Vol. 33, No. 4 October 2009

Syncretism and the Eternal Word

yncretism—the combining of two apparently incompat- Sible things to produce a third entity—is an everyday occurrence. Across much of Africa and Latin America, for exam- On Page ple, horses and donkeys blend their DNA to generate the mule 171 Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Report from —a unique and extraordinarily versatile animal combining the Two Field Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics sure-footedness of the latter and the strength of the former. Polit- and Identity in Globalized ical, social, racial, chemical, and biological syncretisms occur so Jonas Adelin Jørgensen frequently that we are scarcely aware of them. It is religious syn- 177 The Church, the Urban, and the Global: Mission cretism that startles us. in an Age of Global Cities This is surprising, Dale T. Irvin in some ways, since the 182 Declaration on Creation Stewardship and Christian faith itself Climate Change springs from the most Micah Network astonishing syncretism 185 Ivan Illich and the American Catholic conceivable—God be- Initiative in Latin America comes a human being; the Todd Hartch eternal becomes tempo- ral; omnipotence yields 189 The Church in Nepal: Analysis of Its Gestation to powerlessness. This and Growth audacious syncretism John Barclay scandalized the custodi- 195 My Pilgrimage in Mission ans of Judaism in Jesus’ David Dong-Jin Cho day, and it scandalizes 196 Ralph Winter, 1924–2009 non-Christian monothe- Paul E. Pierson ists still. After two full 200 Thirty Books That Most Influenced My millennia of puzzling, it Understanding of continues to far exceed Gerald H. Anderson the intellectual compass 201 The Legacy of Philip Beach Sullivan of even the most penetrat- Ray Dirks, 2002 Jessie G. Lutz ing theological minds. Sudanese Madonna and Child 206 Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term In missiological dis- Missions into Context course, syncretism has been largely confined to the vocabulary, Brian M. Howell formulations, symbols, and systems of -forged 208 Noteworthy doctrines and practices. “Syncretism,” Harold Turner wrote in his 212 Ignace Partui: Iroquois Evangelist to the Salish, masterful summation of the subject four decades ago, “arises in ca. 1780–1837 the course of presenting Jesus Christ as the sole Lord and Saviour John C. Mellis to men of other religions living in cultures not moulded by the biblical revelation. By translating the gospel into local languages, 216 Book Reviews and adapting or accommodating to local ideas and customs, these 226 Dissertation Notices are absorbed into the life of the church. Many such elements 228 Index Continued next page 232 Book Notes have, however, been intimately related to another religion, and Jonas Adelin Jørgensen’s lead article shows how Christian it is often difficult to incorporate them without also absorbing witness on cultural-religious frontiers raises fresh questions about their previous religious associations and meanings.” He goes on bewilderingly complex and constantly evolving issues of contex- to note that “when Christian elements are themselves interpreted tualization and syncretism in predominantly Hindu and Muslim and transformed in a pagan direction, it becomes again a pagan societies, where the word “Christian” has long been associated religion, although now enriched by Christian borrowings” (Concise with the worst that the West has to offer. In such environments, Dictionary of the Christian World Mission [1971], p. 580). identifying oneself as “Christian” suggests the jettisoning of basic The essays in this issue of the IBMR point up the endur- personal integrity. In such cultures to be a follower of Jesus is one ing challenge of ensuring both the fidelity and the relevance of thing; to be a Christian quite another. Christian faith across the shifting boundaries of time, languages, The man whose short obituary appears in this issue did cultures, and institutions. Throughout most of the “Christianized” more than most to help remove doctrinal blinders that have world, such concerns are most explicitly the domain of theological long ensured the theological myopia of Christian missions. seminaries, whose mandate is the transmission of sound apostolic Ralph Winter opened our eyes to indisputable evidence of teaching “to faithful people who will be able to teach others as God’s salvific grace outside and beyond inherited Christendom well” (2 Tim. 2:2). But concerns with revelatory fidelity and cul- theologies and ecclesiologies. The constructive missiological tural relevance are implicit at multiple levels across the frontiers dialogue on “insider movements” fostered by his International of Christian witness, where the letter and, it is hoped, the spirit of Journal of Frontier Missiology has reminded readers of Gospel biblical teaching is articulated, appropriated, and applied within verities that have been too readily set aside: that salvation is not cultural settings and through languages worlds removed from about Christianity but about Christ, and that it is not orthodoxy those of the theologians and who have systematized but orthopraxy that ultimately distinguishes sheep from goats and standardized this “sound teaching.” In either case, the line on judgment day. Tjolzhitsay, the Flathead chief who had “a between relevance and syncretism can often be exasperatingly reputation for kindness that extended even to his enemies,” variable, difficult to discern, and controversial. Such concerns are could not possibly pass the Christianity test, but his welcome of reflected in Dale Irvin’s elucidation of the issues facing mission Ignace Partui, the Iroquois evangelist whose story John Mellis in an age of global cities. He observes (quoting Edward Said), relates, places him securely in our Lord’s “Well done!” category, “‘No one today is purely one thing.’ Our hybrids are proliferating according to Matthew 25. and, contrary to nature, are multiplying exponentially.” As Todd No human system of thought, language, and behavior can Hartch relates in his article, Ivan Illich was convinced that Ameri- do full justice to the mystery of God revealed through history, can Christianity was so utterly and irredeemably syncretized as through a people, through events, through human languages, to disqualify its citizens from authentic missionary vocation. He through the Word made flesh. The treasure we carry is indeed did everything in his considerable power to undermine his own entrusted to limited, earthen vessels. church’s missionary efforts in Latin America. —Jonathan J. Bonk

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170 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Report from Two Field Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity in Globalized Christianity Jonas Adelin Jørgensen

he emergence of numerous indigenous forms of Chris- three areas provide a rough outline of what it means to be an Ttianity as a consequence of its globalization is a well- imandar (literally, “faithful [one]”). known and widely studied phenomenon in missiology. A debate concerning criteria for discerning authentic inculturation/ Jama‘at liturgy. A typical meeting in Mehrab’s jama‘at took place contextualization and illegitimate syncretism has accompanied in his office, which was connected to his apartment. On Fridays these studies right from the start and has remained a fundamental a small signboard announcing “Jama‘at” was placed on the front concern among missiologists. This debate is not surprising, for door; all furniture was removed, and mats covered the office floor. the discussion of contextualization and syncretism occurs exactly The meeting started in the late afternoon as the last rays of the where faith and culture interact. Despite the continuing discussion, sun disappeared behind the houses across the small street. As however, no common theoretical approach to syncretism exists, members of the jama‘at arrived, each was handed a copy of the and no criteria for authentic inculturation or contextualization Kitab ul Mughaldesh (the in Musalmani Bengali translation) have yet been agreed upon.1 and a homemade collection of Īsāe-songs. After five or six iman- This article presents the results of two field studies of the dars had gathered, Mehrab welcomed everyone and announced interaction between faith and culture in the lives of believers in a song, either a translation of a classic Western hymn or a local Jesus Christ from a Muslim background in Dhaka, Bangladesh, composition drawing heavily upon the Bangladeshi style of music and from a Hindu background in (formerly Madras), known as baul gan (folk song). In principle women were welcome Tamil Nadu, .2 The results suggest that we should not be hasty but in reality their attendance was limited to the women living in judging indigenous forms of Christianity as either authentic in the household where the meeting took place. This means that contextualization or illegitimate syncretism but, rather, should the jama’at groups in practice tended to follow the somewhat examine carefully the interreligious hermeneutics at work. Such patriarchic religious culture in Bangladesh. Reading, especially a use of interreligious hermeneutics could provide the theoretical recitation of long passages in the Kitab ul Mughaldesh, was part basis necessary for theological and missiological discussion of of every meeting. The Zabur (the Book of ) and the apos- the relation between Christianity and other religious traditions. tolic letters were often recited. In veneration of the Holy Book it I conclude by discussing how empirical studies might inform was placed on a wooden bookstand in front of every imandar. missiological perspectives on Christian identity and its relation Mehrab, who called himself imam (leader of the prayer), would to other religious traditions in our globalized world. occasionally read aloud a text himself, but he usually restricted himself to preaching the sermon, commenting on and developing Jesus Imandars in Dhaka, Bangladesh the texts. There were always common prayers after the sermon. In contrast to the highly ritualized mosque prayers, the imandars As an independent nation since 1971, Bangladesh in its cultural did not follow any particular ritual, but everyone was free to and social life continues to be deeply influenced by Islam, which pray. From time to time the imandars celebrated Communion. is the religion of more than 85 percent of its population. While The ritual was simple and devoid of pomp and circumstance: there are 12 percent Hindus and 0.6 percent Buddhists, Chris- Mehrab simply read the well-known verses from 1 Corinthians tians number only 0.3 percent of the approximately 150 million and distributed bread and fruit juice. Bangladeshis.3 Although the majority of Christians are converts As a whole, the liturgy thus seems to consciously adopt from Hinduism, Islamic culture is the background for Christian- a Bangladeshi and Islamic style of worship in several aspects. ity in Bangladesh. On the material level, the straw mats covering the floor and the During my fieldwork in Dhaka, I established acquaintance wooden bookstands are expressions of Islamic style, found in with a number of Bangladeshi men and some women from Mus- every mosque or Qur’an school. With folk songs, recitations, lim background who attended small groups of Īsā imandars, or and expositions of God’s deeds by the leader, the style of the “those faithful to Jesus.” The groups, which the imandars termed meeting itself clearly draws on the popular South Asian milad jama‘at (fellowship), met in private homes and functioned as style of religious meetings, which are commemorative religious gatherings for worship, prayer, sermons, and social interaction. gatherings held to celebrate birth, marriage, or funerals. Recita- In this condensed report, I focus on their liturgy, religious ideal tion of sacred texts is widely used in Islamic religious culture and identity, and theological reflection. Taken together, these to evoke the sacred reality of divine revelation. In identification with this practice, the imandars recite the Bible. In contrast to Islamic practice, however, they recite the text in the vernacular. Jonas Adelin Jørgensen, Assistant Research Professor In so doing, they seem to be shifting emphasis from the Islamic in Systematic Theology at the Theological Faculty, ideal of correct recitation to the Christian ideal of correct University of Copenhagen, teaches global Christian- understanding. Interestingly, the baul gan is not simply music ity, mission theology, and theology of religions. He is but also a religious sect known for its unconventional behavior, the author of Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: poetic freedom, and spiritual spontaneity. Baul is not limited to Two Case Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics one religion but has attracted followers among Hindus as well and Identity in Global Christianity (Peter Lang, as Sufis. Adopting and identifying with this style of music, the 2008). —[email protected] imandars transcend the borders of structured religious life and

October 2009 171 point to the key role of personal relation and inner commitment. “Muhammad is the Prophet of God,” they silently add “Jesus is Another interesting feature is the role of prayers; the value of the Spirit of God.” The theological heterodoxy of this statement ritualized namaz prayer4 in is played down, in contrast is clear, and those imandars who argue for such a step also to individual and personal prayers in Bengali. When it comes acknowledge that the majority of Muslims do not agree with this to Communion, rituals are stripped down to a minimum. The substitution. With this understanding, participation in namaz jama‘ats are thus not simply Islamized Christian churches but prayer in mosques might be tolerated by majority Muslims but are consciously more intimate and “spiritual,” in contrast to could hardly be said to be welcomed. institutional and “religious” mosques and churches. Theological reflection among imandars. Even if the imandars insist Religious ideal and identity. The word iman (faith) is not just ety- on their Islamic identity, there are marked differences with the mologically related to “imandars” but plays a fundamental role Bangladeshi Muslim community at large. We see this clearly in in the imandars’ self-understanding as “faithful.” According to their Christological reflection, which is suspended between the the emic, that is, the imandars’ perspective, faith is not abstract notion of Jesus’ prophethood and his sacrificial death. knowledge or belief but must be existential and relational, The notion of Jesus’ prophethood emphasizes his embodi- expressed first and foremost as faithfulness. According to the ment of spiritual and ethical qualities such as nonviolence, com- imandars, iman involves a personal totality, “heart, mind, and passion, and vicarious suffering—that is, his nispap (sinlessness). strength,” and becoming a Jesus imandar means to fix one’siman Like a popular wandering, saintly Sufipir (Muslim saint), Jesus is on Jesus, that is, to enter a relation with Jesus, who as a spiritual therefore “spiritually powerful” and able to act as intercessor for master will mediate the divine and transform the believer through the imandar. From their readings, they further- his very presence. more affirm Jesus as “messenger of truth,” just like Muhammad. Besides prayer and reading, the imandars enact their faithful- A basic concern among the imandars is that Jesus is “alive”—a ness ritually in , which is spoken of as turiqa (binding) fundamental fact that both Islamic and Christian tradition agrees of oneself to Jesus. This binding is said to be a public witness to upon, according to the imandars. The spiritually powerful and a loyalty and faithfulness that transcends all other boundaries, continuous life of Jesus both depends on and demonstrates the religious and social, because it first and foremost is an individual, unique relation between Jesus and God. Therefore Jesus is not just personal commitment. Given this background, it seems strange a prophet but the prophet par excellence, it is argued. Even if the and almost paradoxical that the majority of imandars continue conceptualization of Jesus’ prophethood emphasizes similarity to practice and argue for public baptism in the name of Jesus with Muhammad’s as “messenger of truth,” Jesus is viewed as Christ. However, the concepts of iman and the notion of baptism hierarchically superior to Muhammad on the basis of his spiritual as turiqa might be reconciled: turiqa stems from the Sufi tradi- power and continuous life. tion, where it refers to the mystical path in faith. As a concept Interestingly, the unique relation between Jesus and God utilized in connection with baptism, turiqa seems to emphasize is revealed in the imandars’ understanding of Jesus’ death as a personal and emotional bond between the subject and Jesus, a simultaneously gift and sacrifice. The imandars use the radical interiority expressed ritually. The imandars’ reinterpreta- theological term qurbani to describe Jesus’ death.5 The term cor- tion of Christian baptism enlarges the meaning of baptism, for responds somewhat to the English “sacrifice,” but it also means it becomes a ritual enactment and public confession of an inner “offering.” To view Jesus’ death as a sacrifice mainly highlights transformation. mediation or reconciliation, an idea well known from Christian A fundamental question is to what degree this commitment theological tradition. But if Jesus’ death is also considered an to Jesus is compatible with the life of the wider Muslim commu- offering, it becomes a gift. According to their own logic and nity, and the question frequently arose whether the imandar was values, this divine gift to the imandar makes a return obligatory; still a Muslim. The imandars themselves were divided on this without a return, the value of the gift diminishes. The imandar is question. Although most agreed that a newly baptized imandar not able to offer himself completely, but he must act as if he was could continue participating in the local mosque, roughly half sacrificing himself. In this way, the imandar accepts the media- the informants no longer identified themselves as Muslims, tion between God and himself through the death of Jesus, and he while the other half accepted Mehrab’s line of argumentation also returns the divine gift. The return of the gift is conditioned that identifying oneself as Muslim is significant, even if it takes by love, that is, by the intimate personal relation between the some historical and textual exegesis: specifically, a Muslim aims imandar and Jesus. to submit to the will of God, and so does the imandar. According Summing up, it is clear that the conceptualization of Jesus’ to the apostle Paul, inner transformation is needed for a believer significance to a large degree has counterparts in popular Ban- to do the will of God (Rom. 12:2). When the imandar becomes gladeshi Islam: the notion of prophethood, intercession, spiritual faithful to Jesus, inner transformation is initiated, and the result power, moral innocence, and mediation by a pir of the divine. is a regenerated Muslim who does the will of God from the heart For the imandars, to become “faithful” refers to an Islamic by following Jesus’ example, and who transcends divisions theological virtue, and to become a Jesus imandar is a Bengali between institutional Christian churches and Islamic mosques. style of religiosity—but it has a Christian subject matter, which According to some of the imandars, this understanding allows for becomes clear in the presentation of the imandars’ Christology. participation in any mosque (or church) because mosque prayers The meaning of the imandars’ Christology transcends the qur’anic are simply outward and hold only relative value. universe, and the notion of Jesus’ being superior to Muhammad In the mosque liturgy, a crucial point in which social and distances the imandars from Islamic theology. Ultimately, their ritual identity come together is the collective confession, tawhid, interpretation of Jesus’ death as gift and sacrifice most clearly that is, the utterance of the Islamic creed, which implies a ritual distances the imandars from the majority of Muslims and defi- recognition of Muhammad as prophet of God. According to nitely transcends qur’anic Christology. From my point of view, some imandars, they simply stop after the first half of the creed, this ultimately places the imandars outside the Islamic theological which affirms the sovereign status of God. Instead of adding universe and within the broader Christian tradition.

172 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 Christ Bhaktas in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India milk, flower garlands, and a small book stand with a Bible on top. After lighting the lamp, the living room was completely According to the popular history of Christianity in South India, transformed into a room for pūjā (worship). Mylapore (now located in modern Chennai) is the place where the After several participants had arrived, Sarasvat announced apostle Thomas was martyred and buried in the first century. His the firstbhajan (devotional song), which could be a simple chorus witness was not in vain, and Christianity has long been present in repeating “sharanam, sharanam Deva” (surrender, surrender to the region. Whereas the majority of India is Hindu (80.5 percent) God). Other bhajans praised with equally simple poetry Jesus and Muslims make up a large minority (13.4 percent), more than as muktiswa (giver of salvation) and satyaguru (true teacher), or 24 million, or 2.3 percent of India’s population, belong to one of they simply mentioned names and descriptions of Jesus—as the various Christian denominations.6 Interestingly, Christianity Sweet, Love, Healing, Comfort, Auspicious, Holy, Beauty, and is to a high degree an urban phenomenon in Tamil Nadu, and so forth. After an ample time of singing meditative and melo- among the megacities of the Indian subcontinent Chennai holds dious bhajans, Sarasvat would normally give a sermon, often a solid lead when it comes to the number of mainline as well as in the form of a darshan (literally, “sight,” here “beholding” of a deity). He would, for instance, ask the bhaktas to imagine walking to a temple in early morning, sitting down at Jesus’ feet, adoring his loving and beautiful face, touching his hands, asking him to see the reflection of his face in their hearts. This “experience of Jesus’ love” was often pointed to as the goal of all bhakti. Coconuts, milk, and bananas were used by the bhaktas to celebrate Communion. Sarasvat would distribute bananas and milk or break the coconut, collect the coconut milk, and show the white interior to the bhaktas, announcing that “Christ was broken for you.” The banana or coconut and milk would then be distributed among the bhaktas so that they could receive Jesus’ mahaprasad (literally, “large gift,” here meaning spiritual nourishment in physical form). Although rather exotic at first glance, with its exten- sive use of Hindu elements and symbols, the bhaktas’ liturgy is also very familiar in its focus on Jesus as Christ. The kolam drawn on the floor is a cosmological map popularly known as a demon trap because the intricate design confuses the feverishly active but stupid demons. In connection with the religious ritual, it serves to sanc- charismatic churches, revival rallies, and public prayer halls. tify the space by keeping away demons. The singing of bhajans Furthermore, the majority of Christians in India are of humble draws on a Hindu devotional form of ancient origin. Bhajans are origin, in terms of both caste and economic status. simple but often soulful songs expressing in emotional language In contrast to the typical urban, poor, and low-caste Chris- the relation between the devotee and the divine. They typify tians, the group of Khrist bhaktas (devotees of Christ) that I had the bhaktas’ approach to the divine, for bhakti, as an all-Indian the chance to follow during my fieldwork were all from a higher- form of religiosity, emphasizes devotion in contrast to jnana caste Hindu background. A large part of the material I gathered (philosophical knowledge) or karma (meritorious deeds). Also, deals with the fact that the bhaktas consider themselves to be the use of coconuts and bananas in Hindu religious practice is doubly estranged, both in relation to their Hindu birth commu- well known, for the breaking of one’s hard shell and the offer- nities and in relation to Christian communities. Caste questions ing of one’s innermost sweet is ritually enacted in every temple and Hindu cultural background deeply influence the form of visit by breaking coconuts and offering bananas. Coconuts and faith the bhaktas express. I focus here on how bhakti (devotion) bananas are offered to the god, and the temple priest offers them is understood and utilized as communal ritual, personal ideal, back again to the devotee, now as a prasad (divine gift) to be and theological method. enjoyed for spiritual renewal. By receiving the divine prasad in Communion and consuming the sacrificial death of Christ, the Bhakti liturgy. The group of Christ bhaktas met irregularly in bhakta is transformed and purified. a private home, but the meeting included a number of basic elements. In contrast to the jama‘at meetings, women were Bhakti as personal devotion. In order to obtain a fuller understanding welcome not only in principle but also in practice, and several of bhakti among the bhaktas, it is helpful to look into how bhakti women attended the bhaktas’ meetings. After having met one of is viewed in terms of personal devotion and interior reality. As a the participants a number of times, I was invited to participate personal form of piety, bhakti is primarily pictured in relational in the group’s devotional meeting. Sarasvat, the leader of the terms: genuine surrender must be “clearly felt” and must be group, was an elderly gentleman who dressed in saffron robes. “inward,” it is often said. The bodily metaphors found in bhajans He prepared the room for the evening’s meeting by removing convey an ideal of intimacy: one should feel the “touch” of Jesus all the furniture and by drawing a large kolam (a traditional Christ, “see” him, “sit” in his presence, preparing one’s body, Hindu geometric pattern) on the floor with white rice flour. He mind, and character for him, “touching his feet” in respect and also placed a traditional brass lamp on the floor and arranged adoration. The underlying logic of the darshan reveals the same a small pot with incense sticks, betel leaves, coconuts, bananas, tendency, for it teaches that one develops a genuine spirituality

October 2009 173 not “outwardly,” through religious rituals, but only “inwardly,” Jesus becomes victorious through his incarnated weakness, and through experience and intimacy with the divine. ultimately through his self-sacrifice. The eternal and impersonal In a discussion Vinod, one of the bhaktas, argued for a Brahman sacrifices itself through incarnate weakness and in the distinction between selfish and unselfish spirituality. Whereas suffering of the person Jesus Christ, with whom the bhakta can selfish spirituality is characterized only by a quest for individual enter into a loving relation. This understanding seems to underlie experience of God and individual liberation, unselfish spiritual- the bhaktas’ dynamic interpretation of Communion. ity includes knowledge (jnana) and action (karma) in the wider A related aspect of the bhaktas’ Christology is their notion of community. The institutional forms of religion tend to cater to Jesus as satyaguru (literally, “guru of truth”). In Hindu tradition, selfish spiritualities, he argued, while the bhaktas opt for a warm a guru is needed both to to strip the cover from false knowledge and unselfish spirituality outside of structured religious life. and to mediate divine insight. The title “satyaguru” denotes both This is completely in line with the all-Indian concept of bhakti, the location of true knowledge and the imparter of this knowledge. which distinguishes between a lower, impure type of bhakti and The guru is therefore said to embody spiritual wisdom to a degree a higher, purer type, characterized by absolute affection for the that opens up devotion to the guru. The bhaktas’ understanding perfect, untarnished by selfish motives. Even if it is clearly the of Jesus as guru thus refers to his personification of wisdom and bhaktas’ own ideal, it might be questioned whether bhaktas in life, which makes appropriate a devotional response, because fact display a higher and purer type of bhakti than occurs in the Jesus discloses the falsehood of sin and gives eternal life to the institutional Christian churches. We cannot overlook the fact, devotee. According to the bhaktas, salvation is from ignorance, however, that the choice of bhakti as an authentic Indian religious sin, and death and to a blissful union with the divine through style in itself is a critique of the institutional Christian churches Jesus, the personified love, life, truth, and knowledge. and their Western theology. Summing up, the term “bhakti” refers to a complex and The bhaktas are also critical of Hindu culture and especially of manifold phenomenon in the history of Indian religions. Over the Hindu ritual life. The daily ritual practice of Hindus depends on centuries bhakti has been elaborated by various theologians and caste and birth community, but all bhaktas report problems because spiritual masters, but all agree that bhakti is open to everyone, of lack of observance of daily family rituals. Critique of idolatry offers spiritual perfection, and leads to divine blessing. Bhakti is harsh, and the Hindus’ naive understanding of the nature of thus always carries an association of enthusiasm, fervor, and love. divinity is criticized; nevertheless, several of the bhaktas report While drawing on this well-known style of Hindu religious life, that they feel free to participate in certain family rituals because the Christ bhaktas clearly center their devotion on Jesus Christ, the others “don’t understand” the Sanskrit slokas (two-line verses the incarnated divine transcendence. For the bhaktas, bhakti from the Bhagavad Gita) and because the ritual is “meaningless.” becomes the solution to both the social and the theological limbo The non-sense, or emptiness, of the traditional Hindu rituals thus they find themselves in. sanctions the bhaktas’ participation. The bhaktas’ relation to Hindu Through bhakti religious style, the Christ bhaktas emphasize ritual and Hindu social identity might therefore be characterized aspects of Christian tradition that have largely been neglected as highly syncretistic and, at the same time, subject to the bhaktas by modern, liberal Western Christianity, such as faith as devo- interior relationship with Jesus Christ. tional love, and spiritual contemplation as imbibing the beauty of Christ. In this way, the style adopted by the bhaktas might be Theology of the bhaktas. Bhakti is instrumental not only in ritual said to translate Hindu religiosity into the Christian theological and personal identity but also as theological method. Bhakti universe and thereby enlarge Christian understanding. Again, answers the question, How can one understand what is beyond Christology seems to be the area in which the bhaktas disagree understanding? Sarasvat argued that bhakti leads to sharanam with orthodox Hindu schools: the Christ whom bhaktas make (total and unconditional surrender), which in turn makes pos- their focus of devotion is said to be the personal and immanent sible an intimate relation with God; this relation is fundamental form of the transcendent and absolute God. Unlike monistic for salvific knowledge because, apart from a relation, one cannot Hindu theology, which teaches that transmigration of one’s soul know anything about God. Thus the bhaktas grasp through devo- occurs through fulfillment of dharma (law; literally, “that which tion what is beyond intellectual understanding; that is, through upholds”), Christ bhaktas teach that liberation depends solely bhakti they approach and “get to know the love of Jesus.” Bhakti upon their relationship to Jesus and his personal qualities. Pure is an inward experience with God, while theology is an outward and sublime bhakti is not only a means to obtain salvation but is expression of this experience. in itself realization of transformation through intimate relation Although the bhaktas criticize Hindu religious life, they with Jesus. Whereas orthodox Hindu schools have no place for are more positive toward Hindu philosophical terminology and distinguishable personality in relation to the ultimate and absolute theology. God is described as Supreme Being and Eternal Being Brahman, Christ bhaktas realize transformation in relation to a and identified with Brahman, the unchanging, supreme existence, distinguishable personality outside themselves—Jesus Christ. immanent and transcendent in Vedantic theology. However, the Brahman terminology is—purposefully and tellingly—stretched Missiological Reflections beyond its limits when the bhaktas in their bhajans sing of “our saving friend” Jesus Christ as “incarnated Brahman” and “incar- At this point I return to the initial missiological question of nated divine wisdom, knowledge and compassion.” contextualization and syncretism: Do these two case studies As noted above, the bhaktas’ Christological understanding illustrate authentic contextualization, or are they examples of centers on Jesus as giver of salvation (muktiswa) and true teacher illegitimate syncretism? (satyaguru). As muktiswa, Jesus is said to be the jaya-deva (man- To sum up, faith in Jesus is experienced and expressed in god) who can destroy sin’s poison, vanquish temptations, and concepts that we can easily identify as Islamic and Bengali, and heal all infirmities. This vanquishing and destruction take place as Hindu and Tamil. The new contextual meaning clearly emerges through his “lifting up of himself,” that is, in Jesus’ death on as a translation of elements from Islamic and Hindu culture into the cross. This statement is not as trivial as it might first seem: a Christian theological universe. On a fundamental level, the

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Send Me! is a preparatory global mission workbook Th e diversity of cultures can seem obvious, but to really designed for those who desire to serve God cross-culturally understand the signifi cance of those surface level diff er- and for those who want to help them. It can assist you ences, one needs to understand the deep-level assumptions working through the process of charting a course from on which they are based. Th is book helps cross-cultural where you are presently to where God would have you to witnesses learn how to discover a people’s worldview, to be. Each of the ten steps presents an explanation of the understand it, and then present the gospel in such a way importance of that phase of the process; and the workbook that it leads to deep worldview change. provides adequate room for you to write, refl ect, plan, and pray. You and the nations await each other. www.missionbooks.org • 1-800-MISSION translation might be characterized as interreligious because it of people who are called by God in his universal calling, inside takes place in the meeting between religious traditions and theo- or outside of institutional churches. logical universes. The translation is not restricted to material or Second, such studies point to the positive role of Christian linguistic levels but affects liturgy, personal religious ideals, and mission. The theology of mission has often had to face the ac- theological understanding. It is thus accompanied by a signifi- cusation that mission subverts the integrity of other cultures cant recombination and reinterpretation of various elements in and faiths, that mission involves “spiritual colonization of the the interaction between Islam or Hinduism and Christianity, as mind” and “production of a modern self” more than “salvation epitomized in the imandars’ and bhaktas’ Christology. of the soul.”8 In response to such a critique, I find it interesting Furthermore, we could term the process “interreligious to consider the imandars’ and bhaktas’ discovery (or recovery?) hermeneutics” because it involves determination of sameness of interiority. Both groups clearly argue for a new importance and difference between one’s own faith and experience and of the self, a new sense of interiority—but what are the roots of that of another religious universe. We can distinguish a number this interiority? If the imandars and bhaktas displayed a new of hermeneutical strategies, showing how determination of understanding of themselves dependent upon modern notions sameness and difference takes place on a number of levels. It of interiority, one might argue that their cultural and spiritual is noteworthy that, in the strategies exercised by the imandars integrity had been subverted or colonized. But how can such an and bhaktas, the meaning of other religious traditions is neither explanation be maintained if the imandars’ and bhaktas’ deepened wholly positive nor wholly negative. Both the imandars and the sense of subjectivity is based on their experience of conversion, bhaktas use several interpretative strategies, each in relation to forgiveness of sin, and divine renewal? certain ideas or elements of the other religious traditions. They Finally, these studies reveal the value of Christian conver- are at the same time exclusivists, inclusivists, and pluralists, but sion for interreligious interaction. Recent critique of mission has they are so on different levels and in relation to various elements. argued that in a context of religious pluralism, insistence on one A typology of this process would make it clear that the result of religious truth hinders genuine interaction and dialogue.9 Again, the translation is not simply “syncretistic” or “authentic.” I find the imandars’ and bhaktas’ religious practice informative: The translation process is clearly syncretistic in the sense rather than hindering such dialogue, it seems that their com- that it mixes and blends concepts and meanings. We should view mitment to Jesus Christ actually facilitates it. It is on the basis of the outcome of the syncretistic process as perfectly authentic, their commitment to and experience of Jesus as Christ that they however, in the sense that the centrality and exclusivity of Jesus engage in interpretation of their former religious tradition. Rather Christ is affirmed in both cases. than being a hindrance, their commitment provides them a lens through which they are able to offer a theological perspective From Interreligious Hermeneutics to Missiology on other religious traditions.

How do empirical studies like these inform our missiological Missiology and Theology of Religions reflection? I see fruitful results in three areas. First, they show the significance of contextual studies. In an age of globalized Christianity in a religiously plural world, Formerly, under the influence of dialectical theology, Protestant understanding the meaning of other religious traditions can no missiology separated Christian mission from human religious longer be separated from understanding the meaning of the experience as expressed in other religious traditions.7 In recent Christian church. That is, a missiological theology of mission and decades, however, this tendency has been criticized as demeaning, a systematic theology of religions must be intimately related to not only of other religious traditions but potentially also of other each other: the former focuses on the meaning of God’s sending of racial and social groups. The movement for contextualization himself and of the Christian church, and the latter focuses on the in missiology, which insists that the meaning of God’s sending meaning of the various religious traditions. Empirical investiga- of himself for any context is known only in particular contexts, tion of actual interreligious hermeneutics can help keep these two not only differs methodologically from earlier approaches but aspects of Christian theology in creative tension, which enables also is driven by a different theology of mission. These two field missiologists to advance the understanding of what constitutes studies point toward the validity of a contextual type of mission genuine contextualization in the continuous historical unfolding theology that remains open to the experiences and interpretations of Christianity in a multitude of contexts.

Notes 1. The field studies reported in this article are presented and discussed Asian Christian Theologies, vol. 1, ed. John C. et al. (Mary- more thoroughly in Jonas Adelin Jørgensen, Jesus Imandars and Christ knoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 2002), p. 170; the population count is the figure Bhaktas: Two Case Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity in given for Bangladesh in 2005 by the U.N. Web site. Global Christianity (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2008). 4. Namaz (Urdu) or salat (Arabic) is one of the pillars of Islam. 2. The material for this article consists of data gathered by participant 5. Cf. Arabic qurba and Hebrew korban (see Mark 7:11). observation and personal interviews. I was able to observe a number 6. The percentage of Christians in Tamil Nadu State is significantly of religious groups and to interview 35 men and 8 women from higher: 6.1 percent, or nearly 3.8 million out of a total population of a Muslim background, and 18 men and 5 women from a Hindu 62 million, according to the official Indian 2001 census. For details, background. The fieldwork was carried out in October–December see www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/ 2002 and January–October 2004. The first part of the fieldwork religion.aspx. was made possible financially by the Areopagos Foundation, and 7. E.g., Hendrik Kraemer, Religion and the Christian Faith (London: the second part by grants from the Danish National Council for Lutterworth Press, 1956), pp. 392–406. Humanities, the Julie von Müllens Stiftelse, and the Sigurd Ander- 8. E.g., Peter van der Veer in the introduction to a volume he edited, sen og Hustrus Stiftelse. Conversions to Modernity (New York: Routledge, 1996), pp. 1–22. 3. The percentages are those given by Jose Kuttianimattathil and John 9. E.g., John Hick in his Problems of Religious Pluralism (London: C. England, “Contextual Theological Reflection in Bangladesh,” in Macmillan, 1985), pp. 28–45.

176 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 The Church, the Urban, and the Global: Mission in an Age of Global Cities Dale T. Irvin

e are living in a period of enormous global transfor- became Europe. In each place it went, it rapidly adapted to new Wmation—that is no secret. One of the results is that urban contexts, attracting members of the artisan and educated cities across the globe—all cities, the city in general—are rapidly (literate) classes who quickly assumed leadership of the move- changing. A majority of the earth’s population now live in cities or ment. Cities even then, though not of the size that we know them megacities.1 Over the past several decades, these cities throughout today, were defining centers of religious, social, political, and the world have undergone a transformation that is closely con- economic power. Cities were also, then as now, passageways, nected to the transformation in nodes along commercial and economy, politics, and culture political nexuses of cultures 2 associated with globalization. To speak of globalization and urban culture today risks and civilizations. The city was The city is no longer located never just a particular physical spatially at the center. It is be- making a double error—first, because the phrase sug- or geographic configuration; it coming decentered and trans- gests that cities have never before experienced periods was and still is a way of being. centered and—given the accel- of such intense global trade and migration, and, second, “A city isn’t just a place to live, erating forces of virtual reality because it implies that cities produce a singular urban to shop, to go out and have kids and virtual living—virtually play,” says Richard Sennett. immanent and transcendent culture. Cities are always made by mobility—or, as in “It’s a place that implicates at the same time.3 Cities by current parlance, by flows—of people, money, goods how one derives one’s ethics, their very nature seek to make and signs. They combine, for this reason, paradoxical how one develops a sense of connections with other cities, justice, how one learns to talk extremes of wealth and poverty, familiarity and strange- seek to form networks, seek to with and learn from people facilitate contacts beyond the ness, home and abroad. Cities are where new things are who are unlike oneself, which immediate terrain. Megacities created and from which they spread across the world. is how a human being becomes 5 and global cities realize these A city is both a territory and an attitude, and perhaps human.” Perhaps the Christian ends as never before. movement has always shown Globalization has trans- this attitude is culture. a particular affinity for the city formed many of the most basic —United Nations Human Settlements Programme precisely because the city is in conditions or understandings a certain sense part of what The State of the World’s Cities, 2004/2005: of human existence upon ultimately makes us human. which notions of church and Globalization and Urban Culture But the city is a complex, mission have historically been multifaceted reality, capable constructed in the modern era. of extremes and of forming, as The idea of national and even geographic boundaries of identity, much as deforming, the human. It is a process that both reveals for instance, that gave us the “here” and “there” of missionary and conceals, notes Henri Lefebvre: “Everything is legible. Urban thinking that was famously criticized by Keith Bridston as offer- space is transparent. Everything signifies, even if signifiers float ing a “salt-water” definition of mission—that is, that someone freely, since everything is related to ‘pure’ form, is contained in becomes a missionary only when she or he crosses salt water—is that form.” He goes on, “The city, the urban, is also mysterious, even more anachronistic in this day of global cities than it was occult. Alongside the strident signs of visible power such as wealth when his book was first published in 1965.4 Rather, cities around and the police, plots are engineered and hidden powers conspire, the globe are becoming places of diaspora, places of passage behind appearances and beneath transparency.”6 Theologically, more than places of settlement, more like thoroughfares than we might say that the city, not unlike the church, is a place for they are residences. City and world are converging formations. sinners and saints alike, and a place where one can find signs The implications for mission and ministry are enormous. and countersigns alike of the coming reign of God. Christianity has had a long and complex relationship with the city. During its first centuries Christianity was primarily an urban The City in History phenomenon. It spread from Palestine along urban commercial trade routes to other regions of the world, going east into Asia Lefebvre organizes the history of cities globally into several major and south into Africa, as well as north and west into what later formations. The forms overlap, of course, and do not necessarily progress in a linear, straightforward manner. Nevertheless as an Dale T. Irvin, President and Professor of World Chris- organizing schema with which to think about the urban, they can tianity, New York Theological Seminary, New York, be helpful. Lefebvre’s first type of city is what he calls the politi- is the author (with Scott W. Sunquist) of History of cal city, the polis, the capital, the place where kings and queens the World Christian Movement, vol. 1, 2001; vol. lived and from which they ruled in the ancient world and around 2, forthcoming (Orbis Books). —[email protected] the globe. The city was birthed as the semiotic world of royalty, the ceremonial religious center where temple and palace were located, the place where the divine and the human came together to shape the world.7 The political city organized the countryside

October 2009 177 outside itself and other cities of lesser power. In its most ex- For their part, churches in the West had long been aligned socially treme form these were imperial cities: Rome, Constantinople, and politically with the middle and upper classes, significantly Ch’ang-an, Baghdad, or Tenochtitlán. In the ancient world they alienating them from the growing number of workers and oth- were religious, ceremonial centers that brought the historical and ers from the lower social classes who populated the slums. The the transcendent together in one community. culture of what eventually came to be called “the inner city” The ancient political city could arise in part because of posed a significant challenge to the traditional moral values and surplus production. People could begin living together in spa- teachings of the churches of Christendom. tial arrangements whose density was greater than what their This was the background of the vision of the city that inspired immediate resources could meet. Cities did not grow their food urban missions and ministry through most of the twentieth inside the gates but took it from the land that they organized century. The city that was imagined was modern, industrial, and and controlled outside. Other items were also brought in to be becoming postindustrial. It was organized into rich and poor sold. The marketplace emerged alongside the temple and palace. districts that were clearly territorial and divided. It had factories, Even the most modest of kings and queens soon found that they slums, tenements, poor people (a disproportional number of were not satisfied with the wealth that could be produced from whom, in the United States after 1945, were African-American), their immediate regions. The desire for goods that came from incoming immigrants (who were also disproportionately poor), beyond could be satisfied only by strangers who came from afar. and an exiting middle class (read “white” or Euro-American in Cities became centers of commerce and trade, their marketplaces the U.S. context). Urban ministry meant primarily ministry in filled with goods of merchants from other regions and cultures. the slums and to the poor. It was ministry in the inner city, the Eventually the merchants assumed control, giving rise to the ghetto, and el barrio. Urban ministry did not mean ministry to the commercial city, which became the engine of the global network businessmen and businesswomen who worked in the financial called modern capitalism. Commercial cities were not unique to district and commuted home to the suburbs. It did not mean min- Europe, but after the fifteenth century they came to dominate istry to the artists, to the city police officers and firefighters, to the European life and, through its modern colonial venture, the rest civil servants, to the restaurant owners, or to the urban university of the world as well. The productive capacities of the modern professors. It did not mean engaging the corporate community, the city accelerated with the industrial revolution. Meanwhile Euro- investment community, or the media or advertising industry. The pean colonialism and imperialism had reorganized the entire other, “regular,” form of ministry that was taught in theological globe. The result was to split the city into two: the modern, where schools and practiced in “mainstream” churches was perceived to industrial goods were produced, and the colonial, where the raw be quite suitable for engaging these other sectors of urban reality. materials came from and the finished industrial goods of the One might do “mission work” in the city, but one never went West were sold.8 on a “mission” to the suburbs or in one’s “home church.” In the Cities have always been places of differentiation, places where United States urban ministry became a code word for ministry strangers became neighbors, and neighbors became strangers. to poor, especially to Blacks and Latino/as.10 One form of differentiation that they fostered and intensified was We could stop to debate the merits and pitfalls of the what we call “class.” The extremes of rich and poor were—and twentieth-century missiological project called “urban ministry.” are—in fact a function of the city. Organizing these extremes To do so, however, might allow us to miss the fact that the city was always a major urban praxis. Cities also fostered the dif- that was the basis for such ministry has changed. With the end ferentiations that we call culture. They have always attracted of the modern era and the onset of the postmodern/postcolonial immigrants from their surrounding countryside, but also they age, a new form of globalization is upon us. The modern/colonial drew merchants who came from other cities and regions. The city has largely been displaced by another, a postmodern/post- merchants from afar contributed much to making the urban a colonial city, or what some are calling the “global city” and the multicultural reality. The modern industrial city accelerated the “globalizing city.”11 The phenomenon is not confined to a few processes of cultural differentiation by attracting immigrants urban locations. All cities of the world are being pulled into the from distances far away, not only to come and trade but also to processes of globalization, while some have achieved the status come and work. of being what sociologists are calling “global cities.” Production in these places is no longer based in neighborhoods but can span The City and Mission entire regions of the globe. Consumption is likewise becoming globalized. One can find goods from virtually every region of Christianity in the West, which after the tenth century had the world in the marketplaces and malls of even modest-sized become mostly organized into what we now call Christendom, cities all around the world. found a way to accommodate itself to the first waves of urban transformation that took place under modern capitalism. The The Changing Nature of the City English Puritan was an early capitalist but still a figure of Chris- tendom. Even after the period of political revolutions that began The spatial structure of cities is changing. Transnational urban to disestablish the church politically in the West, Christendom networks are replacing older spatial linkages. Images and atti- continued in its cultural form. The parish was still very much an tudes that can be communicated globally through the media in urban phenomenon. In the cities of Christendom in Europe and real time are taking the place of city walls, natural bodies of water, in its settler colonies, which together constituted what we call interstate belt highway systems, dotted lines on a map, and other the West, a new social phenomenon called “the slums” began such means that have traditionally been used to define urban in the eighteenth century, posing the first sustained challenge to places. “Instead of being based on territory, communities are this organizing practice. Slums were among the first sectors of more often spatially extensive networks, consisting of channels Western society to slip beyond the reach of the traditional parish. through which resources flow—information, money, and social They emerged rapidly, far outstripping the ability of established capital.”12 New processes of metropolitanization are underway, local urban parishes to minister to and within them effectively.9 drawing urban inhabitants, commuters, and users together from

178 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 around the world in new combinations of material and virtual evangelical and ecumenical, free to exercise dominance by being realities. The processes of class and cultural differentiation that unqualifiedly “Christian.” historically marked the urban have accelerated in the globalizing Globalization has now made all such territorial construc- city, intensifying the polymorphous while expanding the distance tions obsolete. Spatial configurations of the personal body, the between rich and poor to astronomical proportions.13 congregation, the denomination, the city, the culture, and the As noted above, it is now clear that urbanization and global- nation are all being increasingly deterritorialized and reterritori- ization are converging historical forces, two sides of the same coin, alized, resulting in new spatiotemporal configurations and two sides of the same cutting edge of human historical existence. combinations. Korean Christianity is now a global Christian Cities around the world, as noted above, have historically, even reality, with 6 million Koreans living in a global diaspora. Pros- from ancient days, been populated by strangers, many of them perity doctrines and “G12” (“Government of 12,” pioneered by merchants, who came from distant places to exchange goods César Castellanos Domínguez of Bogotá, Colombia16) are picked and sometimes services.14 The city was never only a center. It up from their places of origin north or south and circulated was always also a thoroughfare, a node on a nexus, one link rapidly in and through global Pentecostal and Neo-Pentecostal in an urbanizing network. Today this is becoming clearer than networks. African Christianity is a growing phenomenon in ever. Those who have dwelt in cities and those who have ruled western Europe and North America. A majority of persons in them have always had the United States now more in view than the identify themselves with city they inhabited. They more than one particular have also had their eyes denominational tradi- on the ends of the earth tion over the course of that they sought to draw their lives. Our think- goods from, or to reach out ing about ministry and to rule over, even if only in mission must become their imagination. Global- more conversant with ization has brought that deterritorialized and imagining practice to new reterritorialized forms levels, joining together in of Christian expression. endlessly flowing new It must take seriously combinations the practical the host of theological and the only imaginable, practices and beliefs that the local and the global, the are circulating the globe, real and the virtual. landing in unexpected places, and continuously Implications redefining each location. It must do so, bringing What are the implications them into critical and of globalization and urban- creative interaction at Saint Peter’s Church located under the corner of Citigroup Center, ization for world Christi- both conceptual and Lexington Avenue and Fifty-fourth Street, New York City. anity, and for churches that practical levels in order are mission minded (and to be transformative. for missions that are church minded) throughout the world at A second issue needing attention, and a close corollary to the beginning of the twenty-first century? What issues call out this first point regarding the deterritorialization of Christianity, for attention? First, world Christianity since at least the fourth is the reification of culture. The various notions of culture that have century has been burdened with various forms of association with informed the study of missions and world Christianity in the particular territories and cultures. This was preeminently expressed past have been particularly problematic. Culture as a concept in the identification of Christianity with the Roman imperial order was often quite static and unchanging. The forms of culture that and the territories that were governed by Rome or Constantinople. have been particularly attractive to contextual forms of theol- There were other, lesser territorial expressions of Christianity ogy in world Christianity have often been those of the rural, in late antiquity, such as those of the Armenian and Ethiopian the village, the countryside, or even the nation, where purity traditions, but these others did not rise to the level of imperial and authenticity could be assured. Urban experience in general identification and dominance attained by Rome and Constanti- has long challenged concepts of culture that hold cultures to be nople, or the Latin and Greek traditions of Christendom.15 stable or unchanging. Globalization is intensifying this realiza- The modern missionary movement in both its Catholic and tion. The city, I noted earlier, has always been both a center and Protestant expressions was particularly plagued by territorial a passageway, a node in a nexus, a place of destination and a notions of identity and culture that were fundamentally tied place for passing through. The street has long been a place where to a particular place. The modern ecumenical movement did one lives and a place where one travels, something that divides little to challenge the social reconstruction that bifurcated the and something that connects, both a boundary and a suture. As world into “Christian lands” and “mission lands,” with its First more than half of the world’s population now lives in intensely World and Third World theologies and its critical discourses urban contexts, and 3 percent of the world’s peoples now live setting in place the West and the Rest. World Christianity as a as immigrants outside the lands of their birth, most of them discipline is today in danger of being reduced to what happens in cities, life on the street and the culture of the streets take on in the territories of the global South and East, leaving the ter- intensely new configurations of inter- and cross-cultural experi- ritorial definitions of Christianity in the North and West, both ence and meaning.

October 2009 179 Training people for mission and ministry in this context always forms of Christianity that were considered to be deviant means attending to the traditional formations of church life or “heretical” by the majority parties and traditions. Globalizing from a multitude of contexts and assisting churches to engage, and globalized cities in all parts of the world today are witness- if not always embrace, what is different. It means attending to ing a degree of multifaith living that seems to be unprecedented the new formations of religion that are taking place as well, and in its depth and dimensions. In Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo, thinking through what preparation for ministry means in the Baghdad, Jerusalem, Lagos, Dar es Salaam, São Paulo, Mexico various contexts of hypercapitalism, the Internet, megachurches, City, New York, Toronto, and more, churches of all confessional global immigration, and more.17 World Christianity as a whole persuasions are finding they have to learn new ways of living is far more inclusive than any particular local expression of it with their non-Christian religious neighbor. can possibly be. Ministry that takes as its context both its own location and the global reality will move in the direction of The “New Look” for the City in Mission inclusion while continuing to affirm distinct identities. The church will once again be able to cross boundaries, including Within the ecology of the new urban formations arising within those of “race,” ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, the globalized city, we are finding renewed meaning in the confession, and more. These identities can be played out and local church and its ministry when the context becomes world factored in multiple ways that are both inclusive and exclusion- Christianity. Churches from every part of the world, speaking ary. Regarding identities as such, however, we are finding more languages and nurturing cultures that were historically born in and more the words of Edward Said to be true, “No one today is places at a great distance from one another, are now flourishing purely one thing.”18 Our hybrids are proliferating and, contrary next to one another in cities all around the world. The traditional to nature, are multiplying exponentially.19 model of parish ministry is not dead, but it is finding diverse The third implication of the convergence of globalization and expression in the globalized city.22 Ministry has also moved urbanization in world Christianity concerns the authority of biblical outside the church in new and interesting ways. The rise of the texts. Not only the context but the very texts of our various theologi- entrepreneurial model of individuals heading ministries—with cal traditions become destabilized in the rapidly changing world their own Web pages, incorporation papers, TV programs, and of globalized cities and cultures. New forms of reading biblical various pastoral conferences—leads the way in this effort. The texts and ecclesial traditions alike are proliferating. In the midst more traditional forms of urban and industrial ministry such as of this proliferating difference, the Bible itself reemerges to play ministry in the law office, in the university halls, in prisons, and a critical connective role in our experiences of world Christianity among firefighters continue. in cities throughout the world. It is a common book, even when Poverty is still a focal point in our theological reflections on read from different locations, perspectives, commitments, and ministry in the city, but it comes in multiple constructions today. confessions and in different contexts and languages. It is a meeting We talk of anthropological poverty, political empowerment, and place of sorts, a movable site to which is ascribed authority and the need for communities of faith and resistance to gain access from which is derived meaning. For some, biblical authority and to information and knowledge of production. The commitment meaning are central. For others, they are peripheral. But whether to justice has a stronger transformational dimension as our the Bible is read at the center or the margins of one’s religious pedagogy is increasingly aware of the global cultural context in identity, and whether it is read from the center or the margins of which we are living.23 social life, it is still a common book, a site of intertextual engage- Global networks are becoming ever more important for ment, itself a context and a pretext.20 The Bible remains a place, engaging in mission and ministry in the world Christian context a site, a textual location marking various communities formed of the global city. Bilocationality and circulating patterns of migra- by liturgy, devotion, and social praxis. tion and return are becoming more common in churches through- In such multiperspectival readings of the Bible the tempta- out the world. Powerful charismatic clergy serve widely scat- tion lurks to ascribe to the text a degree of translocationality that tered networks of congregations among the various diasporas might give it the appearance of floating free from any particular that wrap around the globe. All of us are busy finding our way— context and location, including that of the original world of its “fumbling along,” some might say—in this new global urban production. This is one important reason why the hermeneutics experience. Contextualization was the first step in the direction in of social location must continue to play an important role in the which we are heading. But it turns out to have been far too neat, production and reproduction of biblical knowledge in world far too simple a model. The real and virtual worlds of this global Christian life, for such a hermeneutics helps reground biblical community of discourse decontextualize and recontextualize readings in various Christian contexts and experiences. There is us constantly, calling for a more active form of transpositional always the danger that even this particular method will be seen theological reflection. Culture itself gets quickly transformed in as an avenue toward a new universalizing discourse, brought the accelerated flows of globalization that we are experiencing. about at the cost of ignoring other authoritative sources for Even what counts as knowledge is brought into question. faith.21 The danger can be avoided only by keeping the Bible in The city has been on the for mission studies for community. more than a century. Unfortunately, the manner in which the The fourth implication that I see for mission and ministry in city too often has been imagined is as a place of need or despair. the context of global cities north and south concerns the levels of In many instances the city was reduced conceptually to being a engagement with other religions. Religious pluralism has long been a function of poverty, lack, or neglect.24 The reduction of the city dominant reality for churches in Asia and Africa, beginning with to its poorest neighborhoods has always been problematic in the the first centuries of the Christian movement. Christians who theology of urban ministry. The city has always been more than lived under Muslim rulers in the political entity of the dar al-Islam just a “slum” or a “ghetto,” even in its poorest neighborhoods. (“house of Islam”) have had centuries of experience with being Certainly preparation for ministry to, with, and of the poor ought religious minorities. In the West Christianity was the dominant to occupy a prominent place in the mission agenda, but urban religion, although it was never the only religion and there were ministry cannot be reduced to this one focus.

180 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 In all places our urban theologies are being challenged by in congresses on the global mission of the Korean diaspora. the very nature of the city itself. A more vital and engaging Portuguese-speaking congregations form among people who form of mission and ministry in the postcolonial, postindustrial, have emigrated from Brazil and engage in theological reflection postmodern, and, in some instances, post-Christendom city is in Tokyo, Newark, or Lisbon, while many who are doing theol- needed. Global cities are the visible manifestations of a new global ogy in São Paulo or Rio de Janeiro are recent immigrants from reality that has become the context of world Christianity. Our other continents to Brazil. theologies unfortunately tend often to continue to conceptualize This new, complex global urban reality is posing a challenge the world in territorial terms that were part of the modern and to the way mission is understood around the world today. In colonial frames of reference, placing various theologies in their each place this urban reality takes on distinctive features, even as respective geographic locations and even trying to keep them the overall process of global urbanization is tying these realities there. Korean theology is taken to refer to theology that is done together in new, complex, expanding, interlocking, differentiat- on the peninsula of Korea. Brazilian theology is taken to mean ing networks of relations. Theology in general needs to grapple theology that is done on location in Brazil and by people whose with these new global configurations and the realities they are ancestors lived in Brazil. The actual world that we are living in, generating, virtual and otherwise. The challenge for us is always however, is one of transnational migrations, hyphenated and to reflect upon and engage theologically from our various loca- hybrid identities, cultural conjunctions and disjunctions, and tions and perspectives, a challenge present in each place, even as global theological networks or flows. Korean-speaking Chris- we find ourselves increasingly relocated within this new global tian leaders from around the world gather outside of Korea urban context.

Notes 1. See Philip Berryman, Religion in the Megacity (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Singapore, see Robbie B. H. Goh, “Deus ex Machina: Evangelical Sites, Books, 1992). Urbanism, and the Construction of Social Identities,” in Postcolonial 2. Peter Taylor, Ben Derudder, Pieter Saey, and Frank Witlox, eds., Cities in Urbanism, ed. Bishop, Phillips, and Yeo, pp. 305–21. Globalization: Practices, Policies, and Theories (London: Routledge, 2006), 9. One can argue that the intellectual challenges of the de-Christianization look specifically at European and North American cities but uncover of Europe that were posed by the middle class’s “cultured despisers the connections well. Jane M. Jacobs, Edge of Empire: Postcolonialism and of religion” were addressed far more successfully by Schleiermacher the City (London: Routledge, 1996), implicitly extends the discussion and others in the streams of liberal Protestant theology that followed of globalization in the direction of neo-imperialism by looking at him through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries than were the urban spaces through a postcolonial lens. challenges of the new urban working class who were gathering in 3. See Peter H. Sedgwick, ed., God in the City: Essays and Reflections from the slums. On the history of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century the Archbishop’s Urban Theology Group (London: Mowbray, 1995). “mission” work in slums in the United States, see Norris A. Magnuson, 4. Keith R. Bridston, Mission, Myth, and Reality (New York: Friendship Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865–1920 (Metuchen, Press, 1965). On p. 33 Bridston writes: “It would be foolish to suggest N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977). that the geographical frontier ever was, or will ever be, insignificant in 10. The tendency to focus or even reduce urban ministry to addressing the missionary activity of the church. But if the religious significance issues of urban poverty, and in the U.S. context to ministry in the of salt water is seen in any other than a poetic and mythical way, the “inner city” (i.e., the slums, the ghetto, or el barrio), is apparent in whole meaning of the mission of the church is in danger of being even such excellent recent work on urban ministry and theology lost, or so perverted that it would be better lost. The geographical as Andrew Davey, Urban Christianity and Global Order: Theological frontier, symbolized by the seven seas, only represents what the Resources for an Urban Future (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2002), Christian mission is; it does not exhaust it. Ocean trips have never and Mark R. Gornik, To Live in Peace: Biblical Faith and the Changing made Christian missionaries, and, in itself, salt water never will.” Inner City (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002). 5. Richard Sennett, “The Civitas of Seeing,” Places 5, no. 4 (1989), quoted 11. See Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (Prince- in Bo Grönlund, “The Civitas of Seeing and the Design of Cities—on ton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1991). the Urbanism of Richard Sennett,” Urban Winds, http://hjem.get2net 12. United Nations Human Settlements Programme, The State of the .dk/gronlund/Sennett_ny_tekst_ 97kort.html. It is interesting that the World’s Cities, 2004/2005: Globalization and Urban Culture (London Latin word urbs denoted an actual city, while the word civis referred and Sterling, Va.: Earthscan / UN-Habitat, 2004), p. 5. to the manner of life of those to whom belonged its privileges; only 13. According to the most recent U.N. figures, nearly 200 million persons, later was it extended to be an alternative term for the city itself. or approximately 3 percent of the world’s population, are now 6. Henri Lefebvre, The Urban Revolution, trans. Robert Bononno immigrants, living outside the territorial boundaries of their natal (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2003; French orig., 1970), cultural community, most of them living in cities. In New York City p. 120. alone, according to the mayor’s office, representatives from every 7. On the ceremonial origins of the city in world history and on nation on earth are now living as immigrants in the city. the relationship between human religiosity and urbanization 14. The tradition that St. Thomas traveled to India from Palestine in the more generally, see Paul Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters: first century of the common era is quite telling for world Christian A Preliminary Enquiry into the Origins and Character of the Ancient identity, for Thomas is held by some strands of the tradition to have Chinese City (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1971); Davíd Carrasco, gone to India not as a merchant but as a carpenter, recruited in a City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization Mediterranean seaport by agents of an Indian ruler seeking skilled (Boston: Beacon Press, 1999); Nezar AlSayyad, Cities and Caliphs: On labor from the Roman Empire. the Genesis of Arab Muslim Urbanism (New York: Greenwood Press, 15. It should be noted that there were always Christians within the 1991); and Joel Kotkin, The City: A Global History (New York: Modern imperial traditions who did not accept imperial domination, and Library, 2005). many who opposed it openly. There have also always been churches 8. On the relationship between colonial and modern cities, and the global of the world whose traditions lay outside the range of imperial reach, impact of postcolonial urbanization in particular, see Ryan Bishop, especially the churches of Asia who lived as (often persecuted) John Phillips, and Wei-Wei Yeo, eds., Postcolonial Urbanism: Southeast minority communities in multireligious societies. Although the Asian Cities and Global Processes (New York: Routledge, 2003). For an imperial forms of Christendom were not universal, their impact examination of the manner in which global charismatic Christianity touched in one way or another all churches and traditions. The legacy operates in and through the postcolonial city, in this case specifically of Christendom has been felt by all churches and traditions of the

October 2009 181 world, even if its effects have been weighted differently among the seems no reason except fear and prejudice to keep insisting on their various churches. separation and distinctiveness, as if that was all human life was 16. For information on “Government of 12” program, see www.visiong12 about. Survival in fact is about the connections between things; in .com. Eliot’s phrase, reality cannot be deprived of the ‘other echoes [that] 17. Manuel A. Vásquez and Marie Friedmann Marquardt, Globalizing the inhabit the garden.’” Sacred: Religion Across the Americas (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers 19. See Néstor Garcia Canclini, Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering Univ. Press, 2003), pp. 54–55. The authors note on p. 55, “By changing and Leaving Modernity, trans. Christopher Chiappari and Silvia L. our sense of time, space and agency, globalization clearly affects López (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1990). the viability of religious congregations. The latter, however, are 20. See Dale T. Irvin, “Contextualization and : Looking Anew not mere passive subjects of more foundational economic forces. for the Unity of the Faith,” Studia Theologica 48, no. 2 (1995): 8. Religious congregations are also active in transmitting and shaping 21. Francisco Lozado, Jr., “Reinventing the Biblical Tradition: An globalization.” They cite Pentecostalism as being particularly effective Exploration of Social Location Hermeneutics,” in Futuring Our Past: in creating transnational networks, but include the Roman Catholic Explorations in the Theology of Tradition, ed. Orlando O. Espín and Church and other global religious networks in their consideration Gary Macy (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2006), pp. 113–40. of globalizing religion. 22. On the various models of urban church experience, see Lowell W. 18. Edward Said, in Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred Knopf, Livezey, ed., Public Religion and Urban Transformation: Faith in the City 1994), p. 336, writes: “No one today is purely one thing. Labels (New York: New York Univ. Press, 2000). like Indian, or woman, or Muslim, or American are not more than 23. On the problems and possibilities for transformative adult education starting-points, which if followed into actual experience for only a in the context of globalization, see Sharan B. Merriam, Bradley C. moment are quickly left behind. Imperialism consolidated the mixture Courtenay, and Ronald M. Cervero, eds., Global Issues and Adult of cultures and identities on a global scale. But its worst and most Education: Perspectives from Latin America, Southern Africa, and the paradoxical gift was to allow people to believe that they were only, United States (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006). mainly, exclusively, white, or Black, or Western, or Oriental. . . . No 24. The classic formulation of this thesis in urban sociology remains that one can deny the persisting continuities of long traditions, sustained of Edward C. Banfield,The Unheavenly City Revisited (Boston: Little, habitations, national languages, and cultural geographies, but there Brown, 1974).

Declaration on Creation Stewardship and Climate Change Micah Network We present here a recent declaration by the Micah Network, whose international president is C. René Padilla (office in Surry Hills, New South Wales, Australia). In the words of Padilla, an IBMR contributing editor, this declaration “may perhaps in time be regarded as the most significant document coming out of the evangelical movement on a subject that has hardly received in the past the attention it deserves from people who confess the triune God as the God of Creation. . . . Established in 1999, the Micah Network has grown into a worldwide movement of over 500 Christian relief, development and justice organizations, churches and individuals. It includes over 330 active members and 230 associate members from over 80 countries. Its primary objective is to encourage the practice that, according to the text from which it derives its name, God requires of his people: ‘To act justly and love mercy and to walk humbly with your God’ (Micah 6:8)” (from foreword to the declaration; see www.micahnetwork.org/en/home). —Editors

e, members of the Micah Network,1 gathering faithful stewards has caused the current environmental crisis, Wtogether from 38 countries on all 5 continents, met at leading to climate change, and putting the earth’s ecosystems at Limuru, Kenya from 13–18 July 2009 for its 4th Triennial Global risk. All creation has been subjected to futility and decay because Consultation. On the matter of Creation Stewardship and Climate of our disobedience.5 Change, we sought God’s wisdom and cried out for the Holy Spirit’s guidance as we reflected on the global environmental 4. Yet God remains faithful.6 In Christ’s incarnation, life, death crisis. As a result of our discussions, reflections and prayers, we and resurrection, God is at work to reconcile all of creation to make the following declaration: Himself.7 We hear the groaning of creation as in the pains of childbirth. This is the promise that God will act, and is already 1. We believe in God—Father, Son and Holy Spirit in community— at work, to renew all things.8 This is the hope that sustains us. who is the creator, sustainer and Lord of all. God delights in His creation, and is committed to it.2 5. We confess that we have sinned. We have not cared for the earth with the self-sacrificing and nurturing love of God. 2. In the beginning, God established just relationships amongst Instead, we have exploited, consumed and abused it for our all of creation. Women and men—as image-bearers of God—are own advantage. We have too often yielded to the idolatry that called to serve and love the rest of creation, accountable to God is greed.9 We have embraced false dichotomies of theology and as stewards. Our care for creation is an act of worship and obedi- practice, splitting apart the spiritual and material, eternal and ence towards the Creator.3 temporal, heavenly and earthly. In all these things, we have not acted justly towards each other or towards creation, and we have 3. We, however, have not always been faithful stewards. Through not honoured God. our ignorance, neglect, arrogance and greed, we have harmed the earth and broken creation’s relationships.4 Our failure to be 6. We acknowledge that industrialization, increased deforesta-

182 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 a community called...

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asburyseminary.edu 800.2ASBURY tion, intensified agriculture and grazing, along with the unre- those most affected by environmental degradation and climate strained burning of fossil fuels, have forced the earth’s natural change, and will act with justice and mercy among, with and systems out of balance. Rapidly increasing greenhouse gas emis- on behalf of them.11 sions are causing the average global temperature to rise, with devastating impacts already being experienced, especially by the 9. We join with others to call on local, national, and global poorest and most marginalized groups. A projected temperature leaders to meet their responsibility to address climate change rise of 2°C within the next few decades will significantly alter life and environmental degradation through the agreed inter- on earth and accelerate loss of biodiversity. It will increase the governmental mechanisms and conventions, and to provide the risk and severity of extreme weather events, such as drought, necessary resources to ensure sustainable development. Their flood, and hurricanes, leading to displacement and hunger. Sea meetings through the United Nations Framework Convention levels will continue to rise, contaminating fresh water supplies on Climate Change process must produce a fair, comprehensive, and submerging island and coastal communities. We are likely and adequate climate deal. Leaders must support the efforts of to see mass migration, leading to resource conflicts. Profound local communities to adapt to climate change, and must act to changes to rainfall and snowfall, as well as the rapid melting of protect the lives and livelihoods of those most vulnerable to the glaciers, will lead to more water stress and shortages for many impact of environmental degradation and climate change. We millions of people. recognize that among the most affected are women and girls. We call on leaders to invest in the development of new, clean 7. We repent of our self-serving theology of creation, and our technologies and energy sources and to provide adequate sup- complicity in unjust local and global economic relationships. We port to enable poor, vulnerable and marginalized groups to use repent of those aspects of our individual and corporate life styles them effectively. that harm creation, and of our lack of political action. We must radically change our lives in response to God’s indignation and 10. There is no more time for delay or denial. We will labour sorrow for His creation’s agony. with passion, persistence, prayer and creativity to protect the integrity of all creation, and hand on a safe environment and 8. Before God we commit ourselves, and call on the whole fam- climate to our children and theirs. ily of faith, to bear witness to God’s redemptive purpose for all creation. We will seek appropriate ways to restore and build just For those with ears to hear, let them hear.12 relationships among human beings and with the rest of creation. We will strive to live sustainably, rejecting consumerism and —Micah Network Fourth Triennial Global Consultation the resulting exploitation.10 We will teach and model care of Limuru, Kenya, July 17, 2009 creation and integral mission. We will intercede before God for

Notes 1. Micah Network is a global network of Christian agencies and 6. Romans 8:21. churches involved in relief, development and advocacy, and 7. Colossians 1:19–20, Philippians 2:6–8. responding to poverty and injustice. 8. Romans 8:22, Revelation 21:5. 2. Colossians 1:15–16, Romans 11:36. 9. Colossians 3:5, Matthew 6:24. 3. Genesis 1:26–30, Genesis 2:15. 10. Matthew 6:24. 4. Genesis 3:13–24. 11. Micah 6:8. 5. Romans 8:20. 12. Mark 4:23.

ARIS Reports U.S. Roman Catholic Population Shift to Southwest

The Roman Catholic population of the United States and natural increase among Latinos, California now has a has shifted away from the Northeast and toward the South- higher proportion of Catholics than New England.” Con- west, while secularity continues to grow in strength in all ducted between February and November 2008, ARIS 2008 is regions of the country, according to a study by the Program the third in a series of large, nationally representative surveys on Public Values at Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut. of U.S. adults. The percentage of Christians in America, which “The decline of Catholicism in the Northeast is nothing short declined in the 1990s from 86 percent to 77 percent, has edged of stunning,” said Barry Kosmin, a principal investigator down to 76 percent. Ninety percent of the decline comes from for the American Religious Identification Survey (www the non-Catholic segment of the Christian population, largely .americanreligionsurvey-aris.org). “Thanks to immigration from mainline denominations.

184 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 Ivan Illich and the American Catholic Missionary Initiative in Latin America Todd Hartch

n 1966 Ivan Illich sent the National Catholic Reporter an and John XXIII had called for a major program of aid to Latin Iantimissionary article, but it was returned to him as America in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Catholic bishops “needlessly polemical.” Having declined the magazine’s offer in the United States organized a Latin America Bureau in their to resubmit a milder version, Illich sent the article to the Jesuit organization, the National Catholic Welfare Conference, and journal America, which not only accepted the article as written began a serious missionary effort in Latin America.6 John Consi- but also timed its publication to coincide with the Catholic dine, the head of the Latin America Bureau, chose Illich to train Inter-American Cooperation Program (CICOP), a conference these missionaries because of Illich’s successful ministry among designed to foster American Catholic support of the church in Puerto Ricans in New York City and his apparent commitment Latin America. Illich arrived at CICOP with 3,000 copies of “The to training missionaries. What Considine did not realize, even Seamy Side of Charity,” enough for every participant to read as Illich was setting up the Center for Intercultural Formation his indictment of the American Catholic missionary initiative (CIF), a missionary training center in Cuernavaca, Mexico, was in Latin America.1 that Illich’s interest in the program stemmed primarily from his The article succeeded admirably in provoking controversy, desire to subvert it. just as Illich hoped. First, he condemned the American hierarchy Born in 1926 in Vienna to a Croatian father and a Jewish for starting a missionary program “on an impulse supported by mother, Illich earned master’s degrees in theology and philosophy uncritical imagination and sentimental judgment.” Second, Illich and a doctorate in history by age twenty-four; he was adept in attacked the results of the initiative. Foreign “aid” drastically German, Yiddish, Italian, French, Serbo-Croatian, Latin, Greek, increased the costs of the Latin American churches and made English, Spanish, and Portuguese.7 He came to the United States these churches dependent on foreign funds and personnel, result- in 1951 to study at Princeton University, but his fascination with ing in a “patently irrelevant pastoral system” that was impossible New York’s Puerto Rican population led him to a position as a to sustain. Third, Illich confronted American missionaries about parish priest in a Puerto Rican neighborhood. Cardinal Francis their self-deception. They were “pawns in a world ideological Spellman greatly appreciated Illich’s efforts with the Puerto struggle” and “a colonial power’s lackey chaplains.”2 Rican community, gave him the title of monsignor, and then From the podium of the conference, Louis Luzbetak of the So- gave him the position of vice-rector of a Catholic university in ciety of the Divine Word characterized the article as “profoundly” Puerto Rico itself. While spending most of the 1960s and 1970s misguided and contended that missions was beneficial to both the in Cuernavaca, Mexico, Illich became a prolific social critic who United States and Latin America because “cultures tend to grow enjoyed mainstream success with books such as Deschooling So- in proportion to their exposure to cross-fertilization.”3 Cardinal ciety, which characterized public education as part of “a global Richard Cushing, who had advocated sending Americans to Latin process of degradation and modernized misery.”8 He lived with America, denounced the article as an attack on the pope that con- colleagues in in the years before his death in 2002. tained “colossal lies” and constituted “a grave injustice” to those who were laying down their lives for Latin America.4 Around the Training Missionaries to Go Home world, bishops, priests, religious sisters, and missionaries read the article and reacted with surprise and anger but also, in some As Illich prepared his missionary training center in the spring cases, a surprising degree of agreement. Whether they agreed or of 1961, he understood that two popes had called for massive disagreed, Catholics interested in Latin America could not avoid aid to Latin America, but he believed that missionary work by responding in some way: “After the article appeared, few people, Americans for Latin Americans would be harmful for both groups. if any, could carry out their assignments without re-examining Most missionaries that he had encountered were “stunted, or what they were doing, without asking themselves if, perhaps, wholly destroyed” by their work; all they accomplished was “to there was something after all to what Illich was saying.”5 The impede the revolutionary changes needed” in Latin America. article then spread to mainline Protestant groups and became “The projected crusade had to be stopped,” he thought. There- an antimissionary classic. fore, Illich ensured that the Center for Intercultural Formation “The Seamy Side of Charity” brought Ivan Illich to the had impeccable credentials that would attract many would-be attention of many missionaries and church leaders and remains missionaries. It was affiliated with Fordham University and one of his main claims to fame, but few remember today that the enjoyed the support of Cardinal Spellman of New York, of the article represented a final, public stage in a campaign that Illich Latin America Bureau, and of Cardinal Cushing of Boston. had been waging, mostly in private, since 1961. After Pius XII “Through our educational program for missionaries we intended to challenge them to face reality and themselves, and either Todd Hartch teaches Latin American history and directs refuse their assignments or—if they accepted—to be a little bit 9 the history graduate program at Eastern Kentucky less unprepared,” Illich later admitted. University, Richmond, Kentucky. He is the author of Thirty-five lay Catholics and twenty-seven clergy attended Missionaries of the State (Univ. of Alabama Press, the first session in 1961, and similar numbers attended two 2006), a history of the Summer Institute of Linguistics four-month sessions each year during most of the 1960s.10 The in Mexico. —[email protected] training began with language instruction of the highest qual- ity, designed to produce fluency in Spanish by the end of the course. A team of local teachers gave the trainees five hours a

October 2009 185 day of instruction in classes of no more than four students: three for his people” and might merely assist “in a cold and technical hours in guided drills, an hour in the language laboratory, and way.” He also enjoyed presenting difficult or challenging ideas another hour in directed conversation.11 Not surprisingly, the in forms attributed to others, for example, by quoting a Latin rigor of the five-hour-per-day language classes stressed some American bishop who allegedly said, “I need to ordain many of students to the breaking point. “It was so intensive that you’d my older married men to the priesthood.” In another instance he have people almost breaking down,” remarked one. “This was mentioned a scholar’s idea that the church was the foundation Illich’s approach, of course. If you cracked, fine; he’d either build of aristocracy in Colombia. Time reported, “Illich and his staff you back up or he’d lose you.”12 deliberately make the students angry, start arguments, challenge Comments from the language staff on some of the trainees cherished beliefs.”18 in the first session gave a hint of their attitudes toward their In one instance, a group of sisters came to Illich “in great charges. One young man, for example, was judged to be “neither distress” because a speaker had told them not to share their God articulate in any language nor will he learn Spanish too well.” A with Latin Americans and that their God could not be adopted young woman was seen as “psychologically unfit to the adapta- by Latin Americans. In another case, Illich asked his students if tion necessary to learn any language well.” Another candidate they loved “Pedro,” a hypothetical migrant to Mexico City from was believed to lack “capacity to accept another language.”13 the countryside. “Do you love him for himself, for what he is? Or The stressful language classes softened students up for do you love God in him? If you love him because you love God classes specifically focused on missions, history, and culture, in him, you are wrong. There is no worse offense. It is a denial of as well as for conversations with the staff. Many of the ideas the natural order.” In both cases, Illich could cluck at their lack that Illich presented were similar to those he had developed in of insight and explain what he or the other speaker really meant, Puerto Rico (for priests and sisters he had trained to work with but both the scandal of the near-heresy and the seed of doubt Puerto Ricans in the mainland United States), but warnings planted by Illich’s explanation would remain.19 and negative examples assumed a larger role. He affirmed the Even intelligent and mature students who had devoured mystical nature of missionary service, especially its connection to the literature of the social sciences and mastered the ethics of Christ’s incarnation through suffering; but he spent much of his intercultural communication faced a gauntlet between two ter- time drawing out the dangers of faulty missionary preparation. rible dangers. On one hand was the risk of holding onto one’s In doing so, he inevitably suggested to many “neo-missioners” own culture. Now Illich added the corresponding hazard of that they were unqualified and ill-prepared.14 “identification with a group in process of being marginalized.” For example, Illich emphasized the high level of academic Improper identification with host cultures could result in “mar- preparation required by prospective missionaries. Candidates ginalization of Church” and in “destruction of the church from needed “increased receptivity for the poetic, the historical, and within.”20 Illich did not explain how one could avoid holding the social aspects of reality.” If they had this prerequisite, they too tightly to one’s own culture while simultaneously avoiding must use the “conceptual instruments” of social scientists, includ- improper identification with host cultures; these two challenges ing “role, status, function, community versus society, self-image seem designed more to scare off potential missionaries than to versus expectation; public opinion and social pressure; movement help them adapt to the mission field. and organization; institutionalization and charismatic leader- ship,” to gain a sociological, anthropological, political, economic, An Exclusionary Agenda cultural, and historical understanding of the societies in which they wished to work. He believed that “today it would be folly What was the poor neo-missioner to do with these high expecta- to try to think of the Church and its growth without reference to tions? Many of them, Illich hoped, would realize that they were these aspects which relate it to any society or community.”15 He not equipped to be missionaries, that “not every man can be a did not say it directly, but he strongly implied that prospective missionary.”21 In fact, Illich listed seven types who should learn to missionaries had to be not only intelligent but also well educated recognize their unsuitability for missions: (1) those fleeing home before they began training; if they passed this hurdle, they had in a sort of “psychological escapism,” (2) aggressive nationalists, to become experts on Latin America in several different areas. (3) missionary adventurers with “sensuous dreams of a jungle How many trainees could meet these standards? or martyrdom or of growing a beard,” (4) the “ecclesiastic con- One visitor admitted that Illich might produce a missionary quistador” devoted to “heaping up ,” (5) those more elite but lamented, “The Monsignor is aiming high, too high interested in “apostolic tourism” than in self-sacrifice, and (6) for me and others of my capacity.” Another asked, “Is rigorism the unreflective missioner who introduced “songs, and stories, needed today, or sanctity coupled with skills?”16 Complaints that and folklore” from the home country, resulting eventually in the Illich was being too tough on his charges also came from Cardinal alienation of the host culture from its roots; this last type was Cushing and the papal nuncio in Peru, Romulo Carboni, perhaps “particularly dangerous.”22 the two most important leaders in the church’s efforts to send The seventh group, the one that Illich found most objec- United States personnel to Latin America, but Considine, still in tionable, was the Papal Volunteers for Latin America (PAVLA), the dark about Illich’s real goals, defended the “masterly job” the major lay component of the missionary initiative in Latin that Illich was doing.17 America. Theoretically, lay Catholics would volunteer their expertise to meet specific needs for periods of two to five years, Use of Controversy but in practice many of the 177 volunteers who were serving by March 1963 did not offer needed skills, and few had any clear Another element of Illich’s approach was controversy, or what idea of what they would be doing in the region. To Illich, the some called “the shock-treatment approach.” He liked to sur- program’s goals for its short-term lay missionaries were “irrel- prise earnest sisters and young priests with semiscandalous evant, misleading, and even offensive” because Latin America ideas, for instance, yelling “I hate Yankees!” at a nun, or claim- did not need unskilled volunteers looking for short-term spiritual ing that an ideal missionary “may have little pastoral feeling highs; rather, it needed highly trained professionals. Why, then,

186 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 give them any space at CIF? The answer was, “They are on their against the missionary initiative in Latin America. He believed way, with or without a CIF course.” He continued, “Painfully, we that CIF had succeeded in subverting the missionary initiative have learned how to help such volunteers shed their misguided among “the educated groups” in the American church through missionary zeal. . . . They are welcome guests on equal footing its training programs and its publications, and he calculated that with all other students.”23 Unspoken was the fact that being on less than 1 percent of American and Canadian clergy had heeded equal footing with other students meant being equally subject the papal call to Latin America, far from the desired 10 percent. to Illich’s attempts to send them home. Still, he detected continuing support for the initiative among the When the PAVLA director warned a volunteer named Sue hierarchy and “uneducated Catholics” because of “an intense Maloney that she would have to reimburse PAVLA the cost of her public relations campaign” by the Latin America Bureau. The time in Cuernavaca if she did not accept her assignment to Lima, combination of the upcoming CICOP gathering and news of an Peru, Illich objected that this action was “against all academic, imminent exposé in Ramparts of the CIA’s infiltration of student ecclesiastical, and human traditions.” Illich then presented an groups in Latin America convinced him that the time was right interesting defini- to stop the “enthusiasm” once and for all. “Under these circum- tion of the CIF as “a stances,” he argued, “public and intensive controversy had to place where volun- be sponsored.”28 teers for missions In the end, Illich and his center played a major role in the do make up their failure of the Catholic missionary initiative in Latin America, minds, to find out which never achieved the numbers or impact envisioned by the if they are suited.” Vatican. As his center attracted more and more negative atten- “You have no right tion, in 1968 Illich was summoned to Rome for a trial by the in any way to con- Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith (successor to the Holy strue the tuition and Office). Although he was not convicted of heresy, Illich renounced travel paid for Sue his priestly powers and privileges in 1969 and lived more or as an amount you less as a layman for the rest of his life. The center in Cuernavaca can ask back from became a sort of secular think tank that attracted intellectuals Sue if Sue decides from around the world. Seeking to avoid entangling the church not to act for you,” in controversy, he focused his intellectual energies on social he insisted.24 To him issues and won widespread acclaim for his critiques of educa- it was a matter of tion, economic development, and medicine. He became an itiner- principle, but it was ant intellectual, teaching at American and German universities also a matter of his in the 1980s before settling with friends and disciples in Bremen, goals for the center. If Germany, where he stayed until his death in 2002. Few understood volunteers with sec- that his criticisms of the West’s major institutions were a form of ond thoughts could apophatic theology, laments for the corruption of the church. be pressured into Latin America, all Explaining Illich of his tactics would amount to little. In the context of Illich’s comprehensive antimissionary program Illich also be- and continuing denunciations of the church, it is important to note lieved that many pro- Ivan Illich later in life that he never saw his project as antichurch or anti-Christianity spective missioners and that he could conceive of missionary activity in a positive did not know their own hearts. They saw themselves as “sacrific- sense. In “Mission and Midwifery,” a speech to other missionary ing” for the church, but instead they were merely seeking fulfill- training directors in 1964, for instance, he spoke insightfully about ment and adventure. “Please do not imagine yourself a saint or a mission as “the growth of the Church into new peoples” and “the ‘missioner’ because you ‘volunteer’ your services to the Church!” interpretation of the Word of God through its expression in ever he begged. To one such volunteer who appeared to Illich to be new languages, in ever new translation.”29 He always believed on an adventure, on her own terms, for her own satisfaction, he that he was serving the church through his antimissionary work stated, “The principal danger I can see in your decision to accept at CIF. The atmosphere that he engineered there, with its nearly employment by the Church under the conditions you seek it is impossibly steep intellectual challenges and confrontational that you fool yourself, that you believe yourself to be what you tactics, was designed to weed out as many neo-missioners as are not: a totally dedicated, totally consecrated woman.”25 possible, but not to turn them away from God. In fact, he offered Gradually Illich’s vision for the center became more and spiritual solace to his students from morning to night and framed more evident. A signal of a new, more public chapter of Illich’s their studies in a pervasive Catholic spirituality. He scheduled antimissionary campaign came when he announced proudly on daily Masses at 6:15 and 6:45 each morning, offered an hour for the pages of the New York Times, “We are not training missionar- adoration of the sacrament every night, and on Thursday nights ies. We are training people to have a deep sense of humility, who had his colleagues volunteer for one-hour shifts so that students will seek to make their faith relevant to the society in which they could adore the sacrament all night.30 He was trying to safeguard will be working.”26 Later, astute observers, such as journalist the honor of the church, not to destroy it; he was trying to protect Francine du Plessix Gray, recognized that the center “was not so the souls of students, not lead them astray. much designed to train missionaries as to keep all but the most Throughout his life Illich loved the mystical, universal body progressive of them away [from Latin America].”27 of Christ and tried to serve it as best he could. Much of his own Therefore, in late 1966, when Illich first sent out “The Seamy ministry was cross-cultural—as a Jewish-Croatian working with Side of Charity,” he was beginning the last phase of his campaign Puerto Ricans or Irish Americans or Mexicans, it could hardly

October 2009 187 be otherwise. What was the problem, then? What was the root communicate delicately through silences.” He portrayed “growth cause of his passionate, ongoing, semideceitful crusade against in delicacy” as one of the sure signs of missionary maturity.31 the American Catholic missionary initiative in Latin America? The problem Illich saw in American volunteers, therefore, was At the heart of it lay his own imposing example, his view of not selfishness or even lack of preparation but a lack ofdelicacy . Americans, and his fear that too many of the latter could destroy For example, he mentioned a South American bishop who was the region he loved. He was brilliant simultaneously as theologian, “rightly frightened of a group of fine, well-prepared, generous philosopher, historian, scientist, and priest, one who could pick Americans messing up his very delicate operation.” In the same vein, he unleashed one of his most venomous speeches at a group of American volunteers for the sin of an “abysmal lack of intui- tive delicacy.”32 Consequently, when he imagined Americans at In many cases he was work among Latin Americans, he cringed with embarrassment right to cringe but, for all for the church that he loved. his learning, Illich had In many cases he was right to cringe. Those Irish American priests in New York City whom he first started working with a limited understanding and their brother priests in Puerto Rico did butcher the Spanish of the dynamics of the language and had little appreciation for Puerto Rican poetry, and those religious sisters did come to Peru with all sorts of cultural missionary encounter. baggage that would take decades to work out of them, if it ever did get worked out of them. But Illich, for all his learning, had a limited understanding of the dynamics of the missionary up a new language in weeks and who quickly imbibed the his- encounter. He did not spend much time with missionary letters tory, literature, poetry, art, culture, and philosophy of any society and journals and reports, all of which show us the deeply trans- that attracted him. He related easily to churchmen, intellectuals, formative nature of missionary experience on the missionary politicians, students, peasants, and whoever else came across his and on the host culture alike. He does not appear to have read path because of his powers of perception and understanding. In Paul’s letters with missionary eyes, nor did he give missionary fact, delicacy, an ability to perceive nuance and to respond with biography the attention that he gave to medieval philosophy appropriate subtlety, was one of Illich’s highest values and one or to Latin American anthropology. Ultimately, Illich did not of his great abilities. For instance, Illich taught about the “time have enough trust in the Gospel message, which can transform and effort and delicacy” needed by missionaries as they learned cultures regardless of missionary ineptitude and can bring even to speak a foreign language—and learned how to be silent, “to American missionaries to Pauline humility. Notes 1. Gerald Costello, Mission to Latin America: The Successes and Failures opment, by Ivan Illich, ed. Fred Eychaner (New York: Herder & Her- of a Twentieth-Century Crusade (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1979), der, 1970), pp. 85–111. pp. 122–24; Ivan Illich, “The Seamy Side of Charity,” in Celebration 15. Illich, “Mission and Midwifery,” pp. 87, 90; Illich, “Principles of of Awareness: A Call for Institutional Revolution, by Ivan Illich (Garden Mission Education,” CIF Reports 2, no. 7 (December 1963): 30–32. City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970), pp. 53–68. 16. Donald Hessler to John J. Considine, August 9, 1961, CUA 191:18; 2. Illich, “The Seamy Side,” pp. 57, 60, and 65. John Stitz to Considine, December 12, 1961, CUA 186:54. 3. Louis Luzbetak, “International Cultural Problems,” CICOP Working 17. Considine, Diary, October 7, 1961, John J. Considine Papers, Mary- Paper C-34-67, CICOP Working Papers (Davenport, Iowa: Latin knoll Archives, Ossining, N.Y.; Considine to Laurence McGinley, America Bureau, 1967), p. 10. October 11, 1961, CUA 186:51. 4. Costello, Mission, p. 127; “Four Join Cushing in Jesuit Rebuke,” New 18. Costello, Mission, p. 65; Illich, “Mission and Midwifery,” pp. 91, 93; York Times, January 28, 1967, p. 15. “Boot Camp for Urbanites”; Illich, “Principles,” p. 31. 5. Costello, Mission, p. 125. 19. Illich, “Mission and Midwifery,” p. 88; “Boot Camp for 6. Pius XII called for more attention to Latin America in his apostolic Urbanites.” letter “Ad Ecclesiam Christi” of June 29, 1955. The first inter-American 20. Illich, “Mission and Midwifery,” p. 95. Episcopal Conference on strengthening the Latin American Church 21. Ibid., pp. 99–100; Illich, “Principles,” p. 31. was held November 2–4, 1959. In 1961 Pope John XXIII’s representa- 22. Illich, “Mission and Midwifery,” pp. 99–100; “Dialogue Among tive Agostino Casaroli called for U.S. major superiors to send 10 Directors: Workshop for Directors of Training Formation Centers percent of their personnel to Latin America within ten years. in Latin America,” CIF Reports 3, no. 4 (July 1964): 12. 7. Francine du Plessix Gray, Divine Disobedience: Profiles in Catholic 23. Illich, “Dear Father Kevane,” in Illich, The Church, pp. 38–41. Radicalism (New York: Knopf, 1970), p. 242. 24. Illich to Michael Lies, October 14, 1961, CUA 186:52; Illich to Michael 8. Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), p. 2. Lies, November 13, 1961, CUA 186:52. 9. Illich, “The Seamy Side,” p. 54. 25. Illich, “Dear Mary: Letter to an American Volunteer,” in Illich, The 10. “Students According to Their Superiors” [CIF, 1961], National Cath- Church, pp. 42–44. olic Welfare Conference Papers, Latin America Bureau section, Amer- 26. Henry Giniger, “Mexican Center Trains a New Kind of Priest for ican Catholic History Research Center and University Archives, Latin America,” New York Times, December 26, 1965, p. 15. Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. (hereafter referred 27. Gray, Divine Disobedience, p. 253. to as CUA), box 186, file 63. 28. Illich, “The Seamy Side,” pp. 53–55. 11. Ivan Illich, Report, September 22, 1961, CUA 186:63; “Boot Camp 29. Illich, “Mission and Midwifery,” pp. 87, 105. for Urbanites,” Time, October 27, 1961, accessed at www.time.com/ 30. Illich, Report, September 22, 1961, CUA 186:63. time/magazine/article/0,9171,873496,00.html. 31. Illich, “The Eloquence of Silence,” in Illich, Celebration, p. 46; Illich, 12. Held Griffin, quoted in Costello, Mission, p. 93. “Mission and Midwifery,” p. 109. 13. “Midterm Report from Guidance Committee and Language 32. Illich to Considine, August 23, 1961, CUA 186:52; Illich, “Ivan Department,” August 13, 1961, CUA 186:58. Illich Speech in Chicago to CIASP,” April 20, 1968, www.ciasp 14. Illich, “Mission and Midwifery,” in The Church, Change, and Devel- .ca/CIASPhistory/IllichCIASPspeech.htm.

188 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 The Church in Nepal: Analysis of Its Gestation and Growth John Barclay

ntil recently Nepal was the world’s only Hindu kingdom.1 Some, however, question the approach used in the survey, and UThe mighty Himalayas and the fact that Nepal was a several church leaders consider the figures obtained to be unduly closed land until the middle of the twentieth century enticed many, low.6 K. B. Rokaya, general secretary of the National Council of but from 1881 to 1925 only 153 Europeans are known to have Churches of Nepal, estimates that there are 800,000 Christians visited Nepal and none became a resident.2 This tiny mountain- in Nepal.7 Whichever figure is correct, this growth during the ous country, sandwiched between India and Tibet, had resisted church’s formative years is striking and merits examination. the might of the since King Prithvi Narayan Shah from Gorkha (hence “Gurkhas,” the renowned soldiers) unified Background Factors (1628–1950) the country into one kingdom in 1769. From 1848 until the middle of the twentieth century, the country was controlled by the Rana Following the visits by the Jesuit and Capuchin monks, other prime ministers, who had usurped the monarchy and had vested significant factors spanning more than a century helped to pre- interests in keeping the world out. Their century of control was pare for entry of the Christian Gospel into Nepal. For one thing, ended by an Indian-facilitated coup on February 16, 1951, that Protestant interest in Christian mission to Nepal has been pres- placed King Tribhuvan Shah in power. ent from the time of William Carey. The translation The earliest recorded entry of Christians into Nepal was of the New Testament into Nepali, completed in 1821, was super- the visit of a Father Cabral, a Jesuit priest, in 1628. Capuchin seded only when the British and Foreign Bible Society’s Nepali monks were given permission by the Malla rulers to reside in translations of the New Testament (1902) and the Old Testament the Kathmandu valley in 1715, but they were forced to leave (1914) were completed.8 Although in 1950 only 2 percent of Ne- by Prithvi Narayan Shah in 1769. The few national Christians, palis were literate, Christian literature had been used sporadically expelled at the same time, migrated to Bihar, India.3 For almost during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to penetrate the two centuries Nepal was totally closed to any Christian presence border, despite laws that prohibited its sale, possession, or use or influence. within Nepal. The revolution in 1951 was a turning point in the country’s Second, as the map on page 190 illustrates, from the later nine- development and in its openness to the outside world. Surpris- teenth century numerous Protestant missions and missionaries in ingly, part of this story, the founding and growth of the church northern India were poised to enter Nepal when the opportunity in Nepal, which is among the fastest growing anywhere in the came.9 Prior to 1950 all the towns underlined (and more) had modern world, has been recorded in only a handful of books.4 From ongoing mission work among the itinerant Nepalis who crossed just a single secret Christian residing in Nepal in 1951, the number the Indo-Nepal border. Four accounts, from among many more, of Nepali Christians grew to about 40,000 baptized believers by underscore the high degree of anticipation and vision present during what Cindy Perry calls the “century of preparation.”10 Darjeeling, on the eastern border of Nepal, was developed For almost two centuries by the British, and a large community of Nepalis settled there to labor in the tea plantations. William MacFarlane, a Church of Nepal was totally closed to Scotland missionary, began the Eastern Himalayan Mission in 1870, any Christian presence. a work active in education, Christian literature, Bible translation, and village evangelism. All were important foundations for the future as the Darjeeling and region became the main 1990 and has increased more rapidly since then.5 Estimates of the center for the nascent Nepali church. number of Nepali Christians vary widely, and government census Another group was the Australian Nepalese Mission (ANM), figures have been unreliable. The most comprehensive survey of which began in a prayer meeting in Fitzroy, Melbourne, in 1911.11 churches and Christians in Nepal was conducted by the Nepal Founding missionary John Coombe with his wife, Lillian, and Research and Resource Network. Begun in 2001 with the results two children in 1917 established a base in Ghorasahan, Bihar, published in 2007, the survey covered all seventy-five districts near the Nepal border. Although not one of the small band of of the country. It showed a total of 2,799 churches and 274,462 ANM missionaries ever entered the closed land just across the baptised church members. The survey counted 379,042 persons border, their focus for three decades was on Nepal. They were attending churches and presumed to be Christian; this number typical of other missionaries and groups that, though seemingly equals about 1.5 percent of Nepal’s population. Ten percent of insignificant, served faithfully in anticipation of Nepal’s border the churches have sent out a missionary or evangelist, and one opening. out of five churches has planted one or more daughter churches. A third group was the Regions Beyond Missionary Union (RBMU), along with the Raxaul Medical Mission. Work by RBMU John Barclay was born on the Indo-Nepal border and commenced in Bihar in the late nineteenth century, but the mis- spent the years 1960–69 growing up in the hills of sionaries’ eyes were fixed on Nepal. The railhead border town Nepal. He returned with his family to serve with the of Raxaul, directly south of Kathmandu, was chosen as the site United Mission to Nepal in a school for Nepali chil- for Duncan Hospital, established in 1930 by Dr. Cecil Duncan dren in Pokhara (1988–96). He and his wife, Janine, (son of a missionary in Darjeeling). The site was well chosen and continue to serve with Interserve in Asia in the field Duncan Hospital subsequently played a vital role in the entry of of education, with a particular focus on “third-culture both church and mission into Nepal. 12 kids.” —[email protected] Finally, mention must be made of Dr. Kitty Harbord, the

October 2009 189 Nepal Evangelistic Band (NEB) at Nautanwa, another railhead, Show us the way by a cloudy, fiery pillar. . . . and the Nepal Border Fellowship (NBF). Harbord, of the Zenana There are cities—Thapathali, Bhatgaon, Patan, Kathmandu, Bible and Medical Mission (later Bible and Medical Mission- Our prayer is to make them your devotees. ary Fellowship, and now Interserve), opened a dispensary at Up, brothers, we must go, leaving wealth, home, people, and comfort, Nautanwa in 1927. She recruited Dr. Lily O’Hanlon and Hilda 16 Steele, who in 1943 founded the Nepal Evangelistic Band (now To do this holy task. the International Nepal Fellowship). NEB was later, in 1952, to Forty-three years after Ganga Prasad had been expelled, his pioneer the move into Pokhara, west of Kathmandu. Harbord’s great-grandson Rajendra Rongong, Robert Karthak, and a small article “The Closed Land of Nepal: A Modern Jericho” (1939) group of Darjeeling Christians entered Kathmandu with a strong influenced many, including Jonathan Lindell, and—building sense of missionary calling instilled by RBMU missionary Elisa- on conferences organized by Cecil Duncan in Raxaul in 1934 beth Franklin. And forty years later, in 1997, Rajendra Rongong and 1937—led to the formation of the Nepal Border Fellowship. and Robert Karthak were the key persons to lead one of the earli- The NBF was a loose association that brought various missions est Nepali missionary teams into Myanmar, where they helped along the Nepal border together for encouragement, planning, establish the Myanmar Gurkhali Christian Fellowship.17 prayer, and cooperation in terms of a Statement of Aims (May Buddhi Singh, a humble watchmaker from eastern Nepal who 17, 1948), a literature committee, and an advisory council. Later was converted in Darjeeling by Ganga Prasad, was for many mission collaboration in Nepal grew from seeds sown in these years an itinerant village evangelist with the Gorkha Mission, conferences.13 an indigenous Nepali mission founded by Darjeeling Christians in 1892 to evangelize Nepalis. In his later years he influenced Nepali Christians and the Darjeeling Church the young David Mukhia, who in 1952 became the first in Nepal, at the Ram Ghat Church in Pokhara.18 Key Nepali men and women became Christians during the Colonel Nararaj Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was a member of “century of preparation.” One was Chandra Leela, the daughter the Rana aristocracy who retired from the army and lived in the of the Brahmin priest to the royal family in Kathmandu. Born Terai region, not far from Raxaul. He visited Duncan Hospital in 1840, married at the age of seven, widowed at nine, and or- phaned at fourteen, she became a sunyasi (Hindu holy woman) and for seventeen years searched the depths of Hinduism in her quest for solace and peace. Eventually she abandoned her quest but soon after met a young girl with a Bible. After reading the Bible she became a Christian and went back to Kath- mandu to speak of her new faith. She baptized her older brother shortly before he died, but then returned to India as an itinerant evangelist until her death.14 Another early Christian was Ganga Prasad Pradhan, who was born into a wealthy Newar family in Kathmandu in 1851. When he Courtesy of United Mission to Nepal was ten his father took him to Dar- jeeling to join his older brother in Missions poised to enter Nepal before 1951 were based in towns underlined. MacFarlane’s school, where Ganga Prasad was educated and converted, which led to a remarkable with his sick grandson, met Ernest Oliver (then field leader of life of Christian service. He was “the first ordained Nepali pas- RBMU but later a founder of the United Mission to Nepal and tor, translator of the Nepali Bible (completed in 1914 after forty its first executive secretary),19 and became a secret believer. The years of labor—he was made a life governor of the British and Colonel Sahib (as he was known) was baptized by Oliver on Easter Foreign Bible Society), pioneer in Nepali literature, and owner of Sunday, 1952, and was instrumental in hosting the first church the first Nepali press.”15 In 1914 Ganga Prasad returned with his services in Kathmandu in his home there in April 1953. He was extended family to Kathmandu to establish a Christian presence also a major contributor to the revised translation of the entire there, but they were expelled by the Rana rulers with the words, Nepali Bible, published by the Bible Society in 1977.20 “There is no room for Christians in Nepal!” A great legacy of Ganga Prasad was a hymn he wrote that for fifty years expressed The First Generation (1951–90) the expectant prayers of the waiting clusters of missionaries and exiled Nepali Christians—“Prabhu arji suni leu, Gorkhali le mukti When King Tribhuvan opened Nepal’s borders in 1951, he invited paune dhoka kholi deu . . .” the world to assist in Nepal’s development. It was then, by almost any criteria, one of the world’s poorest countries—and it still is. Lord, hear our prayer, open the door of salvation for the Gorkha- Three distinct groups converged to contribute to the formation lis. . . . of the church in Nepal.

190 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 Chronologically, the first group consisted of foreign Christians society.”25 At the time of the 1990 revolution, the UMN comprised entering from India, beginning with Father Moran, a Jesuit priest 39 member missions, 420 expatriate missionaries, and over 2,000 working in Patna, Bihar, who established St. Xavier’s School on Nepali staff. the edge of the Kathmandu valley in July 1951. In 1952 the Nepal The second group contributing to the formation of the church Evangelistic Band in Nautanwa was given permission to establish in Nepal consisted of Nepali Christians, including a small but medical work in Pokhara, and in October Dr. O’Hanlon and Hilda significant contingent from the Darjeeling-Kalimpong region. Steele, with four expatriate colleagues and five Nepali Christians, While the foreign missions were constrained from evangelizing including David and Premi Mukhia, trekked for nine days from and church planting by the terms of their agreements with the Nautanwa to reach Pokhara. The “Shin- government, the Nepali Christians began ing Hospital” soon became renowned, to engage in Christian outreach and to and the mission later developed into form small congregations of believers. the International Nepal Fellowship Nepal’s first church was formed at (INF). Its work continues to be primarily Ram Ghat, Pokhara, in 1952 with David medical, but it has spread and diversi- Mukhia as pastor. Others followed in the fied through many parts of western Kathmandu valley. Tir Bahadur became Nepal.21 the pastor at Bhaktapur in 1954. Rongong Formation of the United Mission and Karthak’s small group that arrived to Nepal (UMN) came about through from Darjeeling in 1956 appointed several remarkable coincidences. During Robert Karthak as pastor the following the 1951 revolution, fighting took place year. This group developed into the just over the border from Raxaul, and Nepali Isai Mandali, commonly known wounded combatants from both sides as Gyaneshwar Church, which today were treated at Duncan Hospital. As a is the largest congregation in Nepal. result of this service, after the revolution Other Darjeeling Christians became an Dr. Trevor Strong and Ernest Oliver were Bir Bahadur Rai, Prem Pradhan, and Dil integral part of the work of the UMN in invited by His Majesty’s Government of Bahadur Thakuri in Tansen prison remote projects and were instrumental Nepal (HMGN) to visit Kathmandu to for their faith in Christ, 1961 in establishing small congregations that explore the possibility of mission work. They were told that medi- have continued. Many have grown into substantial churches, and cal and educational work would be welcome, but open preaching several have multiplied. would be prohibited.22 These discussions dovetailed with a sepa- A third, smaller group consisted of four Christians from the rate approach made by authorities in Tansen, a large hill-town Mar Thoma Church in Kerala, South India, who arrived early in west of Kathmandu and halfway between Nautanwa and Pokhara, 1953.26 They were led by C. K. Athyali, whose mother had been to American missionaries Bob and Bethel Fleming (Methodist) so challenged at the Kerala Marama convention in the 1920s by and Carl and Betty Friedericks (Presbyterian). Contact had been ’s accounts of his trips through Nepal to made earlier as a result of ornithological trips into Nepal in Tibet that she dedicated her unborn child to be a missionary to October 1949 and in the winter of 1951–52, during which med- Nepal. The group joined with the Colonel Sahib, who hosted ical assistance had been given to the people of Tansen. Even- worship services in his house in central Kathmandu. Later, he tually, permission was granted to open a hospital in Tansen helped them purchase land in Putali Sadak, close to the parlia- and clinics in Kathmandu. ment buildings, on which Kathmandu’s first church building Lindell rightly refers to the foundation of the UMN as “some was constructed.27 Over the years many Christians from Kerala of the finest missionary statesmanship that has been exercised in have given exemplary, lifelong service to Nepal, especially in the the modern missionary movement.” Influential Methodist bishop fields of education and medicine. J. Wascom Pickett circulated HMGN’s letter of invitation to other During this early phase (1951–61) numerical growth was missions in conjunction with the National Christian Council gradual, but three important features should be noted. First, (NCC) of India, with a view to “establishing a Christian mission Nepal’s constitution and legal code prohibited conversion to in Nepal on the widest possible cooperative basis, a combined another religion. The flow of converts was only a trickle during interdenominational and international approach.”23 The NCC these early years and only a few baptisms took place. Second, endorsed Pickett’s proposal, and the United Christian Mission although the NEB and the UMN were not engaged in church to Nepal was founded in Nagpur in March 1954.24 planting and were not officially linked to any of the churches, a There were eight founding missions; Pickett became the symbiotic relationship between the churches and the missions founding president of the board and Ernest Oliver the first did exist with mutual benefit and encouragement as the church executive secretary. The Flemings had already commenced med- was being established. Third, the independence of the churches ical work in Kathmandu in January 1954, and the Friederickses from the missions was fully evident: the leadership was entirely began work in Tansen in June 1954, but the work quickly ex- Nepali, the churches were self-funding, and there were no de- panded and diversified to include education, engineering, and nominations. Each congregation was autonomous. rural development. The activities of the UMN were defined and Two important events marked the end of the first decade: reviewed in a series of five-year agreements with Nepal’s govern- the outbreak of state persecution and formation of the Nepal ment. There have always been clear prohibitions on proselytiz- Christian Fellowship. The first official persecution by the state ing, but the Christian nature of the UMN and the personal faith took place following baptisms in Nepalgunj (1958) and Tansen of its workers are known and accepted. “The Mission takes the (1959) by Pastor David and in 1960 by Pastor Prem Pradhan. In terms seriously . . . and has learned that its stay in Nepal rests November 1960 Prem Pradhan and six baptized believers (three on a mixture of invitation, permission and mutual agreement; married couples) were imprisoned in Tansen, and the Supreme that it is temporary . . . [and] that it is in partnership with Nepali Court convicted them a year later: the women were sentenced

October 2009 191 for six months, the men for twelve months. Prem Pradhan was and to manage and protect its religious sites and trusts,” Christian sentenced for six years (though he was released by royal pardon organizations experienced difficulty obtaining official recogni- after four and a half years). Pastor David was included in the tion and registration. And although “freedom to profess and conviction, but he escaped across the border to Nautanwa and practice [one’s] own religion”32 was acknowledged, prohibition returned only in 1969. Sporadic arrests, which became the pattern of conversion continued, with penalties of three to six years in for the next two decades, occurred elsewhere. Vilification and jail specified by the Civil Code. Nevertheless, churches found ostracism by families and communities were common responses ways of owning land and buildings, and public worship was to baptism.28 open and without threat, although individuals continued to face Although the congregations were independent of the mis- persecution at personal and social levels, and sporadic cases of sions, the initiative of Ernest Oliver resulted in formation of the state persecution continued through the 1990s. Nepal Christian Fellowship (NCF) in 1960, something that he Following 1996 Nepal’s attempts to establish democracy regarded as “the most significant event in the first ten years of the were destabilized by the activities of the Maoist “People’s War.” The massacre of King Birendra and his family in June 2001 stunned Nepal and the world and gave rise to suspicions of Government restrictions treason within the country. After the February 2005 sacking of the government by King Gyanendra, political upheaval led to ensured that church further unrest and instability until peace talks, brokered by the and mission remained United Nations, led to an interim government that included the Maoists. The general election in April 2008 resulted in a Maoist- officially distinct and that dominated coalition government with P. K. Dahal, popularly evangelistic activity was known as Comrade Prachanda, as prime minister. On May 28, 2008, Nepal’s Constituent Assembly, in a virtually unanimous done only by Nepalis. vote, abolished the monarchy, establishing a federal democratic republic, and on July 23 Ram Baran Yadav was sworn in as the country’s first president. church.”29 Pastor David from Pokhara was appointed president, At present Christianity is recognized publicly in many ways, and during his time in Nautanwa the NCF met there in 1962 and a change foreshadowed by inclusion of “Christian” as an option 1963. In 1966 Robert Karthak was appointed president; thereafter in the religion category of the 1991 census. Christians regularly the NCF met biannually in Nepal and was “the means of bring- hold public meetings and processions at Christmas and Easter, ing the autonomous young churches together for fellowship to which senior politicians and dignitaries are invited. Ramesh and mutual encouragement. . . . This was an effective means of Khatry states that during the People’s War “the government had uniting almost all of the [Protestant] Christians in the country the Maoists to deal with full time, thus the church grew unham- until the late 1970s.”30 pered,” and now with the change to democracy Christians have For the church’s first ten years (1951–61), there was not much “boldness to make their demands known to the government. . . . growth in numbers, but a strong foundation was laid. During Political instability remains despite the elections held in 2008, but the 1960s churches were established in key areas and wherever Nepal has been declared a secular state and freedom of religion mission groups were working, even though government restric- is now guaranteed.”33 tions ensured that church and mission would remain officially But there have also been less salutary developments. De- distinct, that evangelistic activity would be done only by itin- nominationalism has entered Nepal, often by infiltrating existing erant Nepali evangelists, and that the churches would remain churches.34 Alongside this development, the NCF has fragmented nondenominational though they were united in fellowship and into various groups (e.g., National Churches Fellowship of Nepal, purpose. Perry observes, “The Nepali church was clearly set on Agape Churches, and Four square). Still, in many places fellow- an independent course. . . . The stage was set for an explosion ship and cooperation continue between the churches. On the of growth over the next 20 years [1970–90].”31 positive side, a large number of parachurch organizations and Christian NGOs, both national and international, have emerged, Freedom and Expansion (1990 to the Present) including the National Council of Churches, Nepal (NCCN; known in Nepali as Nepal Rastriya Mandali Parisad), founded in The dramatic events of the first half of 1990 marked a watershed 1999. K. B. Rokaya, who became the NCCN general secretary in both in the history of Nepal and in the growth of the Nepali 2003, was actively involved in the political peace negotiations, church. The bloody Democracy Revolution in February/March and the NCCN initiated an interfaith Peace and Reconciliation 1990 culminated on April 6 with King Birendra’s announcement process.35 of a return to multiparty democratic government. A year passed Mission organizations have had to rethink both the nature before general elections were held and six months more before of their own work and their relationship to the Nepali churches. the new constitution was promulgated, but a new atmosphere The UMN and the INF have undertaken significant restructuring, of freedom and hope replaced the repression of the previous which has entailed a degree of confusion and misunderstand- three decades. ing among some sectors of the Nepali church, but relationships It took months for the country to recover from the postrevo- overall continue to be strong and cordial. lution upheaval. At that time there were about 60 Christians in A dearth of trained leadership arising from inadequate op- jail, and 200 cases against Christians were pending in the courts. portunities in Nepal for pastoral and theological training is a The general amnesty granted by King Birendra on June 2, 1990, matter of concern. Only a handful of Nepalis possess advanced heralded a new era of freedom for Christians and the church. Still, training in theology. Ramesh Khatry was the first Nepali to earn though Section 19 of the 1990 constitution gave every religious a Ph.D. in New Testament studies, from Oxford University. He community the right “to maintain its independent existence . . . founded the Nepal Bible Ashram and heads the fledgling Asso-

192 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 ciation for Theological Education in Nepal, which commenced a offered by the Nepal Gospel Outreach Center and others provided B.D. program under Serampore University in July 2005. He also instruction to thousands of new believers.40 writes commentaries in Nepali. Ninth, the Nepali songbook brought together various ear- The Nepali church continues to grow outside Nepal as well. lier collections of indigenous songs as well as hymns translated The Nepali diaspora is estimated at 10 million, and Nepali con- from English and Hindi.41 The predominant use of indigenous gregations meet in many cities of India and in other countries. songs and tunes reflected the general pattern of indigenous Cindy Perry and colleagues in Himalayan Ministries (now HIM- worship that included such culturally appropriate practices as Serve), based not far from Darjeeling, pioneered work among meeting on Saturdays (Sunday being a working day in Nepal) the Nepali diaspora. and gender-segregated seating on the floor, often in ordinary village homes. Factors Contributing to Growth In 2004 Betty Young, UMN archivist, added the following: “A very widespread means which God has used in the rapid spread Parallels between the first generation of the Christian church— of the Gospel is healing, not in any dramatic way, but quietly, one which grew rapidly despite being situated within a hostile Ro- to another—there must be thousands who have come to the Lord man Empire—and the first generation of the church in Nepal through healing. Another answer given by Nepali Christians to are apparent and have been explored elsewhere.36 From just a explain why the church was growing so quickly was because it single believer residing in the country in 1950, the number of was a praising, worshipping church.”42 Christians in Nepal has grown, by a conservative estimate, to 2 percent of the population. Conclusion Several factors present during the three decades 1960–90 helped to form the character of the Nepali church and contributed The growth of the Nepali church in numbers and spiritual depth to its growth and spread.37 First, there was an unprecedented can be attributed to a mix of factors—historical, theological, and degree of cooperation among various Christian groups, includ- missiological. The “century of preparation” included Christian ing those from Darjeeling and Kerala, together with expatriate literature, translation of Scripture, and development of Nepali missionaries. The NCF promoted unity and the church remained songs. Key Nepalis became Christians, and missionaries were nondenominational.38 strategically placed around the borders, ready to enter the Second, rapid development in Nepal, encouraged by His country. Expatriate missionaries and Nepali Christians showed Majesty’s Government of Nepal, resulted in openness among the wisdom, humility, and foresight to ensure that known errors in common people to new things. The expansion of missions, espe- mission practice were not repeated. Nepali Christians showed cially the UMN, into remote corners of Nepal inevitably resulted great courage in the face of persecution, which in turn refined in new fellowships and churches springing up. At the same time and purified the church in the early decades. Factors external to the restrictions and constraints imposed by the government on missions and missionaries ensured the independence of these churches, and this independence was intentionally encouraged by mission leaders.39 Perhaps the most Third, the prohibition of conversion and the reality of persecu- significant factor—certainly tion from the outset prevented nominalism and kept the church the single most recurring strong. Oppression of Christians increased in the late 1980s, along with widespread political agitation against the government. theme in the short history Fourth, most converts were young, vigorous, and vibrant, of the Nepali church—is with a keen sense of evangelistic outreach to the majority society. Also, family conversions were not uncommon, and mass con- the place of prayer. versions occasionally took place among tribal groups (e.g., the Tamangs of Dhading District). Fifth, retired Gurkha servicemen who had converted to the church, such as the political revolutions of 1951 and 1990 and Christianity while in the Indian or British army returned to their the presence of the Nepali language as a lingua franca within the villages and established small Christian communities. country (as Greek was in the first century), have been additional Sixth, new Christians were trained in India at Mirik Bible catalysts in the church’s growth. School in Darjeeling and Union Biblical Seminary in Pune to fill Another factor in its growth is that the church represents the need for and church leaders. Locally, the NCF spon- the whole spectrum of Nepali society. There is no more dramatic sored short-term training schools and conferences. demonstration of the Gospel’s power to transcend the entrenched Seventh, several parachurch groups, especially student and social barriers of caste and to unify disparate and segregated youth organizations, worked alongside the churches to spur groups in the mosaic of Nepali society than the practice of the evangelism and to support new Christians. The women’s move- Lord’s Supper in a Nepali church, as men and women, young ment of the early 1980s resulted in the first nationwide women’s and old, high caste, tribal, and Dalit break bread together and conference in 1985, more than 300 women’s prayer groups, and share a common cup. their increasing involvement in churches across the country. Perhaps the most significant factor, and certainly the single Eighth, Christian literature, including translation of portions most recurring theme in the short history of the Nepali church, is of Scripture into several tribal languages by SIL/Wycliffe and the place of prayer. A quarter of a century before Nepal’s borders the translation released by the Bible Society in 1977 of the whole opened, Gordon Guinness wrote these prophetic words: “Prayer Bible in Nepali, spread the Christian message. Radio ministries can penetrate anywhere. Long before we enter the valleys of Nepal such as the Far East Broadcasting Company and Trans World prayer can be doing a concrete work in laying the foundations for Radio transmitted the message. Bible correspondence courses the future kingdom. . . . When we have prepared the way with

October 2009 193 the Spirit of God in prayer, he will answer those very prayers The church in Nepal today stands as a testimony to those in permitting us to occupy Nepal.”43 The truth of these words is prayers. In November 2007, at the fiftieth anniversary of Nepali seen in all of the following: Ganga Prasad’s prayer-song and the Isai Mandali, Nepal’s largest church (Gyaneswar Church in Darjeeling Nepali Christians who prayed for their closed land Kathmandu), my father and I were among thousands of Nepali for decades; the NEB prayer groups across Britain spawned by Christians singing Ganga Prasad’s prayer song, “Prabhu arji suni Kitty Harbord’s enthusiasm; John Coombe’s prayer group in leu, Gorkhali le mukti paune dhoka kholi deu . . .” (Lord, hear our Fitzroy, Melbourne;44 the NBF (and later NPF), which prayed prayer, open the door of salvation for the Gorkhalis . . . ). Less for decades in anticipation of Nepal’s borders opening; Ernest than forty years after Ganga Prasad was told in 1914, “There is Oliver and Trevor Strong praying as they overlooked the Kath- no room for Christians in Nepal,” the Rana regime was ousted by mandu valley in April 1951;45 Elizabeth Franklin, who prayed for the Shah dynasty. Today, less than 100 years after Ganga Prasad twenty-three years before entering Nepal; and the Kerala mother was turned out of the country, King Gyanendra has abdicated who, like Hannah, prayed for a son and then dedicated him to and the Shah dynasty itself has been abolished, but the church be a missionary in Nepal. The list is too extensive to record, and is firmly established and growing in Nepal. it continues to grow today.46

Notes 1. This article is based on work done at the Bible College of Victoria in 23. Lindell, Nepal, pp. 143–44. 2003 as part of an Australian College of Theology D.Min. course on 24. In 1956 the name was changed to the United Mission to Nepal (ibid., church growth. Extensive reference was made to archival documents p. 181). in the Nepal Church History Project (NCHP), Centre for the Study 25. Ibid., p. 200. Details of UMN’s founding and work are in Lindell, of Christianity in the Non-Western World, New College, University Nepal, pp. 133–81. of Edinburgh. 26. These four were graduates of the Union Biblical Seminary, Yeotmal 2. Jonathan Lindell, Nepal and the Gospel of God (Kathmandu: United (now in Pune). Mission to Nepal, 1979), p. 42. The map on p. 190 is adapted from 27. Kehrberg, Cross, p. 99; Lindell, Nepal, pp. 128–30; Perry, History, Lindell, pp. vi-vii; used by permission. pp. 60, 95. 3. Details of these early visits are recorded in ibid., pp. 1–37; and in 28. Kehrberg, Cross, pp. 105–9; Perry, History, pp. 103, 110. Cindy Perry, A Biographical History of the Church in Nepal, 3d ed. 29. Perry, History, p. 109. (Kathmandu: Nepal Church History Project, 1990), pp. 1–9. 30. Ibid., pp. 109–10. 4. Mark Arnett, Himalayan Vision: Fifty Years in Nepal—the Story of the 31. Ibid., p. 85. INF (Pokhara, Nepal: International Nepal Fellowship, 2002); Norma 32. The words in quotations are from Section 19 of the Constitution of Kehrberg, The Cross in the Land of the Khukuri (Kathmandu: Ekta Nepal 2047 B.S. (1990). Books, 2000); Lindell, Nepal; Perry, History. 33. Ramesh Khatry, e-mail to author, December 11, 2007. 5. Cindy Perry, e-mail to author, July 29, 2009. Perry was a consultant 34. In addition to the Roman , the Assemblies of God to the Nepal Church Survey Project, 1986–87. and Seventh-day Adventists were present before 1990. There are now 6. For example, Bhab Ghale, e-mail to author, August 2, 2007. several denominational churches, including Presbyterian, Baptist, 7. K. B. Rokaya, PowerPoint presentation, copy provided to author, and Foursquare, as well as groups such as Jehovah’s Witnesses and October 10, 2007. Mormons. 8. Only 4,500 copies of the whole Bible were printed. Until the new 35. K. B. Rokaya, PowerPoint presentation, copy provided to author, Bible Society translation of 1977 was published, there were hardly ten October 10, 2007. copies of the whole Bible extant in Nepal (Perry, History, p. 41). 36. See Peter McDowell, “Early Church History in Nepal” (unpublished 9. Lindell lists twenty-five Christian missions (Nepal, p. 115) and Perry essay, 2002). lists forty groups operating along the Indo-Nepal border in the 37. The following points have been adapted from a paper by Howard century before the 1951 revolution (History, pp. 116–18). Barclay presented to the UMN Annual Conference, 1980, NCHP 10. Perry, History, p. 23. AO215010043000. 11. My paternal grandparents were founding members of this group; 38. Kehrberg, Cross, p. 116. see note 44. 39. The NBF had earlier established the pattern of collaboration, and 12. Gordon Guinness, Quest for the Nepal Border (London: Marshall, indigenous leadership of the church was another imperative for the Morgan, & Scott [ca. 1928]), p. 118. founders of the NEB and UMN. 13. Perry, History, pp. 86–89. 40. Perry documents the many sources of Christian literature and the 14. Lindell, Nepal, pp. 87–89; Perry, History, pp. 15–17. process whereby the organizations combined resources (History, 15. Perry, History, p. 29. pp. 119–23). 16. Nepali Khristiya Bhajan (Kathmandu: N.C.F/Samdan Publishers, 41. Nepali Khristiya Bhajan; a comprehensive revision by Loknath 1996), p. 196; Lindell, Nepal, p. 78; Perry, History, p. 33. Manaen, Ron Byatt, and others, was published by NCF in 1985 17. Cindy Perry, e-mail to author, June 16, 2005. (NCHP A1010010007000) and again in 1996 and 1999. 18. Perry, History, pp. 35–37; Arnett, Himalayan Vision, pp. 138–67. 42. Betty Young, UMN archivist, e-mail to author, March 1, 2004. 19. See Richard Tiplady, “The Legacy of Ernest Oliver,” International 43. Guinness, Quest, pp. 116–17. Bulletin of Missionary Research 29, no. 1 (January 2005): 38–41. 44. Elizabeth Barclay, a founding member, prayed for forty years until 20. For the stories of key Nepali Christians in the formative years after Nepal’s borders opened, and for another forty years until she died 1951, see the works by Lindell, Perry, Kehrberg, and Arnett cited in 1990 at the age of ninety-seven. above. 45. Pritchard, For Such a Time, p. 91. 21. For the story of the NEB/INF, see Lindell, Nepal; Perry, History; and 46. Bhab Ghale, nephew of a British Gurkha soldier converted in the most thoroughly, Arnett, Himalayan Vision. 1960s, coordinates the Prayer for Nepal Global Network (www 22. Elizabeth Pritchard, For Such a Time (Eastbourne, Eng.: Victory Press, .prayerfornepal.org). 1973), p. 91.

194 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 My Pilgrimage in Mission David Dong-Jin Cho

was born on December 19, 1924, near the Yalu River, at ment at William Carey International University, in Pasadena, Ithe Korean border with . I was the eldest son of a California. prominent Korean resistance leader against the Japanese military From 1960 to 1978 I served as the senior minister of the regime, which had occupied Korea since invading it in 1905. My Hoo-Am Presbyterian Church in Seoul, Korea. Beginning in 1961, father received Christ as his Savior when he was ten years old, and I advocated for mission studies courses at seminaries in Korea. I was raised as a Christian from childhood. I was baptized as an I began to teach mission and evangelism at the Presbyterian infant by Donald A. Swicord, a missionary from the Presbyterian Seminary, the Methodist Seminary, and the Holiness Seminary Church in the United States. in Seoul. In 1963 I established the International School of Mission in Seoul, which later, in 1973, expanded to become the East-West Divine Calling Center for Missions Research and Development. It was the first missionary training and research institute in the non-Western My calling came to me in December of 1945 at a revival meeting world. at the small rural church where I was serving as a deacon. The My wife, who passed away from cancer in 1992, was a won- revival meeting was led by an evangelist who had spent seven derful coworker in my various ministries. When I was pastoring, years in prison for refusing to bow to the Shinto shrine of the she sought out and comforted those in the congregation who Japanese. On the third day of this revival meeting, I was broken needed special care. She became an effective counselor and a good down by the Spirit and confessed and repented of all the iniqui- listener, especially for those who were isolated or hidden in our ties, falseness, and sins I had committed and concealed since my church, which eventually had several thousand members. When childhood. I wept and prayed for three days and three nights I was concentrating more on missionary training, she cared for without sleeping, eating, or drinking. I took an oath to obey my missionary candidates and their wives as though they were her calling to be a servant and witness of the Lord, and the pastor own children. When I visited mission fields, she traveled with me of the church and the speaker of the revival meeting laid their and was especially attentive to the needs of the wives and children hands on me. I later took an exam to become a candidate for of missionaries. The Lord gave us a son and four daughters, each pastor in the synod. of whom has been a cooperating supporter of my ministries over the years. Currently my daughter Helen is executive director of Training in Theology and Evangelism the David Cho Missiological Institute, which is sponsored by the Global Mission Society of the Presbyterian Church of Korea. The I fled from the Communist rule of North Korea into South latter is Korea’s largest mission organization, with over 2,000 Korea, where I studied at the Presbyterian Theological Semi- missionaries now serving all over the world. nary. I graduated in June 1949 with honors in theology. Imme- diately after graduation I married Shin Bock Rah, a seminary Efforts for Partnership with Western Missions classmate of mine. I began to evangelize in order to plant a church, but I failed to reach nonbelievers. I soon realized that I dreamed of building a partnership with Western missions to my seminary training had not taught me how to evangelize the develop leadership for the newly emerging Asian missions. I unreached. I then decided to study evangelism. began making contacts at the Asia Pacific Congress on Evan- In 1956 I went to the United States to pursue studies in mis- gelism, held in Singapore November 5–13, 1968. While there, I sion and evangelism. In the 1950s the Korean government did visited the Overseas Missionary Fellowship headquarters, located not allow people studying abroad to take along their families, in Singapore, and shared with the chief executives my vision for and so I was alone until 1960, when I finished my training in the cooperating to train missionaries of the Korean mission agen- States. I began at Providence Bible Institute, Providence, Rhode cies. After a short discussion, however, they coldly refused my Island, then went to the WEC Missionary Training Center in proposal. Fort Washington, Pennsylvania, and later to Bethany Missionary I continued to contact Western missions operating in Asia, College in Minneapolis, Minnesota. I continued my studies un- asking for their cooperation with the newly emerging Asian mis- der J. T. Seamand (mission) and Robert Coleman (evangelism) sions. I traveled to the United States and contacted the Christian at Asbury Theological Seminary, in Wilmore, Kentucky, where I and Missionary Alliance (C&MA) mission in New York, where received a Th.M. in mission in 1960. I later received two honorary I met Louis King, general secretary of the C&MA board, and doctor of divinity degrees: from Belhaven College, in Jackson, proposed that they work together with Korean missionaries in Mississippi, and from my alma mater, Asbury Theological Semi- Vietnam. Vietnam was a major mission field of C&MA in Asia, nary. Finally, in 1993, I earned a Ph.D. in international develop- and a number of Korean missionaries had recently begun mis- sion work there. After a long discussion, however, they gently David Dong-Jin Cho has been a pastor in Seoul, declined my proposal of partnership with Korean missions. I South Korea (1960–78), and a professor in the United next went to Wilmington, Delaware, to meet the CEO of the States and in both South and North Korea. In 1963 World Presbyterian Mission and propose a partnership, but he established the International School of Mission they also refused. I then went to Wheaton, Illinois, to meet the in Seoul. He also was instrumental in founding the head of The Evangelical Alliance Mission (TEAM), as I had Asia Missions Association (1975), the Third World been heavily involved in the mission’s attempts to open the Missions Association (1989), and the Asian Society Word of Life Press and a mission radio station in Korea. I was of Missiology (2003). —[email protected] also responsible for much of their progress in literature and

October 2009 195 radio ministries in Korea. TEAM, however, as with the previ- Dallas Theological Seminary, Dallas, Texas; Edwin (Jack) Frizen, ous missions I had contacted, chose not to accept my proposal executive secretary of IFMA; Clyde Taylor, executive secretary of of partnership. My yearlong effort to build a partnership with EFMA; Waldron Scott, general secretary of the World Evangeli- Western missions had failed. cal Fellowship (WEF); and Horace Williamson, Asia director of Worldwide Evangelization for Christ (WEC), U.S.A. With this Inter-Asian Network and East-West Cooperation invitation to high-level Western mission leaders, I achieved my goal of cooperation between the East and West for Asian mis- I decided to build an Asia-wide network first and then later pursue sionary leadership development. contacting Western missions. In 1971 I traveled to twelve Asian The All-Asia Mission Consultation was held in Seoul from countries, meeting with Akira Hatori in Japan, Philip Teng and August 27 to September 1, 1973. The participants were twenty- Timothy Dzao in Hong Kong, David Liao in Taiwan, Witchean six leading figures from thirteen Asian countries; four specially Wataki Charowen in Thailand, Chandu Ray in Singapore, G. D. invited Western missiologists; three executives of IFMA, EFMA, James in Malaysia, and Greg Tingson in the Philippines. I also and WEF; two representatives from WEC and Wycliffe Bible contacted Doan Vau Mieng in Vietnam and met Samuel Kama- Translators; and twelve observers who were Western missionar- leson and Theodore Williams in India, Bashir Jiwan in Pakistan, ies working in Korea. and Sabuhas Sangma in Bangladesh. All were major leaders of The consultation resolved to form a continuation commit- the Asian missionary movement in the 1960s. They unanimously tee to carry out the following three functions: (1) sending out at agreed to help launch a network of Asian missions and to cooper- least two hundred new Asian missionaries by the end of 1974; ate in fostering mutual relationships among partners. We finally (2) encouraging the formation of national missions associations reached a consensus to call the All-Asia Mission Consultation, in every country of Asia; and (3) working for the establishment which would take place in Seoul in August 1973. of the East-West Center for Missions Research and Development In September 1971 I attended the Green Lake Conference in Seoul. The Continuation Committee accomplished all of these of the Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association (IFMA; functions, including sending two hundred new missionaries now CrossGlobal Link) and the Evangelical Foreign Missions before the end of 1974 to two unevangelized areas: Kalimantan Association (EFMA, later the Evangelical Fellowship of Mission Island of Indonesia and northeastern Thailand. In addition, Agencies and now The Mission Exchange), where I announced national missions were formed in Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, the upcoming All-Asia Mission Consultation planned for August India, and Indonesia before the end of 1974. The East-West Cen- 1973 and gave an open invitation to the leaders of Western mis- ter for Missions Research and Development was established im- sions. Responses came from the following mission professors and mediately after the consultation in 1973, and it opened the first executives: , dean of Fuller Theological Seminary’s Summer Institute of World Mission on the day following the School of World Mission (now School of Intercultural Studies), consultation. Sixty-seven students from five Asian countries were Pasadena, California; Ralph Winter and Peter Wagner, professors enrolled, and four professors who attended the consultation were at Fuller’s School of World Mission; George Peters, professor at invited to be instructors for the center’s first Summer Institute.

Ralph Winter, 1924–2009 Ordained in the Presbyterian Church, Ralph and his wife, Roberta, went to Guatemala in 1956, where they worked with alph Winter was born in 1924 into a creative Christian the Mams, an indigenous people group. At the time, most fu- Rfamily in Pasadena, California. Ralph’s father, even ture Mam pastors were sent away from home for theological without a university degree, designed the Pasadena freeway, training in Western-style institutions. Ralph soon recognized the first in California. Ralph joined the U.S. Navy during World the inadequacy of that model and became the key architect War II and finished a degree in civil engineering at of the program of theological education by exten- the California Institute of Technology. But from his sion (TEE), which sought to take training to those early years he was passionately committed to the already engaged in ministry, in their own contexts. world mission of Christ. That focus led to him to The seminary, which began with five students, complete a Ph.D. in structural linguistics at Cornell soon grew to over one hundred. He also started University and a B.D. at Princeton Theological seventeen businesses to aid in economic support Seminary. From the beginning he was asking of pastors and churches. TEE, in different forms, new questions about the missionary enterprise is now used widely all over the world. in ways that combined his training in engineer- In 1966, after ten years in Guatemala, Ralph ing, anthropology, linguistics, and theology. This joined the faculty of the newly established School unique background, combined with a brilliant of World Mission at Fuller Theological Seminary, mind, made him one of the most outstanding in Pasadena. Seeing the need for publication of missiological entrepreneurs and thinkers of the the theses and dissertations being produced, he last half century. I first met him at Princeton in the early 1950s, established the William Carey Library in 1968. He was also when we were part of a small group focused on world mission. instrumental in the formation of the American Society of Even then, he constantly bombarded his friends with questions Missiology. At a time when most older denominations were that were always challenging, pushing out the parameters of folding their mission boards into broader churchly structures conventional thinking about mission. and consequently losing focus, Ralph stressed the continuing

196 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 As the executive director of the Continuation Committee, I therefore come from both sides. The East and the West should initiated the formation of the Asia Missions Association (AMA), join hands in order to research and analyze the availability of which became the first regional missions association in the world. resources and the areas of need, and in this way to produce new AMS’s inaugural meeting met from August 28 to September 1, forces for mission from both worlds. 1975, at the Academy House in Seoul, with delegates from thirteen In these ongoing efforts, the Lord gave me a number of Asian countries: Bangladesh, the Republic of China, Hong Kong, loyal partners from the West to fulfill my dream of East-West India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, cooperation in missionary leadership development. The first Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam; and with Western fraternal was Donald McGavran of the Fuller School of World Mission. delegates from Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, He encouraged me in an article he wrote in 1972 in his Church and the United States. The inaugural convention of AMA affirmed Growth Bulletin. Even though I had not had opportunity to meet the Seoul Declaration on Christian Mission, which I drafted and him personally, he had heard about my efforts to stimulate the which became a counterpart of the Wheaton Declaration of 1966 missionary movement in Asia and spoke highly of my labors. and the Frankfurt Declaration of 1970. He came to Seoul in 1974 to teach at the Summer Institute of AMA grew quickly and was influential even beyond Asia World Mission, which I had started in 1973. He advised me in in Africa and Latin America. The Nigeria Evangelical Missions my work toward developing Asian leadership in mission. Until Association was formed by Panya Baba, who attended the second his death, he was a loyal supporter of my efforts to bring East triennial convention of AMA in Singapore in 1978. The Association and West together in mission cooperation. of Brazilian Cross-Cultural Missions Agencies was formed by The second was Ralph Winter, one of my mentors and Jonathan Santos, who attended the third triennial convention a partner in East-West cooperation of mission leadership of AMA in Seoul in 1982. In addition, the Third World Missions development. For thirty-six years, from 1973 until his death in Association was launched in May 1989 as an intercontinental May 2009, he was associated with my activities of missionary network of missions in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. leadership development and the networking of Third World Many Western mission leaders took notice of these ventures. I missions. I often requested him to join me in mission work—in was invited by Billy Graham to join the Preparatory Consultation Seoul, Manila, Thailand, Moscow, Ephesus, and elsewhere—and for the International Congress on World Evangelization, Lausanne, he never said no. He also never hesitated to write to North Korean Switzerland, and I was honored to serve as chairperson at the leaders, inviting them to William Carey International University third meeting of the Preparatory Consultation. In 1974 I was ap- for my peace mission movement with North Korea. pointed as a speaker for the plenary session on mission strategy The third special partner in mission has been Dale Kietzman. at the congress. In my paper at Lausanne, entitled “Innovation He was the U.S. director for Wycliffe Bible Translators and became of Mission Structure for the New World,” I stressed the need to vice-president of the East-West Center for Missions Research move away from the one-way mission of the Western world to a and Development in Seoul, assisting my efforts for East-West two-way approach to missions. I also emphasized that both East cooperation. He has served with me since 1974. While he was and West have needs and resources, and input and output must serving as executive vice-president of William Carey International

need for committed communities of men and women focused evangelical Christians to frontier mission. The journal Mission on world mission. Borrowing a term from anthropology, he Frontiers and the Frontier Mission Fellowship continued that called them “sodalities.” emphasis. He created the course “Perspectives on the World But Ralph’s greatest contribution during the period was Christian Movement” to enlarge the understanding of and his 1974 address at Lausanne, “Cross Cultural Mission, the mobilize thousands of believers for world mission by showing Highest Priority.” Building on the work of Donald McGavran, that mission is integral, not peripheral, to the biblical story. William Cameron Townsend, and others, he demonstrated the The course is now offered widely in the United States and in need to identify and cross the cultural barriers that made it at least two dozen other countries. difficult if not impossible for a given people group to hear the After the death of Roberta, who had been his closest Gospel in terms they could understand. This led to a major collaborator for nearly half a century, Ralph married Barbara paradigm shift in mission thinking. Culture, not geography, in 2002. With her support, Ralph was able to continue his became the most important category. And if the Great Com- worldwide ministry, despite failing health. After fighting cancer mission was to be taken seriously, it would lead missions since 2002, he died on May 20, 2009, surrounded by family and away from the concern only for various nation-states, to a friends. He is survived by his wife, his four daughters, fourteen focus on each specific culture, or “people group,” wherever grandchildren, and one great granddaughter. Perhaps his life it might be found. can best be summed up in the words of an e-mail that Barbara Constantly restless, Ralph left Fuller and established the sent after his death: “He never stopped thinking about new U.S. Center for World Mission in 1976. His goal was to create approaches to fulfilling God’s purposes here on earth.” a think tank for frontier mission, the cause that was closest —Paul E. Pierson to his heart. The story is well known of how the fledgling organization acquired its sixteen-million-dollar campus while Paul E. Pierson is Dean Emeritus and Senior Professor of History asking for offerings of $15.95 from a host of individuals. Ralph of Mission, School of Intercultural Studies, Fuller Theological Semi- always insisted his primary goal was not to buy the campus nary, Pasadena, California. He served as a Presbyterian missionary but to raise the awareness and deepen the commitment of in Brazil, 1956–70, and in Portugal, 1971–73.

October 2009 197 University, he visited North Korea with me three times as my mer president Jimmy Carter in order to extend an invitation fellow worker for the mission to North Korea. Ralph Winter, from Kim Il Sung to Carter to come to Pyongyang. I made the Dale Kietzman, and I were all born in 1924 and have ministered arrangements for Carter’s visit in 1994, as well as for a visit to together for the advancement of mission from the non-Western North Korea by Billy Graham in 1992. world. Mission to Russia Ministry of Teaching Missiology From 2000 to 2003 I served as a missionary in Russia. I established In 1974 I was appointed as a member of the Ad Hoc Com- the Russian Institute of Christian Leadership Development in mittee of the Missions Commission of the World Evangelical Moscow and formed the Moscow Synod of the Church of Christ, Fellowship (now World Evangelical Alliance). As a member of this committee, I convened its inaugu- ral meeting in Seoul in August 1975. Beginning in 1979 I also served as a professor and, from 1983 to 1989, as director of Korean studies at William Carey International University; in the Korean Program at Western Seminary, in Portland, Oregon; and as a visiting professor at the School of Intercultural Studies of Fuller Theological Seminary from 2002 to the present. In 1988 I called Third World mission leaders to a consultation in Portland, Oregon. The outcome of that consultation was the formation of the Third World Mis- sions Association in 1989 at Western Seminary. I was elected as the chairman of the association and served until 1995. Since 1988 I have also been a major speaker at the Korean World Mission Conference, held every four years at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois. I have Samuel Kim (left), George Peters, Arthur Glasser, and Ralph Winter lectured at various missiological schools in the United with David Cho at the All-Asia Mission Consultation, 1973 States, including Wheaton College Graduate School; Moody Bible Institute, Chicago; Trinity Evangelical Divinity Russia, in 2002. I hosted the eighth triennial convention of the Asia School, Deerfield, Illinois; Westminster Theological Seminary, Missions Association, which was held in Moscow in September Philadelphia; Dallas Theological Seminary, Dallas, Texas; and 2003. I also formed the Asian Society of Missiology, which in 2007 Reformed Theological Seminary, Jackson, Mississippi. elected Timothy K. Park as its first president. In November 2006 the ninth triennial convention of the Asia Missions Association Mission to North Korea was held in Ephesus, Turkey. The theme of the convention was “Mission, the Apostolic Way.” Between the years 1989 and 2000 I visited North Korea over twenty times on peace and reconciliation missions, hoping to David Cho Missiological Institute open the door for Christian ministries in North Korea. Several times I met personally with Kim Il Sung, the former leader of In 2004, thirty-six younger mission scholars who are following in North Korea. I officially and publicly donated, in the name of my footsteps in developing Asian missiology gathered in Seoul William Carey International University, 2,700 Christian books and decided to establish the David Cho Missiological Institute on theology, biblical studies, and church history to the library of and the World Mission History Museum and Library. They also Kim Il Sung University. In recognition of the official donation, resolved to continue and to reshape the East-West Center for Kim Il Sung signed each volume. Kim Il Sung University opened Missions Research and Development that I had founded in 1973. a religion department to teach Christianity and other religions, They elected Timothy K. Park, a professor at Fuller Theological and I was appointed as a visiting professor at both Kim Il Sung Seminary’s School of Intercultural Studies, as the new general University and Pyongyang Seminary in North Korea. Whenever director of the East-West Center. I visited North Korea I also preached regularly at two newly It is hoped that these ventures will carry forward my endeav- opened churches in the capital, Pyongyang. ors to lead Asian missions back to the biblical way of mission In June 1991 I accompanied Han Shi Hae, the North Korean and to restore the apostolic way of mission within the Asian ambassador to the United Nations, to the Georgia home of for- missionary movement.

198 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 “The PhD in Intercultural Studies program trains students to be both theologically astute and anthropologically sensitive, so that they can better apply the Word of God critically in any human or cultural context. The faculty are all experts in their own right, and they contribute to the richness of the program not only by their theological insights but also by their years of significant intercultural experience. The diversity of the students, both in terms of their cultural background and their cross-cultural ministry experience, creates a unique community where theological and missiological thinking is forged in a highly stimulating context.” —Doctoral student How-Chuang Chua came to Trinity after four years of church planting work as a missionary in Japan.

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Contact our Admissions Office today: 877.270.0834 Trinity Evangelical Divinity School | 2065 Half Day Road, Deerfield, IL 60015 | www.teds.edu Thirty Books That Most Influenced My Understanding of Christian Mission Gerald H. Anderson

hen I was a graduate student, my interests developed the state of mission and the theological challenges at a time when Win the areas of mission history and ecumenics, then the International Missionary Council had just been integrated focused on the theology of mission and the theology of religions, with the World Council of Churches. with particular orientation toward Asia. There my wife, Joanne, I first met Stephen Neill in Singapore in the summer of 1963, and I worked for nearly a decade. when he was lecturing at a study institute for those of us who The first books that captured my interest and attention were were teaching church history at seminaries in Southeast Asia. He ’s History of the Expansion of Christianity asked three of us to help him proofread his latest book, A History (7 vols., Harper & Brothers, 1937–45) and William Richey Hogg’s of Christian Missions (Penguin, 1964), which is still a classic text- Ecumenical Foundations: A History of the International Missionary book. In his preface he commented that he had received valuable Council and Its Nineteenth-Century Background (Harper & Row, help in the correction of the proofs “from three distinguished 1952). At the Bossey Ecumenical Institute we had a seminar missionaries of the younger generation,” and then mentioned devoted to Hendrick Kraemer’s recently published book our names. So my friends and I are perpetually “of the younger Religion and the Christian Faith (Lutterworth Press, 1956), which generation!” challenged my theological views at that time, especially in dis- Lesslie Newbigin wrote so many influential books that it is cussions with students from Asia. hard to choose one. For my purposes, however, The Open Secret: A small paperback book by Wilhelm Andersen, Towards a Sketches for a Missionary Theology (Eerdmans, 1978; rev. ed., 1995, Theology of Mission: A Study of the Encounter Between the Missionary The Open Secret: An Introduction to the Theology of Mission) was Enterprise and the Church and Its Theology (SCM Press, 1955), was particularly important, because it was profoundly biblical and helpful as I wrote my doctoral dissertation, “The Theology of balanced in its treatment of the subject. Missions in the Twentieth Century” (Boston University, 1960). Water Buffalo Theology (Orbis Books, 1974; 2d ed., 1999), by I recognized the importance of Dutch and British mission Kosuke Koyama, written when we were both teaching in Southeast scholars. So I studied Dutch and for several years in the Philip- Asia, set a new standard for doing theology from the rice-roots pines I subscribed to two Dutch mission journals: De Heerbaan of Asian society. It was the first in a series of books that he wrote (The Lord’s Highway—Protestant) and Het Missiewerk (Mission with his unique perspective as an Asian missiologist. Work—Roman Catholic), and I always read Max Warren’s CMS R. Pierce Beaver, director of the Missionary Research Library Newsletter with great interest and benefit. Johannes Blauw, sec- in the 1950s, was the founder of this journal when it began as the retary of the Dutch Missionary Council, wrote The Missionary Occasional Bulletin from the Missionary Research Library. Later, at Nature of the Church: A Survey of the Biblical Theology of Mission the Overseas Ministries Study Center, I joined him and became (Lutterworth Press, 1962), which was much needed. his successor. He was a prolific author, and two of his books were Teaching in the Philippines during the 1960s was an excit- pioneering works of permanent importance for me: Ecumenical ing time to be in Asia, especially in a Roman Catholic country Beginnings in Protestant World Mission: A History of Comity (Thomas while the Second Vatican Council was going on. The Documents Nelson, 1962) and All Loves Excelling: American Protestant Women in of Vatican II, edited by Walter M. Abbott (Guild Press, 1966), with World Mission (Eerdmans, 1968; rev. ed., 1980, American Protestant an introduction to each document by a Protestant or Orthodox Women in World Mission: A History of the First Feminist Movement scholar, was required reading. The 1960s was also a time of in North America). great turmoil and transition in many Asian countries. For me, Two books on the history of women missionaries that have The Christian Response to the Asian Revolution, by M. M. Thomas been valuable for me are Dana L. Robert’s American Women in (SCM Press, 1966), was the most profound and provocative book Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and Practice (Mercer Univ. on the subject by an Asian churchman. Press, 1996) and Ruth A. Tucker’s Guardians of the Great Commis- The “three Ns” were authors who became very important and sion: The Story of Women in Modern Missions (Zondervan, 1988). influential in my understanding of mission: D. T. Niles, Stephen Contemporary Missiology: An Introduction (Eerdmans, 1978), by Neill, and Lesslie Newbigin. Each of them wrote many important Johannes Verkuyl, is a masterful textbook by the leading Dutch books, but I mention here only one from each. At the request missiologist after World War II. Another valuable text from a of the World Council of Churches, D. T. Niles held a series of Dutch missiologist is Philosophy, Science, and Theology of Mission consultations around the world in preparation for writing Upon in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (2 vols., Peter Lang, the Earth: The Mission of God and the Missionary Enterprise of the 1995–97), by Jan A. B. Jongeneel, a work that is encyclopedic Churches (Lutterworth Press, 1962), which gave an overview of in its scope and detail. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission (Orbis Books, 1991), by South African David Gerald H. Anderson, a senior contributing editor, is Bosch, was probably the single most important textbook in Director Emeritus of the Overseas Ministries Study missiology in the late twentieth century. All of these have been Center. He taught on the faculty of Union Theological influential in my work. Seminary in the Philippines, 1961–70. I admired Alan Neely’s skill in using case studies for teaching —[email protected] courses in mission, and students have always responded with appreciation when I have used his book Christian Mission: A Case Study Approach (Orbis Books, 1995) in my classes. Because of my special interest in Asia, I am indebted to Sam-

200 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 uel H. Moffett for his definitive two-volumeHistory of Christianity statements on mission in our time, which have been important in Asia (Orbis Books, 1992–2005). for my understanding. As a historian, I appreciate everything written by Andrew Missionary biographies and autobiographies have always Walls, especially his book The Missionary Movement in Christian been of special interest to me. Many have been influential and History: Studies in the Transmission of Faith (Orbis Books, 1996). inspiring, but if I had to choose only one biography, it would Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture, by be To the Golden Shore: The Life of Adoniram Judson, by Courtney Lamin Sanneh (Orbis Books, 1989; 2d ed., 2008), was a landmark Anderson (Little, Brown, 1956); and the one autobiography would book that helped many of us to understand better the remarkable be Unfinished Agenda: An Autobiography, by Lesslie Newbigin relationship of the missionary enterprise with cultures. (Eerdmans, 1985; updated ed., Saint Andrew Press, 1993). The Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic Theol- As I was involved in editing two mission dictionary projects, ogy of Religions (Orbis Books, 1987), edited by John Hick and I developed great admiration and appreciation for the accom- Paul F. Knitter, is an example of radical theological relativism, plishment of the Encyclopedia of Missions, edited by Edwin Bliss which, as one of the authors says, “has devastating theological (2 vols., Funk & Wagnalls, 1891; 2d ed., 1904). It is a massive glo- effects.” He believes the results to be desirable, but such rela- bal project with historical information of enormous value. tivism would actually be a form of theological cancer for the The World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Study of Christian mission. Churches and Religions in the Modern World, AD 1900–2000, The writings of Kwame Bediako from Ghana, such as Jesus edited by David B. Barrett (Oxford Univ. Press, 1982; 2d ed., and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience (Orbis Books, 2004), 2 vols., 2001), was a monumental achievement. For the first time have helped me to better understand a theological response to it gave us reliable statistical information on the whole church in the Gospel from an African perspective. the whole world. The Missionary Movement in American Catholic History, by For my special interests, there is one book that has never Angelyn Dries (Orbis Books, 1998), is essential for understand- been written: a comprehensive history of Christian attitudes and ing the contribution of American Catholic missions. For mis- approaches to people of other faiths, from the early church to sion theology and practice, Redemption and Dialogue: Reading the present. To my knowledge, such a comprehensive study has Redemptoris Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation, edited by never been published in any language. If I were starting over, I William R. Burrows (Orbis Books, 1993), provides commentary might try to do it myself—but now I wait and wish for someone and discussion about two of the most significant official Catholic else to undertake it!

The Legacy of Philip Beach Sullivan

Jessie G. Lutz

hilip Beach Sullivan (1898–1957) was part of a trend responsibilities permitted, Bess worked as a medical technician Ptoward professionalization among the China Chris- at Margaret Williamson Women’s Hospital. tian colleges during the 1920s. The institutions, most of them Philip Sullivan may also be viewed as representative of those originally founded as aids to evangelism, were by the 1920s missionaries who had a dual career. Because missionaries acquired giving greater emphasis to the academic aspects of their work. language facility and knowledge of the local culture and society In order to compete with the Chinese national universities, they where they were stationed, they were frequently called into gov- needed to raise their standards and expand their curriculum; ernment service, either temporarily or permanently. Accordingly, so in recruiting teachers, they sought individuals with higher after Sullivan was interned by the Japanese and then exchanged education in the academic disciplines. These educators were for Japanese prisoners and repatriated in 1943, he worked for not necessarily expected to be religious proselytizers, though of the United States government, first as an educator and then as a course they should be committed Christians. A devout and ac- labor adviser with the Department of State. In recognition of his tive Episcopalian, Sullivan did not go to China as an evangelist; service to church and country, upon his death in 1957 his ashes instead, he went to fill a temporary position in the Department were placed in the Washington National Cathedral. of Economics at St. John’s University in Shanghai. There he met his future wife, Bess Lipscomb, a microbiologist who had gone to Birth and Training China to visit her sister. The two married and decided to remain in China, and for twenty years Philip Sullivan was a member Philip Sullivan was the third son of Daniel Peyton Sullivan and of the St. John’s economics department. As home and family Elizabeth Gay Beach.1 He was born in Ypsilanti, Michigan, where his father was a businessman and an accountant. The family soon Jessie G. Lutz is Professor Emerita of Chinese History, moved to Wyandotte, Michigan, and then to Detroit. A closely-knit Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey. family, the Sullivans participated in both the Episcopal church Her publications include China and the Christian and a mission society in Detroit. Bess’s mother had been general Colleges, 1850–1950 (Cornell Univ. Press, 1971); secretary for the Women’s Missionary Society of the Southern (with R. R. Lutz) Hakka Chinese Confront Prot- Methodist Church, and Philip’s sister went to China in 1921 to estant Christianity, 1850–1900 (Sharpe, 1998); and serve as secretary to Frederick Graves, bishop of the Diocese Opening China, Karl Gutzlaff and Sino-Western of Shanghai of the Anglican Church in China. As a high school Relations, 1828−1953 (Eerdmans, 2008). student, Philip was active in the YMCA and in sports, particu-

October 2009 201 larly basketball. A brief stint in the army, from September to the institution. His financial aid and political protection greatly December 1918, preceded his college career, first at Wayne State aided Sullivan in strengthening the economics department, while University and then at the University of Michigan. Immediately alumni connections facilitated employment and rapid advance- after graduating with a degree in economics in 1922, he left to ment for St. John’s graduates. An analysis of Who’s Who in China teach basic economics and business courses at St. John’s. for 1933 indicates that 21 percent of those listed had attended a Bess Lipscomb left the same summer for Shanghai, where she parochial school; of these, one-third had studied at St. John’s.2 worked as a laboratory technician, trained Chinese as medical Since the Who’s Who was oriented toward the coastal regions, technicians, and established the first modern medical laboratory the statistics accentuate the prominent role of St. John’s alumni at Margaret Williamson Women’s Hospital. Bess and Philip were in the modernizing sector of the economy. married on July 31, 1924, and settled down in a house on St. St. John’s, largely located in the International Settlement, John’s campus. They had three children: a daughter, Elizabeth, was able to continue academic work after the Japanese captured and two sons, Daniel and McDonald. Shanghai in 1937, and Sullivan remained at his post. When most During the 1920s and 1930s, St. John’s students came primarily of the national and Christian universities fled to the interior, from the Westernized upper middle class of urban China. Despite refugees and students from coastal China flocked to St. John’s, the political turmoil, this was an era of economic growth and Fu Ren in Beijing, Lingnan in Guangzhou and Hong Kong, and rationalization. Both Chinese and Japanese entrepreneurs estab- the few other institutions able to continue operations in occupied lished factories in Shanghai, particularly for textile manufacture. China. Enrollment at St. John’s reached a peak of 1,571. Crowded Attempts to regularize the banking and currency system met with conditions prevailed, textbooks and materials were in short sup- some success, and the building of railway and communication ply, and classes could be interrupted at any time by warfare, but teachers continued to meet with their students. During the civil war between the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist Party, from 1946 to 1949, St. John’s staff and As a coach, Sullivan students split into factions, and the Communist Party gained established a personal control of the student union. Strikes broke out, classroom work was disrupted, and students devoted much time to political pro- relationship with his tests and demonstrations. The victory of the Communists in 1949 players, and dinner at and the closing of St. John’s in 1952 by the People’s Republic of China scattered its students and alumni. Some remained on the the Sullivan home was mainland, but many emigrated to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Southeast a gala affair. Asia, Canada, the United States, and elsewhere. Again, the bonds formed at St. John’s helped many émigrés in building industrial and banking empires in their new overseas homes. Former teammates of St. John’s basketball and baseball links went on apace, many under foreign auspices. China needed teams were particularly notable for their loyalty to their alma businessmen, engineers, bankers, and other professionals. To mater. Philip Sullivan, ever fond of sports, had early assumed help supply trained personnel, Philip Sullivan worked steadily the position of basketball and baseball coach at St. John’s. He to expand and upgrade St. John’s department of economics himself played center on the Shanghai YMCA basketball team. and business administration; by 1928 he had become chair of Sports and physical training had not been a part of traditional a department offering a wide gamut of courses and attracting Chinese education, and when the Christian colleges and the increasing numbers of majors. During furloughs, Sullivan also YMCA first introduced them, Chinese students were less than upgraded his own training, obtaining an M.A. in economics from enthusiastic. By the twentieth century, however, physical and the University of Michigan in 1928. military training had become closely associated with national Sullivan had become interested in the Shanghai labor scene, strength, and the performance of Chinese athletes became linked for China’s economic growth and the political competition be- with national pride and the international status of China. The tween the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist Party made St. John’s basketball teams coached by Sullivan won champion- the 1920s a time of labor unionization and upheaval. Impressed ships in the Chinese collegiate circuit, and St. John’s initiated by the need for organized labor to protect workers, Sullivan the first international basketball game in which Chinese teams wrote his master’s thesis on the labor movement in China and participated; this inaugural competition was held in Japan in continued his research on Chinese workers for his Ph.D. disserta- December 1923. In 1927 the St. John’s basketball team was the tion. He never received the doctorate, however, for although he Far Eastern collegiate champion, a matter of pride for St. John’s completed all his course work, copies of his dissertation were students and for the whole Chinese nation. A record of the St. lost when he was interned by the Japanese in 1943. John’s teams coached by Sullivan and pictures of the 1924–25 and 1926 teams are now in the American Basketball Hall of Fame, Stalwart at St. John’s, Shanghai and a picture of the first jump ball between China and Japan, in Kobe in 1923, is included in James Naismith, Basketball, Its Origin During Sullivan’s twenty-year tenure at St. John’s, over half and Development.3 of its graduates in arts and sciences majored in economics and As a sports coach, Sullivan established a personal relationship business administration, and the institution gained national rec- with his players, and dinner at the Sullivan home at the conclusion ognition as a major center for training future business leaders of of the basketball season was a gala occasion. Alumni of basketball China. Song Ziwen (T. V. Soong), governor of the Central Bank and baseball teams and of the economics department, in letters of China and a member of the Guomindang inner circle, was to Sullivan’s son, relate fond memories of their association with one of St. John’s eminent alumni. Song not only served on the Philip Sullivan, especially the celebratory dinners at his home. St. John’s Board of Directors but also was a major supporter of Sullivan’s sports activities contributed to the popularization of

202 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 team sports, to the association of sports competitions with national was reunited with Bess and their three children in New York in pride, and to the long-standing loyalty of St. John’s alumni. December 1943. At this juncture the American government was Branch alumni associations have been established in several already preparing for the possible invasion of Japan and postwar countries, and in 1986 the Beijing St. John’s Alumni Association occupation of the country, and it needed personnel who were invited representatives of the Hong Kong branch to visit. Hosting fluent in spoken Japanese and broadly informed about Japan’s them was honorary president of the Beijing alumni, Rong Yiren, politics and economy, social mores, and culture. These specially head of the China International Trust and Investment Corporation. trained officers were to staff the temporary occupation govern- Since then, several international meetings of St. John’s alumni ment of Japan. Sullivan was called on to supervise a program have been held. Despite the association of St. John’s graduates being set up at the University of Michigan, the East Asia Area and with capitalism and Westernism, their business acumen and Language Army Specialized Training Program. New intensive investment capital have been welcome in China since China language courses for rapid mastery of spoken Japanese had to began to open up to a market economy. Professor Xu Yihua be devised, and courses covering a broad spectrum of subjects, (Edward Xu) of Fudan University and McDonald Sullivan, son rather than specific disciplines, had to be developed. A twelve- of Philip Sullivan, are currently engaged in a study of Philip Sul- month program with emphasis on contemporary conditions livan’s tenure at St. John’s, the curriculum of the Department of was envisioned. Economics and Business Administration, and the careers of the Philip Sullivan’s evaluation of the first year of the program is a frank discussion of its challenges, difficulties, failures, and successes.4 Among the problems were the lack of texts and skilled teachers for both the intensive language and the area studies courses, and the fact that recruits had not volunteered but had been drafted for the training, with the result that some had little interest in studying Japanese. The students were under military discipline, and the demands of the military training in combina- tion with a heavy course load meant that they had inadequate time for home study and little or no leisure time. Yet there were some successes. The staff devised new techniques for teaching a foreign language in which the emphasis was on mastery of the spoken language rather than reading of character texts. Students were required to carry on conversations and engage in dialogues and discussions, despite their limited vocabulary. So that the students would learn to think in Japanese as soon as possible, no English was allowed in the classroom. Drills in sentence patterns were an important component of the training, and extensive use was made of recording machines. Fluency was more important than complete accuracy. This methodology, modified and refined, has since been widely adopted in foreign language training in many university departments. Area studies, also an innovative approach to the study of civilizations, has gained acceptance and has been expanded to include American as well as many other cultures. At the University of Michigan and other schools Courtesy Univ. of Nebraska Press where the army had language training programs, the area study Opening jump ball, China (in white) vs. Japan programs became the foundation of major centers for East Asian Far Eastern Championship Games, 1923 and Southeast Asian studies. In April 1945 Sullivan accepted a position as chief of the Far economics majors. This study is only one example of a renewed East Section, Labor Problems Branch, Division of Labor, Social, interest among Chinese scholars in the legacy of the Christian and Health Affairs, Department of State. For the remainder of colleges, which has generated several conferences, the catalog- his career he would work as a labor adviser with the Depart- ing of archival materials, and studies of specific institutions. The ment of State; generally, he concentrated on providing policy role of the colleges in the modernizing of China has received information papers rather than on research studies. He and particular attention. Bess transferred their residence to Arlington, Virginia, where they were active in St. Mary’s Episcopal Church. Bess resumed U.S. Government Trainer and Labor Specialist work as a medical technologist and served as president of the Arlington Council of Church Women and secretary of the Board Sullivan’s second career was in the service of the U.S. govern- of Managers of the Overseas Mission Society of the National ment, and it drew on both his experience in East Asia and his Episcopal Church. knowledge of economics. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Convinced that strong labor organizations were major Harbor in December 1941 and the U.S. entry into the Pacific war, forces for democracy and social stability, Sullivan encouraged the Japanese placed Sullivan and other Americans under house the government of the Supreme Commander Allied Powers arrest. In February 1943 the American prisoners were interned (SCAP) in Japan to foster the formation of independent labor at Pootung Internment Camp, and in September 1943 they were unions, and a draft document of his (SWNCC#92) became the exchanged for Japanese prisoners in the United States and returned basis for SCAP’s labor program there. In addition, he guided home on the SS Gripsholm. Even while interned, Sullivan taught SCAP in the formulation of labor legislation, the design of labor economics to his fellow inmates, writing his own textbook. He administration agencies, and the development of employment

October 2009 203 and unemployment policies in Japan. In his position as labor on such issues as child and slave labor, freedom of association, representative for the State Department, Sullivan maintained labor standards, and trade union rights, while avoiding politics contacts with labor leaders in the United States, both the AFL’s insofar as possible. Victor Reuther and George Meany, and the CIO’s Philip Murray, In combination with a meeting of the ILO in India in 1957, Michael Ross, and Walter Reuther.5 He was thereby able to keep Philip and Bess planned a visit with their daughter in Tokyo and both the labor leaders and the State Department informed con- with Bess’s sister in Hong Kong. On November 9, however, Pan cerning the impact of the labor policies of U.S. companies abroad American Flight 7, which they boarded in San Francisco, went on the international image of America. He also represented the down in the Pacific Ocean between California and Honolulu, Ha- United States at meetings of the International Labor Organiza- waii. Though Philip’s body was recovered, Bess’s body was never tion (ILO), the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, found. Philip’s remains were cremated, and his ashes were placed and other international organizations. On his overseas trips he in the Washington National Cathedral; Lloyd Craighill, former often met with St. John’s alumni and labor leaders of Japan and bishop of Anjing, China, presided over the memorial service. In other Asian countries. He helped select and train labor attachés memory of Philip and Bess, their three children presented the for American posts in East Asia, and he arranged for key labor cathedral with an English Yorkshire oak table, which is placed figures from foreign countries to come to the United States to in the center of the cathedral as the “Holy Table” at large public meet with American union leaders and learn about the American services of Communion.6 labor movement. In 1952, however, the cold war, the new Republican ad- Assessment ministration, and John Foster Dulles’s doctrine of containment brought policy changes. To strengthen Japan as a counterweight Though Philip Sullivan did not perceive himself as a Christian to the People’s Republic of China, the State Department became evangelist, he expressed his Christian faith in his lifestyle and in more concerned with restoring Japan’s industrial base than with his relations with his students and colleagues. He was dedicated fostering Japan’s labor movement. The interests of the former to providing Chinese students with a quality education that would zaibatsu (lit. “wealthy clique”) leaders, rather than those of labor, contribute to their economic welfare and moral integrity, as well came to the fore, leading to the abolishment of the position of as to the modernization of China. These facets of the Christian Far East labor adviser. Sullivan, however, a fervent believer that college experience are frequently cited by alumni of all the col- the needs of labor should be a concern of the State Department, leges, and they tell us much about the contribution of Christian fought for reinstatement of the position. He was successful, and higher education to China. Though alumni infrequently mention within a few months he was back at his old post. the overt Christian instruction, the worship services, or the courses Through his China contacts, Sullivan kept abreast of events on the Bible and Christian doctrine, they speak with nostalgia in the P.R.C. Having observed the Communist infiltration of about the personal interest that their teachers took in them and Chinese labor unions and their utilization of the unions in their the inculcation of an ideal of social service and personal integrity. drive for power, he deplored the use of labor unions in Japan for Chinese scholars today have increasingly come to recognize the political rather than economic purposes. He was distressed by role of the parochial schools in the modernization of education the purges carried out by the Chinese Communist Party during in China, especially the expansion of the curriculum to include the anti-Rightist campaigns of the early 1950s, the confiscation of formal education in professional and vocational subjects. Even if property, and the mistreatment and even execution of individuals they criticize the foreign domination of the institutions, they see labeled Rightists. Some of his own friends who were Christians them as instruments for change, which was essential for a strong had been abused in “people’s courts.” Sullivan often assisted China able to take its place in the international arena. former students in finding a safe haven. He became an outspoken As a civil servant, Sullivan helped to devise new approaches advocate of the Chinese Nationalist government, for he thought to teaching foreign languages and to introducing students to that recognition of the P.R.C. would enhance the Communist foreign cultures. He had perhaps less success in achieving his role in Southeast Asia to the detriment of free labor, and also of goals as labor adviser in the Department of State. The strong, private enterprise, much of it in the hands of overseas Chinese. independent labor movement that Sullivan envisioned for Ja- He sought to assist the Guomindang government in retaining pan did not become a reality; nevertheless, the foundations for its seat in international labor organizations. In working on the Japanese labor unions were laid, and legislation guaranteeing agenda for ILO conferences, he urged that the ILO concentrate basic protection for workers was put in place.

Notes 1. McDonald W. Sullivan, “A Genealogical History of the Family 3. McDonald Sullivan, Li Baojun, and Zhu Longyi, “Philip Beach of Philip Beach Sullivan” (unpublished MS, Seattle, 1998). I am Sullivan, Basketball Coach of St. John’s University, Shanghai, China, grateful to McDonald Sullivan for making available to me materials 1922 to 1942” (unpublished MS, October 10, 1993); James Naismith, about his father. Most of the papers of Philip Sullivan are held by Basketball, Its Origin and Development (New York: Association Press, his descendants. Some correspondence and other materials are 1941). located in the Archives and Historical Collections of the Episcopal 4. Philip Sullivan, “Final Report of the East Asia Area and Language Church, Austin, Texas; the Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Army Specialized Training Program at the University of Michigan” Department of State, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; and the (unpublished MS, 1944), vol. 1. Shanghai Municipal Archives. The picture on p. 203 is from James 5. Philip Sullivan, “Labor in Japan” (notes and MS of a speech delivered Naismith, Basketball: Its Origin and Development (Lincoln: Univ. of to a meeting of the AFL-CIO, January 6, 1955). Nebraska Press, 1996; orig. 1941), opposite p. 158. 6. Elizabeth, Daniel, and McDonald Sullivan, “A Report on Two Lives” 2. H. D. Lamson, “Geographical Distribution of Leaders in China,” (MS presented to the Washington National Cathedral, March 23, China Critic, February 16, 1933. See also Lamson, “Who’s Who in 2002). China,” China Critic 3 (1930).

204 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 “ For me, the professors’ missions experience has helped me better understand how I can use my passion to teach English as ministry, and further the Great Commission.” Mark h erB s t ('07, M.A. TESOL)

Biola University is pleased to celeB rate The 25Th AnniversAry of the cook s chool of i ntercU lt U ral s t U dies

ies has been o and make elebrating its a Belle Cook its tr iti d n mi logy, pology.

S of to impact t o mak t

Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term Missions into Context Brian M. Howell

hort-term missions have experienced explosive growth sort of “missionary gaze” (akin to the “tourist gaze”) that serves Sin the past two decades.1 In addition to the many para- to homogenize locality. church organizations promoting such trips, for many congrega- After identifying these tensions in a bit more detail, I show tions this sort of “mission” has become a key component of youth how they played out in the experience of one STM group. Finally, group activities. In the United States short-term mission trips I suggest steps that can be taken to bring context intentionally to are widely promoted as a key means through which average the fore in STM trips in ways that have the potential to reshape church members can become involved in mission outreach and the experience of participants on both sides of the exchange. by which they can make a direct, even sacrificial contribution in the foreign missions work of the church. Today more than Rhetorical Positioning 1,600,000 adults and young people from the United States travel abroad yearly on short-term mission trips, most for two weeks The Web site of a Christian short-term “leadership” mission or less duration.2 organization declares in the large print that, for their organiza- A phenomenon of this scope certainly merits social-scientific tion, trips are “not about the destination.” The text that follows observation, as well as missiological reflection. My expertise goes on to distinguish the organization’s trips from tourism that is as an anthropologist. Over a two-year period I observed a emphasizes “a photo album filled with snapshots and maybe high school mission team in their preparation and visit to the some deepened friendships.” Instead, they hold out the promise Dominican Republic. My research uncovered multiple ways of “a trip that will challenge your students to make a difference in which the group’s preparation, travel, and return narra- in your youth group.”3 This promotional message illustrates a tive served to minimize the contextual specificity of the trip’s tension present for participants in short-term missions gener- destination in favor of a more generic “short-term mission” ally and certainly for those of my research: it is important to distinguish STM trips from “mere” tourism. In this way, seem- ingly ego-focused motives are rejected in place of ones that have theological significance and that hold out long-term benefits for Short-term missions merits both the receiving and the sending groups. social scientific observation An unintended consequence of this emphasis, however, is that as well as missiological short-term missions become decontextualized. In marginalizing touristic impulses and elevating the theological/missiological reflection. significance of these trips, short-term mission organizers often de-emphasize the particularities of the location and context in which the trip will take place. Instead, a generic STM language experience. The language of short-term mission (STM) too and practice emerges that serves to make STM trips the same easily becomes an all-engulfing category, subsuming a wide for participants, regardless of the specific location they visit. A variety of trips by creating a discursive commonality between particular place becomes transformed into a typology of place: disparate places and experiences. Europe is the secular Other; developing countries are undiffer- In this article I focus on four elements of short-term mis- entiatedly “poor;” urban life, particularly black urban life, is the sion practice that contribute to decontextualization. First, par- chaotic “inner city.” ticipants in short-term missions strive rhetorically to present what they are doing as something distinct from tourism, with Sense of Call the unintended consequence of losing focus on the context to which they are going. Second, the language of “missionary call” The rhetoric of mission is often rooted in the individual motive as understood in short-term mission practice works against for travel. Although STM participants are recruited and encour- engagement with the specific realities of a particular location. aged to sign up for particular trips, the “correct” motive is framed Third, the meaning of mission embedded within short-term as a missionary call. Sacrifice and a sense of calling have a long mission too often leads to a mission based on plight and need. history in the discourse and theology of missions; as recounted Fourth, post-trip pictorial representations of short-term mission below, both call and sacrifice remain central for short-term mis- trips meant to connect the sending congregation to the experi- sions and for the manner in which many people speak about ence of STM become, paradoxically, a means of distancing the their motivation for going on an STM trip.4 But use of sacrificial Other and decontextualizing the place visited. In these ways, mission language discourages trip participants and STM leaders the mode of travel unique to short-term missions can create a from placing emphasis on or expressing enthusiasm about the educational or cultural benefits to be gained from the trip. Focus Brian M. Howell, associate professor of anthropology, on the specifics of the location is seen, whether consciously or not, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois, is the author of as virtually incompatible with the language of call, of service, and Christianity in the Local Context: Southern Bap- ultimately of mission as embraced by short-term missions. tists in the Philippines (Palgrave, 2008) and coeditor (with Edwin Zehner) of Power and Identity in the The Meaning of Mission Global Church (William Carey Library, 2009). —[email protected] The dynamics involved in the formation of STM teams and the distinctive character of STM trips serve to reinforce a particular

206 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 construal of what mission is or means. In my research a valued or primitive—alongside images of the team working to improve quality on the part of potential team members was openness in conditions for the inhabitants—become stock tropes of the short- regard to the group of which they would be a member, the task term mission presentation. to which they would be assigned, and the destination to which The standardization of these presentations turns all the spe- they would go. The meaning of “mission” came to be a kind of cific images of rural Ghana, urban Mexico, the periurban setting sacrificial availability for carrying out an assigned task and a lack of the Dominican Republic, or even the Chicago metro area into of connection to any particular place. Together, sacrificial avail- a general field of “mission.” ability and nonspecificity of location worked to position every trip as first and foremost a journey to accomplish a specific task and Recontextualizing Short-Term Missions to meet needs “out there.” The language used privileged activity over destination and reinforced seeing a relationship between The various elements—preparatory linguistic practice, field the need for missions (both long-term and short-term) and the projects among the poor, and subsequent presentations about necessity of “bringing” something to a place where there was the trips—conspire to reduce the particularities of the places some demonstrable lack. Because every trip was “mission” and involved and to blend STM travel into a generic “short-term all missions involved meeting needs or accomplishing projects, mission” experience. Even those who have never gone on an every trip, regardless of destination, became a movement from STM trip, through exposure to the images and discourse of the plenty to want, from have to have-not, from wealth to poverty. trips, find themselves constructing a view of the “mission field” Mission became, in the words of Native American church leader as an undifferentiated place of generic spiritual and material Craig Smith, “plight-based ministry.”5 need—and find themselves with a corresponding inability to delineate the myriad political, economic, and cultural specificities Pictorial Representation involved. This “missionary view” of the world corresponds to the “tourist gaze” described in the anthropology of tourism. This Most U.S. Christians are familiar with at least one feature of “gaze,” writes John Urry, is “often collective and depends on a short-term missions: the slide show. Though these mission variety of social discourses organised by professionals, including reports now tend to be PowerPoint presentations, the idea is photographers, travel writers, travel agents, tour operators, TV the same. Members of STM trips return with a pictorial narra- presenters and tourism policy-makers.”7 To this list we might tive of their trip as a way of giving testimony to the efficacy of now add youth workers and STM leaders. the money spent, often money donated by the larger church What is significant, for present purposes, about the “gaze” body. These representations require a great deal more analysis as it is constructed in contemporary tourism is its potentially than can be provided here, but it is clear that they became homogenizing effect on the varieties of experience tourists another site where the paradox of “decontextualized Other- actually have.8 For the short-term missionary, as for the tourist, ness” is produced. What is remarkable is the picture shows’ ability to perceive the experience of travel outside the preformed degree of standardization. Typically, the slide shows proceed grooves of the gaze becomes difficult at best. The result for the chronologically, beginning with candid shots of team members tourist may be a lamentable but ultimately innocuous blandness during the stages of preparation. These are followed by staged in which real human connection is lost in favor of an “experi- group pictures reflecting departure and arrival, pictures of or ence.” For Christian missionaries, whose goals both religious from the airplane, particularly with shots of the approaching and humanitarian depend on the host country inhabitants’ “field” (often a literal field around the airport). Next come perception of their actions, lack of connection would certainly pictures of luggage being moved, the home where the team pose significant problems. stayed, and the team working, ending with multiple pictures In a study of short-term mission trips to Ecuador, education of the team surrounded by those served, particularly groups scholar Terry Linhart noted that “without substantive knowledge of smiling children. and reflection, the trip possessed a spectacle quality with a cur- A great deal of research in the anthropology of tourism has ricular hope that students would somehow positively grow from focused on the role of photography in creating constructed ver- the formative encounters.”9 Lack of growth and a “spectacle” sions of sites and cultures, showing how photographic represen- quality, I would suggest, are directly connected to decontextu- tations are framed in ways that serve the purposes, expectations, alization, something that is frequently found both during trip and contexts of those who take the photos, as well as how those preparation and throughout the trip. Rather than removing bar- images shape the experiences of subsequent travelers to those riers, STM packaging too often makes it difficult for students to sites.6 I cannot reproduce the entire discussion, but the idea that examine history, context, and culture closely. photographs reflect the interests and issues of the photographer, rather than some objective state, is of relevance here. There is One Short-Term Mission Experience no question that student members of STM trips are looking to highlight the kind of poverty, need, and otherness for which These tensions gain concreteness and specificity when viewed they initially prepared and which their audience expects. At the through the lens of their outworking in the experience of one same time, as an experience of travel, there are tropes and images church’s youth program. The following material draws on that come directly from a touristic genre, in spite of the explicit research I conducted over a two-year period. During that time rejection of such impulses as appropriate motivation. Images I joined a high school mission team in their preparation and of (usually) white faces surrounded by (generally) brown chil- STM visit to the Dominican Republic. dren, smiling with arms interlocked, suggests the centrality and STM trips have been integral to the mission program of importance of the project and the “missionary.” At the same time, Central Christian Church (not its real name), a large nondenomi- pictures of small, rural, or decrepit urban homes (often with a national Midwestern congregation, for ten to twenty years. With short-term missionary in the foreground, as if visiting a site of the visibility and institutional prominence given to STM programs, touristic interest), or shots of bathrooms considered unhygienic not surprisingly the current high school students—the majority

October 2009 207 of whom have attended the church their entire lives—are well we remember this is real ministry. This isn’t just travel. I mean, acquainted with the Global Challenge Project (GCP), an STM it’s important that the kids are learning, right? But they’re program specifically for their age group. Of the twelve students doing real missions. People need to see that these kids are on the Dominican Republic team, five had older siblings who with the missionaries, working alongside them. There is real had gone on a prior GCP trip, either to the Dominican Republic benefit; these are real missions.” or to another country. In the previous year two of the team had Student members of the team also expressed the importance been to the very site of our planned visit. of placing the educational benefits of the trip as secondary to Linguistically, the practice of short-term missions is structured the “mission” or “ministry” work, understood primarily as that and expressed in many ways in the congregation.10 For the point which benefits the long-term missionaries, as well as what ben- at hand, I want to focus on one principal semiotic element, the efits the local people, including direct evangelism. One student’s idea of what constitutes a “mission.” The GCP trips are explicitly response in a pre-trip interview about her motivations expressed intended to provide students with insight into career missions.11 themes echoed by all the students at various points: “I’m excited Fund-raising and public vision for the trips are framed in terms to just help people. I don’t know so much about missions, you of helping career missionaries supported by the church through know, but we’ll be working with the missionaries doing real the work the youth would be doing, thus making the trips “real missions work, like sharing Christ and, you know, the Gospel.” missions” themselves. Leaders and trip organizers frequently To the question, “Are there any other reasons you want to go?” framed the educational benefits of the trips in opposition to the she continued, “Well, . . . I want to see what it’s like. I’ve never real purpose of the trips, which was to “do missions.” In one GCP been to the D.R., so I just want to see what it’s like and stuff. But board meeting, a member pointedly interjected, “It’s important that’s not really why I should go, just to see, right? I mean, it’s

Noteworthy

Announcing and Asian Christianity, Liverpool Hope University, will hold The Association of Polish Missiologists, Stowarzyszenie its third annual world Christianity conference June 11–13, Misjologów Polskich (SMP), was formed in 2007 and now 2010, on the topic “Christian Unity in Mission and Service.” serves thirty-three missiologists from the major universities Brief proposals for papers and panels are being solicited until and seminaries of Poland, including members from Katowice, December 18. Center director Daniel Jeyaraj is professor of Warsaw, Kraków, Lublin, Poznań, Opole, and Olsztyn. With history of missions and an IBMR contributing editor. For more leadership from president Jan Górski (Katowice) and vice information, contact conference coordinator Ursula Leahy, president Wojciech Kluj, O.M.I. (Warsaw), SMP promotes [email protected]. interdisciplinary collaboration in the study of missiology An international conference on the theme “Politics, Pov- and is the local affiliate of the International Association for erty, and Prayer: Global African Spiritualities and Social Mission Studies and the International Association of Catholic Transformation” will convene July 22–25, 2010, at the Nairobi Missiologists. Each year the association publishes Studia mis- Evangelical Graduate School of Theology, Kenya. The conference jologiczne, an academic journal that focuses on mission history will “provide a platform in which researchers on African and and theology, portions of which are now being published in African-derived religions and spiritualities encounter practi- English, Italian, and German. For additional information, go tioners of religious traditions and communities firsthand” and to www.misjologia.pl. will provide “information on beliefs and practices of religious/ Urban mission is the theme of the American Society of spiritual traditions and how they impact their communities Missiology–Eastern Fellowship of Professors of Mission and the larger society.” For details, contact program organiz- annual meeting, November 6–7, 2009, at Maryknoll Mission ers Afe Adogame ([email protected]), Ishola Williams Institute, Ossining, New York. Doug Hall and Bobby Bose, ([email protected]), Grace Wamue (gwamue2000@ respectively president and global urban ministries education yahoo.com), and Mark Shaw ([email protected]). coordinator of the Emmanuel Gospel Center in Boston (www Indian missiologist Siga Arles has announced expan- .egc.org), will be among the speakers. For conference informa- sion of the scope of the Consortium for Indian Missiological tion, visit www.asmef.org. Education and the Indian Institute of Missiology Research The Sociology of Religion Study Group (SOCREL, www Centre through the launching of a postgraduate research .socrel.org.uk) of the British Sociological Association will hold study center—the Centre for Contemporary Christianity, a conference April 6–8, 2010, at the University of Edinburgh on Bangalore. The center will offer master of theology and doc- the topic “The Changing Face of Christianity in the Twenty- tor of philosophy degrees in missiology and in holistic child first Century.” Brief proposals for papers and panels are development, with accreditation from the Asia Theological being solicited until October 31, 2009, particularly if these are Association and in cooperation with the Global Alliance for focused on “contemporary Christian performance and belief, Advancing Holistic Child Development. Arles, editor of the world Christianities and migration or Diaspora Christianities, Journal of Asian Evangelical Theology, is also developing a jour- (or) Christianity in the public arena.” The University of Edin- nal called Contemporary Christian. For additional information, burgh Institute of Geography and the New College School of e-mail Arles, [email protected]. Divinity are cosponsors. The conference organizers include Historical records, including financial reports, cor- Afe Adogame ([email protected]), New College lecturer respondence, committee memos and minutes, articles, and in world Christianity. newsletters related to the work of the Evangelical Committee The Andrew F. Walls Centre for the Study of African on Latin America are available at the Billy Graham Center

208 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 really about missions, and I think it’ll be, I guess, fun or good. or relevant skills (e.g., language). Rather, the focus was on Yeah . . . it’s just like a chance to do missions.” putting together teams that could effectively accomplish the The emphasis on “missions” and the explicit connection of tasks (the “mission”) the various groups would undertake. these short visits to the long-term work of missionaries supported In one interview with a prospective leader for a trip to Costa by the congregation gave theological, social, and institutional Rica, it became obvious that the candidate was not informed validity to trips that are certainly open to criticism as “religious about the country. The committee, however, did not suggest tourism.”12 Like pilgrims visiting a religious holy site, the mem- to her that it would be necessary for her to learn about Costa bers of these teams reject the idea that the purpose of their trips Rica herself. Rather, they spent more time on her “gifts” and the is principally the opportunity to visit sites, see sights, have fun, sorts of work she could do in helping the team prepare for and or otherwise engage in what can be portrayed as tourism-like accomplish their specific projects. The chair did comment that activities.13 The girl quoted above articulated that, in doing she would learn what she would need during the preparation “real missions,” motives of seeing the Dominican Republic were phase of the trip, although follow-up interviews made clear clearly secondary, if not even in tension with what it meant for that little if any time was spent on Costa Rican history, culture, her to “do missions.” or economic information. The strategy of downplaying the relevance of location in favor of “mission work” and a specific attitude toward that Openness work began in the earliest stages of team preparation. During prescreening interviews, questions never went into the specifics Related to the logistic need for flexibility was a theological sig- of culture or context beyond practical issues such as allergies nificance of “openness,” that is, being willing to go wherever the

Archives (www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/guides/646 Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia, as well as in Nigeria, South .htm). Founded in 1959 as a joint committee between the Evan- Africa, and Zambia. In 1965 he attended Vatican Council II as gelical Fellowship of Mission Agencies (EFMA) and Interde- a guest of Misereor Foundation. Beginning in 1974 he taught nominational Foreign Mission Association (IFMA), the ECLA for over twenty-five years at the Institutes of the University of served as a liaison between the two organizations and Latin San Francisco, St. John’s (Jamaica, N.Y.), Yale Divinity School American church leaders for the effective growth of the regional (New Haven, Conn.), Weston (Mass.) Jesuit School of Theol- church, providing assistance through consultation, conferences, ogy, Maryknoll School of Theology (Ossining, N.Y.), Duquesne and research. The committee was disbanded in 1977. University (Pittsburgh, Pa.), Salve Regina University (which The Congregational Library and Archives, Boston, has included the U.S. Naval War College, Newport, R.I.), Nairobi’s compiled an index of obituaries of Congregational clergy and Institute for Development Studies, and Brown University’s missionaries (www.congregationallibrary.org/resources/ Watson Institute for International Studies (Providence, R.I.). necro-search). Patrons may search by last name to find obituar- He was the recipient of many fellowships and awards and ies in Congregational yearbooks and missionary periodicals, the author of numerous books and articles, especially in the most of them from after 1850. fields of missiology, ecclesiology, and social ethics. His noted books include The Church as Mission (1966), Polygamy Recon- Personalia sidered (1975), and Toward an African Christianity: Inculturation Appointed. Graham R. Kings, 55, vicar of St. Mary’s Church, Applied (1993). Islington, London, as bishop of Sherborne, U.K., effective Died. James III, Sinologist and theologian, June 24, 2009. After ordination Kings served as a curate in in Hong Kong, March 20, 2009. The great-grandson of mis- inner city London for four years. In 1985, as a Church Mis- sionary pioneer J. Hudson Taylor, founder of the China Inland sion Society mission partner, he taught theology for seven Mission in 1865, he was born August 12, 1929, in Kaifeng, years at St. Andrew’s College of Theology and Development, Henan, and was raised in China. In June 1955 Taylor and Kabare, an Anglican Church of Kenya affiliate. An IBMR his family arrived in Kao-hsiung, Taiwan, to join the staff of contributing editor, Kings moved to Cambridge in 1992 to Holy Light Bible School, founded that year by his father. The become the first Lecturer in Mission Studies in younger Taylor worked there as a lecturer before succeeding the Cambridge Theological Federation, founding director of his father as principal in 1960. In 1970 he became president of the Henry Martyn Centre for the Study of Mission and World the new China Evangelical Seminary in Taipei. From 1980 to Christianity, and affiliated lecturer in the university’s Faculty 1991 Taylor served as general director of the Overseas Mission- of Divinity. He founded Fulcrum (http://fulcrum-anglican.org ary Fellowship, now OMF International, the mission founded .uk), a network and online journal for evangelical Anglicans by his great-grandfather. He was the first Taylor descendant seeking to renew the center of the evangelical tradition within in this role, and under his leadership OMF saw growth in the . Kings served on the Mission Theological Japan, Philippines, and Hong Kong, as well as in publishing. Advisory Group of the Church of England and the Anglican In 1994 he formed Medical Services International, now MSI Communion Network for Interfaith Concerns. Professional Services, to bring teams of Western professionals Died. H. Eugene Hillman, C.S.Sp., 84, missiologist, author, into China to work on health and community-development and Congregation of the Holy Spirit member, in Bethel Park, projects. He is coauthor of a book on the life of Hudson Taylor’s Pennsylvania, August 5, 2009. A native of Boston, he worked father-in-law, Even to Death: The Life and Legacy of for eighteen years in the missions of East Africa in Tanzania, (OMF, forthcoming).

October 2009 209 leadership deemed it necessary or, phrased more theologically, By framing the GCP trips in terms of poverty (material where God calls. Although the prospective travelers were invited or spiritual), all five trips gained a commonality that not only on the application to give their preference for the team on which obscured significant differences between the teams but also ob- they wished to serve, in most of the interviews the panel asked scured dynamics within particular contexts. Several months after the students some version of “How would you handle it if we the trip to the Dominican Republic, I interviewed team members wanted you to go on another trip?” In none of the interviews I about the experience, asking each person some version of the ques- observed did the applicants define their desire to go in terms of a tion, “What do you feel you’ve learned about Dominican culture?” specific location. Rather, all answered as did this high school girl: A few mentioned something about the importance of family or “Oh, it’s not really important to me where I go. I mean, I’d like community, but each person described the culture as “poor.” One to go to the Dominican, because I’ve heard so much about it and girl, when asked to characterize Dominican culture, said, “I just how it’s a great trip, but I just want to go where God wants me.” learned that Dominicans really live with, like, nothing. They just During one interview an applicant told the committee, “I have to make do with almost nothing. I mean, I know America really just want to be a servant. I don’t care where I go or what is well off or whatever, but when you compare our cultures, it’s I do. I’d be happy just holding kids or washing dishes or any- just so amazing that Dominican culture is just totally poor.” Aside thing. It’s really just about missions.” Given this rhetorical link from the confused conceptual issues of culture versus economics between, on the one hand, true missions as willingness to be (not surprising, given the age of the respondent), the comment flexible and available and, on the other hand, an indifference to is striking given that the team spent its time in a mountain town the destination, it becomes difficult for members of the teams to that serves as a summer getaway for wealthy Dominicans. The ponder the contextual particularities of a trip or to think about team bus regularly passed massive summer homes and elegant reasons other than meeting spiritual or physical needs why they neighborhoods where Lexus SUVs and Mercedes sedans sat in might choose one country over another. the driveways. Many students commented on these at the time, but in retrospect, their memories of “Dominican culture” became Plight-Based Mission paved over with the gloss of “poverty.” Given that the stated purpose in going was to meet the needs of “the poor,” it is not The STM team I accompanied traveled to the Dominican Republic surprising that the entire culture would become characterized to build a second story on an educational center. The center was as poor, providing little in the way of language or conceptual run by a North American Christian development group (spon- framework for identifying or recalling the evidence of economic sored by Central Christian Church), which also hosted our trip. inequality. Few of those reinterviewed months after the trip made any comments about the middle-class and professional life they encountered (if briefly) in visiting a Protestant church, during time in tourist areas, or through the Dominican teachers and Few of those reinterviewed other workers at the ministry where they served. months after the trip made any comments Team Preparation about the middle-class By this point it will not be surprising to learn that pre-trip team and professional life they preparation focused on attitudes and ministry tasks and contained virtually nothing about the location and context to which the team encountered on the trip. was going. After selection or assignment, each team was expected to meet at least monthly to prepare for the trip. The Dominican Republic team chose to work through a curriculum titled Before The center provided after-school care and Christian education to You Pack Your Bag, Prepare Your Heart.14 The booklet provided local children in an impoverished neighborhood. This particular twelve lessons in the form of inductive Bible studies on everything organization has developed an extensive program of hosting from goal setting and defining a purpose for the trip (lesson 1), STM teams, which in turn provide the labor and materials for to cultivating the right attitude (lesson 3), to identifying cultural the work. Each person on the team provided approximately $200 patterns of U.S. behavior and thought (lesson 5), to developing toward the general operating expenses of the ministry, plus pay- good team dynamics (lessons 10 and 11.) The team did not go ing for the materials used in the construction. The team was often through every lesson, although it did several, including lesson told that the various buildings were erected by North American 5, about identifying cultural patterns. What the guide could not teams and how invaluable their work was. “It is only through accomplish, of course, was to provide information specific to the the work of teams like this,” the missionary told us, “that any context of the Dominican Republic. of this exists.” One team—one going to the Czech Republic—did have a Even for GCP teams traveling to wealthier (First World) twenty-minute PowerPoint presentation on Czech history and countries, mission was framed in terms of poverty and need. In culture given by a church member who had traveled there on a the case of trips to Spain and the Czech Republic, the poverty previous mission trip. The Dominican Republic team watched a was framed more in terms of spiritual need than material need, video about the ministry in which it would serve, which included but the language of poverty remained. One leader on the Czech some information about the country, but it was largely ministry- Republic trip, noting the history of the country, specific without much context. saw the trip as “bringing some hope” back to a country that was In addition, the teams were encouraged to attend a work- “spiritually desolate.” Similarly, those traveling to Spain framed shop on evangelism given one evening by the church’s pastor of the work in terms of “the lack of any Christian presence” and evangelism. This workshop, open to the entire congregation, was the need for the team to bring a Christian witness to a country not specific to the short-term mission teams; rather, it was geared where there was “total spiritual poverty.” toward church members generally. The message was particular

210 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 to the North American context, without giving a sense that this • Would it not be desirable to build, at the congregational would need to be adapted to another cultural context. That is level, a partnership approach to short-term missions and not to suggest that those on the trips were not expecting cultural to cultivate specific relationships over the long term, pos- difference (generally), but such workshops served to further sibly involving exchanges in which leaders from partner mute the cultural specificity of the trips—not only between the congregations abroad could visit their counterparts on different trips, but even between ministry in the U.S. context and this continent to serve and learn in their own short-term the sorts of adaptations that might be necessary in the places to mission experiences? which the teams would go. • Finally, should not every trip be framed in terms of the larger missio Dei, the whole mission of God? This would Four Suggestions permit inclusion of relationship-building activities, con- versations with local leaders, and time spent listening How, then, might the most glaring shortcomings of current modus to those in the field, including long-term missionaries. operandi for short-term mission trips be ameliorated, and the trips’ Such reconceptualization, rather than detracting, would positive potential be reinforced and enhanced? The suggestions greatly enhance the “real” work of short-term mission below, framed as questions, seem congruent with experiential teams. education thought generally. They seek to encourage reformation of the ongoing discourse around short-term missions. Conclusion

• Would it not be advisable to spend more time in the These are simply suggestions. It has not been my intention to sug- preparatory phase focusing on, for example, the history, gest that short-term missions are fatally flawed or irredeemable, politics, and religious context of the trip’s destination, theologically or pedagogically. The comparison to tourism may rather than giving attention solely or primarily to prepa- suggest I have a negative view of these trips, but as an anthro- ration for the trip’s “project”? pologist who encourages my students to travel and experience • Could not the return presentation be made more con- cultural difference, nothing could be further from the truth. In structive by deliberately selecting photos that depict order, however, for STM trips to meet the goals of sending bod- local Christians and others in positions of authority and ies and for them to be beneficial to the receiving communities, a power, rather than focusing exclusively on the short-term minimal requirement is surely that the trips foster real connec- team members themselves? tions with real places throughout the world. Notes 1. Robert J. Priest et al., “Researching the Short-Term Mission 10. The theory of linguistic practice as a structuring force of social Movement,” Missiology 34 (October 2006): 431–50. life is most fully developed in the work of Pierre Bourdieu, The 2. This figure comes from the Global Issues Survey conducted by Robert Logic of Practice (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1990), and Wuthnow. See Robert Wuthnow and Stephen Offitt, “Transnational anthropologists such as William Hanks, “Discourse Genres in a Religious Connections,” Sociology of Religion 69, no. 2 (2008): 218. Other Theory of Practice,” American Ethnologist 14 (1987): 668–92. Although researchers, however, have put the figure far higher, as Wuthnow’s I refer to and rely on the theory here, space constraints prevent a data do not include high school students, nor do they necessarily track fuller explanation of these ideas. those who have participated through parachurch or college trips. Cf. 11. Many proponents of STM have claimed that participation in short- Priest et al., “Researching the Short-Term Missions Movement.” See term trips increases the likelihood of career missions, suggesting also A. Scott Moreau, “Short-Term Mission in the Context of Missions, that exposure is both central and influential for the short-term Inc.,” in Effective Engagement in Short-Term Missions: Doing It Right! visitors. See Roger P. Peterson and Timothy D. Peterson, Is Short- ed. Robert J. Priest (Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2008), Term Mission Really Worth the Time and Money? (Minneapolis: pp. 1–33. STEM Ministries, 1991); Paula Harris, “Calling Young People to 3. LeaderTreks, Student Leadership Development Resources, www Missionary Vocations in a ‘Yahoo’ World,” Missiology 30 (2002): .leadertreks.com/trips.asp. 33–50; Susan G. Loobie, “Short-Term Mission: Is It Worth It?” 4. For historical perspective on volunteerism and the individual sense Latin America Evangelist, January–March 2002; Steve Whitner, “The of “call” in mission, see David Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Value of Short-Term Missions,” in Short-Term Missions Today, ed. Shifts in the Theology of Mission (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1991), Bill Barry (Pasadena, Calif.: Into All the World Magazine, 2003), pp. 327–34. pp. 54–58. These findings have been challenged by subsequent 5. Craig Stephen Smith, Whiteman’s Gospel (: Indian Life research; see Priest et al., “Researching the Short-Term Mission Books, 1997), p. 68. Movement,” p. 435. 6. See Stanley Milgram, “The Image Freezing Machine,” Society 14, 12. See Miriam Adeney, “Shalom Tourist: Loving Your Neighbor While no. 1 (November–December 1976): 7–12; also Mark Neumann, Using Her,” Missiology 34 (October 2006): 463–77; also Edwin Zehner, “Making the Scene: The Poetics and Performances of Displacement “Short-Term Missions: Towards a More Field Oriented Approach,” at the Grand Canyon,” in Tourism: Between Place and Performance, ed. Missiology 34 (October 2006): 509–21. Simon Coleman and Mike Crang (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2002), 13. See Erik Cohen, “Pilgrimage and Tourism: Convergence and pp. 38–53. Divergence,” in The Anthropology of Pilgrimage, ed. A. Morinis 7. Carol Crenshaw and John Urry, “Tourism and the Photographic (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 47–61; Brian Howell Eye,” in Touring Cultures: Transformations of Travel and Theory, ed. and Rachel Dorr, “Evangelical Pilgrimage: The Language of Short- Chris Rojek and John Urry (New York: Routledge, 1997), p. 176. Term Missions,” Journal of Communication and Religion 30 (November 8. George Ritzer and Allan Liska, “‘McDisneyization’ and ‘Post- 2007): 236–65. Tourism’: Complementary Perspectives on Contemporary Tourism,” 14. Cindy Judge, Before You Pack Your Bag, Prepare Your Heart: Short-Term in Touring Cultures, ed. Rojek and Urry, pp. 96–109. Mission Preparation Guide, with Twelve Bible Studies Plus Trip Journal 9. Terry Linhart, “They Were So Alive! The Spectacle Self and Youth (Wheaton, Ill.: Campfire Resources, 2000). Group Short-Term Mission Trips,” Missiology 34 (October 2006): 452.

October 2009 211 Ignace Partui: Iroquois Evangelist to the Salish, ca. 1780–1837 John C. Mellis

t is perhaps amazing that Christianity has survived at all who bore them two sons—Charles, born around 1821, and Fran- Iamong the indigenous peoples of North America when cis Xavier, around 1825—life began to change for the Iroquois. one considers the pain, abuse, and broken promises brought by Competition intensified between the North West and Hudson Bay so-called Christian civilization over the past five hundred years. Companies. In 1823 the British Parliament legislated a settlement A prominent native leader once quipped, “We accepted Jesus to end their “fur war,” and under the newly reconstituted Hud- but got the church!”1 Yet as native Christians and their respec- son Bay Company the Iroquois no longer had unlimited access tive churches struggle to find healing, there are surprising signs back to their home villages in the east. Moreover, their livelihood that the Good News of Jesus has not been rejected. Rather, the was increasingly squeezed by new company policies, reaching healing of past hurts is being sought from deep within Christian the point that during the winter of 1825 most of the Iroquois and traditional sources. In that search, the congruity between the defected, deciding instead to cast their lot with Jedediah Smith Christian message and traditional teachings, which first attracted of the American Fur Company, which operated out of St. Louis many First Nations of this continent to Christian faith, is being and Kansas City, Missouri. explored with renewed interest.2 Through this new relation, Ignace came to learn that “black- Ignace Partui exemplifies this natural, perhaps spontaneous, robed teachers” (i.e., Jesuits) lived in St. Louis, as well as in his transmission of the Gospel among indigenous peoples of North home village near Montreal. Even though getting to Montreal America. Ignace was an Iroquois storyteller and voyageur whose was no longer a possibility, a new way seemed to be opening up fervent commitment to the Christian faith sparked the interest to seek them out in St. Louis. All these events converged during of an entire nation years before any European missionaries had the summer of 1831, when, on their annual buffalo hunt, the ventured into the headwaters of the Missouri and Snake Rivers. Flathead Salish and their Nez Percé neighbors decided to send Scattered references to him are found in diaries and journals that, a small group to St. Louis to investigate these legendary teach- when put together, tell quite a story. ers and to request instruction from them. The small delegation could travel with the American Fur Company’s caravan, which Iroquois Voyageurs returned there each fall to deliver the season’s furs from the sum- mer Rendezvous on the Green River (in what is now southwestern Sometime around 1816, not long after European explorers (e.g., Wyoming). The Rendezvous, started by the Rocky Mountain Fur Lewis, Clarke, Fraser, and Thompson) first traversed the conti- Company in 1825, was an annual gathering for trappers where nent of North America, twenty-four Iroquois fur trappers came they could exchange pelts for supplies. It quickly became a major to settle among the Flathead Salish in the Bitterroot Valley of social event of the region. present-day southwestern Montana. These trappers, under the auspices of the North West Company, came from villages near The Search for Black Robes Montreal. They were led by Ignace Partui, whose nickname La Mousse (Big Ignace) suggested something about his stature Motivated by Ignace’s stories, the two tribes chose six people and supported his reputation for being both honest and gentle.3 (three from each tribe) to make the arduous pilgrimage to St. Louis Although little is known about his early life, he became known to try to make contact with the Black Robes. At the last minute among the Salish for the wealth of stories he would recall from another young Nez Percé man volunteered as well, enlarging his childhood spent in the Jesuit village of Caughnawaga—stories the group to seven. Although the three Salish returned before about God, the beautiful ceremonies, and the black-robed teach- reaching their destination, the other four members of the party ers who taught him those stories.4 arrived in St. Louis early that fall. Sadly, two of them died shortly The Flathead chief at that time, Tjolzhitsay, had a reputation after their arrival, and another died on the way home. The young for kindness that extended even to his enemies. He welcomed man who had volunteered at the last minute was the only one to the Iroquois and listened intently to all that Big Ignace said, often make it back to his tribe to recount the story. Nevertheless, the long into the night. Ignace’s references to black-robed teachers request for Christian instruction had been delivered. even echoed a number of Salish legends that anticipated their The seed in fact fell on fertile soil—though not initially with future arrival.5 One day someone asked Ignace, “Why don’t the Jesuits. General William Clark, who had traveled through those Black Robes of whom you so often speak also come to us?” Salish territory in 1805 and 1806 with Meriwether Lewis, took a Ignace replied, “Why don’t you seek them? You will find them great interest in the delegation from the mountains. Despite the in the lands of the suyápi [white people], and I am certain that language barrier, he seemed to understand the spiritual nature they would come if you would seek them.”6 of their quest and introduced them to both Catholics and Prot- As Ignace settled into Salish life, marrying a Salish woman estants in St. Louis. The two who died there did so in the care of Catholic priests at the cathedral. On the basis of their devo- John C. Mellis, an Anglican priest, has served for tion to the crucifix during their illness, both were baptized and 7 twenty years in pastoral work and theological educa- given full Christian burials. Fascinated by their presence and tion with native peoples in Canada and the United quest, Protestants published their story in the Christian Advocate States. Currently he is the Provost of Queen’s College (March 1, 1833) as a “Macedonian call,” which in turn sparked Faculty of Theology in St. John’s, Newfoundland and widespread interest. Labrador. —[email protected] During the next few years both tribes eagerly waited for a re- sponse. Evidence from missionary diaries suggests that Big Ignace and Chief Insula of the Salish both attended the Rendezvous in

212 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 1834, where they met the Methodist missionaries Jason Lee and Nonetheless, Big Ignace decided to accompany Gray and Daniel Lee (Jason’s nephew). The Lees, however, did not accept Tjolzhitsay’s two sons on their trip back east. Two other Flatheads their invitation to accompany them home, despite assurances of and a Nez Percé nicknamed “The Hat” went with them. Against an openness and desire to learn. The next year, at the Rendezvous the better judgment of others, Gray decided not to wait for the in 1835, Chief Insula and an older shaman named Chalax met two caravan that was returning to St. Louis for supplies. Instead, he Presbyterians, Marcus Whitman and Samuel Parker. Although pressed on ahead with his own little group. At Fort Laramie he Whitman and Parker chose to settle further west among the Nez was warned to wait, since some hostile tribes had recently killed Percé, Insula and the other Flatheads joined the escort for them a man nearby. Gray would not listen and went ahead. Just a few on their own way back home, at least as far as Pierre’s Hole, on days out, at a place called Ash Hollow, he asked two of his com- the border of present-day Idaho and Wyoming.8 panions to investigate what looked like buffalo. Instead of buffalo, Meanwhile Big Ignace made plans to take his two sons to St. however, they found a Sioux warrior who began circling them Louis to be baptized—plans alluded to in his conversation with on his horse, a signal to his companions, who quickly arrived Jason Lee in 1834. The trio did make the trip in 1835, arriving on at full gallop. The warrior ordered Gray’s group to accompany December 2 at the Jesuit seminary in Florissant, near St. Louis. them to their village. Gray refused, and he and “The Hat” broke In his journal Father Ferdinand Helias described Ignace as “very for the river, followed by the others. Although they all made it tall of stature and of grave, modest, and refined deportment.” He across, so did the warriors, and, once on the other side, Gray’s estimated Charles’s age as fourteen, and Francis Xavier’s as ten. horse was shot from under him.11 Helias instructed the boys in French while Ignace translated for As Ignace and the others prepared to make a stand, Gray set them into Salish. Ignace then knelt with them during their baptism, his rifle aside and walked forward to talk. The warriors kept firing, tears of joy and thanksgiving streaming down his face.9 which forced him to retreat. Suddenly, a Canadian trader travel- ing with the Sioux appeared. He asked how many whites were in the party. Gray answered “three” U.S. Great Plains, circa. 1830 and was told that the three should step forward immediately or all would be killed. Gray asked to CAN A DA meet the trader halfway and told Ignace and the two whites to accompany him while the rest stayed Pacific Coast Missouri 475 miles back. The two followed Gray, but Ignace refused ! Bitterroot Valley to leave his comrades, especially the sons of Chief Yellowstone Tjolzhitsay. Then, while Gray and the trader were

Mississippi still talking, the warriors suddenly rushed past them !Pierre's Hole toward Ignace and his companions, who defended S n a ke themselves as best they could. The small band killed North P la three of the Sioux warriors, but soon Ignace, “The t t Mi ! e sso Fort Laramie u ri Ash Hollow Hat,” and all the Flatheads, including the chief’s ! Council Bluffs 12 tte ! two sons, lay dying in the prairie grass. P la n e Montreal and e r Caughnawaga G 1,100 miles Westport The Search Continues !( Florissant Kansas City !( Mis Colorado sou St. Louis ri Mississippi As a result, William Gray never did establish a mission among the Flatheads, nor did he ever quite Map by Global Mapping International live down the reputation he acquired for abandon- ing those entrusted to his care. Chief Tjolzhitsay, Following the ceremony Ignace shared his whole story. He together with the whole tribe, mourned the death of his two told Helias about the seven tribes, with a combined population sons and of Old Ignace, who had been so eager to have black- of six thousand, who asked him to bring a Black Robe to them. robed teachers. Despite the loss of his sons and his friend Ignace, Twice he asked that the boys might stay at the college, and offered Tjolzhitsay, a deeply spiritual man and no stranger to hardship, to pay what he could. But nothing came of either request. After enlisted help from the remaining Iroquois as he continued his spending the winter with some of his fellow Iroquois who had quest for the Black Robes, unwavering in his desire for their “retired” in Westport (near Kansas City), Ignace and his two sons teaching that Ignace’s stories had awakened in him. returned home to the mountains in the spring of 1836. Of the original twenty-four Iroquois who moved west, only four remained among the Flathead. In the spring of 1839, two of Tragedy on the Prairie them, Pierre Gauché (“Left-Handed Peter”) and Le Jeune Ignace (“Young Ignace”), volunteered for yet another mission to request That same spring the Presbyterians who settled among the Nez a black-robed teacher.13 From the Rendezvous, they accompanied Percé traveled back east and in the fall returned with their wives. the fur traders down the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers. Near Chief Tjolzhitsay had become acquainted with one of them, Wil- Council Bluffs (on the Missouri River, in western Iowa) they liam Gray, who was working among a neighboring Salish tribe, visited the Jesuits living among the Potawatomis. There they the Spokane. In the spring of 1837 Tjolzhitsay arranged for Gray met Father Pierre De Smet, who listened intently to their story to take his two sons back east to receive religious instruction. and gave them letters to present to his superiors in St. Louis. In Ignace, being a bit suspicious of the Presbyterians, tried to tell his diary he wrote, “I have never seen any [tribes] so fervent in the chief that Gray and the others were not true Black Robes, religion. By their instructions and examples they have given all since the ones he knew in Caughnawaga and in St. Louis were that nation a great desire to have themselves baptized.”14 not married.10 A month later, when Pierre and Young Ignace were in St. Louis,

October 2009 213 they talked with Father Verhaegen and Bishop Rosati, who were country to meet the caravan on the Yellowstone River. Outside as impressed as De Smet had been with their understanding of his tent, in the early morning light, De Smet led them once more the Christian faith and with their ability to express it in French. in the morning prayers, urging them to serve Kaikolinzoetin After making their confessions and receiving Holy Communion faithfully. Chief Tjolzhitsay then rose to his feet and offered a in the cathedral, the two Iroquois were confirmed by the bishop, heart-felt farewell: who expressed the hope that he could soon provide them with a priest.15 The following day they left for the Iroquois-Flathead Black Robe, may Kaikolinzoetin accompany you in your long and dangerous journey. We will pray evening and morning that you may arrive safe among your brothers at St. Louis. We will continue to pray until you return. . . . When the snows disappear from the The Iroquois fur trader valleys, after the winter, when the grass begins to be green again, and storyteller played a our hearts, so sad at present, will begin to rejoice. As the grass grows higher, our joy will become greater; but when the flowers pivotal role in introducing appear, we will set out to come and meet you. Farewell.19 the Salish people to the The following year (1841) De Smet returned with five Jesuit Christian faith. companions. Four years after Ignace Partui’s death his dream was fulfilled. His adopted family the Flatheads now had Black Robes living among them. Not only were Ignace’s sons baptized, settlement in Westport. There Ignace spent the winter waiting but many others as well—nearly 200 on the feast of St. Francis for the Black Robe’s promised arrival and the departure of the Xavier (December 3, 1841), including Chief Insula, who was spring caravan to the mountains. Pierre, however, immediately named “Michael” for his brave and gentle spirit. On Christmas started for home, hoping to reach the tribe in time to arrange a Day 150 more were baptized. Within that week, the great chief welcome for Young Ignace and the Black Robe at the summer and shaman Chalax, “Peter,” received last rites, becoming the Rendezvous on the Green River. first Flathead to receive Communion. As he requested, he was wrapped in the red prayer flag he raised each Sunday and was A Joyful Welcome buried at the foot of a large cross standing on the site chosen for the new church, St. Mary’s. By the time Pierre arrived home in the Bitterroot Valley, it was too late to arrange for the entire camp to meet the Black Robe at Unless a Seed Fall to the Earth . . . the Rendezvous. But Chief Tjolzhitsay sent ten warriors to meet him and escort him back to Pierre’s Hole for a proper welcome. For five years the Flathead made great strides incorporating both Meanwhile, Father De Smet met Ignace in Westport as promised the Gospel and the Black Robes into the life of their tribe. By and traveled west with him in the caravan. At the Rendezvous of 1846 a number of other Salish tribes had also embraced the Good 1840, the warriors greeted De Smet with tears of joy and gratitude, News brought by the Black Robes. Even some Blackfoot tribes eagerly recounting how miraculously they had been delivered responded by asking for their own Black Robe. But just when during a five-day battle with two hundred Blackfoot warriors. De things seemed to be going so well, they began to fall apart. Smet responded with prayers of thanksgiving and protection.16 Settlers and traders were now pouring into the area, claim- A week later he arrived at the summer camp in Pierre’s Hole ing land and bringing strange new diseases and other adverse to another enthusiastic welcome. Hardly was his tent in place influences, including new access to vices that undermined the before men, women, and children began arriving to shake his moral fiber of the culture. Jesuit missionaries arriving later hand. Elders wept and children leaped with excitement as he was refused to accompany the Flathead on their extended hunting led to the chief’s tent. All grew quiet as Tjolzhitzay spoke: expeditions. Upset with the inevitable skirmishes with other tribes who competed with the Salish for a dwindling supply of Black Robe, you are welcome in my nation. Today Kyleéeyou has buffalo, these missionaries tried to advocate a more sedentary fulfilled our wishes. Our hearts are big, for our great desire is grati- (and “civilized”) agricultural life for the Flathead. Also, if the fied. . . . We have several times sent our people to the great Black Black Robes were to have joined the hunt, the tribe members in Robe at St. Louis that he might send us a priest to speak with us. Speak, Black Robe, we will follow the words of your mouth.17 the village would have been left without their moral and religious support for significant periods of time. And without warriors in For the next month De Smet accompanied the Flathead as the village, those who remained were vulnerable to enemy raids. they moved north on their annual buffalo hunt. Each time they The Flathead elders, especially one named Victor, remained loyal camped, he called them together, four times a day, for prayer to the Black Robes, but he found himself increasingly alienated and instruction. Before leaving he baptized nearly six hundred from a younger generation of leaders. Finally in 1850, following some devastating enemy raids, the Jesuits decided to abandon people, including the two elderly chiefs. The aging shaman 20 Chalax spoke before being baptized: what they had established as the St. Mary’s Mission. Although the seed planted among the Flathead seemed to die, When I was young, and even as I became old, I was plunged in it continues to live, there and throughout the Salish nation. The profound ignorance of good and evil, and in that period I must Coeur d’Alene tribe still hosts an annual pilgrimage on August no doubt have displeased [Kaikolinzoetin]; I sincerely implore 15—the Feast of St. Mary—at the Cataldo Mission to celebrate pardon of him.18 their cultural heritage, their Christian faith, and, as foretold in their legends, the arrival of “a black-robed man with crossed Chalax was baptized “Peter,” and Tjolzhitsay, “Paul.” sticks” who would bring “news of . . . a savior of the world.”21 When the time came for De Smet to return, three chiefs Today we rightly celebrate the lives of missionaries like Father and seventeen select warriors escorted him through Blackfoot De Smet and the other Jesuits who generously responded to the

214 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 Salish request. But in many respects it was their privilege to reap ancient legends spoke. In the process Ignace traveled half a con- the harvest already sown by the Holy Spirit in the hearts of Chief tinent to assure that his own sons were baptized. And he gave Tjolzhitsay and his people through Old Ignace. his life trying to protect the lives of Chief Tjolzhitsay’s sons. No For the Salish people, the Iroquois fur trader and storyteller doubt the time has come to honor Ignace Partui, not only as an Ignace Partui played a pivotal role in introducing them to the evangelist to the Salish, but as one who lived and proclaimed the Christian faith and to the black-robed teachers of whom their faith that drew him as a child and that he loved as an adult.

Notes 1. Rev. Mervin Wolfleg, at the Anglican Council of Indigenous Peoples, Mallett, “The Origin of the Flathead Mission of the Rocky Moun- Lethbridge, Alberta, June 1997. tains,” Records of the American Catholic Historical Society (Philadel- 2. Homer Noley includes a number of such stories in his chapter “The phia) 2 (1888): 194. Interpreters” in Native American Religious Identity: Unforgotten Gods, ed. 10. Mellis, “Coyote People,” p. 129; see also Alvin Josephy, The Nez Perce Jace Weaver (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1998), pp. 48–60. See also Indians and the Opening of the Northwest (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, James Treat, Native and Christian: Indigenous Voices on Religious Identity 1965), pp. 143, 166–68. in the United States and Canada (New York: Routledge, 1996). 11. Bernard A. DeVoto, Across the Wide Missouri (Boston: Houghton 3. In 1839 two of the Iroquois, nicknamed Le Jeune Ignace (“Young Mifflin, 1947; repr., 1964), pp. 330–33. The battle took place August Ignace”) and Pierre Gauché (“Left-Handed Peter”), told Bishop 7, 1837. For other sources on this encounter see notes in Mellis, Rosati of St. Louis that twenty-four of them had settled with the “Coyote People,” pp. 130–31. Flathead Salish around 1816, led by Ignace La Mousse (“Big Ignace”) 12. Gray seems to have included Ignace among the whites in his count. (John Rothensteiner, “The Flat-Head and Nez Perce Delegation to St. One later report suggests that the Sioux would have spared the group Louis, 1831–1839,” St. Louis Catholic Historical Review 2 [1920]: 188). had they known they were Flatheads (Mellis, “Coyote People,” With Ignace’s leadership and seniority in mind, I have estimated pp. 130–31). that when he arrived in 1816, he was about thirty-six years of age. 13. Le Jeune Ignace is clearly a different person from Ignace Partui, who For more in connection with the early presence of Ignace and other following his death became known as Le Vieux (“Old”) Ignace. Both Iroquois among the Flatheads, see John Mellis, “Coyote People and of them were among the twenty-four Iroquois who settled among the the Black Robes: Indigenous Roots of Salish Christianity” (Ph.D. Salish, making them somewhat contemporary, though the nicknames diss., St. Louis Univ., 1992), pp. 59–64. were likely used to distinguish them from each other, perhaps also 4. References to Ignace’s conversations with the Salish are found in indicating Partui as the elder of the two. Gregory Mengarini, Recollections of the Flathead Mission, trans. and 14. Hiram Martin Chittenden and Alfred Talbot Richardson, Life, Letters, ed. Gloria Ricci Lothrop (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clark, 1977), and Travels of Father Pierre-Jean De Smet, S.J., 1801–1873, 4 vols. (New pp. 172–73. York: Francis P. Harper, 1905), 1:13–18, 29–30. 5. For further reference to these legends about Circling Raven (Coeur 15. Garraghan, Jesuits, 2:248–50. d’Alene) and Shining Shirt (Flathead), see Mellis, “Coyote People,” 16. Chittenden and Richardson, De Smet, 1:220; also see Lawrence B. pp. 53–59. Palladino, Indian and White in the Northwest (Baltimore: John Murphy, 6. According to Mengarini the Flatheads referred to white people as 1984), p. 24. soiapi (Recollections, p. 173). Francis Haines thought that suyápi was 17. These events and the speech are based on three different accounts likely a variation on the Nez Percé word soyappo, meaning “crowned by De Smet, two in Chittenden and Richardson, De Smet, 1:223–24, ones” or “people with hats” (The Nez Percés: Tribesmen of the Columbia 263, and one in E. Laveille, The Life of Father De Smet, S.J. (1801–1873), Plateau [Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1955], p. 27). trans. Marian Lindsay (New York: P. J. Kennedy & Sons, 1915), 7. See Gilbert J. Garraghan, The Jesuits of the Middle United States, 3 vols. p. 108. (New York: America Press, 1938), 2:237–38. Bishop Rosati’s letter 18. Chittenden and Richardson, De Smet, 1:226. The addition in brackets and the men’s burial records can be found in Edmond Mallett, “The is from Laveille, Life, p. 110. Origin of the Flathead Mission of the Rocky Mountains,” Records of the 19. Chittenden and Richardson, De Smet, 1:227, with variation by Laveille, American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia 2 (1888): 189–90. Life, pp. 112–13. 8. Mellis, “Coyote People,” pp. 120–25; see also “The Diary of Jason 20. For further analysis of the circumstances leading to the closing Lee,” Oregon Historical Quarterly 17 (1916): 138–42; Samuel Parker, of St. Mary’s, see Mellis, “Coyote People,” pp. 200–209. For Journal of an Exploring Tour Beyond the Rocky Mountains (Ithaca, current information on the historic St. Mary’s Mission, see www. N.Y.: Mack, Andrews & Woodruff, 1838), pp. 77, 88–91; Marcus saintmarysmission.org/FatherDeSmet.html. Whitman, “Journal and Report by Dr. Marcus Whitman of His Tour 21. In 1992 Peter Campbell, a Salish holy man who taught in the American of Exploration with Rev. Samuel Parker in 1835 Beyond the Rocky Indian Studies Program at Eastern Washington University in Cheney, Mountains,” ed. F. S. Young, Oregon Historical Quarterly 28 (1927): Washington, first told me of the annual commemorations held 248. at the Cataldo Mission, in Cataldo, Idaho. For brief descriptions 9. See Gilbert J. Garraghan, The Jesuits of the Middle United States, 3 of this yearly pilgrimage, see www.indiancountrytoday.com/ vols. (New York: America Press, 1938), 2:246–47. The entry from the archive/28180129.html and www.companysj.com/sjusa/040925 baptismal register at St. Louis University is published in Edmond .htm#gonzagauniversitystudents.

Post Positions Available Online

As a free service to readers of the International Bulletin of hundred words including Web and e-mail links back to the Missionary Research, the Overseas Ministries Study Center details on your Web site. Positions Open will be listed for four maintains an online listing of mission-related Positions Open. months and may be renewed. Send notices of positions open Summarize a proposed announcement in fewer than one to Daniel Nicholas, managing editor, [email protected].

October 2009 215 Book Reviews

The World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh 1910.

By Brian Stanley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009. Pp. xxii, 352. Paperback $45.

The Edinburgh missionary conference Bishop Charles Gore and Walter Frere. these fascinating and outstanding Chris- of 1910 has achieved iconic status in But there was a price to pay: not only the tian statesmen, theologians, pastors, and Protestant historical consciousness. It formal exclusion of questions of church educators. Africa was much talked about provides a unique snapshot of the modern unity, but the actual exclusion of Protestant at the conference, but only one delegate European and American missionary mission work in South America and the from that continent, Christian Casely movement at the height of its power division of the world conceptually into Hayford, actually attended (though and self-confidence. As the centenary “Christian lands” (largely European) and there were some African Americans). approaches, it is appropriate that Brian “the mission field” (all the rest). Africa, according to the dominant racial Stanley, director of the Centre for the One of the great values of Stanley’s categorization, was deemed to be at Study of Christianity in the Non-Western work is to show how, even in 1910, this a “lower” stage of development than World at Edinburgh University, should triumphalist imaginaire was already col- the civilizations of Asia. But Stanley’s have written this account of the origins, lapsing. Notoriously, Edinburgh 1910 was book rightly shows how the time-bound proceedings, and impact of Edinburgh a conference of “foreign” missionaries; goals and aspirations of the missionary 1910. It is a magnificent labor of love, indigenous Christians were regarded movement were already being redirected beautifully written, based on painstaking by cash-strapped mission societies as a and subverted, even as they were research in archives scattered throughout “dubious and expensive luxury” (p. 104). celebrated in Edinburgh. North America and Europe, and replete Nevertheless, eighteen delegates from This book is essential reading for with acute observation and analysis. Asia (China, Japan, Korea, and India) all who, one hundred years later, wish Given the centrality of this event in the did attend. One of the most fascinating to understand the worldwide scope and birth of the modern ecumenical movement, sections of the book consists of the mission of contemporary Christianity. Stanley notes how ironic it is that questions biographies of these men—the Korean —Kevin Ward of faith and order were rigorously excluded delegate, Yuin Ch’Iho, for example, was from the agenda of the actual conference. subsequently arrested for his participation Kevin Ward is Senior Lecturer of African Religious This was essential to secure Anglo-Catholic in the Christian nationalist movement Studies in the University of Leeds. He is a trustee of participation. Joe Oldham, the organizing that opposed the Japanese occupation of the Church Missionary Society and a member of the secretary, was successful in gaining the his country. Stanley magnificently shows General Synod of the Church of England. For sixteen wholehearted and positive participation the profound importance, theologically years he was a CMS mission partner in Uganda. of such Anglican High Churchmen as and practically, of the contribution of

Christian Mission: How missionaries. Although she discusses Christianity Became a World the many shortcomings and critiques Religion. of Christian missions, especially its role within the structures of a brutal European By Dana L. Robert. Chichester, West Sussex, colonial and imperial system, hers is U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Pp xi, 214. £45 fundamentally a sympathetic account. She / $89.95 / €54; paperback £14.99 / $23.95 / sees postcolonial discourse as providing €18. “a new and exciting theoretical space in which to re-evaluate” missions (p. 96). She This latest entry in Blackwell’s Brief is not a peripheral subject but central to finds the concept of “hybridity” especially Histories of Religions Series is a masterful the history and theology of Christianity useful to move beyond seeing missionaries survey of mission in Christian history because Christianity is a “sending” religion and converts as agents of colonialism from the very origins of the religion to in fulfillment of Christ’s final command instead of as the bridges to the more the present. The depth and breadth of to “make disciples of all nations.” Hence “indigenous” and “intercultural” world scholarship that underpin this work are mission was at the core of the formation Christianity of today. This approach, which worn lightly and never intrude on the of Christianity as a religion distinct from confuses means with ends, will inevitably narrative. This study provides an excellent the Judaism from which it sprang. Even provide for lively debate. starting point for further exploration more important, Robert argues that it The study is divided into two parts: of the main themes and controversies was the actual history of missions from the survey history and three thematic surrounding the missionary enterprise. the fifteenth century onward that made it chapters. The themes are mission and It should be required reading for any possible for Christianity to evolve from a politics/empire, women in missions, and undergraduate course on Christianity or Mediterranean/West Asian and European conversion and Christian community. world religions. religion into a genuinely global and Her theses are most fully developed in Most impressively for a survey multicultural religion of the twenty-first the thematic part, and throughout she text, Robert has developed a clear and century, in which the South is dominant, draws most heavily from her expertise on compelling thesis: that mission history and yesterday’s converts are today’s Africa. While understandable, that choice

216 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 is sometimes limiting. For example, as a balance to the discussion of missionaries as WESLEYAN agents of imperialism, she describes their role in the antislavery campaign. Inclusion of the more complex and tortured history WORLD MISSION of China missionaries and the opium trade might have provided a more nuanced picture. Yet in itself this example shows how this text can be most fruitfully used to teach a topic that remains contested. his volume is a veritable —Margo S. Gewurtz T‘Who’s Who’ of Wesleyan Margo S. Gewurtz is Professor Emerita of missiologists which promises to Humanities, York University, Toronto. She has be one of the most important published numerous essays on Canadian mission- books in Protestant missiology to aries in China and their Chinese coworkers. be published during this decade. It will be a classic text read by pastors, missionaries, mission executives and students of mission Transformation After Lausanne: the world over. It will be required Radical Evangelical Mission in reading in my missions courses.” Global-Local Perspective.

By Al Tizon. Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, —Charles Van Engen 2008. Pp. xix, 281. Paperback $36. Professor of Biblical Theology of Mission Tizon is assistant professor of evangel- Fuller Theological Seminary ism and holistic ministry at Palmer Theological Seminary, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, and director of Word and his volume represents a significant milestone in mission studies Deed Network. His book discusses the Tand fills a void in the scholarly literature in missiology.The editors understanding and practice of Christian have assembled an impressive list of international contributors. This mission promulgated by a group of evangelicals who coalesced during tour de force makes World Mission in the Wesleyan Spirit a the 1970s and early 1980s and became veritable goldmine. It is a magnificent service to world Christianity!” enormously influential in the decades that followed. The argument at Lausanne —Tite Tiénou and afterward about the meaning, nature, and breadth of Christian mission has been Dean and Professor of Theology of Mission largely successful, something that was not Trinity Evangelical Divinity School a foregone conclusion at the time. There are heroes to Tizon’s story. his edited volume represents a diversity of voices from different Significantly, they came largely from places thought in the mid-twentieth Tbackgrounds, and comes at a pivotal moment in the history of century to be on the margins. The villains the world Christian movement as the offspring in many ways of the on stage are few. Tizon provides informed interpretation of pivotal conferences, missionary movement. While the work is a worthy tribute to the organizations, internal communications, vision of John Wesley it is equally importantly a manifesto of proclamations, and confrontations that modern times.” occurred along the path. —Lamin Sanneh Transformation in this account is Professor of Missions and World Christianity multivalent. It has to do with mission that transforms the bearers of the missionary Yale University message, as well as those to whom it is directed. And it involves transforming truncated conceptions of mission. Not Available from the publisher at 1-800-321-5692 or at all least, it concerns the founding of www.providencehouse.com. Distributed by Ingram the journal Transformation and related entities as vehicles for expressing the new Book Group and Baker & Taylor perspective. By the time Tizon comes to present the Philippine context, where he served for a Edited by Darrell L.Whiteman and Gerald H.Anderson decade as a missionary in the 1990s, he has already established a pattern of interflow between the local and the global. As René 978-1-57736-424-5 • 376pp • $24.95 Padilla, Samuel Escobar, Tito Paredes, and many others brought understandings of

October 2009 217 the Gospel nurtured in local settings to through global reflection and discernment, global conventions and shared them, and the Philippine account integrates and Eastern as they took enriched perspectives back to anchors the argument of the work. be put into practice in their own locales, Transformation After Lausanne is a only to return to other regional and global substantive study of a significant theme offers convocations with an understanding of and movement. I strongly recommend it. the Gospel and mission enlarged and —Dwight P. Baker deepened by further experience at the local education that level, so did Philippine mission leaders. In Dwight P. Baker is Associate Director of the Overseas illustrating as it does the way that mission Ministries Study Center and Associate Editor of as transformation is grounded in local the International Bulletin of Missionary transforms experience, even while being enriched Research. lives.

Buddhism: A Christian Exploration and Appraisal.

By Keith Yandell and Harold Netland. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2009. Pp. xvii, 230. Paperback $22.

This is an exceptional book for at least two Which brings us to the most remark- reasons. First, it succeeds in summarizing able contribution of this introduction to the entire sweep of Buddhism’s historical Buddhism. In the genre of introductory development. The story begins in India books on Buddhism, one can find scores (Nepal) with Siddharta Gautama (the of religious studies books that succeed to Buddha) and spreads to Southeast Asia, one degree or another in summarizing the China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, Mongolia, buddhadharma. And one can find quite a Europe, and the West. Second, the authors large number of missional books aimed manage to give readers an accurate at critiquing Buddhism from a Christian summary of basic Buddhist teachings: point of view—and even suggesting ways the Four Noble Truths, then Theravada, a Christian might talk about his or her Mahayana, Zen, and Vajrayana. It is faith to a Buddhist. This book is rare in especially strong in summarizing what that it manages to do both and do both Buddhism has become, and is becoming, well. It is an accurate, fair, respectful pre- in the West. sentation of Buddhism. But the authors For a short book to be able to both sincerely believe that Christianity summarize the history and teachings of a is the better religion. They say that also, world religion as complex as Buddhism fairly and accurately, and in a way that is a remarkable accomplishment. The does not diminish the picture painted approach Yandell and Netland take is of Buddhism. That is to say, this is an especially satisfying for its Christian honest book all the way around. Highly audience because this is what Christians recommended. value most in their own tradition—history —Terry C. Muck and doctrine. Buddhists themselves Eastern offers undergradu- perhaps would consider practice— Terry C. Muck is Dean and Professor of Mission ate and graduate degree especially meditation—to be a more and World Religion at the E. Stanley Jones School important focus. But this book, as the title of World Mission and Evangelism of Asbury programs that prepare stu- indicates, is a Christian exploration and Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky. dents to become effective appraisal of Buddhism. leaders committed to trans- forming the lives of people thoughout the world. The New Shape of World faith � reason � justice Christianity: How American Experience Reflects Global Faith.

Mark A. Noll. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2009. Pp. 212. $25.

“What, in fact, has been the American Christianity?” (p. 67). These are the role in creating the new shape of world questions that Mark A. Noll, professor of 800.732.7669 Christianity and what is now the relation history at the University of Notre Dame, of American Christianity to world considers in his insightful and provocative

218 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 book The New Shape of World Christianity: The Mission and Death of Jesus in How American Experience Reflects Global Islam and Christianity. Faith. Noll’s thesis is straightforward: recent transformations in Christianity By A. H. Mathias Zahniser. Maryknoll, N.Y.: around the world are not the result of Orbis Books, 2008. Pp. xv, 268. Paperback direct American influence. Rather, global $35. Christianity increasingly resembles American Christianity because much of The author of this book, professor emeritus the nature of Jesus’ mission and his death. the world “is coming more and more to of history of religions at Asbury Seminary, Evidence for this disagreement appears look like America” (p. 189). Wilmore, Kentucky, is now teaching at in the Qur’an and in the earliest debates While acknowledging that American Greenville College, Greenville, Illinois. between them from the ninth century. military, monetary, and missionary Christians and Muslims have Understandably, a lot has been written on efforts have had substantial effects on historically differed on the question of this subject. Christian positions on these the development of global faith, Noll insists that the history of American Christianity is far more significant for understanding how Christianity is taking shape in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. These regions, Noll argues, are RECENT BOOKS from EERDMANS undergoing social and cultural changes similar to those that marked American CHRISTIAN IDENTITY AND DALIT experience during the nineteenth century. RELIGION IN HINDU INDIA, 1868–1947 As globalization continues to transform Chad M. Bauman conditions in the non-Western world, Christians in nations like India, South Studies in the History of Christian Missions Korea, and Brazil are embracing forms of “An exemplary case study and a good deal the faith that reflect the new realities of more. . . . A valuable resource for theory and their increasingly competitive, market- oriented, and modernizing societies. methodology, much needed in a field where Just as nineteenth-century Americans portable models are still in short supply.” fashioned a Christianity that fit with — Richard Fox Young the individualistic, entrepreneurial, and ISBN 978-0-8028-6276-1 • 288 pages egalitarian spirit of the fledgling United paperback • $40.00 States, so too are Christians in the Majority World stressing the importance of personal choice, innovation, and voluntarism. MONASTICISM, BUDDHIST Taking this argument a step further, AND CHRISTIAN Noll suggests that churches (and mission- The Korean Experience ary programs) that adopt and promote Sunghae Kim and James W. Heisig, editors the “voluntary pattern”—becoming self- supporting, self-propagating, and self- Louvain Theological and Pastoral Monographs governing—are more likely to flourish By engaging experts in the monastic traditions than those that assume a necessary link of the two religions, attention is drawn to a between church and state. striking number of similarities both in general Noll’s cogent study carefully nuances interpretations of missions history that aspirations to a life of devotion as well as in condemn or celebrate American influence the specific content of spiritual practice. abroad, presenting a more complex picture ISBN 978-0-8028-6375-1 • 206 pages of the emergence and development of paperback • $45.00 contemporary world Christianity. —Heather D. Curtis ISLAM, FRIEND OR FOE? Heather D. Curtis is Assistant Professor of Religion Emilio Platti at Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts. Louvain Theological and Pastoral Monographs Platti’s book engages both classical and contemporary readings of the Islamic tradition and offers a nuanced, challenging view not Please beware of bogus renewal only of its past but also of its present and the notices. A genuine IBMR renewal directions it might take in the years ahead. notice will have a return address of Denville, NJ 07834 on the outer ISBN 978-0-8028-6355-3 • 273 pages envelope, and the address on the paperback • $40.00 reply envelope will go to PO Box 3000, Denville, NJ 07834-3000. At your bookstore, Please e-mail [email protected] or call 800-253-7521 or call (203) 624-6672, ext. 309, with 8519 www.eerdmans.com any questions. Thank you.

October 2009 219 points have shifted significantly over commentaries and the traditions (pp. the years from absolute disagreement to 32–78), considers the question of whether Eastern attempts to reconcile the qur’anic position someone else was crucified in place of Jesus with the Christian. In the latter case, the (pp. 79–94), and reviews early marginal differences have been attributed to the Christian beliefs about these questions offers intervening history of Muslim-Christian (pp. 95–114) before proceeding to closely relations. Recognizing the apparent examine the relevant New Testament impossibility of bridging the gap between references that tell us about Jesus’ “final education that the different narratives and purposes of the days” (pp. 130ff.). Qur’an and the Bible, and those of Muslims This is a valuable resource for those and Christians, there has also been an who wish to revisit the impasse between transforms attempt simply to avoid these issues Christians and Muslims over the questions altogether. As intractable questions, they of Jesus’ “mission and death.” Its value are seen to obstruct the allegedly higher lies in honestly acknowledging that these lives. purposes of reconciliation and pragmatic differences exist and in exploring them joint engagement in society. squarely across the foundational sources This book is forceful in challenging of the Muslim-Christian traditions. The this activist view and draws readers into a book was published under the Faith substantial evaluation of the fundamental Meets Faith series of Orbis, which seeks differences. First, though, it considers the to “promote inter-religious dialogue.” I equally substantial common grounds, do not doubt its potential for achieving which include our shared notions of this goal on a subject close to the heart of God, Scriptures, Jesus, and apostles and both Christianity and Islam. prophets (pp. 1–14). It then considers the —David Emmanuel Singh verses in the Qur’an that apparently deny crucifixion (pp. 15–31), reexplores these David Emmanuel Singh is Research Tutor at the questions in the classical and modern Oxford Centre for Mission Studies, Oxford.

A History of Christianity in Indonesia.

Edited by Jan Sihar Aritonang and Karel Steenbrink. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Pp. xvi, 1004. €179 / $265.

Historians and missiologists will want ecumenical opportunities and obstacles, to get this superb single-volume history and Christian art and media. The of Christianity in Indonesia. Guided by book’s massive sweep concludes with the editorial oversight of the doyens of the contemporary period, marked by Christianity in Indonesia, Jan Aritonang proliferation of expressions of Islam, and Karel Steenbrink, this volume, which vigorous growth of evangelicalism and appears in Brill’s Studies in Christian Pentecostalism, and increasingly complex Mission series, is the first English summary relationship between race, religion, and of the history of Christianity in Indonesia. nation making. Eastern offers undergradu- Making accessible for the first time a Along the way, readers are treated to a ate and graduate degree massive amount of archival and other discussion of mission methods, theology of documentary data for an English-speaking mission, ecumenism, tension both within programs that prepare stu- readership, the history of Reformed, and between missions, pastoral-care issues, dents to become effective Lutheran, Evangelical, and Pentecostal initiatives of theological training, and leaders committed to trans- churches is illuminated through Dutch and Christian-Muslim relations. Newcomers Indonesian scholars of the region. to the history of Christianity in Indonesia forming the lives of people Aiming to provide an “encyclopedic will be introduced to the more widely thoughout the world. view of the varied history of Christians recognized missionaries to the region, in Indonesia” (p. vii), the book is orga- including such notables as Frank Cooley, nized into three parts that combine broad � � Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen, Albert faith reason justice historical coverage with thematic depth: Kruyt, Hendrik Kraemer, Carl Ottow, (1) historical presentation, up to 1800, and Johann Geissler. These and other of the precolonial period, during which missionaries became experts in linguistics, Christianity and Islam entered the Bible translation, and ethnology. Readers archipelago; (2) focus on the “most more familiar with Christianity in important” Christian areas, including Indonesia will learn of the numerous political, economic, and social devel- local missionaries and church leaders opments; and (3) a discussion of some of who carried the weight of mission and 800.732.7669 the more salient aspects of Christian evangelism throughout the archipelago, life, such as theological developments, contending with the cultural, religious,

220 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 social, and legal contexts that helped give history of the period (which included many more diverse roles than were open rise to the diversity of Christian churches several disruptive wars and famines) and to European women in the mission. and movements throughout the nation. a briefer look at the Tranquebar mission in Liebau’s greatest achievement lies in Some editorial oversights are this period (including standard missionary her penetrating and sensitive treatment understandable, given the large size of biographies), Liebau develops her real of Tamil leaders. Acknowledging the the book. Also, the designation “inner story—namely, that Tamil workers played potential for abuse, that of (she quotes islands” and “outer islands” (e.g., p. an important role from the very beginning. another historian here) “kidnapping the 159) to describe the massive archipelagic They helped Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg native as symbol and object of European nation is unnecessary and unhelpful, since and others learn Tamil and translate doc- imagination,” she notes, by way of profiles such labels too easily turn Java into the uments, including the Bible. They preached, of several individual nationals, that cultural and religious fountainhead of instructed far-flung converts, ran schools, the “full brutality” of such accusations the nation, making “outer islands” (e.g., and negotiated with local rulers. The “does not apply to the early Tranquebar Maluku, Papua) subsidiaries of nonlocal mission also employed Tamil women in mission” (p. 91; my translation). To the economic, cultural, and religious lifeways. Unfortunately, the book contains only a few photographs. A History of Christianity in Indonesia makes a major contribution to the field recent books from EERDMANS of mission studies and missiology. It is highly recommended for libraries, A CENTURY OF PRAYER FOR CHRISTIAN UNITY faculty, and college and university Catherine E. Clifford, editor students studying Christian mission, “This small and very readable volume bears witness to the Week of Prayer Asian history, comparative missiology, or for Christian Unity as a time when Christians pray not only for one another colonial studies. The book’s dozen regional but also with one another. . . . This book is testimony that prayer truly is histories, along with impressive thematic the soul of the ecumenical movement.” chapters, such as “Theological Thinking by — Lorelei F. Fuchs, SA Indonesian Christians, 1850–2000,” give ISBN 978-0-8028-6366-9 • 152 pages • paperback • $26.00 good reason for paying the high price. —Charles E. Farhadian TESTING THE SPIRITS How Theology Informs the Study of Congregations Charles E. Farhadian is Associate Professor of World Edited by Patrick Keifert Religions and Christian Mission at Westmont Foreword by Craig Van Gelder College, Santa Barbara, California. He has written “An interesting and provocative work. Rather than viewing congregations Christianity, Islam, and Nationalism in as mostly passive recipients of the largesse of seminaries where ‘real’ Indonesia (Routledge, 2005) and The Testimony theology is done, Patrick Keifert and his colleagues view congregations as Project: Papua (Deiyai Press, 2007). communities of faith-based moral deliberation and action that play a key role in generating theology.” — Jackson W. Carroll ISBN 978-0-8028-0740-3 • 215 pages • paperback • $24.00 The World Missionary Conference Die indischen Mitarbeiter der Edinburgh 1910 Tranquebarmission (1706–1845): StudieS in the hiStory of ChriStian MiSSionS SerieS Katecheten, Schulmeister, Brian Stanley Übersetzer. “This long-awaited book is the definitive history of the World Missionary Conference held in Edinburgh in 1910. Stanley’s thorough scholarship and By Heike Liebau. Tübingen: Verlag der elegant prose bring the conference to life and make a case for its enduring Franckeschen Stiftungen Halle im Max importance to the history of world Christianity. Scholars of missions, Niemeyer Verlag, 2008. Pp. x, 483. Paperback ecumenism, world religions, education, and Christian internationalism will €79.95 / $112. find this superb study essential for their work.” — Dana L. Robert As Heike Liebau demonstrates, the 140- ISBN 978-0-8028-6360-7 • 384 pages • paperback • $45.00 year career of the Danish-Halle mission in Tranquebar in South India cannot be WHAT IS ABOUT? properly understood without considering Reformed Contributions to an Ecumenical Theme the lives and contributions of workers Michael Weinrich and John P. Burgess, editors native to the country. Since these workers “A collection of significant contributions to the ecumenical discussion are largely present only in the background growing from the Lutheran-Catholic Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of of communications between European Justification. But, more than that, it is also a wide-ranging contribution to missionaries and their supervisors, Liebau Reformed thinking about the substance of Christian faith and life, and a has had to embark on a textual marathon, practical resource for congregational preaching and teaching.” reading about these Indian intermediaries through the eyes of their employers. In — Joseph D. Small several archives in Europe and India, ISBN 978-0-8028-6249-5 • 288 pages • paperback • $30.00 these stories are complemented by Tamil or Telugu palm-leaf manuscripts left by At your bookstore, Indians themselves, many of which have or call 800-253-7521 9028 been found in German archives. www.eerdmans.com After an Indocentric glance at the

October 2009 221

contrary, these indigenous workers, Confronting Confucian especially during the 1740s, appear as Understandings of the Christian true missionaries, fully equal to their Doctrine of Salvation: A Systematic European coworkers. Several were highly Theological Analysis of the Basic educated and operated with substantial Problems in the Confucian- independence. Furthermore, in gaining Christian Dialogue. access to hinterland cities, then off-limits to the Europeans, as well as brokering By Paulos Huang. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Pp. iv, relationships between and among Hindu, 352. Paperback €114 / $169. Muslim, and Christian communities, they were missionary pioneers themselves. The origins of this book lie in Huang’s own that there is a major breach between God Liebau has gone beyond merely experience. He is at once a Lutheran and and humanity, one that can be crossed only introducing unknown missionary leaders: a Confucian. How can a self-cultivating by God’s intervention in Jesus Christ. Only she is correcting the historical record. Confucian be a Lutheran Christian? By grace can create a superior person. Several of the Tamil men and women comparing Lutheran and Christian ideas This ontological difference is serious, introduced here were fully competent in of salvation, Huang hopes to answer the but Huang sees reason for hope. On the working with Sanskrit, Greek, and Hebrew question both for himself and for Chinese one hand, Christians were and are often texts, in addition to several European and culture as a whole. disinterested gentlemen who take the Indian languages. As the same cannot be His argument is long and thorough, Chinese classics seriously, who argue said for many scholars who could put but the main point is straightforward. rationally, and who, in some cases, follow Liebau’s impressive research to great use, The ideas of Shangdi (Sovereign on High) the Thomistic dictum that grace does this volume truly needs to be translated and Tian (Heaven), which appear in the not destroy nature but completes it. On into English. Chinese classics, are at least potentially the other hand, modern Confucians are —Paul Grant monotheistic. By the time Jesuit missionary inclined to take the classical ideas of Matteo Ricci arrived in China in the 1580s, Shangdi and Tian more seriously than did Paul Grant is a graduate student in the Department however, Confucianism had become an their predecessors. of History, University of Wisconsin–Madison. He impersonal monism. Heaven and earth Huang has made a useful contribution has previously worked in the Missions Department were made of the same stuff; it was to interfaith conversations. Confucian- of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship/USA. He is the possible, by disciplined self-cultivation, Christian dialogue is doubtless a good author of Blessed Are the Uncool (InterVarsity for anyone to become a junzi, a superior idea—if indeed there are still a significant Press, 2007). person. Christianity, in contrast, teaches number of Confucians around. The imperial examinations were abolished over a century ago, however, and since then, generations of Chinese have been to school with the Enlightenment. Huang’s MISSIONS TRAVEL ASSISTANCE thesis is rewarding reading, but one wonders how many people riding the streetcars of Shanghai today ever think about monism and dualism. Individual, Family or Group • Short-term Groups —Geoff Johnston

U.S. or Foreign Origination • Extended Stays • One-ways Geoff Johnston, a retired professor, taught almost twenty years at the Presbyterian College, Montreal. Prices regularly beating those from major travel websites!!!

For 13 years Rob Schulze has assisted dozens of missionaries, churches and organizations with their Migration and Christian Identity missions travel needs to over 50 countries. Email or in Congo (DRC). call Rob to see how he can help make your next trip By Emma Wild-Wood. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Pp. a reality with his Total Service Package. 235. €85 / $126.

This study shows how the Christian iden- Carpenter’s Brothers Family Travel tity of a minority church in northeastern Congo has contributed to the construction PO Box 425 of other social and cultural identities Sunderland, MA 01375 and has in turn been shaped by them. It carefully follows a century-long process, Toll free: 800-777-2865 or 413-665-3612 beginning with the foundation in 1896 Email: [email protected] by Apolo Kivebulaya, a Ganda mission- ary, of the mother church of the present Download our brochure at Église anglicane du Congo. Now based in www.carpbrostravel.com/missionstravel.htm Cambridge, Emma Wild-Wood has long familiarity with a region whose history has always been that of a crossroads } between ecological milieus, socioeconomic and political systems, and linguistic and

222 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 ethnic cultures: suffice it to note that we century played a leadership role, not positive. Given the number of words I are here at a point of confluence not only only in already established religious am allowed, however, I must concentrate of different languages but also of three movements, but also in Christianity. The on urging caution to all readers who lack unrelated linguistic groups. Today, across writer, a self-proclaimed feminist historian a broader knowledge of the history of three political boundaries, people are still who teaches church history at Columbia Japan, including the role of Christianity, in constant flux. The decision to make Theological Seminary, Decatur, Georgia, in this period. Regrettably, the writer is so the world of migration the locus of her has consulted primary and secondary determined to emphasize the role of female research was thus appropriate, and her materials in a variety of languages, religious leaders that she reads more into book deservedly finds its place in the Brill including Portuguese, Latin, and Japanese. the evidence than is actually there and series “Studies of Religion in Africa.” Her dedication to her subject is beyond neglects the wider historical picture. Resting upon a massive collection of doubt. The clearest example of both these mostly Protestant local sources, oral and There is more that I would like to tendencies is her amazing claim that “the written, this study is organized along two say about the book itself, much of it shift in politico-religious ideology in guidelines. One, chronological, follows the evolution of an Anglican identity, born in an offshoot of the Buganda church in Congo and evolving as members of the community moved through a succession of westward migrations, adapting on the way to changing contexts, up to the dramatic crises of today and the development of Dialogue and Difference hybrid forms of popular Christianity. As Clarity in Christian-Muslim Relations a second guideline, the narrative follows CHRISTIAN W. TROLL the changing tensions and combinations between two poles, referring respectively Faith Meets Faith Series to hierarchy and order, and to progress and “ Presents a reasoned approach to the theo- joy, all felt by Anglican members to define logical issues that both unite and divide their church. Max Weber is not cited, but Christians and Muslims . . . . I strongly we are close to his distinction between the ideal representations of institution recommend the work to all those seeking and charisma shared by the adherents of tolearn the points ofconvergence and a religious movement. divergence between Christian and Islamic Though repetitive at times, the present faiths.” —Thomas Michel, S.J. study is presented with subtlety, and it carries conviction. Elsewhere, however, New and Notable from978-1-57075-856-0 Orbis paper $34.00 Wild-Wood has shown awareness that this model does not fully come to grips with the unleashing of all-round violence, • International Bulletin of Missionary Research • which now casts a shadow upon Christian identities in the region. Demonstrating Outstanding Books of 2008 for Mission Studies that both African-initiated and missionary churches share local and global histories, Beyond Christendom not only does this original book take us Globalization, African Migration, far from the “colonial vs. local” binary and the Transformation of the West form that has marred the study of African JEHU J. HANCILES Christianity, but it also invites us to “ A profoundly important book on a major current of wish for a history of Christianity that would integrate Catholic, Protestant, and the global religious situation . . . a brilliant, in-depth “Independent” narratives. interpretation of the subject matter.” —Jacob K. Olupona —Jean-Luc Vellut Harvard University 978-1-57075-790-7 paper $35.00 Jean-Luc Vellut is professor emeritus at the Uni- versité catholique de Louvain (Louvain-la-Neuve, The Mission and Death of Belgium). Jesus in Islam and Christianity A. H. MATHIAS ZAHNISER “ A model of sensitive dialogue and apologetics that starts with common ground.” —J. Dudley Woodberry Fuller Theological Seminary Women Religious Leaders in Japan’s Christian Century, 1549– 978-1-57075-807-2 paper $35.00 1650.

By Haruko Nawata Ward. Farnham, Surrey, Eng.: Ashgate, 2009. Pp. xv, 405. £65. At your bookseller or direct: ORBIS BOOKS This extraordinary book seeks to Order Online! www.maryknollmall.org Maryknoll, NY 10545 demonstrate that women in Japan from A World of Books that Matter 1-800-258-5838 the mid-sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth

October 2009 223

CHRISTIANS OF ALL AGES RECOGNIZE the first half of the seventeenth century THE HEARTBEAT OF GOD TO TAKE [toward Neo-Confucianism] and Japan’s THE GOSPEL total rejection of Christianity was [sic] caused largely by the unprecedented TO THE NATIONS, apostolate of Kirishitan [Roman Catholic] women” (p. 289). This assertion is YET THEY OFTEN WRESTLE unsupported by any direct evidence or by WITH THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE any consideration of the work of scholars GREAT COMMISSION such as Ronald Toby (in English) or AVID ILLS Ohashi Yukihiro, Murai Sanae, and Takase IN THEIR OWN LIVES. M. D S D.MISS., PH.D. Koichiro (in Japanese) on Tokugawa policy Professor of Missions regarding either religion or contacts with the outside world. There are other cases of what might be called wishful speculation WWW.THEM ISSIONARYC ALL. COM (on pp. 64–66, 123–25, 206), inaccuracies regarding basic dates and other matters (pp. 75, 242, 255, 264, 346, etc.), and (astonishingly) no mention of the possible appeal to women of Catholic belief in the Your Intercultural Marriage Virgin Mary, despite her clear importance in the beliefs of underground Christian A GUIDE TO A HEALTHY, communities. —Helen Ballhatchet HAPPY RELATIONSHIP Helen Ballhatchet, who is British, is Professor in the by Marla Alupoaice Faculty of Economics, Keio University, Tokyo.

Find this at your favorite local or online bookstore.

MoodyPublishers.com China’s Christian Colleges: Cross- Cultural Connections, 1900–1950.

Edited by Daniel H. Bays and Ellen Widmer. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 2009. Pp xxii, 405. $65; paperback $24.95.

China’s Christian Colleges is the product of a project entitled “The American Context of China’s Christian Colleges,” funded by the Henry Luce Foundation. The essays were presented at a conference in 2003 and then were competently edited for publication. All of the essays demonstrate extensive research in a number of archives, primarily in the United States. In the 1960s a number of “celebratory” histories were written about the thirteen Protestant and three Catholic colleges in China. The participants in the present volume were committed to moving beyond such essays to “probe the cross- cultural phenomenon represented by these colleges.” The topics of the thirteen chapters range from the personal moti- vations of the 33,726 volunteers in the Student Volunteer Movement between 1893 and 1920 to the cross-cultural sources of the architecture of the colleges, the relations between the Seven Sisters (women’s colleges in the northeast United States) and China from 1900 to 1950, A Christmas gift suggestion from OMSC Publications Anglo-American law as taught at Soochow University, the teaching of civic duty at Reflections on God’s RedeeminG love the colleges, the plans for the colleges Hanna Cheriyan Varghese, Malaysian artist / 96 pages, $19.95 plus shipping after the conclusion of World War II, and many others. Two essays are devoted not Visit http://secure.omsc.org/books or e-mail [email protected] to China but to Japan and Turkey.

224 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 The postface describes the evolving baggage of manifest destiny. Personally, the former “northern” and “southern” of international scholarship on China’s I believe that it subtly continued to be streams and the reunited PC(USA) and Christian colleges. For some years the present throughout the 126 years of the of the three Presbyterian denominations scholarship devoted to the colleges has mission, especially seen in the resistance in Brazil with whom we have worked. been more extensive in China than in the to more integration. I agree that, in the Furthermore, it shows how partnerships United States. The essays produced by light of hindsight and of new missiolog- have now replaced parallel structures as this project, however, make clear that U.S. ical perspectives, Arnold’s study reveals a way of doing mission together. scholarship on this topic is beginning to clear mistakes made and lessons to be —Sherron K. George match that in China. learned. The volume is dedicated to Jessie This book is a treasure for all of us Sherron K. George is Liaison and Theological Lutz, who pioneered the exploration of the whose stories are intertwined with the Education Consultant for South America for the cross-cultural dynamics of the colleges history of Brazilian Presbyterianism. It Presbyterian Church (USA). She has resided in with her publication China and the Christian elucidates the dynamics and tensions of Brazil as a mission worker since 1972. Colleges, 1850 to 1950 (Cornell Univ. Press, 1971). The diverse essays in this volume represent an excellent contribution to the ongoing study of their cross-cultural impact, both in China and in the United States. —Marvin D. Hoff

Marvin D. Hoff retired in December 2006 after serving for twenty-nine years as Executive Director of the Foundation for Theological Education in South East Asia.

Long Road to Obsolescence: A North American Mission to Brazil.

By Frank L. Arnold. Bloomington, Ind.: Xlibris, 2009. Pp. 232. Paperback $19.99.

Frank Arnold, the last general secretary of nternat onal HealtH and the Presbyterian Mission in Brazil, served with his wife, Hope, for thirty-three years as Presbyterian mission workers. He offers travel Insurance For M ss onarIes a case study of the mission structures of Presbyterian denominations from the United States over a period of 126 years, beginning with the arrival of Ashbel Green Simonton on August 12, 1859, until With 30 years of overseas missionary n Career & Short-term the formal dissolution of the mission on experience and options offered by eight Health and Travel Plans December 31, 1985. It is a valuable, concise major international health insurance account. for Individuals and In his book Arnold wishes to raise carriers, Good neighbor Insurance can Families critical missiological, cross-cultural ques- meet your health insurance needs. tions about structures and relationships: n Large & Small How does one define maturity? Was the obsolescence of foreign mission We also provide coverage for medical Group Coverage structures truly an intentional goal of the and political evacuation, terrorism, trip missionaries? Was an autonomous parallel cancellation, furlough, and settling back n Short-term Teams structure the right option over against into the usa. Plans for internationals visiting (partial) integration? Could and should n Term Life the dissolution have happened sooner? He outside their home country including visits to even tackles the issue of manifest destiny the usa are also available. n Miscellaneous Plans and the degree to which it affected the pioneer missionaries. Arnold´s answers are based on primary documents and personal par- ticipation in the final negotiations of the dismantling of the mission structures, as well as secondary documents. I laud my colleague for wrestling with these issues 866.636.9100 | www.gninsurance.com | [email protected] with openness and transparency and for admitting the influence of the cultural

October 2009 225 Dissertation Notices

Adoyo, Priscilla Anyango. Koeshall, Anita Louise. “The Application of Biblical Principles “Toward a Theory of Dynamic of Conflict Transformation in Ethno- Asymmetry and Redeemed Power: Religious Situations in Jos and A Case Study of Reflexive Agents in Kaduna, Nigeria.” German Pentecostal Churches.” (Left to right) John W. Spaeth, Trea- D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological surer, the Rt. Rev'd Andrew D. Smith, Seminary, 2008. Seminary, 2008. President, the Rev'd Erl G. Purnell, Vice President. Chi, Duk Jin. Krayer, Patrick Edwin. “Rethinking the Concept of Diakonia “Gender in Pashtun and Pauline for the Korean Immigrant Church in Communities: Insights for Brazil.” Development Workers.” Church D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 2008. Seminary, 2008. Missions Choi-Kim, Grace. Lawanson, Tesilimi Aderemi. “Congregation as a Healing “Exploring Organizational Community: A Framework of a Performance: A Case Study of Four Publishing Systemic Approach to Christian Christian Organizations in Nigeria.” Education for Korean American Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Women.” Seminary, 2007. Company Ph.D. Evanston, Ill.: Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary, 2009. Lim, Ah Kie. A Granting Agency of the “Holistic Member Care of YWAM Episcopal Diocese of National Cross-Cultural Workers in the The IBMR can list only a small sample of recent Context of India.” Connecticut dissertations. For OMSC’s free online database Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological of nearly 6,100 dissertations in English, com- Seminary, 2007. Founded in 1891, the Church piled in cooperation with Yale Divinity School Missions Publishing Company Library, go to www.internationalbulletin.org/ Lyu, Jaesang. resources. “Marginality and Coping: Communal entertains proposals which encour- Contextual Narrative Approach to age the worldwide missionary Pastoral Care with Korean American activity of the Episcopal Church as Elefson, Todd Philip. Christians.” part of the . “Negotiation for Allah’s Blessing Ph.D. Denver: Univ. of Denver and Iliff (Baraka, Berkah): An Ethnography of School of Theology, Joint Doctoral Program, CMPC supports the publication Socio-Religio-Political Power Among 2009. and/or distribution of Christian Males in the Santri Islam Region of materials (in print or other media) Demak, Java.” Mamo, Ermias Guisha. that foster and extend the ministry Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological “Knowing God in Ritual Context in of the Episcopal Church, and Seminary, 2008. Special Reference to the Hamar People of Southwest Ethiopia.” encourage conversation and mu- Im, Jong Pyo. Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological tual understanding between Chris- “Incarnational Bonding Process in Seminary, 2008. tianity and other world religions. Relation to Effectiveness of Cross- Grants rarely exceed US$5,000. Cultural Adjustment Through Field- Mathew, Samuel. Based Training Model for Korean “Issues Facing Missiological Formation The Board of Managers only con- Missionaries.” for Mission in India.” siders applications which adhere Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological to their published guidelines and Seminary, 2008. Seminary, 2007. which demonstrate respect for Meme, D. Kinoti. the dignity of every human being. Kawamura, Steve Akio. “Toward the Design of Contextualized “The Missing Piece in Peacebuilding: This Policy Statement and an ap- Resources for Cross-Cultural The Role of the Church in Interethnic plication may be found at http:// Communication by Japanese Brazilian Relations in the Twenty-first-Century www.cmpc-grants.org or e-mail Evangelicals in Japan.” City.” [email protected] for more D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 2007. Seminary, 2008. information. Kim, Shin. Muller, Jay Whitaker. “Christianity and Korean Nationalism, “Isa the Healer: Inner Healing and 1884–1945: A Missiological Deliverance in Sundanese Insider Perspective.” Ministry.” D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 2008. Seminary, 2008.

226 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 Mutambara, Maaraidzo Elizabeth. West, Amy Carolyn. Williams, W. Vaden. “Towards a Land Conservation “Response to Death: The Powerful “Tsunami, Thai Cultural Themes, and Ethic in Zimbabwe: An Ethical and Influence of Assumptions, Christian Values.” Religio-Cultural Analysis of Land Relationships, and Ritual on Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Conservation Policies and Practice in the Balangao Christians in the Seminary, 2009. Communal Areas.” Philippines.” Ph.D. Denver: Univ. of Denver and Iliff Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Zahnd, Derek Allan. School of Theology, Joint Doctoral Program, Seminary, 2007. “The One and the Many: 2008. Globalization, Leadership, and Trinitarian Ecclesiology in Sonora, Nieto, Adriana Pilar. Mexico, in Dialogue.” “From ‘Black-Eyed Girls’ to the Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological MMU—Mujeres Metodistas Unidas: Seminary, 2008. Race, Religion, and Gender in the Borderlands.” Ph.D. Denver: Univ. of Denver and Iliff School of Theology, Joint Doctoral Program, 2009. globalization is Redford, Shawn Barrett. transforming “Constructing a Biblically Informed and Spiritually Grounded Christian missions. Missiological Hermeneutic: In Search of Grace-Filled Mission Practice.” are you prepared Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 2007. to respond?

Stache, Kristine Marie. In Fuller’s School of “Feminist Theology and Missional Intercultural Studies our Church: An Exploration into scholars are on the leading the Doctrine of the Trinity edge in research and analysis and Its Understanding in Four of the trends affecting global Denominations.” Ph.D. St. Paul, Minn.: Luther Seminary, Christianity today and our 2008. internationally renowned faculty are preparing the next Swanson, Rosanne Amnell. generation of leaders to “Who Am I Now That I Am Not respond to the changing Who I Was? Cultural Uprootedness, needs of the church. Dynamics of Faith, and the Re-making of Self in Oromo Christian Women.” Degree Programs: Ph.D. St. Paul, Minn.: Luther Seminary, • MA in Intercultural Studies 2008. • MA in Global Leadership • ThM in Missiology Taylor, Thomas F. • Doctor of Missiology “The Supreme Court and Religion • PhD in Intercultural Studies in Public Grade Schools: Framing a Christian Response.” www.fuller.edu Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 2008. 1-800-2FULLER

Villacorta, Wilmer Guillermo. “Unmasking Machismo: From Malleability to Transformation of Andean Pentecostal Leaders in Central Peru.” Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 2008. In his latest book, Fuller professor Jehu J. Hanciles evaluates the interconnection Watts, Steven Richard. between globalization, “From Failed State to Functioning migrations, and religious Society: The Role of Corporate expansion, and examines Citizenship and Community how non-Western Collaboration in Fighting Poverty and movements and initiatives Corruption; A Study of Exxonmobil have the potential to and Chad.” transform Western society Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological and Christianity. Seminary, 2007.

October 2009 227 International Bulletin of Missionary Research Index—Volume 33 January through October 2009

(pp. 1–56 are in the January issue; pp. 57–112 in April; pp. 113–68 in July; and pp. 169–232 in October)

Articles “Africa and the Christian Mission” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, “The International Impact of the Formation of the Church of South 33:57–58 India: Bishop Newbigin Versus the Anglican Fathers,” by Mark “Anglicans and Reconciling Mission: An Assessment of Two Anglican Laing, 33:18–24 International Gatherings,” by Mark Oxbrow, 33:8–10 “Ivan Illich and the American Catholic Missionary Initiative in Latin “ARIS Reports U.S. Roman Catholic Population Shift to Southwest,” America,” by Todd Hartch, 33:185–88 33:184 “Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Report from Two Field Studies of “Bill Burrows Retires from Orbis Books,” 33:82 Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity in Globalized Christianity,” “Christian Mission and the End of Time” [editorial], by Jonathan J. by Jonas Adelin Jørgensen, 33:171–76 Bonk, 33:113–14 “Last Things: The Eschatological Dimensions of the Church,” by Edward “Christian World Communions: Five Overviews of Global Christianity, Rommen, 33:115–18 AD 1800–2025,” by David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. “The Legacy of Franz Mayr,” by Clemens U. Gütl, 33:88–91 Crossing, 33:25–32 “The Legacy of Vincent J. McCauley,” by Richard Gribble, 33:92–95 “Church Communions and Mission” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, “The Legacy of Philip Beach Sullivan,” by Jessie G. Lutz, 33:201–4 33:1–2 “Making Friends with Locusts: Early ABCFM Missionary Perceptions of “The Church in Nepal: Analysis of Its Gestation and Growth,” by John Muslims and Islam, 1818–50,” by John Hubers, 33:151–54 Barclay, 33:189–94 “Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term Missions into Context,” by “The Church, the Urban, and the Global: Mission in an Age of Global Brian M. Howell, 33:206–11 Cities,” by Dale T. Irvin, 33:177–82 “Muslims and Christians: Eschatology and Mission,” by David W. “The Computer Revolution and Its Impact on Evangelical Mission Shenk, 33:120–23 Research and Strategy,” by Michael Jaffarian, 33:33–37 “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by David Dong-Jin Cho, 33:195–98 “David Bosch: South African Context, Universal Missiology—Eccle- “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Harold Kurtz, 33:83–86 siology in the Emerging Missionary Paradigm,” by Timothy Yates, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” by Lawrence Nemer, 33:39–41 33:72–78 Noteworthy, 33:14–15, 74–75, 146–47, 208–9 “Declaration on Creation Stewardship and Climate Change,” by Micah “‘Obstinate’ Pastor and Pioneer Historian: The Impact of Basel Mission Network Fourth Triennial Global Consultation, Limuru, Kenya, July Ideology on the Thought of Carl Christian Reindorf,” by Heinz 17, 2009, 33:182–84 Hauser-Renner, 33:65–70 “Dictionary of African Christian Biography,” 33:86 “Premillennial Theology, Christian Zionism, and Christian Mission,” by “Equipping for God’s Mission: The Missiological Vision of the 2008 Lam- Colin Chapman, 33:137–44 beth Conference of Anglican Bishops,” by Ian T. Douglas, 33:3–6 “Ralph Winter, 1924–2009 [obituary],” by Paul E. Pierson, 33:196–97 “Eschatology and Mission: A Jewish Missions Perspective,” by Susan “Rejoicing in Hope: A Tribute to Kosuke Koyama [obituary],” by Perlman, 33:124–28 Dale T. Irvin and Akintunde E. Akinade, 33:138–39 “Four Conferences to Commemorate Edinburgh 1910,” 33:118 “Remembering Evangelization: The Option for the Poor and Mission “Ignace Partui: Iroquois Evangelist to the Salish, ca. 1780–1837,” by John History,” by Paul V. Kollman, 33:59–65 C. Mellis, 33:212–15 “The Roman Catholic Church’s Southward Shift,” 33:38 “The Impact of the Sexuality Controversy on Mission: The Case of the “Syncretism and the Eternal Word” [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk, Episcopal Church in the Anglican Communion,” by Titus Presler, 33:169–70 33:11–18 “Thirty Books That Most Influenced My Understanding of Christian “The Implications of Christian Zionism for Mission,” by Andrew F. Mission,” by Gerald H. Anderson, 33:200–201 Bush, 33:144–50 “U.S. Catholic Missioners: More Laity, Greater Focus on North America,” “The Influence of Premillennial Eschatology on Evangelical Missionary 33:24 Theory and Praxis from the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present,” “‘What Happened Next?’ Vincent Donovan, Thirty-five Years On,” by by Michael Pocock, 33:129–36 John P. Bowen, 33:79–82 “International Association of Catholic Missiologists: Third Plenary Assembly, Pieniężno, Poland,” 33:10

Contributors of Articles Akinade, Akintunde E. See Irvin, Dale T., and Akintunde E. Akinade Bonk, Jonathan J., “Africa and the Christian Mission” [editorial], Anderson, Gerald H., “Thirty Books That Most Influenced My Under- 33:57–58 standing of Christian Mission,” 33:200–201 ———, “Christian Mission and the End of Time” [editorial], 33:113–14 Barclay, John, “The Church in Nepal: Analysis of Its Gestation and ———, “Church Communions and Mission” [editorial], 33:1–2 Growth,” 33:189–94 ———,“Syncretism and the Eternal Word” [editorial], 33:169–70 Barrett, David B., Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. Crossing, “Christian Bowen, John P., “‘What Happened Next?’ Vincent Donovan, Thirty-five World Communions: Five Overviews of Global Christianity, AD Years On,” 33:79–82 1800–2025,” 33:25–32

228 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 Bush, Andrew F., “The Implications of Christian Zionism for Mission,” Kurtz, Harold, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 33:83–86 33:144–50 Laing, Mark, “The International Impact of the Formation of the Church Chapman, Colin, “Premillennial Theology, Christian Zionism, and of South India: Bishop Newbigin Versus the Anglican Fathers,” Christian Mission,” 33:137–44 33:18–24 Cho, David Dong-Jin, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 33:195–98 Lutz, Jessie G., “The Legacy of Philip Beach Sullivan,” 33:201-4 Crossing, Peter F. See Barrett, David B. Mellis, John C., “Ignace Partui: Iroquois Evangelist to the Salish, ca. Douglas, Ian T., “Equipping for God’s Mission: The Missiological Vision 1780–1837,” 33:212–15 of the 2008 Lambeth Conference of Anglican Bishops,” 33:3–6 Micah Network Fourth Triennial Global Consultation, Limuru, Kenya, Gribble, Richard, “The Legacy of Vincent J. McCauley,” 33:92–95 July 17, 2009, “Declaration on Creation Stewardship and Climate Gütl, Clemens U., “The Legacy of Franz Mayr,” 33:88–91 Change,” 33:182–84 Hartch, Todd, “Ivan Illich and the American Catholic Missionary Initia- Nemer, Lawrence, “My Pilgrimage in Mission,” 33:39–41 tive in Latin America,” 33:185–88 Oxbrow, Mark, “Anglicans and Reconciling Mission: An Assessment of Hauser-Renner, Heinz, “‘Obstinate’ Pastor and Pioneer Historian: The Two Anglican International Gatherings,” 33:8–10 Impact of Basel Mission Ideology on the Thought of Carl Christian Perlman, Susan, “Eschatology and Mission: A Jewish Missions Perspec- Reindorf,” 33:65–70 tive,” 33:124–28 Howell, Brian M., “Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term Missions Pierson, Paul E., “Ralph Winter, 1924–2009 [obituary],” 33:196–97 into Context,” 33:206–11 Pocock, Michael, “The Influence of Premillennial Eschatology on Evangeli- Hubers, John, “Making Friends with Locusts: Early ABCFM Missionary cal Missionary Theory and Praxis from the Late Nineteenth Century Perceptions of Muslims and Islam, 1818–50,” 33:151–54 to the Present,” 33:129–36 Irvin, Dale T., “The Church, the Urban, and the Global: Mission in an Presler, Titus, “The Impact of the Sexuality Controversy on Mission: Age of Global Cities, 33:177–82 The Case of the Episcopal Church in the Anglican Communion,” Irvin, Dale T., and Akintunde E. Akinade, “Rejoicing in Hope: A Tribute 33:11–18 to Kosuke Koyama [obituary],” 33:138–39 Rommen, Edward, “Last Things: The Eschatological Dimensions of the Jaffarian, Michael, “The Computer Revolution and Its Impact on Evan- Church,” 33:115–18 gelical Mission Research and Strategy,” 33:33–37 Shenk, David W., “Muslims and Christians: Eschatology and Mission,” Johnson, Todd M. See Barrett, David B. 33:120–23 Jørgensen, Jonas Adelin, “Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Report Yates, Timothy, “David Bosch: South African Context, Universal Mis- from Two Field Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity siology—Ecclesiology in the Emerging Missionary Paradigm,” in Globalized Christianity,” 33:171–76 33:72–78 Kollman, Paul V., “Remembering Evangelization: The Option for the Poor and Mission History,” 33:59–65

Books Reviewed Anderson, Emma, The Betrayal of Faith: The Tragic Journey of a Colonial Huang, Paulos, Confronting Confucian Understandings of the Christian Native Convert, 33:106–7 Doctrine of Salvation: A Systematic Theological Analysis of the Basic Aritonang, Jan Sihar, and Karel Steenbrink, eds., A History of Christianity Problems in the Confucian-Christian Dialogue, 33:222 in Indonesia, 33:220–21 Jaenike, William F., Black Robes in Paraguay: The Success of the Guaraní Arnold, Frank L., Long Road to Obsolescence: A North American Mission Missions Hastened the Abolition of the Jesuits, 33:48 to Brazil, 33:225 Jenkins, Philip, The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Bauman, Chad M., Christian Identity and Dalit Religion in Hindu India, Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia—and How It Died, 1868–1947, 33:105 33:158–59 Bays, Daniel H., and Ellen Widmer, eds., China’s Christian Colleges: Cross- Jeyaraj, Daniel, Robert W. Pazmiño, and Rodney L. Petersen, eds., An- Cultural Connections, 1900–1950, 33:224–25 tioch Agenda: Essays on the Restorative Church in Honor of Orlando E. Becker, Marc. See Clark, A. Kim Costas, 33:44–45 Bergunder, Michael, The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth Joseph, Suad, ed., Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. Vol. 6: Century, 33:101–2 Supplement and Index, 33:100–101 Clark, A. Kim, and Marc Becker, eds., Highland Indians and the State in Kalu, Ogbu U., African Pentecostalism: An Introduction, 33:46 Modern Ecuador, 33:50–51 ———, Clio in a Sacred Garb: Essays on Christian Presence and African Daneel, M. L., All Things Hold Together: Holistic Theologies at the African Responses, 1900–2000, 33:52–53 Grassroots; Selected Essays by M. L. Daneel, 33:99–100, 108 ———, ed., Interpreting Contemporary Christianity: Global Processes and Daughrity, Dyron B., Bishop Stephen Neill: From Edinburgh to South India, Local Identities, 33:110 33:49–50 Kim, Sebastian C. H., ed., Christian Theology in Asia, 33:165 Delgado, Mariano. See Koschorke, Klaus Koschorke, Klaus, Frieder Ludwig, and Mariano Delgado, eds., in coop- Franzén, Ruth, Ruth Rouse Among Students: Global, Missiological, and eration with Roland Spliesgart, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa, Ecumenical Perspectives, 33:103–4 and Latin America, 1450–1990: A Documentary Sourcebook, 33:43 Frykenberg, Robert Eric, : From Beginnings to the Kraft, Charles H., Worldview for Christian Witness, 33:156 Present, 33:155–56 Lara, Jaime, Christian Texts for Aztecs: Art and Liturgy in Colonial Mexico, Gabra, Gawdat, and Gertrud J. M. van Loon, with Darlene L. Brooks 33:96 Hedstrom; edited by Carolyn Ludwig, The Churches of Egypt: From Levitt, Peggy, God Needs No Passport: Immigrants and the Changing American the Journey of the Holy Family to the Present Day, 33:53 Religious Landscape, 33:107–8 Groop, Kim, With the Gospel to Maasailand: Lutheran Mission Work Among Li, Jieren, In Search of the Via Media Between Christ and Marx: A Study of the Arusha and Maasai in Northern Tanzania, 1904–1973, 33:102–3 Bishop Ding Guangxun’s Contextual Theology, 33:164–65 Grypma, Sonya, Healing Henan: Canadian Nurses at the North China Mis- Liebau, Heike, Die indischen Mitarbeiter der Tranquebarmission (1706–1845): sion, 1888–1947, 33:45 Katecheten, Schulmeister, Übersetzer, 33:221–22 Hanciles, Jehu J., Beyond Christendom: Globalization, African Migration, Linden, Ian, Global Catholicism: Diversity and Change Since Vatican II, and the Transformation of the West, 33:96–97 33:160 Harding, Christopher, Religious Transformation in South Asia: The Meanings Loon, Gertrud J. M. van. See Gabra, Gawdat of Conversion in Colonial Punjab, 33:161 Ludwig, Carolyn. See Gabra, Gawdat Harrison, K. David, When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World’s Ludwig, Frieder. See Koschorke, Klaus Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge, 33:161–62 Lutz, Jessie Gregory, Opening China: Karl F. A. Gützlaff and Sino-Western Hedstrom, Darlene L. Brooks. See Gabra, Gawdat Relations, 1827–1852, 33:42–43

October 2009 229 Makdisi, Ussama Samir, Artillery of Heaven: American Missionaries and Sharkey, Heather J., American Evangelicals in Egypt: Missionary Encounters the Failed Conversion of the Middle East, 33:157–58 in an Age of Empire, 33:159–60 Malek, Roman, ed., The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ: Contemporary Faces Spliesgart, Roland. See Koschorke, Klaus and Images of Jesus Christ. Vol. 3B, 33:109–10 Stackhouse, Max L., and Lalsangkima Pachuau, eds., News of Boundless Matthey, Jacques, ed., Come Holy Spirit, Heal and Reconcile! Called in Christ Riches: Interrogating, Comparing, and Reconstructing Mission in a Global to Be Reconciling and Healing Communities, 33:160 Era, 33:51–52 Musk, Bill, The Certainty Trap: Can Christians and Muslims Afford the Luxury Stanley, Brian, The World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh 1910, 33:216 of Fundamentalism? 33:98–99 Steenbrink, Karel. See Aritonang, Jan Sihar Netland, Harold. See Yandell, Keith Stott, John, The Living Church: Convictions of a Lifelong Pastor, 33:100 Noll, Mark A., The New Shape of World Christianity: How American Experi- Strong, Rowan, and the British Empire, c. 1700–1850, ence Reflects Global Faith, 33:218–19 33:163–64 O’Shea, Stephen, Sea of Faith: Islam and Christianity in the Medieval Medi- Svelmoe, William Lawrence, A New Vision for Missions: William Cameron terranean World, 33:48–49 Townsend, the Wycliffe Bible Translators, and the Culture of Early Evangeli- Pachuau, Lalsangkima. See Stackhouse, Max L. cal Faith Missions, 1896–1945, 33:108–9 Pazmiño, Robert W. See Jeyaraj, Daniel Tan, Jonathan Y., Introducing Asian American Theologies, 33:156–57 Petersen, Rodney L. See Jeyaraj, Daniel Tizon, Al, Transformation After Lausanne: Radical Evangelical Mission in Piwowarczyk, Darius J., Coming out of the “Iron Cage”: The Indigenists of Global-Local Perspective, 33:217–18 the Society of the Divine Word in Paraguay, 1910–2000, 33:104–5 Wakerley, Véronique. See Roberts, R. S. Ramachandra, Vinoth, Subverting Global Myths: Theology and the Public Walls, Andrew F., and Cathy Ross, eds., Mission in the Twenty-first Century: Issues Shaping Our World, 33:162–63 Exploring the Five Marks of Global Mission, 33:97–98 Robert, Dana L., Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Wang, Peter Chen-main, ed., Contextualization of : Religion, 33:216–17 An Evaluation in Modern Perspective, 33:46–47 ———, ed., Converting Colonialism: Visions and Realities in Mission His- Ward, Haruko Nawata, Women Religious Leaders in Japan’s Christian tory, 1706–1914, 33:44 Century, 1549–1650, 33:223–24 Ross, Cathy. See Walls, Andrew F. Widmer, Ellen. See Bays, Daniel H. Salters, Audrey, ed., Bound with Love: Letters Home from China, 1935–1945, Wild-Wood, Emma, Migration and Christian Identity in Congo (DRC), 33:106 33:222–23 Sanneh, Lamin, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture, Yandell, Keith, and Harold Netland, Buddhism: A Christian Exploration 33:42 and Appraisal, 33:218 Seat, Karen K., “Providence Has Freed Our Hands”: Women’s Missions and Zahniser, A. H. Mathias, The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and the American Encounter with Japan, 33:47 Christianity, 33:219–20

Reviewers of Books Akinade, Akintunde E., 33:98–99 Hanciles, Jehu J., 33:158–59 Seton, Rosemary, 33:106 Amaladoss, Michael, 33:161 Hartch, Todd, 33:108–9 Sharkey, Heather J., 33:100–101 Anderson, Allan Heaton, 33:46 Hedlund, Roger E., 33:162–63 Singh, David Emmanuel, 33:219–20 Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena, 33:52–53, Hillman, Eugene, 33:102–3 Skreslet, Stanley H., 33:159–60 160 Hoff, Marvin D., 33:224–25 Staples, Russell L., 33:99–100 Athyal, Jesudas M., 33:101–2 Jeyaraj, Daniel, 33:43 Van Engen, Charles, 33:107–8 Baker, Dwight P., 33:217–18 Johnston, David L., 33:157–58 Vellut, Jean-Luc, 33;222–23 Baker, Mark D., 33:97–98 Johnston, Geoff, 33:222 Ward, Kevin, 33:216 Ballhatchet, Helen, 33:47, 223–24 Kalu, Ogbu U., 33:44 Watters, John R., 33:161–62 Bohr, P. Richard, 33:46–47 Kohler, Girard, 33:102–3 Webster, John C. B., 33:105, 155–56 Chan, Mark L. Y., 33:165 Lingenfelter, Sherwood G., 33:110 Whiteman, Darrell L., 33:156 Chapman, Colin, 33:48–49 Lodwick, Kathleen L., 33:42–43 Wickeri, Philip L., 33:164–65 Chia, Edmund, 33:156–57 MacLeod, A. Donald, 33:103–4 Wiest, Jean-Paul, 33:109–10 Curtis, Heather D., 33:218–19 Mellis, John C., 33:106–7 Yates, Timothy E., 33:49–50 Deans-Smith, Susan, 33:96 Muck, Terry C., 33:218 Yeh, Allen, 33:44–45 Escobar, Samuel, 33:50–51 Norris, Frederick W., 33:53 Essamuah, Casely B., 33:100 Pocock, Michael, 33:48 Farhadian, Charles E., 33:220–21 Porter, Andrew, 33:163–64 Frykenberg, Robert Eric, 33:42 Rivera-Pagán, Luis N., 33:104–5 Other George, Sherron K., 33:225 Ross, Kenneth R., 33:96–97 Book Notes, 33:56, 112, 168, 232 Gewurtz, Margo S., 33:216–17 Ruden, Sarah, 33:108 Dissertation Notices, 33:54, 166, 226–27 Grant, Paul, 33:221–22 Schreiter, Robert, 33:160 Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2008 for Mis- Grundmann, Christoffer H., 33:45 Schroeder, Roger, 33:51–52 sion Studies, 33:97

What’s New at OMSC? “Light in the East”: Art Rental Exhibition Featuring the artwork of prominent Asian Christian artists and former OMSC artists For the latest, go online to: in residence, the exhibition features framed works in various painting and print media. www.OMSC.org/notices These images interpret the timeless Gospel story as seen from the East in a striking and Linked there you will find information on contemporary visual manner. The rental is available for $300 for exhibitions lasting from public lectures, an audio library, the latest four to six weeks. The art work, packed in custom shipping crates for safe transport, may Hearth newsletter, art books for sale by be viewed at www.OMSC.org/art. For more information, contact Sam Sigg, artist liaison, OMSC Publications, and more. at (203) 285-1575 or e-mail him at [email protected].

230 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4 Renewal for Mission in the 21st Century Seminars for International Church Leaders, Missionaries, Mission Executives, Pastors, Educators, Students, and Lay Leaders

2010 Student Seminars on World Mission women’s experience of the church, African culture, Christology, power, “. . . so that by all possible means I might save some” (1 Cor. 9 22) and decision making. Cosponsored by United Methodist General Board Ways and Means of Christian Mission of Global Ministries.

Student-focused seminars on the Christian world mission cospon- March 22–26 sored by 30 seminaries. Reduced rates for students from cosponsoring Whole Gospel, Whole World, Whole Person. Dr. F. Albert “Al” schools and mission agencies. Schools offer students credit for one, Tizon, Palmer Theological Seminary, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, pro- two, or three weeks. To register, visit www.OMSC.org/january. vides an overview of the history, theology, and spirituality of the ho- listic missionary movement among evangelicals since Lausanne 1974. January 11–15 Participants will become better equipped to engage their own contexts Viewing the Atonement Through a New Lens. Dr. Mark Baker, with the full implications of the Gospel. Cosponsored by Evangelical Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary, Fresno, California, uses ex- Covenant Department of World Mission. perience in a Tegucigalpa barrio as a lens to help missionaries view the atonement with new eyes. April 13–16 Incarnational Mission in a Troubled World. Dr. Jonathan J. Bonk, January 18–22 OMSC’s executive director, examines theological and ethical implica- The Gospel and Our Cultures: Postcolonial Anthropology for tions of violence, poverty, migration, and religion as contexts for Chris- Mission in a Globalizing World. Dr. Michael Rynkiewich, profes- tian life and witness. Cosponsored by Park Street Church (Boston) and sor of anthropology, Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Ken- Wycliffe International. Four morning sessions. $145 tucky, introduces the contributions an anthropological perspective offers for missionary practice. Cosponsored by United Methodist April 19–23 General Board of Global Ministries. Models of Leadership in Mission. Rev. George Kovoor, Trinity College, Bristol, United Kingdom, brings wide ecclesiastical and in- January 25–29 ternational experience to evaluation of differing models of leadership Ethnicity as Gift and Barrier: Human Identity and Christian for mission. Cosponsored by Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod World Mission. Dr. Tite Tiénou, dean, Trinity Evangelical Divinity Mission, and Wycliffe International. School, Deerfield, Illinois, works from first-hand experience in Africa to identify the “tribal” issues faced by the global church April 26–30 in mission. Cosponsored by Black Rock Congregational Church Music and Mission. Dr. James Krabill, Mennonite Mission Network, (Fairfield, Connecticut). builds upon insights from musicology and two decades of missionary experience in West Africa to unfold the dynamic role of music in mis- February 22–26 sion. Cosponsored by Mennonite Central Committee and Mennonite Digital Video and Global Christianity. Dr. James M. Ault, James Ault Mission Network. Productions, Northampton, Massachusetts, in a practical workshop, covers how to use digital video to portray the life of faith in community. May 3–7 Personal Renewal in the Missionary Community. Rev. Stanley W. March 1–5 Green, Mennonite Mission Network, and Dr. Christine Sine, Mustard Seed Christian Faith and the Muslim World. Dr. Charles Amjad-Ali, Associates, blend classroom instruction and one-on-one sessions to offer King Jr. professor for justice and Christian community, counsel and spiritual direction for Christian workers. Cosponsored by the Luther Seminary, St. Paul, Minnesota, examines contemporary Chris- Baptist Convention of New England and Mennonite Mission Network. tian-Muslim tensions in the light of Islamic philosophy and jurispru- dence. Cosponsored by First Presbyterian Church (New Haven). Unless noted, the seminars are eight sessions for $175. More informa- tion—including directions and a registration form—may be found March 15–19 online at www.OMSC.org/seminars. Gender and Power in African Christianity. Dr. Philomena Njeri Mwaura, senior lecturer in philosophy and religious studies, Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya, and OMSC senior mission scholar in OVERSEAS MINISTRIES STUDY CENTER residence, will draw on the writings of African women theologians 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511 to discuss key themes in African Christianity—for example, the Bible, (203) 285-1565 [email protected] Book Notes In Coming Ariarajah, S. Wesley. We Live by His Gifts: D. T. Niles—Preacher, Teacher, and Ecumenist; Issues A Personal Account. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue, 2009. Pp. xix, 169. From the “Poor Heathen” to “the Paperback. $10. Glory and Honour of All Nations”: Vocabularies of Race and Custom Camara, Dom Helder. in Protestant Missions, 1844–1928 Dom Helder Camara: Essential Writings. Selected, with an Introduction by Brian Stanley Francis McDonagh. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2009. Pp. 189. Paperback $16. The State of Mission Studies in India: An Overview and Assessment Darch, John H. of Publications and Publishing Missionary Imperialists? Missionaries, Government, and the Growth of the Siga Arles British Empire in the Tropics, 1860–1885. Religious Conversion in the Bletchley, Milton Keynes, Eng.: Paternoster Press, 2009. Pp. xxii, 279. Paperback £24.99 Americas: Meanings, Measures, / $39.99. and Methods Gallagher, Robert L., and Paul Hertig, eds. Timothy J. Steigenga Landmark Essays in Mission and World Christianity. Mother-Tongue Translations and Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2009. Pp. xiii, 272. $35. Contextualization in Latin America William E. Bivin Heim, Joseph A., ed. What They Taught Us: How Maryknoll Missioners Were Evangelized by the U.S. Megachurches and New Poor. Patterns of Global Ministry Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2009. Pp. 126. Paperback $15. Robert J. Priest The Missiology of Old Testament Howell, Brian M., and Edwin Zehner, eds. Covenant Power and Identity in the Global Church: Six Contemporary Cases. Stuart J. Foster Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2009. Pp. vi, 245. Paperback $16.99. Lesslie Newbigin’s Missionary Kerr, Nathan. Encounter with the Enlightenment, Christ, History, and Apocalyptic: The Politics of Christian Mission. 1975–98 Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, Cascade Books, 2009. Pp. xv, 206. Paperback $28. Timothy Yates Kriel, Lize. Not Yet There: Seminaries and the The “Malaboch” Books: Kgaluši in the “Civilisation of the Written Word.” Challenge of Partnership Stuttgart: Franz Seiner Verlag, 2009. Pp. 377. Paperback €54 / $87 / SFr 91.80. Leon P. Spencer Meja, Markina, with foreword by E. Paul Balisky. In our Series on the Legacy of Unbroken Covenant with God: An Autobiography in the Context of the Outstanding Missionary Figures Wolaitta Kale Heywet Church, Ethiopia. of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Belleville, Ont.: Guardian Books, 2008. Pp. 239. Paperback $15. Centuries, articles about Thomas Barclay Moon, W. Jay. George Bowen African Proverbs Reveal Christianity in Culture: A Narrative Portrayal of Hélène de Chappotin Builsa Proverbs Contextualizing Christianity in Ghana. Carl Fredrik Hallencreutz Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, 2009. Pp. xiii, 220. Paperback $26. Thomas Patrick Hughes Hannah Kilham Neufeld, Dietmar, ed. George Leslie Mackay The Social Sciences and Biblical Translation. Lesslie Newbigin Leiden: Brill, 2008. Pp. ix, 188. €80 / $129. Constance Padwick Pelton, Robert S., ed. James Howell Pyke Aparecida: Quo Vadis? Scranton, Pa: Univ. of Scranton Press, 2009. Pp. xii, 229. Paperback $25. George Augustus Selwyn Richardson, Joe M., and Maxine D. Jones. Education for Liberation: The American Missionary Association and African James Stephen Americans, 1890 to the Civil Rights Movement. Philip B. Sullivan Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 2009. Pp. xix, 287. $49.50. James M. Thoburn M. M. Thomas Tinker, George E. “Tink.” Harold W. Turner American Indian Liberation: A Theology of Sovereignty. Johannes Verkuyl Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2008. Pp. vi, 170. Paperback $22. William Vories