would use one hand to work the bellows, and the other to play the keyboard. The small portative organ was a monophonic instrument due to the fact that its only capability was the performance of one part.
Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the organ production of larger models incorporated a variety of borrowed features from the small portative. Together, the old and new combined features formed the basis for the origin of the modern-day organ. The organ came to be regarded as a composite of several instruments of varying capabilities and functions, its resources controlled from several different manuals (Kirby 9). Most importantly however, was the transformation of the organ’s register capabilities. The innovative fourteenth-century models
9 were able to create a high solo register; thus, organists were able to incorporate more voices and parts into manuscripts. Other organ advancements included the implementation of a larger keyboard which allowed the navigation of chromaticism to be used. Pedals were also added in addition.
ORGAN BUILDERS AND CULTURAL PREFERENCES:
By the end of the fifteenth century, the organ’s evolution had reached it peak. An organ builder from the sixteenth century, Arnold Schlick, described the organ in his treatise entitled,
Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten (1511) : “The instrument with three manuals and pedals (having a compass of three octaves and a third) was organized in three sections each with its own characteristic sets of registers. There was a manual, which was the main part of the instrument, with eleven registers using both flue stops along with a few of the more characteristic
‘solo’ reeds and mixture stops like the Zymmel and Raus Pfeiffen; a positive, with four registers, among which the 16’ flue register as the lowest was important” (Kirby 9). In his treatise, Schlick also describes other components regarding the organ’s modern development and register capabilities.
For German organ builders, the models were the same. One of the most famous organ builders of the seventeenth-century was Arp Schnitger (1648-1719). In addition, other German organ builders included: Andreas Silbermann (1678-1734) and Gottfried (1683-1753) whose organs were favored and beloved by J.S. Bach. Etched notations on organs dating back to seventeenth-century Germany include the third part of Michael Praetorius’ work on music
(Syntagma musicum), called De Organographia, of 1618-1620, Athanasius Kircher’s Musurgia
10 of 1650, and two works of Andreas Werckmeister, the Orgelprobe of 1618 (revised in 1698) and the Organum Gruningense redivum of 1705 (Kirby 10).
For the French society in the sixteenth century, the most common type of organ was the large organ. This large organ was subdivided into three categories: grand organ, positive, and pedal. Each category of large organs was complete following their own unique set of register capabilities. In Italy, the smaller positive organ was favored until the eighteenth century. The
Antegnati family presided among the most well-remembered Italian organ builders of the sixteenth century. In the eighteenth century, the smaller positive organ was also the preferred instrument of England.
Organ building continued throughout the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries; however, the twentieth century organs were transformed by use of new innovations such as electricity. New electronic organs were being developed which led the characteristic tone of the pipe organ to be imitated by electric audio generating devices; therefore, these instruments had the capability to be made smaller and less expensive than pipe organs, and the possibilities for creating new tone colors were endless (Kirby 11).
In the late nineteenth century, another small organ referred to as the harmonium was invented. As time went on, vast developments were added to the harmonium such as bellows, pedals and expressive features. The instrument was intended for a single operation by use of reed pipes. In addition, the harmonium’s bellows and wind pressure were directly controlled by the operator. The harmonium’s wind pressure and bellows system allowed performers to directly control dynamics and phrasing; thus, crescendos, decrescendos, and other dynamics were able to
11 be controlled at the performers will. The harmonium has been categorized as a domestic instrument; however, in recent years the modern electric organ has dethroned its reign.
STRINGED KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS:
In the eighteenth century, a keyboard instrument known as the clavichord forged its way into the keyboard genre. The word clavichord is derived from the Latin name clavicordium meaning, “a string with keys.” The clavichord was a direct descendant of monochord keyboard instruments, and featured an attached string to every key; however, not all eighteenth century clavichords were constructed in this manner. For this reason, the instrument was referred to as a free instrument, and was called so due to the fact that it contradicted the old tied instruments (see figure 1-3). It is obvious that the “tied” clavichords made it impossible for a player to successfully play certain chords; however, the impossible chords became known as discords.
Older music forms forbid the playing of discords. To sound C and D flat together was impossible; but no one complained, for no one, for reasons of style, wished to try it. But on very old clavichords, C and E are also incapable of being simultaneously sounded
—a fact which gives us many a hint for the (Figure 1-3) Fretted German Clavichord Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. criticism of the oldest pieces.2 New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
2 Bie, Oskar, E. E. Kellet, and Edward W. Naylor. A History of the Pianoforte and Pianoforte Players. Translated and Rev. from the German of Oscar Bie, by E. E. Kelley and E. W. Naylor. New York: Da Capo, 1966. Print.
12 For the clavichord, it was merely impossible to sustain a softer or stronger touch on the ivory keys of the instrument. Upon the release of a key, the sound was immediately stopped by the cloth damper. The strings of the instrument produced sound by coming in contact with the small, upright, flat-ended metal pin at the the inner end of the clavichord; therefore, the metal pin must strike the string in order for a tone to be produced. This innovation led the clavichord to produce vibrato which is a technique often associated with violinists. For this reason, the clavichord was considered a unique keyboard instrument (see figure 1-4).
As stated earlier, the clavichord was a relative of the monochord, yet the simplest
(Figure 1-4) Clavichord Mechanism of early stringed instrument. By the Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. addition of keys to the monochord New York: Dover, 1972. Print. Page 5. instrument, the clavichord was born. The ancient Greek mathematician, Pythagoras, contributed to the evolution of music through his discovery of the Greek diatonic scale. The instrument in which Pythagoras used for his study of the Greek diatonic scale was a very simple monochord consisting of a string stretched between bridges on a resonance box.3 As a result, Pythagoras discovered that by changing the initial bridge positions, as well as measuring the proper amount of shift, the intervals relating to the
3 Wier, Albert E. The Piano: Its History, Makers, Players and Music. London: Longmans, Green, 1941. Print.
13 diatonic scale could be recorded. For Greece and other parts of Europe, the use of instruments featuring more than one string had been used for centuries following the discovery of
Pythagoras’s diatonic breakthrough. For this reason, the monochord was later transformed into a polychordal instrument. This meant that the instrument was capable of playing more than one part. With the addition of strings and a keyboard, the monochord transformed into a clavichord.
The origin of the transitional phase between the monochord and the clavichord remains an unknown mystery; however, historical records indicate that the term “monochord” was used for the instrument now known as the clavichord up to the end of the sixteenth century, and the two words were used as interchangeable for many decades (Wier 22).
The clavichord has had various names associated with it over the course of its existence.
The instrument’s Latin name clavicordium was often used to refer to the instrument. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the instrument undertook the titles of Manicordo, Manicordio, and Manicorde throughout the European countries of Spain, Italy and France. In the same countries, the titles of Clavicordo, Clavicordio and Clavicorde were translated to the title spinet
—the instrument’s later transformation. For English speaking countries and records, there was a confusion as to the etymology of the prefix “clari” ; however, the prefix was eventually changed to “clavi” in order to preserve the etymology of the original prefix. As a result, archaic spellings associated with the instrument included: clavichords, clavycordes, clavichord, clavicordis and clavicorde (Weir 22).
The instrument’s strings were all equal in length pertaining to the production of early clavichords. Brass was the preferred material for string production in order to achieve the characteristic tone of the clavichord. At times, steel was used to produce the “tingy” tone in the
14 treble register. The side of the clavichord’s keys was produced from a small whalebone strip.
This strip was fastened to the back side of the key and held in place by a grooved rack which made it possible to disregard the use of front key pins. Each string could produce sound by the striking of the flat-ended metal pin at the inner end of the clavichord. Thus, the instrument’s vibration could be sustained for as long as the key was held. Once the key was released, the cloth damper immediately stopped the tone.
After the seventeenth century, the clavichord’s belly bridges were no longer used.
Instead, the spinet-bridge and harp-shaped methods of stringing took shape. When the clavichords began to grow in size, the lowest notes of the instrument produced sound through overstrung wire. It is very interesting to note that this innovation would be used to create the modern piano later in history. Furthermore, the volume of the later clavichord’s tone may be controlled to some extent by the force with which the keys are struck, so that, in this respect, the instrument bears some resemblance to the piano (Kirby 20).
Many of the clavichord’s scales were derived from the Greek heptas—also known as the transposition of the seventh Gregorian tone 4. A series of stopping and double-stopping contributed to the instrument’s chromaticism. In later clavichords, the double-stopping technique became normal. Whether an instrument’s note had the ability to stop or double-stop depended on the tangent. By the addition of tangents, the clavichords were able to produce chromatic tones.
The clavichord’s tuning system was based on fifths; therefore, the combination of notes to be tuned were: F-C, C-G, G-D etc. Through this technique, the instrument’s entire keyboard
4 Wier, Albert E. The Piano: Its History, Makers, Players and Music. London: Longmans, Green. 1941. Print.
15 (containing both diatonic and chromatic tones) could be tuned in succession. Older clavichords adopted domineering scalings. In this case, the instrument’s open notes consisted of F, G sharp, B and D. The tones F, F sharp, and G all shared a group of strings etc. This system was derived from the the old monochord; however, it was not until 1720 that the clavichord became un- fretted. This contribution led to increased size and sound production of the instrument. In spite of its size, the clavichord remained the instrument of the artist rather than a vehicle for musical bombast
(Wier 24).
The production of large, chromatic-scaled clavichords were built in Germany around
1812; however, some other models date to 1857. A typical, large clavichord spanned about five feet in length with the keyboard’s instrument spanning about five octaves. With the arrival of the piano in later days, clavichord instruments transformed into pianos. This process was possible due to the implication of the sound box. The reverse process, that of changing a square piano into a clavichord, is known to have been more or less successfully carried out (Wier 25).
In the early Twentieth century, the clavichord was almost entirely forgotten. Performers lacked the knowledge concerning its operation and construction which led to a musical ignorance. In addition, the instrument’s name itself was lost. Around 1894, a London instrument crafter and music historian named Arnold Dolmetsch undertook a mission to repopularize the clavichord. Dolmetsch was successful in creating replicas of the instrument; however, he was faced with many challenges. A clavichord’s refinement was no match for a builder at the time.
The methods and materials that were used to create the stringed instrument could only be conceived in succession by exhausted researchers. Builders who attempted to recreate the
16 clavichord studied the instrument from first hand existing examples. Therefore, the present day knowledge of the instrument can nonetheless be contributed to such research.
A close relative of the clavichord is the double clavichord. This instrument was also referred to as Cembal d’ Amor by its inventor, Gottfried Silbermann. This type of clavichord is strictly not to be associated with any type of cembalo or or its family members. The construction of the double clavichord included tangents striking the strings at half their vibrating length, which permitted equally vibrating portions on each side of the tangents. This necessitated the employment of two sound boards, and required the use of independent systems of dampers, which had to be raised to meet the strings, rather than the previous simple device of an intertwined piece of tape. Silbermann’s invention, in its simplest form, was ideally complete, but many superfluous gadgets soon began to be added, according to the custom of the times. It was considered necessary to make a simple stringed keyboard instrument do many things, which belonged more properly to the province of the organ. One of the more fortunate tendencies of the present day is to confine an instrument of this type to matters that are well within its scope, at least from the mechanical standpoint. A separate damper-shifting was introduced in the double-clavichord of
Silbermann, and other stops were added. A later development was the installation of knee pedals which added little to its artistic (Figure 1-5) Late 17th or 18th century clavichord Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An powers (Wier 26). Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
17
Towards the start of the seventeenth century, the clavichord had reached its classic form
(see figure 1-5). The entire instrument was enclosed in a long case roughly spanning about three to four feet long and two feet wide. The instrument’s sound was produced through metal tangents; furthermore, each tangent was attached to the end of each key. Each tangent gently struck the corresponding string below it. From a limited range, a subtleness of sound was possible. The Bebung was a certain technique that was used on the clavichord instrument. The technique employed a subtle vibrato and fluctuation in pitch quality. The clavichord was an instrument that served throughout western Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; however, with the start of the eighteenth century, the instrument lost its popularity.
Germany was the only country to uphold the clavichord as its favorite instrument until the century’s decline.
THE CLAVICYTHERIUM:
The clavicytherium was an old ancestor of the spinet. This keyboard instrument’s name was derived from a combinations of names originating in both Latin and Italian descent. The instrument was comprised of one string per note on the keyboard. The mechanical action of the instrument also shared characteristics pertaining to the later-modified spinet. The key positions and spring action relating to the instrument’s keys were changed; however, a rail and crank were attached in order to help the instrument return to its natural position.
Sebastian Virdung, a noted German composer and musical theorist of the fifteenth century, describes an instrument like the clavicytherium as he states: “a new contrivance with gut strings” (Weir, 9). Although it cannot be certain that the instrument described by Virdung is a
18 clavicytherium, his knowledge of keyboard instruments is said to have been rather vague. Only one clavicytherium had been seen by Virdung in his lifetime, and it is possible that an instrument with gut strings did not even belong to the present classification. Virdung’s illustration is too vague and would furthermore cause a disservice to arriving at a definite conclusion of the subject at hand.
The materials used by ancient writers of the period were imperfect, which caused a misinterpretation of subject illustrations and original sketches. The only well-preserved example of a clavicytherium rests in the Donaldson Museum at the Royal College of Music in London.
The preserved instrument contains wire strings and has been confirmed by scholars to be one of the oldest types of spinets.
The form of the clavicytherium as well as its construction, dates the instrument’s production to the end of the fifteenth century. No designer name or creator is labeled on the instrument; however, if there was, the name would have vanished from the ravages of time.
Documents indicate that it is possible to assume the approximate date of the instrument’s manufacture. The instrument’s features pertain to the early influence of the Renaissance era, as well as Gothic influence. The main dispute, however, is whether the instrument’s origin pertains to Italian or German descent. German inscriptions on the joints of the instrument’s back lead scholars to suggest that the then clavicytherium’s origin may possibly have been from Augsburg; however, the German writing could possibly have been added at a later date by German owners of the instrument. The clavicutherium’s case is made from a blend of fine woods, with its keys being composed of boxwood. Ivory was the predecessor material for the keys of most instruments dating back to this time. The accidental keys on the keyboard were inlayed with a
19 type of darker wood. In addition, the instrument’s keyboard spanned roughly three octaves in length (Weir 10).
THE HARPSICHORD:
During the fifteenth century, yet another keyboard instrument was introduced into society.
This instrument was similar to the modern piano of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and paved the way for the creation of the later instrument. Therefore, the instrument came to be known as at the harpsichord. The harpsichord had various French and Italian names pertaining to its creation such as: clavecin (French) and cembalo or clavicembalo (Italian).
However, records indicate that the harpsichord was not an obsolete creation due to the fact that the instrument had been revived during the present century; therefore, harpsichord factories are flourishing.
The life of the harpsichord began in the fifteenth century and lasted till about 1750.
Harpsichord builders including the Ruckers family contributed to the fame and glory of the instrument, which in part was credited to their fine building technique. Harpsichord history can be traced at least as far back as the Middle Ages when the psaltery, a stringed instrument similar to the modern zither, appeared in various shapes; the strings were plucked by the fingers. It was comparatively simple to adjust a primitive keyboard to the psaltery and in turn to supply each key with a plucking mechanism.5
Records indicate that the fifteenth century harpsichord was the most commonly used.
Several dated accounts of plucking methods pertaining to the harpsichord are recorded, and
5 Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
20 describe a quill being used to pluck the strings. By the 1500’s, another set of harpsichord strings was added. By 1579, another set of strings known as “four-foot” were added to some of the instruments. The keyboard range of the instrument was then spanned to about twenty notes with a later increase in the lower notes. The body of the harpsichord resembled a horizontal harp or wing which was contrary to the earlier rectangular-shaped keyboard instruments. It was for this transformation that Germans dubbed the word Flügel (wing) to refer to the harpsichord. For playing purposes, the harpsichord was mounted on four legs and decorated with a lacquer paint
(Gillespie 7) (see figure 1-6).
With the rise of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the harpsichord proudly held its position of dominance above all the other instruments. During the seventeenth century, the harpsichord was in great competition with the lute, but soon dominated its population. The harpsichord was not only a virtuoso instrument, but in addition, a great accompanying instrument. The years
1650-1750 became known as the golden years for the harpsichord. The instrument ranged from about six to eight feet in length, and featured two keyboards spanning five octaves each. Some models of the instruments employed a lute stop (a
(Figure 1-6) Two-Manual Harpsichord dated 1745 device that was used to dampen the keys). Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and This stop was implemented to imitate the Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
21 sound of the lute.
Since crescendos and diminuendos were impossible on this plucked instrument, it was necessary to have different timbered or tone colors produced by the set of strings.6
As stated earlier, the harpsichord’s popularity was due in part to the fine craftsmanship of the instruments by the Ruckers family. The first Ruckers family builder was Hans Rucker who began to craft harpsichords in 1579. Before the Ruckers family, there were various assortments of harpsichord models; however, the Ruckers family was able to take the various models and create a standard model. Ruckers harpsichord were considered by contemporary musicians to possess the most beautiful tone of any such instrument in existence (Gillespie 9). Later harpsichord manufacturers began to use the Ruckers harpsichords as templates for their models. In addition, a pedal keyboard was introduced which was a relative of the organ’s pedal board. This implication was used among harpsichord and clavichord models which disregarded the labor of pumping the instrument.
The harpsichord was in many ways (Figure 1-7) Harpsichord Interior Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: similar to a virginal or spinet (see page 28); An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. however, the harpsichord had two or more
6 Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
22 strings attached to each note (see figure 1-7). The harpsichord was a more complicated instrument compared to the virginal and spinet models, and possessed a larger case. When comparing the outward form of the harpsichord to the modern piano, there are no essential differentiations. Germans referred to the harpsichord as a Kielflügel. This term is derived from
Kiel, meaning “quill,” and Flügel, meaning “wing.” Due to the harpsichord’s long back extension of the keyboard, the Dutch referred to the instrument as a Staarstuk. Later, the French followed and named the instrument a Clavecin à queue. For Italians, the terms used to describe the harpsichord were usually Clavicembalo or Gravecembalo; however, over time the French shortened their reference to Clavecin. The English term Harpsichord was a translation of the
Latin word Harpsichordum.
By the use of longer strings, the harpsichord’s contour was perfected compared to the odd shape of the spinet. This concept can also be inferred from the instrument’s name; therefore, the harpsichord was contemporaneous with the spinet (Wier 12). An Italian harpsichord example in the South Kensington Museum contains one keyboard constructed with two strings tied to each note. The harpsichord’s keys are crafted from boxwood and the instrument’s keyboard spans to four octaves in length. An extremely rare harpsichord presides inside the Donaldson Museum at the Royal College of London. The specimen was crafted by Trasuntino, an Venetian harpsichord maker. The instrument is dated 1513, and contains ivory keys. Documents indicate that the reason for the impeccable preservation of the instrument is due to the instrument’s case-removal flexibility. The cases of many harpsichords were elaborately hand-crafted which caused many of the instruments to be destroyed due to their case embellishments.
23 The two preserved harpsichords mentioned were Italian instruments. Later in the century,
Trasuntino’s harpsichord employed pedals. Domenicus Pisaucensis was another fine instrument crafter of the clavicembalo and harpsichord. One particular instrument by Pisaucensis was found to be dated 1533.
In addition to Trasuntino’s harpsichord craftsmanship, another Venetian craftsman named
Vito Trasuntino created the archicembalo. This instrument’s keys were constructed in four rows for the sole purpose of obtaining a mesotonic pure-third tuning. Within each of the four rows of keys, thirty-one keys were employed. Both of these harpsichord craftsmen were in competition with the Ruckers family who were the greatest harpsichord makers in history. One particular harpsichord by Hans Rucker is preserved in Windsor Castle. This instrument is of great heroic interest, since there is considerable support for the belief that it is the one mentioned in Handel’s will which was bequeathed to him by the elder Schmidt, father of Johann Christoph Schmidt,
Handel’s pupil and amanuensis, known in England as Christopher Smith. A Harpsichord in the
Kensington Museum, has also claimed the honors just mentioned, but documentary evidence seems to show that it was owned by the younger Smith, and was frequently played upon by
Handel (Weir 13).
HARPSICHORD BUILDERS: THE RUCKERS FAMILY
One of the oldest recored harpsichords crafted by the Ruckers family is dated 1590. One of the more recent instruments is dated 1659, and was crafted by a grandson of Hans Rucker. The high level of talent evident in the Ruckers family is comparable to the paintings of Rubens and
Van Dyck; however, only seventy harpsichords crafted by the Ruckers family remain in
24 existence. Records conclude that the harpsichord remained in use till the end of the nineteenth century.
Harpsichords containing a shorter keyboard possessed an evident range spanning three octaves and a sixth; however, this implication aided in the transposition of music during the era.
As time progressed, the lower keyboard was crafted in a fixed position which contributed to the equality of the two keyboards. In addition, keys were also added. In later models, a total of three strings per key created a uniform feel with the “cymbal” string and the “octave” string. This provided a unity with the lower keyboard.
For the Ruckers family, the tuning of their instruments presented a problem. The harpsichords possessed a shrill, sharp pitch which was a common quality of instruments pertaining to the period. In addition, the instrument’s belly bridge was crafted at a farther distance to allow additional space for the octave string which was directly attached to the harpsichord’s sound board. Later, the harpsichord’s entire keyboard was shifted down by a semitone, resulting in an odd sounding B-flat note in the bass. This problem was soon cured by the addition of a low A. As a result, the keyboard grew to a total of fifty-one keys. In 1708, a crafter by the name of Van Blankenburg added harpsichord stops. These stops were referred to as spinetta, unisonus, cymbals, and octava. The various effects were produced by the sounding of the three strings separately and combined at different pitches (Weir 14).
In 1638, a Ruckers harpsichord containing an unaltered keyboard was discovered. The harpsichord contained two keyboards at a fourth of an interval apart. The harpsichord’s upper keyboard contains a block made out of wood. This block was used to occupy the empty space pertaining to the four lower keys. Schlick, a noted organist and organ advisor during the
25 sixteenth century, claims that organs were also at times tuned a fourth apart for the purpose of facilitating the accompaniment of plainsong, an artifice which made the plagal and authentic modes lie equally convenient for the voice (Weir 15). The interval of a fourth was gradually reduced later on and was eventually over-ruled by the practice of unison tuning; however, this method did not extend past the beginning of the seventeenth century.
Regardless of the various changes and transformations associated with the harpsichord, it is of the utmost importance to note that the production pertaining to the instruments sound remained unaltered. Throughout the harpsichord’s history, its internal components including the jack, plectrum, and cloth damper were unwavering (see figure 1-8). Documentation assumes that the harpsichord action had indeed reached its highest peak for the type of the instrument. At the start of the eighteenth century, modifications pertaining to the harpsichord’s keyboard were met. The harpsichord’s “short-octave” was disregarded, and additional strings and keys were supplied for the last octaves in semitones. The blocks of wood in the keyboard were either reduced or disregarded entirely, and the instrument’s full (Figure 1-8) A Harpsichord Jack Kirby, F. E. A Short History of Keyboard Music. compass was extended vertically. For the New York: The Free Press. 1966. Print. Page 13. harpsichord, many of the later modifications
26 resulted in the instrument bearing an inferior tone-quality. This concept may have been associated with the complete disuse of the harpsichord and the components it employed (Weir
15).
The Ruckers family’s fame was not only due to the remarkable craftsmanship of their instruments, but was also in regard to the tonal beauty their harpsichords produced. The Ruckers family refused to sacrifice the tonal quality of their instruments for size. This concept was the family’s utmost motive in avoiding various irrelevant embellishments which began to be added to the instrument. The Ruckers did not conform to the progress of the ages, but instead came to the realization that advancements were leading the instrument to its grave. In addition, the
Ruckers claimed that conformity would ruin the perfection with which they had devoted their lives.
There is ample confirmation by documentary evidence recorded in 1637, that the painter,
Balthazar Gerbier, purchased a harpsichord by Jean Ruckers having two keyboards and four stops, with a painting by Rubens inside the cover. The instrument was ordered by Charles I, and when it arrived, the discovery was made that the keyboard range was insufficient for the purpose of which it was intended. By this time harpsichord music was already assuming proportions which brought it beyond the limits of the artistic instruments then produced. Ruckers was requested to replace this harpsichord for one of a wider compass, but he refused in no uncertain terms, saying that he had none to supply in place of it, and that he could hardly be expected to ruin the instrument by making the changes required (Weir 16).
To a certain extent, the Ruckers family possessed similarities to the master violin crafter,
Antonio Stradivarius. Scholars indicate that no further modifications were necessary in order to
27 perfect the instrument; however, the tiniest attention to details were necessary keys to perfection.
The same can be said of the violin in the sense that no inventions or alterations have been introduced in order to modify the essential principles associated with violin craftsmanship since
Stradivarius’s time. This idea pertains to the Ruckers harpsichord production. For violinists, the overall feeling of a Stradivarius instrument, and the sound quality that it produces, is similar to the famous harpsichord crafting family—the Ruckers. Craftsmanship by a member of the
Ruckers family was a highly individual technique, and eyewitness accounts claim that no two
Ruckers harpsichords are the same; therefore, the artistic craftsmanship of Ruckers harpsichords proves that each instrument itself was an entity.
OTHER HARPSICHORD BUILDERS:
Aside from the Ruckers family, there were also many other harpsichord crafters during the sixteenth and seventeenth century. In London, the presiding crafters were Jacob Kirchmann, and Shudi or Tschudi. In 1718, Swiss harpsichord crafter Burkat Shudi located to London to launch his crafting business; however, the business was not fully developed until 1742. After
Shudi’s death, his business was handed over to his descendants who continued to successfully run the London production for over one-hundred and sixty-two years thereafter. In addition to
Shudi’s remarkable work, a French harpsichord craftsman by the name of Pascal Taskin was building a name for himself in Paris. Together, both craftsman disregarded the use of cedar, pine, and cypress wood in their harpsichord productions. For most harpsichords at the time, the instrument’s cases were preferably crafted from such woods; however, both crafters began to use finer woods such as mahogany or walnut. Jacob Kirchmann’s harpsichords were regarded as the most-innovative and advanced harpsichords. One Kirchmann harpsichord was recorded to be so
28 unique that the instrument’s lid could be lifted by pressing a pedal. Such inventions were started and built upon by later craftsman.
Around 1750, England was introduced to a new type of harpsichord pedal which was naturally very similar to that of the organ’s. The pedal allowed the reduction of each keyboard to be limited to a single register. The pedal was also complete with a stop to the left of the performer. In order to properly control this new innovation, players were required to reset the machine or pedal stop, and press down the left pedal (Weir 17). This resulted in a removal of the harpsichord’s octave. By releasing the pedal, a player was able to restore the instrument to its original sound and additionally reset the pedal to its original state.
The two keyboards of a harpsichord allowed contrast, but performers were realizing that the simplest effects were able to produced on a single keyboard. Both harpsichord crafters Shudi and Kirchmann experimented with different modifications pertaining to the harpsichord’s keyboard, yet both preferred contrasting styles. During the later part of the century, the implication of harp stops were added to German and French harpsichords.
As the sixteenth century progressed, several attempts to combine the harpsichord and organ were documented by craftsman. Henry VIII is recorded to have owned such an instrument.
The Albert Museum in London contains a two-manual harpsichord combined with an organ of six stops (Weir 17). In 1745, various attempts to combine the two instruments were done by the hand of John Crang. The two examples stated represent the earliest attempts during the eighteenth century. Attempts to combine both the harpsichord and organ gave way to new problems. Tuning of such an instrument was noted to be a difficult task. Documentation explains
29 that the instrument was almost impossible to keep in tune and maintain. As a result, both instruments continued to be produced in their separate and natural state.
Aside from its European development, the art of harpsichord building eventually forged its way into colonial America. Letters corresponding between George Washington and Thomas
Jefferson from 1793-1786 discuss relations with harpsichord builders. The letters specifically point to the associations with Kirkman harpsichords; however, these instruments were later rebranded as Russell. Several European harpsichord builders migrated to colonial America including: Johann Klemm or Clemm (1690-1762), a New York builder; Charles Trute, an
Englishman who settled in Philadelphia in the 1790’s; and John Harris, an English immigrant who worked in Boston (1768). In addition to the European builders who migrated to colonial
America, there were also two native American harpsichord builders: Samuel Blythe of Salem
(1744-1795), and Francis Hopkinson (1737-1791) of Philadelphia (Kirby 19).
With the invention of the piano in the 1700’s, society’s focus revolved around the expression and sound of the new instrument; however, the piano had yet to reach perfection.
Piano crafters sought new materials to improve the production of the instrument, and therefore withstand the power and impact of a performer’s strain on the instrument. This newly conceived innovation, which had yet to be perfected, caused the harpsichord to attain perfection.
The harpsichord was an instrument that had been refined and lavished for over two centuries by ingenious crafters. With the start of the 1800’s, harpsichord production gradually ceased. However, spontaneous interest was given to the harpsichord throughout the nineteenth century, and performers such as Hipkins, Engel, Salaman, Pauer and Bonawitz contributed to the harpsichord’s revival. As a result, society came to the conclusion that it was more desirable to
30 perform early musical manuscripts on the specific instrument for which the music was attributed.
Universities have contributed greatly to this concept by providing lectures and seminars based on music history and collegia musica. With the start of 1888, the harpsichord manufacturers Érard and Pleyel began to revive the art of harpsichord building. Pleyel’s harpsichord was comprised of large dimensions and tonal capabilities. Érard harpsichords were comprised of keyboards spanning five octaves. The Érard harpsichord also featured knee leavers and pedals. The knee levers made it possible for the performer to produce different combinations and effects. These features played a vital part in the revival of the harpsichord. Since Érard and Pleyel’s productions, other harpsichord crafters began to arise such as Neupert, Hubbard, Dolmetsch,
Dowd, Gough, Wittmayer, etc. With the outbreak of World War II, composers found it appropriate to compose music specifically for the harpsichord. Today, new instrumental concepts, such as the electric harpsichord, are attributed to modern technology.
THE VIRGINAL AND SPINET:
The progression to the modern-day piano was not an easy journey for crafters throughout the centuries; however, new innovations and implications allowed the instrument to evolve and take shape until perfection was attained later in history. In the meantime, later types of keyboard instruments leading up to the invention of the modern-day piano paved the way for development.
The spinet was a keyboard instrument that was a type of clavichord. The name “spinet” is derived from the Latin word spina, meaning thorn. The instrument’s name can be attributed to to the quill that was used to move the strings. The term spinetta was an Italian word used to describe the instrument. In addition, the French coined the word épinette, which is a spin off of
31 the instrument’s original name. The English referred to the spinet as a “porcupine” or “quill-hog” which is based off of the etymology of the instrument’s original name.
Signor Ponsicchi, the Italian authority on the instrument, discussed the origin of the spinet, and associated its origin with the venetian craftsman, Giovanni Spinetti. Ponsicchi claims that in 1503, an instrument was discovered bearing the name “Ioannes Spinnetus.” Additionally, the instrument meets the description pertaining to that of the spinet. During the period, it became customary for performers and crafters of a particular instrument to name themselves in the instrument’s honor. Thus “Ioannes Spinnetus” was coined after the spinet. An example of this custom can be traced back to violinists and violin crafters who called themselves “del
Violino” (Weir 7).
It cannot be certain fact that Giovanni Spinetti was indeed the creator of the spinet; however, no further evidence speaks otherwise. It can be assumed that Spinetti gave the instrument his surname, thus resulting in the spinet; however, there is not enough supporting evidence to prove this theory.
The spinet was designed in a rectangular shape. This made the instrument versatile, and therefore able to fit into any corner of a room. The plural form of the spinet was the virginal. A document pertaining to Queen Isabella of Spain describes the virginal, and dates back to 1503. In the document, the Queen describes the virginal as a viejos meaning “old.” The virginal is referred to as a plural instrument due to the fact that any object of a compound or composite nature is referred to as a “pair.” It is for this reason that the term “virginals” (plural) has no different meaning from the singular “spinet” term.
32 Nobilities throughout history such as Henry VIII, Queen Mary, and Queen Elisabeth, have all been recorded as proficient virginal and spinet players. The South Kensington Museum is said to contain the virginal belonging to Queen Elisabeth. Her virginal is described as being very elaborate and bears the Queen’s coat of arms. In addition, the virginal bears the date 1666, which is most-likely the date of the instrument’s restoration.
The spinet was crafted from wood—preferably cypress or cedar (see figure 1-9). The instrument did not contain a finished inside (see figure 1-10), yet the outside of the instrument was (Figure 1-9) Virginal in shape of a work-box (Bie Pg. 81) well-cared for. If a spinet was pentagonal or heptagonal in size, a
case was usually provided; however, oblong models, such as the
rectangular shaped instrument, were unable to be removed from their
cases (see figure 1-11). Minim Marin Mersenne, a French
mathematician describes the three different sizes of spinets: “one
was less than three feet wide, and tuned and octave higher than what
was called the ‘church pitch,’ (Figure 1-10) The same opened, showing the instrument within which can be taken out. (Bie pg. 81) or a whole tone above the
normal of the organ diapason.
The three and a half foot spinet was tuned a fifth higher, and the five foot spinet was in unison with the church pitch previously mentioned” (Weir 8). In New York City’s Metropolitan Museum (Figure 1-11) The instrument presides one of the best-known spinets in existence. The taken out. Constructed in 1631 (Bie pg. 81) particular spinet was crafted by Growvels, a Flemish craftsman.
33 Typically, the keyboard of a spinet was able to span up to three octaves and a sixth. Other spinet models, such as a larger version, were able to span four octaves.
The virginal’s term was coined in England during the time of the Restoration; however, the preferred term for the instrument was the spinet. Various English craftsman of the spinet included: Keene, Hayward, and the Hitchcock family. One particular spinet by Hayward was found to have been dated 1668. The spinets created by Keene were found to have been dated between 1672 and 1716. In addition, the spinets crafted by Thomas Hitchcock were dated somewhere between 1664 and 1703. One spinet crafted by John Hitchcock is recorded as being a gift to George Frederic Handel (Weir 8).
Innovations and modifications pertaining to the spinet and its development were attributed to the Hitchcocks, including the expansion of the instrument’s compass. Additionally, the instrument’s shape and flat keys were also embellished. On the other hand, Hayward attracted attention to his work by reversing the color of the black and white keys. This concept was an original method started by Shudi (or Tschudi). It has been recorded that the latest date for the construction of an English spinet is 1784. Documentation instates that this particular spinet is the most recent one left in existence; however, replicas of the instrument have been made for certain performance purposes.
The inner mechanics of both the spinet and virginal were of vital importance to most
English craftsmen of the century: “A jack or wooden bar, usually of pear-tree, is placed on the rear end of the balanced key-lever. The jack has a centered tongue of holly held in position by a spring of bristle; a small cutting of crow-quill projects at right angles from the tongue. When the key is struck the jack rises, causing the tiny plectrum to twang the string. As the key returns to a
34 stationary position the plectrum passes the string in such a way that no further sound is made; the bristle spring is provided for this purpose. When the key is released to a normal position, the string is dampened by a small piece of cloth attached to the jack above the quill. Various materials have been used for the different parts of the mechanism, including raven quill and buff leather for the plectrum, or metal springs replacing bristles. Metal plectra have also been used in certain Italian instruments” (Weir 9).
It has been confirmed in recent years that both the spinet and the virginal are ancestors of the clavier. Though the instruments are one and the same to a certain extent, the virginal was a type of portable spinet. The term “virginal" did not originate on behalf of the Queen, but instead possessed a name of older origin. It is quite possible that the small size of the virginal made it an instrument that was well suited for young girls. In addition, documentation does not provide any evidence to show men making use of the instrument.
THE PIANO FORTE:
It was not until the year 1709 that the age of the piano began to rise. Florentine instrument crafter Bartolomeo Christofori sought to create a new type of harpsichord operated by hammers. The Italian crafter created his instrument to look like a large harpsichord, and named it the gravicembalo col piano e forte (harpsichord with loud and soft). Because of Christofori’s new invention, the production of keyboard instruments was revolutionized.
The pianoforte was a descendant of the harpsichord and clavichord; however, the piano was operated by hammers. Christofori’s new keyboard innovation was transformed by implication of hammers instead of jacks (see figure 1-12). Originally in harpsichords, a pressurized jack was inserted underneath each key. When a particular key was struck by the tip
35 of the jack, a metallic sound was
produced which was then silenced
by the instrument’s damper.
However, with Christofori’s new
innovation, the instrument’s jacks
were replaced by hammers and (Figure 1-12) Christofori’s Piano Action Kirby, F. E. A Short History of Keyboard Music. New York: additional strings to reinforce sound The Free Press. 1966. Print. Page 23. production. Once a key was struck, the hammer in accordance with the key would rise. This innovation permitted the hammer to have an impulse which was conveyed by a mobile piece called an escapement. The term escapement was coined due to the contact and falling back of the hammer. This concept allowed the instrument to receive constant new impulses and strokes. Upon the striking of a key, the hammer would return to its initial state and a damper would silence the remaining vibrations produced by the strings.
By 1729, Christofori continued to improve his hammer operated instrument and added an additional component—-the side-slip. This added component was the basis for the soft pedal or una corda pedal. Documentation asserts that only two (Figure 1-13)A rare piano-forte created by Christofori in such instruments were credited to Christofori. As Italy, 1720. Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. a result, the instrument did not grow in New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
36 popularity (see figure 1-13).
In England and Germany, piano manufacturing grew abundantly. Harpsichord builders of
French descent began to manufacture pianos; however, only a few pianos were built in France before 1770. Voltaire, the prominent French philosopher of the Enlightenment, referred to the piano as a “tinkers instrument.” Virtuoso performers such as Clementi and Mozart traveled in spite of French opposition and finally popularized the instrument in the French capital.
In Paris around 1777, one of the first piano factories created by Érard (Ehrhard) were crafted. The instrument by Sébastien Érard was extremely successful, and paved the way for the start of another piano factory by his brother, Jean-Baptiste. Together, both of the Erard brothers were able to produce one of the first most famous piano factories. In addition, the Érard brothers were the first to produce a Parisian piano which included foot pedals. As a result, a German piano manufacturer by the name of Ignace Pleyel opened a piano factory in Paris in 1809. Since the initial start of both companies, a lively competition has been ongoing for centuries and still presides today (Gillespie 12).
In addition to European production, American piano manufacturing became established in 1775. John Behrent was the first piano manufacturer in Philadelphia. In 1797, Heinrich
Steinweg (Henry Steinway), a German-born citizen, added his company to the United States piano manufacturing industry. With the production of Steinway instruments, the entire American piano industry outmatched the European models. Together, piano manufacturers worked together to solve technical problems and improve the overall production of the instrument.
With the start of the eighteenth century, piano manufacturers began to experiment with instrument construction and shape. For most European countries, the small, upright piano was
37 favored due to its conservation of space and
price. Contrary to Europeans, Americans
preferred the nineteenth century shape of the
instrument. Examples of nineteenth century
pianos included the “Giraffe” piano (see figure
1-14), obelisk piano, lyre piano, and “piano
secretary” which was designed by Henri Pape.
In 1826, Pape was credited for the invention of
the felt hammer.
Experimental elements pertaining to the
piano were carried on through the rest of the
age. In 1821, Pierre Érard requested a patent for
(Figure 1-14) “Giraffe” Upright Piano crafted in his double-escapement innovation. By Vienna, Austria, 1810. Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: implanting Érard’s mechanism, virtuosos such An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. as Franz Liszt were able to play repetitive notes with agility. It is without a doubt that the Érard invention encouraged the composition of virtuoso repertoire such as Douze Études Transcendantes (Twelve Transcendental Etudes) by Liszt in
1886. In addition, Érard’s new piano innovation revolutionized the concept of finger technique and opened new doors of possibilities for the instrument. Beginning in 1842, the first double- escapement was implemented into piano manufacturing. As a result, Érard’s invention has provided the basis for all escapement mechanisms used since then (Gillespie 13).
38 The years 1830-1850 mark the beginning years of the “modern piano.” Up until this point, piano manufacturers were only able to produce two categories of piano models: upright and grand. However, with the rise of the modern piano, customers were able to choose from a variety of crafted pianos suited to necessity. For Germans, the preferred instruments were crafted by either Blüthner or Bechstein; For French society, the pianos by Pleyel and Érard were held in the highest regard; For Austrians, Bösendorfer pianos were regarded for their craftsmanship.
Americans, on the other hand, preferred a Steinway or a Baldwin.
During the twentieth century, the harpsichord and clavichord regained popularity.
Performances by the great Polish-French harpsichordist Wanda Landowska (1877-1959) played a vital role in the rejuvenation of the harpsichord. As a result, the instruments were no longer considered “antiquated” instruments. Countries all over the world contributed to the production of harpsichords, and manufacturers included: Challis, Dolmetsch, Merzdorf, Newport, Pleyel, and various other manufacturers.
Gottfried Silbermann furthered the hammer-action invention of Christofori. Silbermann created two pianos which he sold to Johann Sebastian Bach; however, neither of the instruments were successful. Silbermann could not understand Christofori’s invention properly from the depictions and writings supporting his innovation. As a result, Bach rejected Christofori’s invention until Silbermann was eventually able to grasp the concept. Documentation assumes that in order for Silbermann to have duplicated Christofori’s invention, he must have obtained an original Christofori piano. Silbermann’s method resulted in what was called the “German
School,” which was later transferred to England, and finally surpassed by the great French builders, Sébastian and Pierre Érard (Weir 33).
39 Among Silbermann’s many piano duplications, three of the instruments were received by
Frederick the Great. One of the three instruments is documented as being performed on by Bach in 1747. Initially, Bach was introduced to Frederick the Great through his son, Carl Phillip
Emmanuel Bach who was an avid performer and composer of the clavichord. Since the piano was strikingly different in nature, many original harpsichord and clavichord works started being transcribed specifically for the instrument. Additionally, records indicate that Silbermann’s instruments incorporated Schroeter’s concepts in his pianos. Concerning Silbermann and the production of his pianos, documentation indicates: “Evidence has been produced to prove that
Silbermann also used many of Schroeter’s ideas in his early pianos; in addition to his wide experience as an organ builder he had exceptional ability as a business man, and he had no hesitancy in using other men’s ideas, not particularly to glorify himself, but to produce an article which should have a commercial value” (Weir 34). Instrument production and invention during the piano’s early development required enormous amounts of funding. It can be assumed that
Silbermann’s business was prospering due to the fact that he sold at least fifteen pianos to
Frederick the Great. Regardless of the fact that the piano was not perfected, as attributed earlier by Bach, Silbermann’s instruments were still held in high regard pertaining to the age.
Over the years, various details pertaining to the piano were modified and improved upon.
The piano’s size and shape underwent numerous modifications through the course of musical history until perfection was achieved. One Saxon piano builder by the name of Christian Ernst
Friederici is remembered for his concept of the square piano. The concept of the square piano was not merely an invention, but was rather a borrowed idea derived from the harpsichord and clavichord. The “square” concept of the instrument meant that every angle was strictly ninety
40 degrees. This concept contradicted the older “wing-shaped” relatives of the piano as recalled from an earlier time; however, there is no historical record of a piano that was literally “square” meaning that it was comprised of four right angles. Another piano “invention” belonging to
Friederici was the upright piano. Aside from minor changes pertaining to the hammer action of the instrument, the upright piano was mechanically indifferent from other pianos produced at the time. Thus, the instrument’s frame was built in a vertical position as opposed to horizontal.
Among the various minor modifications and improvements pertaining to the rise of the modern piano, a major modification of the piano’s strings was introduced on both Italian and
German instruments. During the beginning stages of the piano’s development, thick strings were used on many models: “ As previously suggested, the strings of the piano were in general thicker and stronger than those used for the harpsichord and clavichord. In the early history of the piano an attempt was made to preserve as much of the harpsichord tone as possible so that the change to the piano might not be too abrupt, and accordingly the strings were kept as thin as practicable for a long time” (Weir 35). The piano’s high register contained steel wire in order to withstand great amounts of force and tension. In the bass, brass and steel were ideal sources of material for the strings. With the start of the eighteenth-century, the idea of using over-wound strings for the bass was implemented. At a later date, heavier strings containing a combination of iron and steel were incorporated into the frame of the piano.
The tone of the early piano was not nearly as developed as the modern-day piano in existence today. Many modifications were implemented until perfection was eventually achieved. Various tone qualities pertaining to the harpsichord and clavichord were applied to the piano. At the start, the hammers of most models were carved from pear wood. In some cases,
41 deerskin was used to cover the hammers in an attempt to produce a cembalo tone. Other effects relating to the harpsichord were transferred to the piano such as the instrument’s sostenuto effects. With the progression of the century, damper pedals were introduced. For most piano owners at the time, the undamped tone effect was extremely popular until the winding of cloth between the strings was introduced.
The piano was developed as an instrument as well as an institution. From one perspective, the instrument inherited and underwent modifications pertaining to the eighteenth- century; on the other hand, the instrument was held in high regard for private performances and practice methods. However, the piano also existed as a machine. During the 1800’s, the innovations of the piano sparked many inventors to crave further technological developments that eventually molded and shaped the century. As a result, the piano’s development was also attributed to the Industrial Revolution. Jobs and labor were needed to develop the instruments in factories and employment was high. It has been estimated that a piano factory in London during the Industrial Revolution produced more than 1,000 squares and 400 grands a year.7 In addition, the piano was also regarded as a beautiful piece of furniture, and was an asset to any home or venue. Among other innovations of the age, the piano found its place amidst the technology and advancements of the century. Just like the harpsichord, and other predeceasing keyboard instruments of the time, years of work and investment contributed to the perfection of the modern-piano which is known today.
The history of the modern piano stems from a long line of keyboard ancestors which have been modified and improved upon. As stated at the beginning of the chapter, it is important to
7 Todd, Ralph Larry. Nineteenth Century Piano Music. New York: Schirmer, 1990. Print.
42 note that the ancestry of the piano is not based on how tone was produced, but rather what caused the tone to be produced. Thus, the keyboard was solely responsible. This particular question has contributed to various attempts of combining not only the instruments themselves, but the incorporation of various methods of tone production into the same instrument. Previously discussed, some attempts were deemed far from perfection, yet others were adventurous.
43 CHAPTER II: SOLO MUSIC FOR EARLY KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS
Chamber music is an essential element to understanding advancements in society. By examining different areas in which chamber music was relevant, it becomes possible to understand society up to the present century. Various areas of chamber music to be examined throughout the chapter include the church and court, as well as secular venues of the Medieval,
Renaissance and Baroque periods. In addition, selected chamber music works written for the following instruments will be listed and discussed: portative organ, regal, organ, clavichord, clavicytherium, and harpsichord.
ORGAN MUSIC:
Beginning with the portative organ, one can recall from an earlier time that the instrument was documented as a monophonic instrument—therefore, capable of performing only one part.
The portative organ was used in secular music during the Middle ages. This instrument was unable to perform any more than one part at a time, and was useful in accompanying for ensembles. While other instruments and singers could perform polyphonic music—more than one part—the portative organ could successfully accompany one singer or instrument in an ensemble. Thus, due to its monophonic characteristics, there is otherwise no extant musical literature for the portative organ.
By turning all attention back to the polyphonic organ, it becomes possible to understand the uses of the instrument. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, documentations indicate that there were three uses of the organ: providing instrumental preludes, accompanying
44 the choir, and performing in alternation with the choir. Two of the three uses for the instrument involved both improvisation and composition to some extent. Both of these areas dictate the main types of early keyboard music. With the start of the fourteenth century, major developments for keyboard instruments were being established: first, a diatonic keyboard with chromatic half steps, and secondly, the invention of the harpsichord.
One of the first manuscripts for the organ was the Robertsbridge Codex (see figure 2-1).
The manuscript is written on two leaves and contains six works. The origin of the six pieces are unknown, with only two of the six remaining incomplete.
The notation that encompasses this early discovery is different for both the top and bottom of the early works. The top portion of the works as employ a system of notation (Figure 2-1) The Robertsbridge Manuscript: Estampie Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An called mensural note Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. forms; meanwhile, the bottom Page 17. portions contain merely numbers. In addition, the notation is related to the Italian trecento
(fourteenth century). The early Robertsbridge manuscript is comprised of three estampies and
45 three transcriptions, with two being recorded as motets from the Roman de Fauvel. The works also include an incomplete hymn, Flos vernalis.
The second most-noted organ manuscript dates back to the fourteenth century, and is known as the Reina. This piece is noted for its secular French and Italian roots. The piece is comprised of polyphonic ensemble compositions. Among the other works include two keyboard pieces, and a fragment appearing to be another transcription.
A third piece known as the Faenza Codex dates from the fifteenth century. Interestingly enough, this piece employs the use of mensural notation. The entire work contains keyboard music from the fourteenth century, and additionally contains polyphonic transcriptions by various French and Italian composers of the fourteenth century. The various composers of the age include: Jacopo da Bologna, Francesco Landini, Bartolino da Padova and Guillaume de
Machaut.
By looking over the first three noted organ manuscripts, one can easily conclude that Italy played a vital role in the development of keyboard music from this period. Not one, but all three manuscripts contain Italian references in origin and repertoire. Furthermore, it is important to note that the earliest harpsichords were of Italian origin. As a whole, Italy was a large contributor to the world of keyboard music and continued to do so throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
In German manuscripts, the implementation of the cantus firmus was added in attempts to reproduce early organum compositions dating back to the twelfth an thirteenth centuries. A cantus firmus melody typically appears in the tenor part of a score and is usually produced by the onset of long note values. In addition, the top part(s) move in small increments resulting in
46 figuration. By doing so, the work results in an organum effect that dates back to previous centuries. In some German scores, the term “organum” is notated to detonate such effects.
Secular cantus firmus settings employ the same standards; however, the overall result of the piece is rather varied. This is due to the fact that most secular songs contain their own rhythms. Many of the settings transmitted in the secular pieces revolved around German songs.
The song melody of the cantus firmus was implemented somewhere in the middle of the piece with an additional two parts in accompaniment. A few of the most well-known pieces are documented as:
Paumann’s Fundamentum organisandi, and the song Mit ganczem Willen (With all my
Heart) (see figure 2-2). The piece is constructed as a three voice work with the song (Figure 2-2) Paumann: Mit ganczem Willen Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An melody in the lowest voice. The Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. Page. 20. embellished upper part is highly attractive and the middle voice serves as an accompanying melody. Another additional example is Paumann’s song Elend, du hast umfagen mich.
47 Up to this point, the types of keyboard music that have been discussed pertain to polyphonic form (for the most part). Regardless of the type of piece, in some way or another, the manuscripts discussed relate to polyphony. With the fifteenth century on the horizon, the first type of keyboard composition was introduced: the prelude.
THE PRELUDE:
The prelude (or praeamblum) was designed to portray a type of “free rhythm” and therefore resemble the earlier cantus firmus structure. The purpose of the pieces were to introduce a polyphonic ensemble structure to church services. Early introductory preludes usually featured improvisation on behalf of the organist which were attributed to the initial idea of “free rhythms.” This new method of playing gave rise to an improvisational quality, which thus marked the age of the prelude and idiomatic keyboard compositions.
As a whole, the prelude possesses particular medieval qualities. Additionally, some preludes bear a striking resemblance to elements of primitivism. During the era, most keyboard music was improvised. Furthermore, the concept of improvisation can be traced back to an earlier time before the cantus firmus and prelude entered the world of composition. Adrian Petie
Coclico, a theorist and composer of the sixteenth century claimed that: “ A basic element associated with composition in the period is the task of improvising a part or parts to a given cantus firmus…”. He continues to state that: “That it is also basic in keyboard composition may be seen from the treatise of Conrad Paumann, which teaches an organist to do exactly the same thing” (Kirby 38). This concept explains why many early organ compositions were not written down. Additionally, it can be assumed that the greater majority of keyboard manuscripts written
48 down are those that have no distinct relation to improvisation. As a result, many written manuscripts for organ were transcribed polyphonic works for keyboard instruments.
ORGAN COMPOSERS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY:
Geographic locations played a vital role in the early formation of keyboard music before the sixteenth century. With the arrival of the sixteenth century, situations changed which caused keyboard music to spread and be produced across most European countries. Although many of the traditional types were still in use, the surviving types were built upon and were used to pave the way for new musical developments.
One of the first printed collections of organ music was compiled by the blind organist and theorist Arnolt Schlick (c. 1455—c. 1525). Schlick was a noted sixteenth-century German figure in keyboard music who is remembered for his treatise, Spigel der Orgelmacher und Organisten; however, his most significant achievement was his printed collection of organ works known as
Tabulaturen etlicher Lobgesang und Lidlein auff die Orgel und Lauten zu spilen. The works were published by Peter Schöffer in Mainz around 1512. The entire collection of works by Schlick contained fourteen organ compositions and an additional twelve lute songs and three lute pieces.
The notation system encompassing the works is written in German; however, mensural notation is used in the upper portion of the works. This collection of organ works by Schlick was mainly used for cantus firmus settings based on plainsongs. The entire compilation of pieces is similar to a fifteenth-century cantus firmus motet. Other parallels to the fifteenth-century, that are evident in Schlick’s collection, are intervals of thirds and sixths moving in parallel motion.
Schlick is often remembered for his use of song melodies within his works, which were typically written in German tablature. One of the best-known examples of this idea can be seen
49 in Schlick’s composition, Maria zart (Tender Mary), which was a religious song that was also referred to as an organ chorale (see figure 2-3). Over time, Schlick’s style became more elaborate
and embellished. The new style
of elaboration was polyphonic,
and was a direct result of the
new trend in counterpoint that
was being developed during the
century. In addition to Schlick,
another noted German organist
and composer of the age was
(Figure 2-3) Schlick: Maria Zart Paul Hofhaimer (1459-1537) from Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Switzerland. Hofhaimer held close Print. Page 23. ties with leading composers of the age and also maintained close connections with the Hapsburg court. Aside from Hofhaimer, other sixteenth-century organ composers were: Hans Buchner (1483-1538), Hans Kotter (c.
1485-1541), Fridolin Sicher (1490-1546), and Leonhard Kleber (c. 1490-1556). Each of the organ composers listed were in some way or another associated with Hofhaimer. For this reason, the group of composers were referred to as “Paulomimes.” This was partly due to the fact that each of the composers manuscripts were passed down by form of tablature. Buchner was the only exception to this situation. His works are contained in a large treatise known as
Fundamentum, which was an organ instruction manual. The manual was comprised of instructions pertaining to organ technique, fingering, and the use of the thumb.
50 Up to this point, the compositions were for varied uses. The use of cantus firmus, which were based on plainsong, was widely used in the compositions of Buchner and Sicher, and also appear in the works of Kleber and Kotter. Buchner’s Fundamentum organ instruction book also contains similarities to previous works. Kleber’s works demonstrated the use of the prelude, which can also be traced to works by Kotter. Clearly, contexts of music were being shared and built upon by various reigning composers during the era. Additionally, these factors paved the way for the legacy of chamber music.
DANCE MUSIC:
Another category of keyboard music, showing great significance, was dance music. The creation of dance music was highly implemented by Kotter. The tradition of dance music was regarded as a prime type of instrumental music. The textures of dance music included monophony as well as polyphony. An example of German dance music for keyboard can be found in the Kotter manuscript, Il Re di Spagna by Hans Weck, as well as the Praeambulum in fa
(Prelude in F) (see figure 2-4).
In the fifteenth century, it was the practice to have the slow basse dance followed by a rapid dance in triple time. This custom of associating dances in pairs was continued throughout the sixteenth century (Kirby 40). Contrary to fifteenth-century practices, the sixteenth-century practiced the custom of dance variation.
THE AGE OF THE “COLORIST” SCHOOL:
Poland was the leading center for German organ music in the mid-sixteenth century.
However, with the end of the sixteenth-century, a major decline of German keyboard music began to take shape. This period became known as the age of the “colorist” school, and was
51 named accordingly due to the embellishments that were being created. The activities of the colorist school focused around the aspects of keyboard transcriptions of polyphonic ensemble pieces. Most of the polyphonic pieces that were (Figure 2-4) Kotter: Praeambulum in fa Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for transcribed included motets and Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. Page. 23 chansons. In addition, improvisation was also a factor. In his book, Kirby describes his positive viewpoint of the colorist school: “A positive contribution of the school is a result of the coloration itself: the attention given to the development of technique in keyboard playing, proper fingering, and the execution of standard types of ornamentation.” Many positive developments were made as a result of the colorist school including the use of letters in place of mensural note forms. This method was widely used in Germany until the eighteenth-century. A few representing experimenters of the colorist school include: Bernhard Schmid the Older (1520—c.1592);
Johannes Rühling, Jacob Paix (1556—c.1617), August Nörminger, Bernhard Schmid the
Younger (1548—d. unknown), and Johann Woltz (Kirby 42).
52 THE CLAVIER AND THE RISE OF SECULARISM:
Once the seventeenth century arrived, it was obvious that previous organ music up to this age was used for either church services, or teaching purposes. Catholic and Protestant services put the organ to use, and began to use keyboard instruments in their chorales. Examples of such repertoire are exemplified in the following works: Pachelbel’s Choräle, and Scheidt’s Tabulatur-
Buch.
The rise of secularism brought new changes to sixteenth-century clavier chamber music repertoire.Works began to be scored for the “clavier” in general without specifying the employment of any particular keyboard instrument. In addition to the rise of the clavier, the form of the orchestra began to take shape. In Oscar Bie’s book, he discusses the context of both the clavier and the orchestra: “The combination of single instruments in a body, and that one instrument which alone can represent that combination, are manifestations of the same movement, namely, of the transference of the church choral tone-practice into the sphere of the secular, where in place of the counterpoint which ran on by the hour, and interlaced system of harmonies, a strict organization of melodies, gradually assumed the mastery” (Bie 1-81).
Concerning the orchestra and the clavier, he goes on to state that, “the orchestra occupied itself with public representations; the clavier with the advance of the new music in the home. Already in Venice, instruments had taken their share with the singers in the church; now chamber-music also began to flourish” (Bie 1-81). The rise of the orchestra and the establishment of home music making together paved the way for new advancements in chamber music.
In 1561, a play by Lord Buckhurst known as Gorboduc featured aspects of Venetian instrumental music. Violins, flutes, oboes, pipes, drums and trumpets were used in the
53 performance. This idea paved the way for the Italian operatic orchestra; however, uniquely enough, this specific orchestra began to prefer wind instruments over stringed instruments. Up to this point in history, two things can be concluded. First, the wind instruments were prevailing during the sixteenth century. Secondly, stringed instruments prevailed during the seventeenth century. However, concerning the position of the clavier, Oscar Bie states: “ For the clavier, during many years, even when it had made good its position as a solo instrument, still took its part in orchestral combinations.”
There is no reason to doubt that the clavier flourished and that its entrance into the realm of chamber music began in England. As a matter of fact, the impact of the clavier In Europe bred various new developments. During this age, music was not only widespread, but was also regarded as a very ancient practice.
In London, a huge rivalry was on the horizon with Venice. Madrigals, Chansons, and
Dances were being widely written and performed up to this point; however, in London, the first clavier books were discovered. These books were designed specifically for the clavier instrument and none other, which differed from the other works being performed during the time (listed above). The books were comprised of three different types of works. First, there were free fantasias. As recalled earlier in the age, these “free fantasias” were referred to as preludes, preambles or even toccatas. They were often fugal, and featured florid passages. Secondly, pieces that took on the identity of canto firmo were written. These particular works were derived from original church melodies. Lastly, there were pieces containing variations. Some themes that were evident in such a work had the potential to contain groups of variations. Songs containing variations were often grouped into a series of works. Popular songs, as they swept unchecked
54 across England and Scotland, are inexhaustible. Even today, they retain their freshness. Through the whole piece they maintain their tense and melodious rhythm. The dances were called Pavans, and Galliards, in triple are frequently titled after noblemen, and are in their variations adorned with the same encomiastic flourishes as the songs (Oscar Bie 18).
JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH:
One of the most influential composers of Baroque music was Johann Sebastian Bach
(1685-1750). Bach was an organist who composed various keyboard works that have stood the test of time. Throughout his life, Bach held many positions including: membership of a church choir in Lüneburg (1700-1703), organist at Arnstadt (170301707), Mühlhausen (1707-1708), and
Weimar, where he also became a chamber musician (1708-1717); Kappelmeister at Cöthen
(1717-1723); and, finally, cantor in Leipzig (1723-1750). Documentation indicates that only two of his positions were associated with the courts—Weimar and Cöthen. Most of his instrumental music (chamber music, orchestral concertos, and suites) dates from the years at Cöthen
(1717-1723) (Kirby 112).
All of Bach’s keyboard compositions are relative to his leading positions—-specifically sacred music which was composed for the Lutheran church. In addition, a vast amount of secular music was composed for other purposes. The division between sacred and secular parallels that of organ music and clavier music (clavichord or harpsichord).
Bach was not a great innovator according to his sons who noted that their father, “looked back rather than ahead.” He did, however, take the existing forms of keyboard music, strip them of all superfluity, and polish them to a high peak of perfection, as if to say to future composers: “
Here is the essence of what can be done or said through these forms; study them and assimilate
55 them; then forge ahead to new horizons” (Gillespie 130). During his age, the forms of contrapuntal style and harmonic style were slowly merging together. In reference to Bach, his works reflected the ideals of the times (seventeenth century styles written in the early eighteenth century).
It was during Bach’s time that the equal tempered scale was being applied to aspects of keyboard instruments. However, in order for the tempered scale to be used and referred to by other artists (like Bach), it had to succeed the advantages of previous keyboard systems. Before the concept of temper tuning, keyboard performers (of the organ, clavichord, and harpsichord) were unable to perform in any key at any given time. Instead, only instruments bearing “fixed sounds” were in existence. This was partly due to the fact that the instruments would have required so many notes that playing would have been impossible. Because of the concept of fixed tuning, composers began to limit their compositions to certain keys. In view of the importance modulation assumed in later composition, one can realize the influence exerted by temper tuning, not only on the piano but on the development of music in general (Gillespie 132).
In order to demonstrate his technique and push the possibilities of the keyboard instruments at the time, Bach compiled his book: Wohltemperiertes Klavier (Well-Tempered
Clavier). These compositions of Bach included two volumes of twenty-four preludes and fugues in all the major and minor keys. Until that time, no compositions had ever been composed for keyboard instruments that demonstrated the purposes outlined in the Well-Tempered Clavier.
Since the term“clavier” refers to keyboard instruments in general, Bach specifically picked this word for the title of his volumes. Thus, his preludes and fugues could be performed on any keyboard instrument—organ, clavichord, or harpsichord. On the other hand, regardless of
56 the instrument, Bach always manages to express his own personality within his works. As a composer, Bach was too aristocratically reserved and disregarded the use of emotion within his pieces.
Bach’s preludes and fugues were meant to be integral to one another. In John Gillespie’s book, Five Centuries of Keyboard Music, he states: “The relationship between the preludes and the fugues in the Well-Tempered Clavier varies infinitely. Frequently, the prelude sparks rapidly, giving the impression of an étude. Sometimes it is related to the fugue. At other times it is in complete opposition to the fugue, the only similarity being the common key in which the two are written” (Gillespie 133).
In Bach’s first book, the last fugue in b-minor is comprised of a chromatic subject that is structured in a sequence which then develops (see figure 2-5). When Bach would compose his fugues, he would base his work off of a simple motif that would grow in variation as the piece progressed.
(Figure 2-5) Excerpt from J.S. Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier Book I : Fugue in B-Minor Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
The motif’s were often based on something bearing a subtle emotional quality of a rhythmic concept, which would then set the mood for the entire piece.
In addition to his preludes and fugues, Bach wrote yet another masterpiece known as the
Goldberg Variations. The original idea for this composition came from a notebook that Bach
57 created for his second wife, Anna Magdalena Bach in 1725. The Goldberg Variations exemplify
Baroque technique and variation unlike any other piece that was composed during the Baroque age. The Variations were written specifically for the harpsichord; however, the composition contains the Aria with Thirty variations. The Goldberg Variations strictly required a harpsichord with two-keyboards, and has been regarded as one of the greatest keyboard works of all time (see figure 2-6). Sir Donald Tovey, an English musicologist commented about Bach’s Goldberg
(Figure 2-6) Excerpt From J.S. Bach’s Goldberg Variations: Aria Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
Variations: “until Beethoven wrote the ‘Waldstein’ Sonata, the ‘Goldberg’ variations were the most brilliant piece of sheer instrumental display extant. No other work by Bach himself, or by
Domenico Scarlatti, not even any concerto by Mozart or any earlier work of Beethoven could compare with it for instrumental brilliance” (Gillespie 138).
With the Goldberg Variations exhibiting the highest caliber of harpsichord music, Bach had written many other fine works including: The Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue, and the Italian
Concerto, which was composed in Leipzig around 1730.
GEORGE FREDERICK HANDEL:
In addition to Johann Sebastian Bach, another leading musical grandiose composer of the
Baroque age was George Frederick Handel (1685-1759). However, Handel’s interests did not
58 only lie in the compositions of keyboard music, but also in the compositions of operas and oratorios.
George Frederick Handel was born in Saxony. He would often travel internationally to
Paris, Naples, Venice, and London, and would keenly observe musical traditions wherever his travels led him. Handel was a true German at heart despite the fact that he later moved to
England and began to compose for the public audiences. As he began to mature musically, he was influenced by two leading instrumental composers: the German Reinhard Keiser
(1674-1739), a popular composer of German Opera, and Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707), the famous Danish-German organist (Gillespie 140).
From the start, Handel was not a lyric composer. His motivation to compose was not centered around feelings, but was instead focused around inspiring his audiences. Handel’s music exhibits aspects of liveliness and vivaciousness, and his main keyboard works were written specifically for the harpsichord. Of his keyboard compositions, three categories of works were written: fugues, youthful works (such as suites) and his miscellaneous works (such as fantasies, little sonatas, and lessons for his pupils).
Handel is known for his six massive fugues. His style is completely improvisatory and his technique possessed the ability to create “vocality” within the context of his phrases. Both of these qualities are demonstrated in Handel’s oratorio: Israel in Egypt (Gillespie 141).
Handel’s music was written with precise clarity; however, it does not compare to the works produced by Bach. As opposed to Bach, Handel’s music presented qualities of embellishment and decoration rather than confoundedness. Handel’s music was written to be enjoyed for its splendor and rhythmic notation.
59 In addition to his compositional characteristics, Handel was noted as being an individual who supported universality. Instead of limiting himself to strictly composing German pieces, he referred to himself as a European musician. Handel’s universality was partly due to his master,
Friedrich Zachau (1663-1712). Concerning Zachau, Mattheson, a friend of Handel’s noted:
“Zachau showed Handel the different ways of writing and composing of different nations” (Gillespie 141). Thus, the travels and adventures that Handel participated in expanded his knowledge of various musical forms and styles.
THE SONS OF SEBASTIAN BACH:
Some of the most important keyboard works were written by the sons of Johann
Sebastian Bach with three of the best-known and well-remembered being: Wilhelm Friedemann
(1710-1784), Carl Philipp Emanuel (1714-1788), and Johann Christian (1735-1782).
Wilhelm Friedemann Bach was the first son born to Johann Sebastian and Maria Barbara,
Bach’s first wife. Wilhelm learned musical training from his father prior to his seventh birthday.
His father, Johann, wrote for him the Clavierbüchlein vor Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (Little
Keyboard Book for Wilhelm Friedemann Bach). The book contained precludes and fugues for little Wilhelm’s instructions. Later in life, Wilhelm’s keyboard manuscripts included: nine sonatas, two sonatas for two claviers, twelve polonaises, ten fantasias, and other various works.
Just like his father, Wilhelm loved to perform and improvise. The age of the Bach’s sons were during the time when the sonata form and Classic style were only starting to emerge. Unlike any of his brothers, Wilhelm wrote just like his father.
Among Wilhelm’s nine sonatas, he used the compositional structure of three movements, which was characteristic of his father. Aside from using many of his father’s technical ideas
60 within his pieces, Wilhelm was also open to new ideas such as: contrasting themes, experimentation and figuration and tempo contrast within single movements.
In Wilhelm’s Sonata in E-flat Major, he uses an initial theme that spans five measures in the first movement (see figure 2-7). As the second theme appears, it turns out to be not a real theme, but a scalar configuration; however, the first theme undergoes a short, rather unimaginative development before the recapitulation (Gillespie 150). When the recapitulation begins, both themes are present.
(Figure 2-7) Excerpt from Sonata in E-flat Major: Allegro by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
In the second movement, an earlier theme is recalled with the use of canons—an imitative structure used by Johann Sebastian Bach as demonstrated in his Goldberg Variations.
In addition, the third movement of Wilhelm’s sonata is Presto, and its rhythms are evident at the start of the movement. The Sonata in E-flat Major indicates by its style and structure that at the time it was written, the Classic sonata was still in a formative stage. Any idea of a homophonic texture—a melody with accompaniment—seems possible for just a brief time before the thought is broken up by scale passages, arpeggios, and all sorts of extraneous and unorganized devices
(Gillespie 150).
61 Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach was the second son of Johann Sebastian and Maria Barbara.
In addition to his father and brother, Carl was also an accomplished keyboard player and performer. From 1740-1767, Carl served as a private accompanist to Fredrick the Great of
Berlin. Later in his life, Carl became a music director of five different churches, which gave him the name “Berlin Bach,” or the “Hamburg Bach.” Among his composition, Carl wrote a vast amount of sonatas and other various keyboard instruments; however, documentation asserts that
Carl’s favorite instrument was the clavichord. In addition, Carl is remembered for the following list of compositions: Six “Prussian” sonatas (1742) dedicated to Fredrick II; Six “Württemberg” sonatas (1744) dedicated to Carl Eugene, Duke of Wüttemburg; Six sonatas “with varied reprises” (1760) dedicated to the Princess Amelia of Prussia; Six sonatas “à l’usage des
Dames” (for ladies), 1770; Clavier-Sonaten für Kenner und Liebhaber (1779, 1780, 1781, 1783,
1785, 1787) (Gillespie 151).
Carl holds a vital position in the creation of the keyboard sonata. Most of the sonatas that he composed contain three movements in the sequence of fast-slow-fast tempos. Documentation indicates that in the production of his works, Carl would often look behind him to the Baroque age, and also look to the future. Thus, Carl produced works that were relevant to both his predecessors and contemporaries.
Carl did not contribute very much to the structure of the sonata (contrary to his brother,
Wilhelm); however, he did contribute to the molding of the piano style by his knowledge and experience with the art of playing and expressing detail on the clavier. Together, these stylistic elements paved the way for the composers of the Classical period, especially Beethoven.
62 As a profound innovator, Carl was able to create fantasy-like elements within his movements which were contrary to standard sonata styles of the day. Carl’s Sonata in G Minor is a relative example (see figure 2-8). Borrowed elements relating to his father’s Chromatic
Fantasy and fugue are implemented. In addition, similar features pertaining to the later composer, Frederic Chopin are relevant (such as Chopin’s B-flat Minor sonata).
(Figure 2-8) Excerpt from Sonata in G-Minor: Allegro by C.P.E. Bach Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
Unfortunately, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach’s clavier works are not frequently performed today. John Gillespie discusses why he feels this is the case: “Much of it, although it offers exciting new examples for those who directly followed him, now appears stilted, its themes fashioned with too much care and method. Still, there are individual works of great beauty among the vast output of this particular Bach, and these pieces deserve a hearing” (Gillespie
152).
After the death of their father, the youngest son of the Bach family—Johann Christian
Bach—received his keyboard training from his brother, Carl. Johann Christian was heavily
63 influenced by his studies abroad in Italy during the time when he was a student of Padre Martini.
Later on, Johann Christian spent the last two decades of his life in England where he began to continue Handel’s tradition of composing Italian operas.
Of his works, Johann Christian wrote about seventy keyboard sonatas with about two- thirds of the sonatas arranged for accompaniment by other instruments. Johann Christian was born towards the start of the Classical period and was heavily influenced by the Classicism compared to either of his predeceasing brothers. Johann Christian’s style is depicted in his
Sonata in B-flat Major (see figure 2-9).
(Figure 2-9) Excerpt from Sonata in B-flat Major: Andante By J.C. Bach Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
Of the many composers who lived and composed during the Renaissance and Baroque periods, Johann Sebastian Bach, George Frederick Handel and the sons of Bach have left their legacies within their keyboard compositions. Although the concept of chamber music was not nearly as developed as it is today, the discoveries and musical innovations that composers used in the early centuries pushed the possibilities of keyboard instruments. Thus, the rise of secular music opened new doors and pushed musical boundaries for composers and performers alike.
64 For the church, sacred music continued to focus around worship and matters pertaining to the divine.
As far as the keyboard instruments are concerned, compositions for the organ, clavichord, and harpsichord were highly valued and referenced through the history of chamber music. Each keyboard instrument had a vital impact on society and the composers who composed for each instrument. As time progressed, composers began to borrow material from each other to use in their own compositions (as discussed earlier pertaining to the works of J.S. Bach and his sons).
However, the borrowed material gave rise to new innovations and ideas that were constantly being built upon by contemporaries. By discovering new expressive qualities, the development of the sonata was formed, and the age of keyboard music was passed on to composers of the
Classical period.
65 CHAPTER III: SOLO MUSIC FOR LATER KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS
By observing musical advancements in society up to this point, it becomes possible to understand the various positions in which chamber music was used throughout the Medieval,
Renaissance and Baroque periods. With the start of a new chapter, the development of Classical,
Romantic, and Modern solo keyboard music will be presented and discussed pertaining to following instruments: spinet, virginal, fortepiano and piano.
THE VIRGINAL AND SPINET:
In sixteenth-century England, organ music was the predominant keyboard music repertoire. However, there is a distinct English contribution to virginal keyboard music of the period. Secular songs and dances of the era were compiled into a book known as the Mulliner
Book. Composers who’s works are featured in the Mulliner Book include: Philip Ap Rhys, John
Redford (d. 1547), Thomas Preston, Thomas Tallis (c. 1505-1585), William Blitheman (d. 1591), and Thomas Tomkins (1527-1656). The Mulliner Book contained secular songs and keyboard duets; however, instrumentation was not specifically notated by composers. As a result, keyboard performers used their own discretion since it was not certain whether the organ or the virginal was the intended instrument (Kirby 55).
England had a distinctive contribution to the keyboard music of the period.
Documentation asserts that several manuscripts similar to those found in the Mulliner Book were specifically composed for the virginal including: Benjamin Cosyn’s Virginal Book, Will
66 Forester’s Virginal Book, My Lady Neville’s Book, Parthenia, Fitzwilliam Virginal Book,
Elisabeth Roger’s Virginal Book, and The Dublin Virginal Manuscript (also known as the the
Dallis Virginal Book).
Pertaining to the manuscript list above, Fitzwilliam’s book of virginal music is noted as the largest and most comprehensive (Kirby 55). From a technical standpoint, many virginal works were extremely difficult to perform due to technicalities such as note repetition.
The Parthenia was the first printed work for the virginal. No exact date is given to its publication; however, documentation claims that the work is estimated to have been published around 1611. The title of the work is derived from the Greek word, parthenos, meaning virginal.
Mainstream composers of virginal music include: Giles Farnaby (c. 1560-c. 1620), Thomas
Morely (1557-c. 1603), John Bull (c. 1562-1628), Thomas Tomkins (1572-1756), Orlando
Gibbons (1583-1625), and John Munday (d. 1630).
Dance music was popular during the age, and most dance pieces were recorded as pavanes and galliards. The first piece featured a slow and proper dance that was notated in duple meter; the second piece featured a fast dance in triple meter. In some cases, the second dance was not a new tune, but rather a variation of the first dance.
Virginal composer Orlando Gibbons is most remembered for his dance pair: Pavane and
Galliard ( also known as Lord of Salisbury) (see figure 3-1). The title of Gibbon’s work relates to the person to whom the piece is dedicated to. In Gibbon’s composition, the pavane in particular is greatly transformed; we find long and irregular phrases and long rising sequences, much use of chromaticism with unusual and expressive intervals, and considerable contrapuntal detail, all of
67 which make this one of the
masterpieces of early keyboard
music (Kirby 56).
As recalled from an earlier
time, the term “spinet" comes
from the Latin word spina
meaning thorn. This is partly
due to the quill that was used to
(Figure 3-1) Excerpt from Pavane, Lord of Salisbury generate the spinet’s strings. In by: Orlando Gibbons Kirby, F. E. A Short History of Keyboard Music. New York: Classical literature, the German term The Free Press. 1966. Print. Frauenzimmer is used to describe the virginal. Historical accounts assert that the term virginal was used in England due to the instrument’s use by Queen Elisabeth. With the development of the madrigal, the lute instrument was the preferred accompanying instrument; however, the virginal was the preferred instrument for women due to its convenient keyboard. The lute required physical activity that was associated with masculinity.
John Bull (1562-1628) was an English organist who left England due to religious circumstances. Bull fled to Brussels and later to Antwerp where he became noted as a master of contrapuntal devices. Bull created virginal music. Bull’s various blending of compositional techniques featured old and new elements. Examples of fauxbourdon
68 (Figure 3-2) Excerpt from In Nomine by: John Bull Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
are implemented in his works which were used by composers of the Middle Ages and
Renaissance period. In particular, John Bull is most remembered for his composition, In Nomine
(see figure 3-2).
THE CLASSICAL ERA:
The Classical period can be roughly estimated to have spanned from 1730 to about 1815.
The boundaries of the Classical period overlap with the Baroque and Romantic periods, just as boundaries blur between Medieval and Renaissance and Baroque. Several characteristic were associated with the classical style including elements of clarity, balance, and restraint. From a musical standpoint, the classical era is a genre beginning with the later works of Haydn to the early works of Beethoven. During the classical age, the piano was the most influential instrument for composers such as Haydn and Mozart. The classical style emerged from parallels to Greek and Roman art, and possessed qualities of noble simplicity, balance, formal perfection, diversity within unity, seriousness or wit as appropriate, and freedom from excesses of ornamentation and frills. As a result, it is almost impossible to use the term without making value judgments.8
8 Burkholder, J. Peter, Donald Jay Grout, and Claude Victor Pasilsca. A History of Western Music. New York: W.W. Norton, 2014. Print.
69 FRANZ JOSEPH HAYDN:
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) was one of the first composers of the Classical period to have his manuscripts recognized while he was alive. Haydn’s most productive compositions were advanced by his affiliation with the Esterhazy family in Austria. Haydn was a self-taught musician and composer who performed all over the European regions.
Throughout the centuries, music scholars have tried to prove that Haydn was deeply influenced by Croatian folk melodies, and that he derived his melodies from Italian origins.
While such rumors have still yet to be proved, one thing can remain certain: Haydn remained
Haydn—a simple, rather imperturbable individual who possessed an inner serenity and an optimistic outlook (Gillespie 161).
Haydn was obsessed with two types of sonatas. The first type was a standard sonata that was associated with C.P.E. Bach and W.F. Bach. Structurally, the sonata contained three sections: fast-slow-fast. The sonata featured two themes that were stated, embellished and re-stated. The second type of sonata was associated with Vienna, and was structured in three movements; however, the structure required a performer to maintain the same tonality throughout the duration of the piece.
Kirby states that Haydn’s style reflects “an intensely passionate and extreme kind of expression that gives way to something more moderate in which a judicious balance between the various affections and the different style, forms, and characters of the individual movements is sought.” Thus, Haydn’s Sonata in E-flat (No. 52) is characteristic of Kirby’s statement, and is known for its virtuostic elements. Later, Beethoven would expound upon Haydn’s model and contribute to the development of the classical sonata.
70 Haydn was not known as a pianist or a keyboard composer. As a matter of fact, newer discoveries indicate that Haydn eventually lost interest in the piano altogether. Instead, he turned his compositional focus toward the string quartet and symphony. During the last twenty years of his life, Haydn composed three piano sonatas; however, Haydn had spent a majority of his life experimenting with the piano sonata. Unlike his contemporaries, Haydn used his piano sonatas as a framework in which melodic structure went hand in hand with contrast of a key (Gillespie
163). Through his use of clear, organized themes, Haydn was able to establish the basic structure of the future classical sonata.
During his years of compositional productivity, Haydn composed sixty-one keyboard sonatas. Haydn’s Sonata in G-Major is an example of his divertimento style (see figure 3-3).
Divertimento was a term used to describe an instrumental chamber work containing several movements that were usually light in character. Haydn’s Sonata in G-Major spans four pages in length and is structured in three movements: Presto, Andante, and Minute and Trio.
(Figure 3-3) Excerpt from Sonata No. 11 in G Major by: Haydn Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
Towards the end of his life, Haydn composed his last piano sonata: Sonata No. 52 in E- flat Major. For most composers, their last works were not usually the best; however, for Haydn,
71 this was not the case. Franz Joseph Haydn’s Sonata No. 52 in E-flat Major demonstrated his lifetime efforts at keyboard composing (Gillespie 165). The sonata was structured in three movements: Allegro, Adagio and Presto (see figure 3-4). The entire work possesses virtuosity, harmonic audacity, and expression. With the publication of his last keyboard composition, Haydn bid farewell to the piano sonata.
(Figure 3-4) Excerpt from Sonata in E-flat (No. 52) by: Haydn Kirby, F. E. A Short History of Keyboard Music. New York: The Free Press. 1966. Print.
WOLFGANG AMADEUS MOZART:
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) was one of the most-incredible child piano prodigies to have ever lived. John Gillespie describes Mozart as he states: “the term genius is the only appellation that seems appropriate. One has merely to compare a minute written by the six- year-old Wolfgang with one composed by his father Leopold to understand that the son had a
God-given gift for music” (Gillespie 166).
72 As a native to Austria, Mozart had the opportunity to travel to many countries throughout his life including France and Italy. Mozart’s travels influenced his compositions. Thus, Mozart’s
Italian style became more Italianate than the Italians. The same holds true of his French style.
Some of his most charming piano sonatas were written during sojourns in France (Gillespie 167).
Aside from his compositional output, Mozart was a prodigy pianist, and toured Europe performing his own original manuscripts. The vast majority of Mozart’s solo keyboard compositions include sonatas, variations, and fantasias. In addition to his solo compositions,
Mozart also composed many symphonies and operas. Concerning Mozart’s unique compositional output, documentation asserts that Mozart’s keyboard works did not portray his genius; however, his piano concertos show superior quality to the solo piano works.
It has been recorded that during the peak of Mozart’s music career, he was a performer such as had never been heard or witnessed up to this point. His musical skills as a child prodigy surpassed the technique of other performers.
Throughout his life, Mozart composed many variational works for solo keyboard.
Concerning Mozart and his variations, John Gillespie states: “After the Baroque period and the variations of J.S. Bach, variation form had undergone considerable changes. Pre-Classic composers had been content to repeat a theme five or six times without introducing any other modification apart from embroidering it with new accompaniment figures, or with alterations in phrasing details. The variation at that time also emphasized the Alberti bass, the crossing of hands, and all the artifices of modern virtuosity that were then being substituted for the firm musical structures inherited from the old school” (Gillespie 167). The structure and form of the variation underwent significant changes following the conclusion of the Baroque period. Due to
73 Mozart’s travels as a young prodigy, it is most-likely that his style of variation was acquired in
Paris. First hand accounts and witnesses claim that many of Mozart’s variation compositions sound similar to those of his contemporaries. Mozart’s approach to the variation form is contrary to composers of the sonata form. Mozart is rather timid in his approach to the variation—quite the opposite of his concept of sonata form—and it is apparent that he did not take his variations too seriously. That they are charming is undeniable, but to say that they represent Mozart’s best clavier writing would be an exaggeration (Gillespie 167).
Aside from his variations, Mozart’s sonatas depicted a different type of personality.
Mozart followed in the compositional footsteps of Franz Joseph Haydn and C.P.E. Bach.
However, contrary to Haydn and Bach, Mozart enjoyed exploring the expressive possibilities of the piano more than any other composer up to this point in history. As Mozart grew and developed, he began to master the structure of development, and began inventing new ways to link musical themes together.
One of Mozart’s most-beloved works is his Sonata in A Major, K. 331; however, what many people fail to recognize is that this particular sonata is not a typical Mozart work. For starters, the work’s movements are sequenced irregularly. The sonata begins with a theme and variation followed by a minuet. The final sequence is Rondo alla Turca which features alternating measures of minor and major tonalities. Documentation asserts that Mozart most- likely formulated this sonata during his travels to Paris. This assumption is concluded due to the fact that it was customary to write a variation followed by a minuet. The rondo movement parallels to French lifestyle and has successfully captivated audiences all over the world.
74 Many years after the publishing of his Sonata in A Major, Mozart composed another piece for solo piano: Sonata in C Minor, K. 457 (see figure 3-5). This work by Mozart is extraordinary due to the fact that it resembles elements typical of Beethoven. John Gillespie states: “Even a brief glance at this sonata shows that no other music composed before Beethoven contains so many Beethovenian elements.” Not only does this particular sonata contain thematic
(Figure 3-5) Excerpt from Sonata in C Minor, K. 457: Adagio by: Mozart Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
contrast, but it also includes dynamic contrast. Both of these characteristics are evident within the first movement of the work. Even though Mozart’s keyboard compositions are not as favored as his operas and symphonies, they exemplify his youthful, prodigious talent, and will continue to hold their position in the realm of Classical keyboard repertoire.
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN:
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) is recorded as being a composer “whose greatness has gone beyond the limits of musical sound” (Gillespie 177). Beethoven succeeded at producing
75 powerful and passionate music that held the capacity to touch the soul in an unmistakable way.
Beethoven based his music on personal experiences and emotions, and his works can be categorized into three periods: early, middle and late.
Beethoven encountered many horrific experiences throughout his life including mishaps with his piano instructors, the loss of his hearing, and his pondering battles of suicide. Thus, every facet of Beethoven’s life is reveled through his music. Beethoven is recorded as being one of the greatest innovators in music history who focused on piano compositions and the development of the sonata.
Beethoven’s sonatas reveal his engrossment with structure. During the early years of his life, Beethoven wrote four-movement works. Later, he transitioned to writing three-movement structures. The material presented in the first movements of Beethoven’s sonata’s usually were usually that of a conflict or struggle. The second movements were lyrical in character as opposed to the first. Lastly, Beethoven’s third movements presented a sense of resolution to the conflict material stated at the beginning.
When Beethoven emerged as a composer, the piano sonata had already reached its full development; however, during his early years, Beethoven was influenced by previous composers. F. Wilhelm Rust (1739-1796) and Muzio Clementi (1752-1832) have been credited with influencing Beethoven’s works.
EARLY BEETHOVEN:
Beethoven’s early sonatas were characteristically written according to the Classical structure that was used by Haydn and Mozart. As the years progressed, his works began to transition from the Classical style to the Romantic style. During his early years, Beethoven
76 stopped writing minuet movements. Instead, he replaced the minuet movements with scherzos
(which were lively and contained sudden changes). At times, Beethoven disregarded both the minuet and scherzo, which resulted in a three-movement sonata structure.
Beethoven’s Opus 10 contains three full sonatas which pose as great examples of his
(fFigure 3-6) Excerpt from Sonata Opus 10, No. 3 in D Major: Largo by: Beethoven Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. early compositional style. The third sonata of Opus 10 is recorded as the “most interesting, displaying a highly creative mind resolving thematic problems within the traditional two- movement framework” (Gillespie 181). Out of the four movements pertaining to the third sonata of Opus 10, the second movement is marked Largo e mesto (see figure 3-6). Concerning the movement, documentation asserts: “This movement not only unveils the future Beethoven, but its spiritual expression forms the apex of the entire work. It is the first of his many magnificent slow movements, a largo whose personal intensity testifies to the composer’s passionate nature” (Gillespie 181).
THE MIDDLE YEARS OF BEETHOVEN:
Beethoven’s “middle years” span about sixteen years in length. No longer did Beethoven feel obligated to compose according to the Classical structure, but instead embraced his
77 imagination and created his own structure. It is estimated that Beethoven’s transition began around 1802. During his middle period, Beethoven struggled with depression which is said to be the basis for many of his works during the period. During this time, the piano reached its full development, and Beethoven was anxious to compose for it.
The three sonatas of Opus 31 are characteristic of Beethoven’s middle years. In addition, his famous keyboard sonatas emerged including the Waldstein (Sonata Opus 53 in C Major), and
Appassionata (Sonata Opus 57 in F Minor) (see figure 3-7).
LATE BEETHOVEN:
There are five sonatas that are characteristic of Beethoven’s later years, and his last sonata was composed at the age of fifty-two. Although Beethoven died when he was fifty-seven,
(Figure 3-7) Excerpt from Sonata Opus 57 in F Minor: Allegro assai by: Beethoven Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. his compositions of the late period were beloved by him until his death. When he was plagued with chaos and madness, he isolated himself within the confines of his house and began composing keyboard sonatas unlike ever before.
Beethoven’s Sonata Opus 106 in B-flat Major (Hammer-Clavier) is one of the most powerful keyboard compositions by the composer. Concerning his Hammer-Klavier Sonata,
78 Beethoven noted: “My situation is now so difficult that I have to resort to every means merely to enable me to preserve this dreary life” (Gillespie 189).
Opus 111 in C Minor (1822) was the last composition of Beethoven’s thirty-two sonatas.
The work is structured into two movements: Allegro and Adagio motto semplice e cantabile.
A series of five variations are worked into the confines of the last movement (see figure 3-8).
Aside from his sonata compositions, Beethoven also wrote various other works during his
(Figure 3-8) Excerpt from Sonata Opus 111 in C Minor: Arietta by: Beethoven Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. late years including: Bagatelles Opus 119 and Opus 126, Rondo a Capriccio in G Major Opus
129, and “Diabelli” Variations Opus 120. Beethoven’s Diabelli variations include thirty-three variations on a single waltz which was composed by Anton Diabelli—a Viennese music publisher.
Beethoven’s keyboard works demonstrate his transitional genius particularly from his
Opus 2 through his Opus 111. The works that Beethoven composed during his later years, set the standard for Romantic keyboard compositions such as Schumann and Liszt. If Beethoven disregarded his traditional methods, he would certainly have been considered the first great
Romantic composer. Therefore, it becomes necessary for listeners and admirers of his works to
79 coin him as a Classical composer with a broad scope who bridged the gap between Classicism and Romanticism.
THE ROMANTIC COMPOSERS: CHOPIN
Frédéric François Chopin (1810-1849) was a Polish composer and pianist of the
Romantic period. Throughout his entire life, Chopin was always battling illness; however, he developed a keyboard style unlike any other composer before. Concerning his compositions, documentation asserts: “Chopin’s musical style is exceptionally individualistic, so distinct and personal that some elements are instantly recognizable as belonging to him” (Gillespie 220).
The melodic structures that Chopin used in his compositions resemble vocal lines as opposed to Beethoven’s symphonic melodies. His frequent use of chromaticism was the tool that enabled him to vary and develop new themes. Chopin’s melodic structures were innovative for the time period which baffled other composers; however, no other element of Chopin’s music is often misused by performers than his rubato tempos. In John Gillespie’s book, Five Centuries of
Keyboard Music, Chopin’s rubato style is described: “Another conspicuous feature of Chopin’s music stems from his pre-occupation with the sostenuto (damper) pedal, which either curtails sounds or permits them to vibrate through the air. Chopin’s genius lies primarily in lyrical music
(a cantabile art), and he uses the sostenuto pedal to achieve his sustained melodic lines and to coordinate his characteristic widely spaced accompaniment figures” (Gillespie 222).
Chopin’s piano works are comprised of twenty-four preludes (see figure 3-9), Études,
Nocturnes, Impromptus, Polonaises, Mazurkas, Waltzes, Sonatas, Ballades, and Scherzos. Due to the lyricism and romantic melodies within his works, Chopin became known as the “poet of the piano.”
80 Before Chopin’s time, preludes typically served as an introduction to a suite of dances; however, Chopin did not write his preludes within this context. Instead, he composed them in an effort to suggest a particular mood or lasting impression.
Chopin’s Nocturnes were not composed as dramatic works. Concerning the Nocturnes by
Chopin, documentation asserts that: “As a collection, Chopin’s Nocturnes are definitely unequal in quality; yet separately they present some marvelous strains of pure lyricism, and several achieve perfection in mood painting. Moreover, they disclose the emotions of their creator” (Gillespie 227).
FRANZ LISZT:
One of the most prominent piano composers of the Romantic period was Franz Liszt
(1811-1886). Liszt was a Hungarian-born composer and a piano virtuoso who composed not only for the keyboard itself, but for various musical genres. Liszt’s life and music were pan-European, and to this day his compositions continue to fascinate both composers and listeners all over the world.
Liszt has been recorded as mastering the Romantic style at a young age. During his youth, Liszt composed virtuosic works including his Transcendental Études, his Études based on the violin works of Paganini, and the bravura Grand Galop Chromatique.
For roughly eight years (1839-1847), Liszt toured all over Europe and held concerts in
England, Poland, Russian and Portugal. It was during these eight years that his Hungarian
Rhapsodies were being formed. Due to his travels, Liszt became highly interested in Hungarian culture and way of life.
81 Liszt’s
virtuoso piano
technique enabled
him to compose
transcriptions of
orchestral works,
such as Hector
Berlioz’s
Symphonie
Fantastique and
Beethoven’s
(Figure 3-9) Excerpt from Sonata in B Minor by: Liszt Symphonies. In 1854, Liszt created and Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print. published his Sonata in B Minor (see
figure 3-9). The work is structured in an unbroken series of movements including: Lento assai-Allegro energico; Andante sostenuto; and
Allegro energico. The entire sonata is based on three motives.
Liszt composed three Concert Études in 1838: Il Lamanto (Lament), La Leggierezza (Frivolity), and Un Sospiro (A Sigh). Other etudes such as Waldesrauschen (Forest Murmers) and
Gnomenreign (Dance of the Gnomes), are also technically advanced works. Above all, reigns the
Hungarian Rhapsodies. The purpose for their construction was to demonstrate piano virtuosic technique. The Hungarian Rhapsodes have been subjected to every conceivable transcription from harmonica to jazz band. Liszt composed twenty Rhapsodies, but the first fifteen are heard
82 the most. These fifteen were published in final form between 1851 and 1854; he later added five more to the series (Gillespie 246).
TWENTIETH CENTURY MUSIC AND COMPOSERS:
In 1909, Arnold Schöenberg (1874-1951) created a lasting impression on the world of music. He developed a new compositional technique known as the twelve-tone method. As a result, Schöenberg’s followers and rivals built upon his concept of twelve-tone music which led to the development of certain trends in twentieth century music.
Dissonance played a vital role in the development of twentieth century music. Atonality and polytonality pushed the boundaries of traditional musical structures to greater possibilities.
In addition, rhythm and counterpoint were also revolutionized. Thus, the twentieth century was born.
Expressionism played a vital role in the development of twentieth century music. Like
Impressionism, German Expressionism (the term used to describe one characteristic in music but not to be understood as a definition of the style) in music derived principally from painting and literature—from artists like Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky, from writers like Stefan George.
In place of the languid, misty chiaroscuro typical of the Impressionists, the Expressionists accented the macabre, violence, hysteria, and irrationality. They changed the concept of beauty to fit their own unique views of the dark undertones of the psyche (Gillespie 348).
Composers of the twentieth century developed a style known as atonality. Past composers such as Debussy had experimented with consonance and dissonance, yet not to the degree of
Arnold Schöenberg. Schöenberg’s concept of twelve-tone music (a melody comprising the twelve-tones of the chromatic scale) was the basis for the style of composition during the era.
83 Schöenberg’s Three Piano Pieces Opus 11 was one of his first atonal compositions (see figure
3-10). In addition, he wrote a twelve-tone work for the piano known as Opus 23, Five Piano
Pieces in 1923. Schöenberg also wrote The Suite for Piano Opus 25 in 1925. All of these works distinctly represent the new, evolving, twentieth century genre.
(Figure 3-10) Excerpt from Piano Piece Op. 11, No. 1 by: Schoenberg Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. New York: Dover, 1972. Print.
One of Schöenberg’s most-talented students was Alban Berg (1885-1935). Contrary to
Schöenberg’s expressionist style, Berg preferred the concept of emotionalism. He enjoyed composing abstract works. Alban Berg is most remembered for his opera Wozzeck, a violin concerto, and the Lyric Suite for string quartet. In addition, Berg also wrote one keyboard work, the Sonata Opus 1 in 1908.
In 1936, twentieth century composer Anton Webern (1883-1945) pushed the boundaries of the atonal style. He is remembered for his solo keyboard compositions Piano Variations Opus
27, which he published in 1936. Webern’s composition features big skips, and surprising rhythms, all combined with an exaggeration of every expressionistic detail (Gillespie 351).
German composer Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) experimented with twentieth century characteristics including: polytonality, atonality, modality, chord systems of unusual intervals, and more which gave rise to his own unique style. In 1936, Hindemith wrote three piano sonatas.
84 In 1943, Hindemith composed his Ludus Tonalis which was a historical precedent to the Well-
Tempered Clavier in that it consists of twelve fugues in twelve keys, joined by contrasting interludes. In either three of four voices, these fugues make a fine compendium of twentieth- century contrapuntal techniques (Gillespie 353).
Other composers who contributed to the development of twentieth century music include:
Igor Stravinsky (b.1882), Dimitri Kablevsky (b. 1904), Aram Khachaturian (b. 1903), Dmitri
Shostokovich (b. 1906), Charles Koechlin (1867-1951), Erik Satie (1886-1925), Florent Schmidt
(1870-1958), Jacques Ibert (b. 1890), Francis Poulenc (1899-1963), Béla Bartók (1881-1945) and Ernö Dohnányi (1877-1960).
85 CONCLUSION
In this research paper, the development and summation of keyboard instruments throughout music history has been discussed. In addition, each keyboard instrument’s respective solo repertoire genre and its importance throughout history has been presented.
As society advanced, so did keyboard instruments. Prior to the fully developed piano, keyboard instruments served various positions in both sacred and secular genres of music. In addition, composers pushed the boundaries of music notation, harmony, rhythm, and style resulting in the vast genres of music that would otherwise not be available to audiences today.
Prior to the invention of modern conveniences, the piano was the center of home entertainment. This caused many manufacturers to create a wide variety of keyboard models. As time progressed, keyboard innovators sought to enhance small features of the instrument until the piano’s full development was reached.
Composers expanded the conventions of the keyboard instrument by building upon the musical concepts of their contemporaries. Eventually, chamber music was developed with the role of the piano in chamber music serving numerous functions. Following the development of the sonata form, composers such as Beethoven pioneered the possibilities of the keyboard instrument which paved the way for future composers. With the start of the Romantic period, virtuoso piano composers such as Chopin and Liszt created lyrical melodies within the contexts
86 of their works. Such methods and techniques laid the groundwork for the rise of atonality in the twentieth-century.
The piano is an instrument that has withstood the test of time. Beginning with Cestibus’s hydraulicon, this keyboard concept was an idea that was constantly built upon by innovators for centuries. Whether it was a time of rejoicing or a time of sorrow, composers throughout music history have managed to capture their own emotions and zeitgeist within the contexts of their compositions. Thus, each musical composition is a piece of history that is revived with each performance. At a time when there was no electricity, television, or even hope, there was music that immediately touched the hearts and souls of men and women.
87 Bibliography
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