Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 2 RADIOACTIVE RESIDUES OF THE COLD WAR PERIOD: A RADIOLOGICAL LEGACY BY ABEL J. GONZÁLEZ dominating feature of It would now seem that the ASSESSING COLD the historical period Cold War has become just WAR RESIDUES Aknown as the Cold another chapter in history. The The IAEA has a unique respon- War was the large-scale Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon sibility within the UN system: it production and testing of Tests in the Atmosphere, in is the only organization specifi- nuclear weapons. These Outer Space and Under Water cally authorized by Statute to military activities brought with marked the end of nuclear- establish international standards them an unprecedented weapon testing in the open for the protection of health generation of radioactive environment and the (against ionizing radiation) and substances. A fraction of these Comprehensive Nuclear-Test- to provide for their application “Cold War residues” ended up Ban Treaty may end nuclear- at a State’s request. in the atmosphere and were weapons testing altogether. Some years ago, the IAEA — dispersed throughout the world. Further treaties will constrain, jointly with five other Some remained in relatively and hopefully ban, the international organizations — 2 isolated states in underground production of weapons material. established new international geological environments at the All this is good news. Yet the standards of radiation safety. (See production or test site. Others Cold War’s radioactive residues the IAEA Bulletin, Vol. 40, No. 2, have contaminated areas at remain for our generation to deal June 1998). They are mainly times accessible to humans. with, and they are demanding intended for the control of Augmenting this picture are effective responses. radiation exposure arising from other scenes of a Cold War Over the past decade, the peaceful activities. Importantly, legacy. Large amounts of IAEA has been asked to play a however, their underlying radioactive waste and by- greater role in helping countries principles can be used for the products are in storage from the address this Cold War legacy. A retrospective evaluation of production of weapons number of scientific assessments radiological situations created by material. At some point, they of radiological situations created unregulated military activities are expected to be converted to by the Cold War have been such as nuclear-weapon testing. peaceful applications or sent for carried out by experts convened In recent years, a number of final disposal. by the IAEA — at nuclear test States have asked the IAEA to Moreover, production sites, nuclear production assess, against its international facilities for military nuclear facilities, and waste dumping radiation safety standards, materials, nuclear test sites, and sites. radiological situations arising nuclear-powered military vessels This edition of the IAEA from activities of the Cold War all will be decommissioned at Bulletin highlights these era. The objective has been to some stage — at the Kola cooperative activities in the protect public health and Peninsula alone, a hundred context of international eventually restore the affected out-of-service nuclear developments and concerns. environment for human use. submarines are awaiting final decommissioning. The process Photo: Checking coconuts for radio- Mr. González is Director of the will add to the accumulation of active contamination at Mururoa IAEA Division of Radiation IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 radioactive residues. Atoll during an IAEA study. and Waste Safety. Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 3 Studies resulting from such (UNSCEAR) and reported Tests in the Pacific at Malden requests have become the regularly to the United Nations and Christmas Islands in 1957 Agency’s response to the General Assembly. and 1958 were air bursts over the radiological legacy of the Cold ocean or explosions of devices War. (See box and graph, pages 4 NUCLEAR-WEAPON suspended by balloons over land. and 5.) Assessments have been TESTING Twelve tests, mainly surface tests, requested by Kazakhstan for the According to UNSCEAR — in also were conducted during Semipalatinsk site; by the addition to the sites studied by 1952-57 at three sites in Marshall Islands for Bikini; and the IAEA — there are a num- Australia: Monte Bello Islands, more recently by France for ber of other areas where Emu and Maralinga. A number Mururoa and Fangataufa in weapon-testing experiments of safety trials were conducted at French Polynesia. At these sites were carried out and where the Maralinga and Emu sites, “nuclear experiments” were radioactive residues may resulting in the dispersal of conducted during the Cold War remain. plutonium over large areas. period. They involved nuclear- They include sites in Algeria In Algeria, nuclear testing weapon tests of both fission and (Reggane and In-Ekker); included low-yield tests at the fusion devices and nuclear- Australia (Monte Bello, Emu sites of Reggane and In-Ekker in weapon safety trials, and they and Maralinga); China (Lop the Algerian Sahara in 1960-61. were conducted in the open Nor); Marshall Islands Tests at the Lop Nor site in the atmosphere and underground. (Enewetak Atoll); Russian western China included 22 (See boxes, pages 6, 8, and 9.) Federation (Novaya Zemlya, atmospheric tests that were One test site studied was a large Totsk, and Kapustin Yar); USA conducted between 1964 and continental polygon; three (Nevada and Amchitka, 1980, while underground testing others were atolls. (See box, page Alaska)); various locations in the continued until 1996. Also in 7.) Another site studied was the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans the Asian region, a nuclear Kara Sea in the Arctic where including the Malden, device was tested in India in large amounts of radioactive Christmas and Johnston Islands, 1974, and testing took place in 3 residues were dumped. as well as the sites in India and May 1998 in both India and Pakistan where testing was Pakistan. DIMENSIONS OF recently done. In summary, 2408 nuclear THE PROBLEM The Nevada test site was the experiments have been However comprehensive these location for 84 atmospheric reported to UNSCEAR. Of IAEA studies might seem, they nuclear tests; 81 tests were these, 541 were atmospheric represent only an incomplete conducted during 1951-58, and and 1867 were underground. and small catalogue of the three further tests were done in The total yield* of all tests was Cold War’s radiological legacy. 1962. More than 900 530 megatons. Of this total, Since the atomic bombing of underground tests took place 440 megatons were from Hiroshima and Nagasaki in between 1951 and 1992, thirty- atmospheric tests and 90 Japan up to the recent tests two of which were reported to megatons from underground carried out by India and have led to residues as a result of tests. The yield is the amount Pakistan, more than 2400 venting. The largest of energy generated by the nuclear-weapon experiments underground test in the United nuclear explosion. The have taken place worldwide. States took place in 1971 in knowledge of yields and other In addition, large amounts of Amchitka, Alaska. testing characteristics allows nuclear materials for military At Novaya Zemlya, a large and scientists to establish the purposes have been produced. remote Arctic area, an extensive All these activities have atmospheric test programme was *Yield is usually expressed in kilotons or generated huge amounts of carried out. There were several megatons, with one kiloton equivalent to 1000 radioactive residues. Their high-altitude tests, at least one tons of trinitrotoluene (TNT) and one megaton levels and effects have been land-surface test, two water- equivalent to one million tons TNT. Precisely in studied by the United Nations surface tests, three underwater order to avoid ambiguity, it has been agreed that Scientific Committee on the tests and several underground a kiloton is exactly equivalent to the release of Effects of Atomic Radiation tests. 1012 calories of explosive energy. IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 Doc-02.qxd 1/21/99 11:16 AM Page 4 ASSESSING A COLD WAR LEGACY: THE IAEA RESPONSE Over the past decade, countries have turned to the IAEA for assistance in assessing the radiological effects of past nuclear testing and dumping practices. The assessments include: Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan. In Mururoa and Fangataufa, 1993, the Government of French Polynesia. In August Kazakhstan informed the IAEA 1995, France became the first of its concern about the nuclear-weapon State to ask the radiological situation in IAEA to evaluate a nuclear test Semipalatinsk, where nuclear- site, namely the radiological con- weapons testing was carried out ditions at the Atolls of Mururoa from 1949 to 1989. It and Fangataufa in French requested assistance, and a Polynesia. France had conducted preliminary radiological 193 nuclear experiments at these evaluation of Semipalatinsk was atolls. Following the French subsequently done. (See article, page 12.) More than request, the IAEA organized the Study of the Radiological 450 atmospheric and underground tests were Situation at the Atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa — it conducted at the site. Although the IAEA preliminary was to become one of the largest radiological assessments study could offer reasonable assurances of safety to the ever carried out within the UN system. (See articles on permanent resident population of the region, it found pages 21, 24, 30, 34, 38.) The Study has recently been very high levels of radioactive residues in large areas finalized and published by the IAEA in eight volumes. of the site itself: radiation doses of up to 140 mSv per (See box, page 23.) year would be incurred if the site area was permanently The Study’s results have been encouraging: the Atolls, inhabited. These findings do not take into account the which have never been permanently inhabited, could be potential radiological consequences of underground safely settled in the future because the highest radiation doses testing at Semipalatinsk, which the IAEA study did will fall below the negligible amount of 0.25 mSv per year in not assess.