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Geophysical Imaging of Karst Features in Missouri

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Geophysical Imaging of Karst Features in Missouri Scholars' Mine Doctoral Dissertations Student Theses and Dissertations Spring 2016 Geophysical Imaging of Karst Features in Missouri Jeremiah Chukwunonso Obi Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/doctoral_dissertations Part of the Geological Engineering Commons, and the Geophysics and Seismology Commons Department: Geosciences and Geological and Petroleum Engineering Recommended Citation Obi, Jeremiah Chukwunonso, "Geophysical Imaging of Karst Features in Missouri" (2016). Doctoral Dissertations. 2485. https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/doctoral_dissertations/2485 This thesis is brought to you by Scholars' Mine, a service of the Missouri S&T Library and Learning Resources. This work is protected by U. S. Copyright Law. Unauthorized use including reproduction for redistribution requires the permission of the copyright holder. For more information, please contact [email protected]. GEOPHYSICAL IMAGING OF KARST FEATURES IN MISSOURI By JEREMIAH CHUKWUNONSO OBI A DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the MISSOURI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING 2016 Approved by Neil L. Anderson, Advisor J. David Rogers Kelly Liu Evgeniy V. Torgashov Mao Chen Ge © 2016 Jeremiah Chukwunonso Obi All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Automated electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) supported with multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) and boring data were used to map karst related features in Missouri in order to understand karst processes better in Missouri. Previous works on karst in Missouri were mostly surficial mapping of bedrock outcrops and joints, which are not enough to define the internal structure of karst system, since most critical processes in karst occur underground. To understand these processes better, the density, placement and pattern of karst related features like solution-widened joints and voids, as well as top of bedrock were mapped. In the course of the study, six study sites were visited in Missouri. The sites were in Nixa, Gasconade River Bridge in Lebanon, Battlefield, Aurora, Protem and Richland. The case studies reflect to a large extent some of the problems inherent in karst terrain, ranging from environmental problems to structural problems especially sinkhole collapses. The result of the study showed that karst in Missouri is mostly formed as a result of piping of sediments through solution- widened joints, with a pattern showing that the joints/fractures are mostly filled with moist clay-sized materials of low resistivity values. The highest density of mapped solution-widened joints was one in every one hundred and fifty feet, and these areas are where intense dissolution is taking place, and bedrock pervasively fractured. The study also showed that interpreted solution-widened joints trend in different directions, and often times conform with known structural lineaments in the area. About 40% of sinkhole collapses in the study areas are anthropogenic. Karst in Missouri varies, and can be classified as a combination of kI (juvenile), kIII (mature) and kIV (complex) karsts. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My immense gratitude and appreciation go to my advisor Dr. Neil Anderson for guiding and supporting me throughout my study. He always finds a way of funding me even when things are tight. I would also want to thank Dr. J. David Rogers, Dr. Mao Chen Ge, Dr. Evgeniy Torgashov and Dr. Kelly Liu who are members of my dissertation committee. Their comments, suggestions and overall contributions towards the completion of my dissertation were great. Also worthy to mention is Mr. James Vandike; he tutored me specifically on karst in Missouri and provided valuable materials to me. I would also want to appreciate my fellow graduate students and all the members of our applied geophysics laboratory who are too numerous to mention for their help, efforts and team work especially in data acquisition during harsh weather conditions. I also thank the Chancellor Dr. Cheryl Schrader for awarding me the Chancellor’s fellowship throughout my PhD. years of study. All members of the graduate studies department are also highly appreciated. My special thanks also go to Patty Robertson and Paula Cochran for their administrative help all these years. My special thanks and appreciation go to my family and friends who are always there for me, their prayers, moral and financial supports were unflinching. I am grateful for the special support of Dr. and Mrs. Josiah Ekunno from the very first time I came to the US. Finally, I dedicate everything to God Almighty who made all things possible. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .............................................................................................. x LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xvi SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 2. OVERVIEW OF KARST PROCESSES AND FEATURES .................................. 4 2.1. STRUCTURAL LINEAMENTS/ FAULTING IN MISSOURI ....................... 5 2.2. HOW KARST IS FORMED ............................................................................. 6 2.3. ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF KARSTS ...................................... 11 2.4. PROBLEMS WITH KARSTS ........................................................................ 13 2.5. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF KARST .................................................... 15 3. KARST PROCESSES AND FEATURES IN MISSOURI ................................... 17 3.1. CAVE FORMATION PROCESS ................................................................... 19 3.2. CAVES IN MISSOURI ................................................................................... 20 3.3. SINKHOLE FORMATION PROCESS .......................................................... 21 3.3.1. Solution Sinkholes. ............................................................................... 21 3.3.2. Cover-Collapse Sinkholes. .................................................................... 22 3.3.3. Cover-Subsidence Sinkholes. ............................................................... 23 3.3.4. Causes of Man-Made Sinkholes. .......................................................... 24 3.3.5. Sinkhole Indicators. .............................................................................. 24 vi 3.4. SINKHOLES IN MISSOURI ......................................................................... 25 3.5. DISAPPEARING/LOOSING STREAM ........................................................ 29 3.6. DISAPPEARING/LOOSING STREAMS IN MISSOURI ............................. 30 3.7. SPRINGS ......................................................................................................... 31 3.8. SPRINGS IN MISSOURI ............................................................................... 31 4. BASIC THEORY OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY .......................................... 33 4.1. OHM’S LAW AND RESISTIVITY ............................................................... 33 4.2. THEORETICAL DETERMINATION OF RESISTIVITY ............................ 35 4.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOLOGY AND RESISTIVITY ................. 37 4.4. APPARENT RESISTIVITY ........................................................................... 38 4.5. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY ARRAY CONFIGURATION ...................... 40 4.6. 2-D RESISTIVITY ARRAYS ........................................................................ 41 5. OVERVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES USED .................................. 45 5.1. AUTOMATED ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY (ERT) ..... 45 5.1.1. Automated Electrical Resistivity Tomography Field Equipment. ........ 47 5.1.2. Electrical Resistivity Tomography Data Acquisition. .......................... 48 5.1.3. Electrical Resistivity Tomography Data Processing............................. 49 5.1.4. Electrical Resistivity Tomography Data Interpretation. ....................... 51 5.1.5. Resolution of Electrical Resistivity Tomography. ................................ 52 5.1.6. General Guide to ERT Data Interpretation. .......................................... 53 5.2. MULTICHANNEL ANALYSIS OF SURFACE WAVES ............................ 55 5.2.1. Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves Field Equipment. ................ 56 5.2.2. Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves Data Acquisition................. 57 vii 5.2.3. Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves Data Processing. ................. 58 5.2.4. Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves Data Interpretation. ............ 60 5.2.5. Resolution of Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves. ..................... 61 6. NIXA CASE STUDY ............................................................................................ 62 6.1. ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... 62 6.2. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 62 6.3. SITE GEOLOGY AND DESCRIPTION ........................................................ 63 6.4. DATA ACQUISITION ..................................................................................
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