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RADIOACTIVE RESIDUES OF THE COLD WAR PERIOD: A RADIOLOGICAL LEGACY BY ABEL J. GONZÁLEZ

dominating feature of It would now seem that the ASSESSING COLD the historical period Cold War has become just WAR RESIDUES Aknown as the Cold another chapter in history. The The IAEA has a unique respon- War was the large-scale Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon sibility within the UN system: it production and testing of Tests in the Atmosphere, in is the only organization specifi- nuclear weapons. These Outer Space and Under Water cally authorized by Statute to military activities brought with marked the end of nuclear- establish international standards them an unprecedented weapon testing in the open for the protection of health generation of radioactive environment and the (against ionizing radiation) and substances. A fraction of these Comprehensive Nuclear-Test- to provide for their application “Cold War residues” ended up Ban Treaty may end nuclear- at a State’s request. in the atmosphere and were weapons testing altogether. Some years ago, the IAEA — dispersed throughout the world. Further treaties will constrain, jointly with five other Some remained in relatively and hopefully ban, the international organizations — 2 isolated states in underground production of weapons material. established new international geological environments at the All this is good news. Yet the standards of radiation safety. (See production or test site. Others Cold War’s radioactive residues the IAEA Bulletin, Vol. 40, No. 2, have contaminated areas at remain for our generation to deal June 1998). They are mainly times accessible to humans. with, and they are demanding intended for the control of Augmenting this picture are effective responses. radiation exposure arising from other scenes of a Cold War Over the past decade, the peaceful activities. Importantly, legacy. Large amounts of IAEA has been asked to play a however, their underlying radioactive waste and by- greater role in helping countries principles can be used for the products are in storage from the address this Cold War legacy. A retrospective evaluation of production of weapons number of scientific assessments radiological situations created by material. At some point, they of radiological situations created unregulated military activities are expected to be converted to by the Cold War have been such as nuclear-weapon testing. peaceful applications or sent for carried out by experts convened In recent years, a number of final disposal. by the IAEA — at nuclear test States have asked the IAEA to Moreover, production sites, nuclear production assess, against its international facilities for military nuclear facilities, and waste dumping radiation safety standards, materials, nuclear test sites, and sites. radiological situations arising nuclear-powered military vessels This edition of the IAEA from activities of the Cold War all will be decommissioned at Bulletin highlights these era. The objective has been to some stage — at the Kola cooperative activities in the protect public health and Peninsula alone, a hundred context of international eventually restore the affected out-of-service nuclear developments and concerns. environment for human use. submarines are awaiting final decommissioning. The process Photo: Checking coconuts for radio- Mr. González is Director of the will add to the accumulation of active contamination at Mururoa IAEA Division of Radiation IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 radioactive residues. Atoll during an IAEA study. and Waste Safety. Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 3

Studies resulting from such (UNSCEAR) and reported Tests in the Pacific at Malden requests have become the regularly to the United Nations and Christmas Islands in 1957 Agency’s response to the General Assembly. and 1958 were air bursts over the radiological legacy of the Cold ocean or explosions of devices War. (See box and graph, pages 4 NUCLEAR-WEAPON suspended by balloons over land. and 5.) Assessments have been TESTING Twelve tests, mainly surface tests, requested by Kazakhstan for the According to UNSCEAR — in also were conducted during Semipalatinsk site; by the addition to the sites studied by 1952-57 at three sites in Marshall Islands for Bikini; and the IAEA — there are a num- Australia: Monte Bello Islands, more recently by France for ber of other areas where Emu and Maralinga. A number Mururoa and Fangataufa in weapon-testing experiments of safety trials were conducted at French Polynesia. At these sites were carried out and where the Maralinga and Emu sites, “nuclear experiments” were radioactive residues may resulting in the dispersal of conducted during the Cold War remain. plutonium over large areas. period. They involved nuclear- They include sites in Algeria In Algeria, nuclear testing weapon tests of both fission and (Reggane and In-Ekker); included low-yield tests at the fusion devices and nuclear- Australia (Monte Bello, Emu sites of Reggane and In-Ekker in weapon safety trials, and they and Maralinga); China (Lop the Algerian Sahara in 1960-61. were conducted in the open Nor); Marshall Islands Tests at the Lop Nor site in the atmosphere and underground. (Enewetak Atoll); Russian western China included 22 (See boxes, pages 6, 8, and 9.) Federation (Novaya Zemlya, atmospheric tests that were One test site studied was a large Totsk, and Kapustin Yar); USA conducted between 1964 and continental polygon; three (Nevada and Amchitka, 1980, while underground testing others were atolls. (See box, page Alaska)); various locations in the continued until 1996. Also in 7.) Another site studied was the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans the Asian region, a nuclear Kara Sea in the Arctic where including the Malden, device was tested in India in large amounts of radioactive Christmas and Johnston Islands, 1974, and testing took place in 3 residues were dumped. as well as the sites in India and May 1998 in both India and Pakistan where testing was Pakistan. DIMENSIONS OF recently done. In summary, 2408 nuclear THE PROBLEM The Nevada test site was the experiments have been However comprehensive these location for 84 atmospheric reported to UNSCEAR. Of IAEA studies might seem, they nuclear tests; 81 tests were these, 541 were atmospheric represent only an incomplete conducted during 1951-58, and and 1867 were underground. and small catalogue of the three further tests were done in The total yield* of all tests was Cold War’s radiological legacy. 1962. More than 900 530 megatons. Of this total, Since the atomic bombing of underground tests took place 440 megatons were from Hiroshima and Nagasaki in between 1951 and 1992, thirty- atmospheric tests and 90 Japan up to the recent tests two of which were reported to megatons from underground carried out by India and have led to residues as a result of tests. The yield is the amount Pakistan, more than 2400 venting. The largest of energy generated by the nuclear-weapon experiments underground test in the United nuclear explosion. The have taken place worldwide. States took place in 1971 in knowledge of yields and other In addition, large amounts of Amchitka, Alaska. testing characteristics allows nuclear materials for military At Novaya Zemlya, a large and scientists to establish the purposes have been produced. remote Arctic area, an extensive All these activities have atmospheric test programme was *Yield is usually expressed in kilotons or generated huge amounts of carried out. There were several megatons, with one kiloton equivalent to 1000 radioactive residues. Their high-altitude tests, at least one tons of trinitrotoluene (TNT) and one megaton levels and effects have been land-surface test, two water- equivalent to one million tons TNT. Precisely in studied by the United Nations surface tests, three underwater order to avoid ambiguity, it has been agreed that Scientific Committee on the tests and several underground a kiloton is exactly equivalent to the release of Effects of Atomic Radiation tests. 1012 calories of explosive energy. IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 4

ASSESSING A COLD WAR LEGACY: THE IAEA RESPONSE Over the past decade, countries have turned to the IAEA for assistance in assessing the radiological effects of past nuclear testing and dumping practices. The assessments include: Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan. In Mururoa and Fangataufa, 1993, the Government of French Polynesia. In August Kazakhstan informed the IAEA 1995, France became the first of its concern about the nuclear-weapon State to ask the radiological situation in IAEA to evaluate a nuclear test Semipalatinsk, where nuclear- site, namely the radiological con- weapons testing was carried out ditions at the Atolls of Mururoa from 1949 to 1989. It and Fangataufa in French requested assistance, and a Polynesia. France had conducted preliminary radiological 193 nuclear experiments at these evaluation of Semipalatinsk was atolls. Following the French subsequently done. (See article, page 12.) More than request, the IAEA organized the Study of the Radiological 450 atmospheric and underground tests were Situation at the Atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa — it conducted at the site. Although the IAEA preliminary was to become one of the largest radiological assessments study could offer reasonable assurances of safety to the ever carried out within the UN system. (See articles on permanent resident population of the region, it found pages 21, 24, 30, 34, 38.) The Study has recently been very high levels of radioactive residues in large areas finalized and published by the IAEA in eight volumes. of the site itself: radiation doses of up to 140 mSv per (See box, page 23.) year would be incurred if the site area was permanently The Study’s results have been encouraging: the Atolls, inhabited. These findings do not take into account the which have never been permanently inhabited, could be potential radiological consequences of underground safely settled in the future because the highest radiation doses testing at Semipalatinsk, which the IAEA study did will fall below the negligible amount of 0.25 mSv per year in not assess. the more extreme hypothetical conditions of habitation.

Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. In Arctic Seas, Russian Federation. 1994, the Government of the In 1993, the Office of the Republic of the Marshall Islands — President of the Russian a Pacific Ocean archipelago of Federation reported on the former around thirty atolls and a few reef Soviet Union’s dumping of islands — requested assistance from radioactive waste in the Kara Sea. the IAEA. The request was to con- The amount of radioactive mater- duct an independent international ial subsequently estimated to have review of the radiological conditions been dumped was huge: about 37 at Bikini Atoll and to consider and petabecquerels. The Russian recommend strategies for the even- announcement created great con- tual rehabitation of the Atoll by the Bikinians. An extensive cern, not least among Contracting Parties to the Convention testing programme was conducted at this location. Before the on Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes testing started, the Bikinians had been evacuated far away from and other Matters to which the IAEA has specific technical their residential location at Bikini Atoll — the Bikini Island — obligations. Consequently, an international evaluation pro- and they were now anxious to return to their homeland. ject was undertaken and recently finalized. (See article, page The IAEA Study, which has recently been published, 18.) Although the amount of radioactive material dumped concluded that Bikini Island should not be permanently is large, the project results were not alarming for public resettled under present radiological conditions because health and safety. Mainly because of the enormous dispersion individual radiation doses there could reach levels as high as capability of ocean waters and to the remoteness of the Kara 15 mSv per year and a number of relatively simple remedial Sea, the potential radiation doses to humans would be measures, such as soil fertilization, could easily reduce the minute, the Study found. Only military personnel patrolling doses. If these measures are undertaken, the Study concluded, the fjords near the dumping sites could be expected to incur Bikini Island could be safely resettled. (See article, page 15.) doses above natural background levels. Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 5

MAXIMUM ANNUAL RADIATION DOSES FROM COLD WAR RESIDUES

140 mSv 140 The graphs show maximum annual 135 radiation doses that would be 130 incurred by hypothetical individuals inhabiting the sites studied by the 125 IAEA. It should be noted that 120 unqualified comparisons of the 115 results of these studies can be misleading due to different 110 characteristics of the tests and of the 15 15 Exceptional sites where they took place and due 10 to variations in the hypothesis used. Typical For reference purposes, annual 5 range 0.25 2.4 average natural background doses per year 0 also are shown. Doses are expressed Mururoa & Bikini Semipalatinsk Natural in millisievert as explained below. Fangataufa background

The dose of radiation is the energy absorbed from radiation per unit mass of matter, which for radiation protection purposes is weighted by two factors. One factor takes into account the effectiveness of a given type of radiation to induce health effects. The other factor takes account of the differing sensitivities of different organs of the body to radiation. The unit of dose is the joule per kilogram, but the term sievert (Sv) is used for the unit of the weighted dose. This graph uses the millisievert (mSv), which is equal to a thousandth of a sievert. The global average dose for individuals from natural background radiation is 2.4 mSv per year.

activity* and isotopic The radiological legacy from and of tritium and deuterium composition of the radioactive nuclear testing is a multi- for fusion devices. The fuel cycle residues generated by the test. faceted picture. It is mainly for military purposes is similar to The 440-megaton yield due to the residual radioactive that for the peaceful pro- exploded in the atmosphere materials from nuclear- grammes for nuclear electrical 5 has released into the weapons safety trials, as well as energy generation: uranium environment the impressive from the local fallout caused by mining and milling, uranium amount of thousands of atmospheric tests. In addition, enrichment, fuel fabrication, exabecquerel of radioactivity. the legacy encompasses the operation of material-production (See table, page 6.) It has been potential migration of reactors and fuel reprocessing dispersed and deposited as radioactive residues and mainly for the separation of plu- fallout, part locally and part venting associated with the tonium. A main difference, how- globally. (See box, page 9.) underground tests that were ever, is that peaceful nuclear pro- The radioactive residues conducted. grammes have generally been from the 90 megatons under the supervision and exploded beneath the Earth are PRODUCTION OF scrutiny of independent regula- basically contained in the WEAPONS tory bodies, whereas military geological media. But they may MATERIALS programmes usually were not. move over the centuries The production of nuclear Radionuclides have been through the geosphere and weapons involves securing quan- released at various stages of the eventually reach the tities of enriched uranium or cycle for producing nuclear- environment. (See box, page 8.) plutonium for fission devices weapons materials, but particularly during fuel *The activity (or radioactivity) of a radioactive substance expresses the rate of nuclear transformation of reprocessing and plutonium radionuclides emitting radiation. It is the number of transformations occurring within that material per unit separation. of time. The unit of activity is the reciprocal second, termed the becquerel (Bq). Since one Bq expresses a very In the USA, nuclear- small activity, the following multiples are used: 1000 Bq or kilobecquerel (kBq); one million Bq or weapons materials production megabecquerel (MBq); 1 x 109 Bq or gigabecquerel (GBq); 1 x 1012 Bq or terabecquerel (TBq); 1 x 1015 plants include Fernald in Ohio Bq or petabecquerel (PBq); 1 x 1018 Bq or exabecquerel (EBq). In order to grasp the magnitude of the (materials processing), Oak becquerel, it should be noted that the Codex Alimentarius recommends that radioactivity in food should not Ridge in Tennessee exceed around 1000 becquerels of caesium, or one becquerel of plutonium, per kilogram of foodstuff. (enrichment, separations, IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 6

THE “NUCLEAR EXPERIMENTS” Nuclear experiments were of two types: nuclear tests and an inner fission device surrounded by light hydrogenous safety trials. material, such as deuterium and lithium deuteride. ■ In a nuclear test, a nuclear device is exploded with ■ In a safety trial, more or less fully developed nuclear large releases of energy. The explosion is caused by nuclear devices are subject to simulated accident conditions. During fission, by nuclear fusion, or a combination of both. them, the nuclear weapon core is destroyed by conventional —In a fission device, two subcritical masses of fissile explosives with no or, in some instances, very small releases material, such as uranium-235 and plutonium-239, are of fission energy. While the radioactive residues of a nuclear brought together to produce a supercritical mass. The heavy test are the fission and fusion products, the radioactive nucleus is spliced into two parts (the fission products), residue of a safety trial is the fissionable material itself. which subsequently emit neutrons, releasing energy Both nuclear tests and safety trials were carried out in the equivalent to the difference between the rest mass of the atmosphere and underground. original nucleus and the rest mass of the fission products and The table and graphs present data from nuclear tests that the neutrons. have been conducted since 1960. The table covers the activity —In a fusion device, atomic nuclei of low atomic number of nineteen radionuclides produced, released to the atmosphere, fuse to form a heavier nucleus with the release of large and globally dispersed in atmospheric nuclear tests. The data amounts of energy. The reaction becomes self-sustaining at indicate the normalized release for fission and fusion devices, and very high temperatures, which are achieved with the help of the total activity released from worldwide testing.

DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRIBUTION OF YIELDS OF NUCLEAR EXPERIMENTS NUCLEAR-WEAPON TESTING

ACTIVITY OF RADIONUCLIDES PRODUCED IN ATMOSPHERIC NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS Estimated activity Estimated activity (excluding local fallout) (excluding local fallout)

Normalized release Total activity Normalized release Total activity (Pbq/megaton) from worldwide (Pbq/megaton) from worldwide testing (EBq) Radionuclide/half-life Radionuclide/half-life testing (EBq) Fission Fusion Fission Fusion Tritium 12.32 years 0.026 740 240 Antimony-125 2.73 years 3.38 - 0.524 Carbon-14 5730 years 0.67 0.22 Iodine-131 8.02 days 4200 - 651 Manganese-54 312.5 days - 15.9 5.2 Caesium-137 30.14 years 5.89 - 0.912 Iron-55 2.74 years - 6.1 2 Barium-140 12.75 days 4730 - 732 Strontium-89 50.55 days 590 - 91.4 Cerium-141 32.50 days 1640 - 254 Strontium-90 28.6 years 3.90 - 0.604 Cerium-144 284.90 days 191 - 29.6 Yttrium-91 58.51 days 748 - 116 Plutonium-239 24,100 years Zirconium-95 64.03 days 922 - 143 - - 0.00652 Ruthenium-103 39.25 days 1540 - 238 Plutonium-240 6560 years - - 0.00435 Ruthenium-106 371.6 days 76.4 - 11.8 Plutonium-241 14.40 years - - 0.142

Notes: For simplicity it is assumed that all carbon-14 is due to fusion. Source: UNSCEAR. Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 7

11 million years ago Volcanic eruptions create new islands beneath the ocean.

10 million years ago The volcanic activity ceases and vegetation appears.

NUCLEAR EXPERIMENTS AT ATOLLS Many nuclear experiments assessed by the IAEA 5 million years ago As the island slowly sinks, coral were conducted at atolls — ring- shaped coral reefs reefs grow on its flanks. enclosing a lagoon. The reef is a narrow rim that juts a few meters above the ocean. In many places, irregular channels, called “hoas” were cut by ocean waters, creating a string of islets called “motus”. Atolls evolved from volcanoes that millions of years ago erupted under the sea, creating islands Present day that slowly subsided over time. Rims were The Island has become an atoll — a narrow rim of coral reef sur- formed by deposits of dead coral built up around 7 rounding a lagoon. the island as it subsided beneath the sea. Despite its volcanic origin, an atoll carries no risk of volcanic eruption. This is because the original island, as it subsided, was moved away from the original volcano“hot spot” by the drift of the Earth’s geotechtonic plates.

laboratories), Rocky Flats in production reactors were larger production reactors Colorado (manufacture of operated at Sellafield (two began operation at the weapons parts), Hanford in graphite-moderated, gas-cooled Marcoule complex on the Washington (plutonium reactors known as the Rhône River. These gas-cooled, production) and Savannah Windscale piles) and later at graphite-moderated reactors, River in South Carolina Calder Hall on the Sellafield operated until 1968, 1980 and (plutonium production). In site and Chapelcross in 1984 respectively. A full-scale the Russian Federation, the Scotland. A well-known fire in reprocessing plant was also facilities include Chelyabinsk, one of the Windscale reactors built and operated at the Krasnoyarsk and Tomsk. In the in 1957 resulted in the release Marcoule site from 1958. Two United Kingdom, sites include of radionuclides. In France, further reprocessing plants Springfield (uranium the first experimental reactor, were built at La Hague in the processing and fuel named EL1 or Zoé, went north of France. fabrication), Capenhurst critical in 1948, and a pilot In China, the first (enrichment), Sellafield reprocessing plant began experimental reactor was (production reactors and operation in 1954. A second constructed in Beijing, and a reprocessing), Aldermaston experimental reactor, EL2, was uranium enrichment plant was (weapons fabrication) and constructed at the Saclay built in Lanzhou in Gansu Harwell (research). Plutonium centre. From 1956-59, three Province. The production IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 8

UNDERGROUND NUCLEAR-WEAPON TESTING Underground nuclear be 90 megatons. It would heat generated vaporizes After Tens of Microseconds weapons testing began in be desirable to have more and melts surrounding soil 1951. After 1963, when complete data of those tests and other material. the limited nuclear test ban in which venting occurred, Within tens of treaty banned atmospheric with estimates of the milliseconds, the cavity tests, extensive under- amounts of radioactive stabilizes and molten lava ground test programmes materials thereby dispersed collects at the bottom, in a were done. The in the environment. lens-shaped pool — termed Comprehensive Nuclear- Underground tests were “meniscus” —trapping most Test-Ban Treaty, while not usually conducted in refractory radionuclides. yet ratified by all countries, geologically appropriate Within minutes to may effectively cease the basements at depths several hours, the molten rock practice of underground hundred meters below the solidifies and the roof of weapons testing. Earth, though some were the cavity collapses, After Hundreds of Microseconds The total number of done at inappropriate forming a roughly underground tests has locations. cylindrical cavity. Upon greatly exceeded that of Each explosion generates cooling, the molten soil atmospheric tests, although intense heat and high solidifies as a glass-like lava. their total yield has been pressure: The cavity filled with much less. Most under- Within tens of micro- rubble in turn eventually ground tests were of lower seconds, the nuclear fills with water infiltrating yield, particularly where reactions are completed. from the surrounding soil. containment of nuclear Radiation energy vaporizes Much residual radioactive debris was sought. In the rock, leading to high material associated with short term, only with pressure buildup and underground nuclear venting or diffusion of gases generation of an intense testing is trapped in the After Tens of Milliseconds following these tests, as has shock wave. lava. But some radio- happened on occasions, Within hundreds of nuclides are deposited on could contamination of the microseconds, the shock the rubble and are available environment occur. wave transforms the for exchange with water in Several tests involved surrounding rock and the the cavity. simultaneous detonation of nuclear charges, either in the same or separate boreholes or tunnels. These so-called “salvo” tests were done for reasons of efficiency or economy. They also deterred detection from distant After Minutes to Hours seismic measurements. The UNSCEAR record of the total number of all underground tests by all countries is 1867. The yields of individual tests are not fully available but the total yield is estimated to

Figure: Underground Test at an atoll. Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 9

ATMOSPHERIC NUCLEAR-WEAPON TESTING Atmospheric Local fallout nuclear testing was from surface conducted at tests can comprise various locations on as much as 50% and above the of the production Earth’s surface. It of radioactive has included residues and mountings on includes large towers, place-ments radioactive aerosol on barges on the particles. These ocean surface, particles are suspensions from deposited within balloons, drops about 100 kilo- from airplanes, and meters of the high-altitude rocket test site. Usually launchings. when the altitude The number of of the deto- atmospheric tests nation is suffi- peaked during ciently high, the 1951-58 and 1961-62. fireball created There was a by the explosion moratorium in does not reach 1959, which was the level of the by and large ground. This observed in 1960. minimizes the 9 The most significant years of testing in terms of production of local fallout. (See figure.) total explosive yield were 1962, 1961, 1958 and Tropospheric fallout consists of smaller aerosols 1954. which are not carried across the tropopause after The total number of atmospheric tests carried the explosion and which deposit with a mean out by all countries was 541, and the total yield residence time of up to a month. During this was 440 megatons. Twenty-five atmospheric time, the debris becomes dispersed, though not tests account for nearly 66% of the total well mixed, in the latitude band of injection explosive yield of all tests. following trajectories governed by wind patterns. Depending on the altitude of the explosion, From the standpoint of human exposure, the radioactive residues entered the local, tropospheric fallout is important for regional or global environment. They have radionuclides with a half-life of a few days to caused the largest collective radiation doses to two months. humans thus far from man-made sources of Stratospheric fallout, which comprises a large radiation. part of the total fallout, results from particles Radioactive residues. The radioactive residues which are carried to the stratosphere. They later from an atmospheric nuclear test are divided give rise to global fallout, the major part of which between local ground or water surfaces and the is in the hemisphere of injection. Stratospheric tropospheric and stratospheric regions of the fallout accounts for most of the worldwide atmosphere. Deposition depends on the type of residues of long-lived fission products. test, location and yield. In recent years, some further details about The portion of the radioactive residues atmospheric nuclear testing have become deposited locally at the site is termed local fallout. available. In particular, the numbers and yields The remainder is widely dispersed in the of explosions have been adjusted, and estimates atmosphere as tropospheric and stratospheric have been made of the radioactive residues fallout. deposited from local fallout. IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 10

reactor began operation in 1967, steps to avoid adverse impacts on sioning spent nuclear fuel from and the reprocessing plant in health, safety and the environ- nuclear-powered submarines; 1968. Plutonium production ment as a consequence of such the commissioning of a tempo- and reprocessing were carried nuclear testing”. rary storage facility at Andreeva out at the Jinquan complex, also ■ In September 1998, the Bay, in Murmansk, Kola in Gansu Province, where IAEA General Conference — Peninsula; the commissioning weapons were assembled. while recalling its 1995 resolu- of interim storage facilities of Production and reprocessing also tion and welcoming the encour- radioactive residues in took place at Guangyuan in aging conclusions of the Study Chelyabinsk, and at a shipyard Sichun Province, where larger of Mururoa and Fangataufa — in Severodvinsk, Arkhalgelsk; installations were constructed. emphasized that those conclu- and the dismantling of a float- At some of the world’s sions should not be used in jus- ing structure in Murmansk nuclear-weapons material sites, tifying the development and that is currently storing more activities related to peaceful testing of nuclear weapons, and than 600 hazardous damaged nuclear power programmes requested the IAEA Director spent fuel elements from have been incorporated. At General to report on aposite nuclear-powered vessels. some of them, dismantling of developments in this area. The IAEA continues to work weapons is taking place. ■ The 1998 IAEA General within this evolving global Relatively high releases of Conference further urged all framework, to assist countries radioactive residues into the States to become parties to the in dealing with the radiological environment occurred during the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test- legacy of the Cold War. It is early years of operating some of Ban Treaty. It also urged all encouraging that non- these facilities when pressures to States, especially those with the governmental organizations meet production schedules were capability to produce fissile concerned with environmental high and controls sometimes material, to support the negoti- protection are supporting these relaxed. In addition, a number of ations for a treaty prohibiting IAEA efforts.* 10 accidents have combined to the production of fissile mate- At the 1998 Conference on enhance releases, particularly at rials for nuclear weapons or the Study of the Radiological facilities in the former USSR. other nuclear explosive devices Situation at the Atolls of (See box, next page.) (FMT). The Conference on Mururoa and Fangataufa, IAEA The amount of radioactive Disarmament had finally Director General Mohamed residues from nuclear-weapons agreed to commence negotia- ElBaradei summarized the material production is not fully tions of the FMT. Agency role: while the known. UNSCEAR continues ■ US and Russian representa- responsibility for safety lies to collect and publish tives attending the 1998 IAEA primarily with national information provided by States. General Conference agreed to governments, he said, the IAEA bring commercial enterprises to plays a fundamental role through OUTLOOK ten Russian nuclear cities. By three complementary activities: Recent developments give rise this agreement, the USA will “the development of legally- to optimism about the genera- lend its private enterprise experi- binding international agreements tion and handling of Cold War ence to the ten Russian cities and and the servicing of their residues: match American private sector implementation; the ■ On 22 September 1995, the companies with appropriate establishment of a comprehensive IAEA General Conference took Russian facilities for manufactur- corpus of non-binding safety up the issue of the radiological ing, marketing and sales of com- standards; and the provision of consequences of nuclear-weapon mercial goods. A similar assistance in the application of testing. In a landmark resolu- approach was tried in US those standards”. tion, it called on all States con- nuclear cities such as Hanford cerned “to fulfil their responsibil- and Oak Ridge. *At the IAEA Conference on the Mururoa ities to ensure that sites where ■ A recent agreement between Study in 1998, the representative of nuclear tests have been con- Norway and Russia establishes Greenpeace International stated that “the ducted are monitored scrupu- cooperation in a number of Study could serve as a model for similar IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 lously and to take appropriate areas. It addresses decommis- studies of former nuclear test sites”. Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 11

NUCLEAR MATERIALS PRODUCTION IN THE FORMER USSR Three sites in the former USSR were major pro- ■ The Krasnoyarsk nuclear materials production duction centres for nuclear-weapon materials. complex is located about 40 kilometers from the city of ■ The Mayak nuclear materials production complex Krasnoyarsk. The first direct-flow reactor at is located in the Chelyabinsk region between the Krasnoyarsk was commissioned in 1958, the second in towns of Kyshtym and Kasli near the eastern shore 1961 and the third closed-circuit reactor in 1964. A of Lake Irtyash. Operation of uranium-graphite radiochemical plant for irradiated fuel reprocessing reactors for plutonium production and a was put into operation in 1964. Radioactive waste reprocessing plant began in 1948. Relatively high discharges from the Krasnoyarsk complex enter the discharges of radioactive materials to the nearby Yenisei River. Trace contamination can be found all Techa River occurred during 1949-56. Controls of the way from the city of Krasnoyarsk to the river releases, initially absent, were introduced in the early estuary about 2000 kilometers downstream. In 1992, 1960s. More than 100 PBq of fission products and two of three reactors of the Krasnoyarsk complex were plutonium isotopes were released as effluents into the shut down. This reduced considerably the amount of atmosphere and into the Techa River during 1949- radioactive discharges into the Yenisei River. 1956. In April-May 1951, a heavy river flood ■ The Tomsk complex is located on the right bank resulted in contamination of the flood plain used for of the Tom River 15 kilometers north of the city livestock grazing and hay making. In 1956, residents of Tomsk. It was commissioned in 1953 and is the of the upper reaches of the river moved to new largest complex for the production of plutonium, places of residence and the most highly uranium and transuranic elements in the Russian contaminated part of the flood plain was Federation. The Tomsk complex includes uranium- enclosed.For some inhabitants, however, the Techa graphite production reactors, enrichment and fuel River contamination has remained a significant fabrication facilities, and a reprocessing plant. source of exposure up to the present time. Radionuclides in liquid wastes are discharged into On 29 September 1957, a fault in the cooling the Tom River, which flows into the Ob River. In system of a storage tank containing liquid radioactive 1990-92, three of the reactors of the Tomsk complex 11 wastes led to a chemical explosion and a large release of were shut down, reducing considerably the amount radionuclides. The total activity dispersed off-site over of radioactive discharges to the Tom River. the territory of the Chelyabinsk, Sverdlovak and On 6 April 1993, an accident occurred at a Tyumen regions was approximately 74 PBq. Further radiochemical plant, resulting in the release of contamination with radioactive residues associated radioactive materials. The radiological consequences with the operation of the Mayak complex occurred in of the accident were assessed by the IAEA. A narrow 1967, when water receded from Lake Karachai, which trace of low radioactive contamination 35 to had been used for waste disposal, and the wind caused 45 kilometers long was formed in a north-easterly re-suspension of contaminated sediments from the direction. The village of Georgievka is the only shoreline. populated place in the area of the pattern.

The IAEA’s role in by nuclear explosions [in Algeria], unregulated and abandoned. The undertaking radiological evaluate the radiological impact on Republic of Georgia recently assessments, Dr. ElBaradei the local population and set up a requested the IAEA’s assistance in said, “is to be objective and plan to monitor the former nuclear the wake of a radiological scientifically credible”, and he test sites”. The request was submit- emergency. Two powerful underlined that the Agency ted to the IAEA Board of radiation sources were found, one remains prepared to respond to Governors in December 1998 and abandoned along the banks of a further requests in this area. favourably considered. river, and another unshielded At the same time, the source in the countryside near a Epilogue: In late 1998, the international community is border town. Government of Algeria filed a starting to learn more about Over the past year, Georgian request with the IAEA for a tech- another potential radiological authorities report they have found nical cooperation project with the legacy of the Cold War: powerful more than fifty abandoned objective of “quantifying the radiation sources once used for radiation sources that are radioactive contamination caused military purposes that are probably of military origin.❐ IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998