PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077

Female Police Officers In Thailand: Gender Inequality And Organisational Transformation From A Cultural Perspective Buabuttri Siriwat* Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Suan Suanandha Rajabhat University, Thailand *Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This research studies the extent to which Thai cultural factors appear to play a crucial role in influencing and/or determining the experiences of female officers in the Royal Thai Police (RTP); the extent and prevalence of gender inequality, and how it can affect recruitment, retention, performance, promotion, and the wider work environment for those officers. Ultimately, the research seeks to determine and address factors leading to gender inequality within a largely male dominated organisation, as well as suggesting pathways that could be initiated for organisational transformation. The research concludes that gender inequality is present and marked within the organisation. This finding is broadly consistent with research carried out in Australia, India, Nigeria and the USA, and clearly shows that the Royal Thai Police treats female officers quite differently i.e. as a second-class gender. Interestingly, results arising from this study directly contradict research by the Royal Thai Police conducted in 2014, which found that both female and male officers have equal career opportunities. Perhaps alarmingly, this study also demonstrated that verbally abusive, sex-based harassment is common, and widely accepted as the norm in the Royal Thai Police when communicated in a seemingly or apparently jocular manner. Worse, verbally abusive, sex-based harassment was also viewed as a relationship building technique! Within a broader context, Royal Thai Police executives apparently fail to see the importance of equity and gender balance within the organisation, nor do they comprehend the extent to which female officers face persistent discrimination.

Keywords: Gender equality, Royal Thai Police, female police officers, cultural factors, gender reform Article Received: 18 October 2020, Revised: 3 November 2020, Accepted: 24 December 2020

Introduction Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Gender inequality is one of several inequities that against Women; but it was only in 2014, that the persist in Thai society, particularly in the public Thai cabinet passed a resolution for all public sector, which includes the Royal Thai Police, the organisations to be equipped with sex-based subject of this particular study. This is illustrated harassment prevention and resolution guidelines by the fact that even quite recently, Thailand was in the workplace. In Thai policing, one of the ranked 76th on Gender Inequality Index (Casella, keys to reform besides ‘public involvement’ and 2016). It is widely understood and appreciated ‘de-centralisation’ appears to be the elimination that gender inequality can create hostile work of gender bias in ‘police transfers’ and environments, which means in turn that gender ‘promotions’ (Bohwongprasert, 2019). It can be reform programmes are needed to help alleviate argued that promoting gender equality in policing and remove workplace gender inequality. will not only benefit female officers who wish to Denham (2008) revealed that gender reform in enjoy a successful career path, but it will also the public sector can promote a non- help create gender diversity, and the workforce discriminatory culture and a more productive will achieve more of the balance contemporary work environment (Denham, 2008, p.4 ed. policing needs according to studies cited later. United Kingdom Home Office). For example, research by the University of San Diego shows that having female police officers at Thailand’s first formal commitment to gender work can help ease tension in sexual assault equality only began about 30 years ago, when the investigations which examine crimes committed country participated in the Convention on the against women (2019). Moreover, more

2428 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 extensive studies show that female police officers Thailand is often seen as highly regulated are less authoritarian and more compassionate, (although regulations are far less likely to be that they are good at stress management, and implemented), and workplaces usually governed because of their ‘natural’ empathy they are better paternally, where more lowly ranked employees equipped to handle diverse personalities and are often given forms of protection in exchange deliver effective two-way communication for their loyalty. There is also a widespread (Crowson, 2019). Other research suggests expectation that more lowly ranked employees female police officers are less likely to use should be submissive to those who appear above physical force, hence, they are generally “better them in the chain of command. This means such at defusing and de-escalating potentially violent employees are also highly collective (IDV), confrontations with citizens, and are less likely to where decision making often depends on become involved in problems with use of acceptance from extended family and social excessive force” (Resetnikova, 2006). members. It is also apparent that in general terms, Thai workers do not believe in confronting Literature review issues or behaviours head on, therefore, Viewing ‘gender’ from cultural perspective workplace culture tends to revolve around According to Risman (2004, p.437), ‘gender’, subservient roles, and the presence of hidden must be viewed as a social structure. By conflicts, which may make gossip and scandal contemplating gender as social structure, we are more prevalent. With a score of 34 Thailand better able to determine its criteria as: a scores the lowest masculinity (MAS) level of all characteristic of groups; persistence over time Asian countries which may go some way to and space; legitimating ideology; changes explaining how Thais are generally less assertive incessantly; organised and permeated with power and not overly competitive. Hofstede’s theory (Lober, 1994 ed. Risman, 2004, p. 431). In other also indicates this is a reason why traditional words, ‘gender’ is an ‘identity’ that may change male and female roles in Thailand are more continuously over time and place, and like other highly preserved than in many other countries. social aspects, it is subject to the mediation of Typically, Thais have a very low score on ‘long power. ‘Gender’ is clearly shaped by cultural term orientation’ (LTO), and tend to value the values which help determine what appears past and the present more than the future, which desirable in a society (Williams 1970 ed. Siddiqi goes some way to explaining how the country and Shafiq 2017, p. 32). places high importance on traditions, while at the same time, formulating ad-hoc policies. On the Hofstede (2011, p.7) states that cultural values last dimension, Thailand has an intermediate are the by-product of individual and social values score on ‘indulgence’ which is neither ‘indulged’ of different communities and identifies six main (IND) nor ‘restrained’, hence, the result on this aspects of cultural value dimensions. Like many area is remains ambiguous. other Asian countries, Thailand is seen as high in power distance (PDI) and uncertainty avoidance Erin Meyer (2014) has worked extensively on (UAI) (Hofstede Insights n.d.). With the score of cultural differences in the workplace and 64, Thailand seems willing to accept the notion describes these on an eight-scale spectrum. In of ‘inequalities’ as a central part of its culture. this domain, Thailand is labelled a culture with Thailand more widely has a stricter chain of high-context communication which means verbal command structure, a clearly discernible and non-verbal communication are complex as hierarchy, and many privileges associated with messages are often delivered between the lines, rank, status and the like. Because the idea of the sometimes remaining unspoken and implied ‘unknown’ future is not generally acceptable, (GWOPA, n.d.). Because Thai culture is 2429 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 essentially non-confrontational, ‘evaluation’ may that most people in their reference network be given and used as indirect negative feedback: conform to it” (Bicchieri, 2016, pp. 25-30). often quite softly, subtly, privately, and Applying Bicchieri’s rationale, if leaders and implicitly. On the concept of ‘leading’, Thai policy makers wish to implement a counter- culture is classed as very hierarchical, and so the active stance opposing and/or reducing gender distance between supervisors and subordinates is inequality within organisations, their first priority high (Hofstede labelled this as high power must be to create, attribute and implement distance), “status is important”, “organisational innovative norms which engender a new set of structures are multi-layered and fixed”, and behaviours amongst the community, which in “communication follows set hierarchical lines” turn has the potential to create significant social (GWOPA, n.d.). Thailand might be seen as a change.In some instances, research has found polar opposite of countries which are more that there is a ‘major disconnect’ between what is egalitarian, where there is far less emphasis on actually happening in a society (prevalence) and differences in apparent power and status. ‘Trust’ evident individual beliefs (support). This in Thai culture is often outside-work sometimes occurs due to what Bicchieri calls relationship-based, which means bonds are built ‘pluralistic ignorance’, which means that casually and personally. Trust arises because research may discover a majority of informants individuals bond with each other by sharing consider female police officers for example as a personal time and personal information, which is great asset to the community and that they should often not work-related. Finally, ‘disagreeing’ is be encouraged and promoted, but respondents’ done discretely, as Thai culture is often at pains second-order beliefs derived from wider to avoid confrontation. In Thailand, professional reference networks, lead them to conclude disagreement can have critical impact on policing is a male-dominated profession, and personal relationships; where “open they subsequently act enabling the prevailing confrontation is seen as inappropriate with the hegemony to continue largely un-changed. clear potential to break group harmony” (GWOPA, n.d.). Female police officers in Thailand The history of Thai police may be divided into The situation in Thailand stands in some contrast four distinct periods: before the 1890s; 1890 - with wider change in the social order, where 1932; 1932 - 1959; 1959 - present (Hannstad, Christina Bicchieri, an American-Italian 2013, p.448). In Thailand, the police service philosopher states ‘cultural values’ can be originated as a security system for the King transformed over time because social change (Haanstad, 2013: p.449). In 1887, the number of transpires when there is a shared reason, and crimes in Thailand increased tremendously after collective co-ordination for change. In other King Rama V announced slave emancipation. words, social change can occur when a ‘new The surge in crimes attributed to freed slaves norm’ emerges and there are ‘rumours’ or clear caused the royal police to set up “twenty crime impetus for change. For instance, a male- suppression units in four different areas of the dominated society can only be eradicated if a city” (Hannstad, 2013, p.456). Rather more society collectively believes there is a good recently, documentary research un-covered the enough reason or incentives for such a change. term Tum Ruat Yhing (policewomen) which was Social constructs or norms in Thailand sit neatly apparently first enacted on November 22, 1961 alongside how Bicchieri describes a: norm or a under the Thai police rank Act. Thus it seems descriptive norm, which are by definition, a that the advent of female police officers in “pattern of behaviour such that individuals prefer Thailand emerged around that time. to conform to it on condition that they believe 2430 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077

Since 1961, female police officers in Thailand p.36) states however, that sexual harassment is are entitled and indeed must attach the term common in male-dominated professions; and “female” to their rank, for example, police “sexual harassment is used to maintain captain (female) forename, surname etc. Despite masculinity and status differences between men this, it was not until about 10 years ago (2009), and women. In other words, the primary that the Royal Police Cadet Academy began objective of sexual harassment is the satisfaction admitting females for “the first time in its 107 of power needs.” In policing, she highlighted year history” (Bell, 2009). This stemmed from two underlying themes behind ‘sexual the rationale that “female victims of crime will harassment’: ‘quid pro quo harassment’ and feel more comfortable with a female officer” ‘hostile environment harassment.’ (Bell, 2009). This was referred to at the time as a “radical break.” The first generation of cadets Khundiloknattawasa (2019) studied Attitudes included 70 females, and the force hoped to towards Merit System and Patronage System employ at least one female police officer in each Affecting Career Progression of Police of its 1,444 police stations across country. In Commissioned Officers in Thailand. Responses contrast, while Indonesia founded its first female to close-ended questions revealed that the cadet school (when), the Royal Police Cadet patronage systems is perceived as a key factor Academy in Thailand decided to cease female contributing to career advancement. One key cadet admission (when) apparently because it this informant stressed that the patronage system is is now policy, but sources say they are not inevitable, as it deeply rooted in Thai culture allowed to give more information about the (Khundiloknattawasa, 2019, p.76). Another study reason behind this seemingly strange decision. by Kukudrua conducted with Royal Police Cadet Academy alumni, demonstrated an apparent Some research said that female cadets come with gender-bias in female officer task assignments. drawbacks as they complain of hard training and Female police officers were assigned as inquiry tend to “wimp out”. It is also apparent that the officers, performing tasks regarded as female- career path for female cadets’ is limited when related working on crimes against children. compared with that for males (Ngamkham and Female police officers were perceived as Laohong, 2018). Evidence shows “females friendly, approachable, dependable, and with represented seven per cent of officers in the good communication skills (Kukudrua, 2019, Royal Thai Police, compared with 20 per cent in p.25). Major obstacles to advancing the careers the Philippines, 18 per cent in Malaysia, and 30 of female police officers appear to be gender per cent, the world’s highest, in Sweden” related, viz: female police officers are restricted (Ngamkham and Laohong, 2018). It is also very to inquiry roles; the community and suspects rare for a female police officer in Thailand to show less respect towards female police officers; advance to senior level. Recently, Siriwato female police officers are prevented from (2017) conducted a qualitative study examining wearing trousers at work; and a lack of co- “The Impact of Thai Culture on Perceptions and ordination with, and acceptance from, other Experiences of Sexual Harassment in Policing.” female police officers. The study used semi-structured interviews with 37 participants and found no apparent evidence Overall, findings demonstrate that gender bias of physical sexual harassment, apparently for two and gender discrimination exist in the Thai police major reasons: first, Thai women do not force. This stands in marked contrast to research generally discuss sexual harassment with other conducted by Royal Thai Police in 2014, which people; and second, there is no clear definition of employed a mixed-method study covering 850 the term sexual harassment. Siriwato (2017, subjects. The study found male and female 2431 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 police are perceived as equals, and both genders and O’Shannassy, n.d.). This involves a change share equal opportunities for career advancement of culture, system, structure, and people within (Royal Thai Police, 2016). Within the Royal Thai the organisation, and it requires the support of Police there are multiple regulations deriving media, government, and the public. from various policies. The first of these is the Police Disciplines Act, B.E. 2477 (1934). Several propositions have been made about Initially this Act provides general ‘ground rules’ successful organisational transformation: for all officers, with Section 5 emphasising politeness and respect towards older or more (i) organisational transformation is a continuous senior officers (The Royal Thai Police 2012: and simultaneous major change which must be p.21). While Section 27 states that if a complaint implemented over time; remains un-resolved for 15 days, an officer can lodge a new complaint with a higher superior, (ii) major changes must be directly deployed by but it’s by no means clear what happens next, if senior executives and acknowledged by all staff; anything at all. and

Critically, words including ‘fairness’, ‘equality’, (iii) technological change generally increases the ‘discrimination’ or ‘gender’ are not mentioned in success rate of organisational transformation. regulations governing behaviour in the Royal Thai Police. In stark contrast, the Australian Nohria and Beer (2000) reviewed two ‘change’ Federal Police Regulations (1979) clearly state theories. Theory E assumes changes based on the importance of fairness and freedom from economic values such as organisational down- discrimination. In an attempt to address gender sizing, re-structuring, and economic incentives, issues, in 2015, the Royal Thai Police Cadet while Theory O focuses on corporate culture and Academy, set out guide-lines to prevent sexual employee attitudes. Often, these two theories are harassment at work. The framework which is intertwined, embracing six prospects for change: used, describes sexual harassment as any goals; leadership; focus; process; rewards inappropriate behaviour, verbally or non- system; and use of consultants. verbally, through words, messages, voice, picture, document, or by electronic means that ‘Leadership’ is seen as facilitated participation cause discomfort to a person of another gender. (participative change) which seeks engagement Verbally, no-one should not make ‘un-wanted’ between the two approaches to formulate sexual jokes, but without any advice as to who success. Incentives are used only as determines what is ‘un-wanted’. The Academy reinforcement, but organisational capability is then seems to have diluted the framework by strengthened. Participative change is the type of advising that its female cadets ‘dress change generally expected in public appropriately’ and ‘avoid private gatherings with organisations, but for such change succeed, male co-workers’, or be in a concealed place with resistance must be minimised. Analytical them. planning is also required to identify organisational and personnel needs and capabilities where changes must occur in order to Organisational transformation encourage effective transformation. Skinner et One way of seeing organisational al. (2005) claim organisational transformation transformation is when it is described as ‘second takes place through a three-step process generation’ organisation development that is both comprising ‘un-freezing’, ‘changing’, and evolutionary and revolutionary in nature (Dagres ‘supporting’ stages. An example of 2432 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 organisational gender reform is an initiative by In respect of policing in India, Bhowmick (2012, the Australian Government and the Workplace p.4) found the majority of male officers Gender Equality Agency. Together they have interviewed expressed the following opinions: established a Gender Equality Roadmap providing identification tools for organisations (i). there is no apparent need to integrate women requiring gender equity transformation into mainstream policing; (Workplace Gender Equality Agency, 2018, p.11). The roadmap “enables organisations to (ii). female police personnel should be given plot where they are on the (gender equality) specific tasks related to women and children; journey”, identify their progress, and the absence of it over a five stage spectrum (Workplace (iii). women are not enthusiastic about their jobs; Gender Equality Agency, 2018: p.14). (iv). women may work as cooks in the police Other studies mess; Denham (2008, p.3) claims “common challenges in policing” can be eradicated through police (v). women should escort only female prisoners reform which makes police “more operationally and not male prisoners; effective, accountable, equitable and rights respecting.” According to Denham, successful (vi). women should not be engaged in operations police organisational reform requires acceptance against militants, extremists and insurgents; and of organisational diversity, fair policy, an effective internal and external communication (vii). women police officers are very gentle and strategy, measurable gender equity goals and are not capable of handling hardened criminals.” evaluation procedures, eliminating recruitment barriers, establishing gender appropriate Bhomick’s research in India revealed similar facilities, up to date training and accountable results to the Chan, Doran and Marel research leadership skills; all of which are elements which findings from Australia (2013). Similarly, complement Theory O mentioned earlier. Chain Bastick (2014: p.16) concluded gender issues of command, recruitment and promotion, must be examined from three perspectives; training, evaluation must complement one structure, policy and practice. The notion another to achieve greater gender equality. corresponds to the United Nations’ “Global Effort” initiative calling for UN member states to Research conducted in Nigeria (NPF, UN establish policy that sets an equal percentage of Women, and UNFPA 2010, p.15) categorised male and female officers, as well as reviewing discrimination against women in the police force recruitment and incentive procedure (United into various topics: ‘recruitment; representation Nations Police, n.d.). of women; marriage, pregnancy and child birth; training and posting; sexual violence and abuse; Brinser’s research (2016) in the USA examined dressing and nomenclature; accommodation and gender related challenges female police officers welfare; and other gender issues.’ In contrast face today, as opposed to those they may have with their male counterparts, in Nigeria, female experienced earlier. The author outlines these police officers were not allowed to use firearms. challenges as ‘organisational’ and ‘personal’ As in Thailand, female police officers in Nigeria, where organisational factors include: also had to add W to their rank to identify them as women. (i). acceptance by male police officers;

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(ii). discrimination and sexual harassment; assumptions”; male police officers showed “paternalistic attitudes toward women, rigid in- (iii). the glass ceiling; and groups with exclusionary sanctions towards out- groups, and strong expectations of loyalty and (iv). intra-gender challenges. affinity in the in-groups” (2016, pp.13 - 14).

Brinser found female police officers are less The research proposed that in the South accepted and seen as physically and emotionally Australian Police undertake cultural change via a incapable of performing police tasks; they are project where strategies involved ‘spearheading sexually harassed and intimidated by offensive face-to-face discussions across SAPOL about behaviours; they face a glass ceiling; and they are gender equity, establishing a blog on gender undermined by other female police officers who equality, increasing understanding of are more assertive. On the other hand, ‘personal unconscious bias, championing bystanders who challenges’ are non-organisational such as family speak out, and promoting the benefits of flexible responsibility, socially prescribed role as a work’. Having undertaken this project, South nurturer, and self-confidence. Australian Police now requires solid leadership to enact adaptive cultural change (Heifets, Again in the USA, Freiburger and Marcum Grashow and Linsky ed. Government of South (2016, p.227) wrote that barriers facing women Australia, 2016, p.37). This involves: re- in policing and law enforcement include not only regulating the organisation’s existing DNA; resistance from male administrators, but also via preserving current good practice and behaviours; regulations such as physical fitness testing and active experiment with an experimental mindset; weight requirements. Female police officers are use diversity to create stronger decision-making; also shown to have higher turn-over rates than and being persistent. The South Australian Police male police officers, something particularly initiated a process of sustainable gender equality, notable among female police officers of colour. introducing things such as a 50:50 recruitment Most women in the study found policies were not policy aided by hosting women in policing family friendly, and they had not gained sessions via social media and marketing sufficient support in their career. Female police materials; incorporating internal and external officers also had bad field training experiences. female representatives on selection panels to Freiburger and Marcum showed that factors ensure more diverse recruitment and promotion; related to low ‘recruitment’, ‘selection’, and and giving sufficient weight to people ‘retention’ should be explored more deeply in management skills when promoting officers to subsequent research. higher levels (2016, p.54). Importantly, this research contributed evidence which clearly In 2016, the South Australian Government showed that even in a developed nation such as published research investigating gender bias, Australia, the need for cultural change promoting sexual discrimination, and sexual harassment for gender equality and ensuring greater diversity over 2,000 police officers. This revealed that remains very significant. almost 45 per cent of women were victims of some form of gender-bias or gender-related jokes (Government of South Australia, 2016, Extracted themes p.xii).Perhaps unsurprisingly, the research documented how culture in the South Australian The table below summarises previously Police (SAPOL) is essentially a ‘boys club’ that is examined factors contributing to gender “deeply rooted in masculine normative inequality in a police force. 2434 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077

Inequality issues Literature Lower Social Professio Sexu Unequ Less Inadequ Systemat recruitmen expectatio nal al al career ate ic t n Efficacy, haras pay advanc Support Exclusio opportunit &gender individual s- e-ment ,training n: ies stereotypi skills ment (glass & acceptan (No jobs ng ceiling, Welfare ce opening, (ie.nurturi patrona issue selective ng role, ge from role) husband, system) male family, & female physically Colleagu weak) es/ male attitudes Burke     (2005) UN (2019)      Muntarbh  orn (2018) Bhowmic  k (2012) Ngamkha    m & Laohong 2018 Morrison      (2004) Bhowmic   k (2012) Chan’s et   al. (2013) Wilson      (2016) Brinser      (2016) Bastick     (2014) Khundilok     -nattawasa 2019 Table 1: Extracted themes

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Conceptual framework

Figure1: Conceptual framework

Research methodology female police officers. The Crime Prevention The research is a case study of the Royal Thai and Suppression Supporting Unit (Immigration Police the main question is: the extent to which Bureau) was selected partly because it is a gender and how cultural factors play a crucial role in amalgam, falling between the distinct character gender equality; how these shape and re-shape apparent in the other two units. Interview the place and experiences of female police questions were developed from the gender officers in the Royal Thai Police force? The equality themes prominent in the literature study seeks to examine and identify cultural review in order to examine these within the factors which have driven gender inequalities in context of policing in Thailand. Finally, content the Royal Thai Police force, and how these can analysis and thematic analyses were performed. be eliminated. This is a descriptive research Inductive coding was used through a six-step study, seeking to explain the ‘who’, ‘what’, process: data familiarisation; ‘coding’ which ‘when’ and ‘where’ attached to research involved de-construction of data; ‘generating questions examining what is happening in initial themes’ or sub-themes to identify sub- policing in Thailand, as well as issues such as groups beneath the same umbrella; ‘re-check’ ‘how’ and ‘why’ the phenomenon is occurring. and review themes against the data; cause and The study uses a combination of document effect analysis; as well as constant comparison; review, in-depth interviews with participants, and and ‘writing up’ the results. Data triangulation a focus group to provide greater analysis and involved re-examination and cross-examination depth to the questions posed. Interviews were of data from several sources for the primary conducted with commissioned officers from the purpose of ensuring greater and more accurate Crime Prevention and Suppression Unit data validity. In this research, data triangulation (Metropolitan Police Division 1 - 9), five is done with people, time, and space; theory informants from the Crime Prevention and triangulation was performed to examine Suppression Supporting Unit (Immigration commonality and contradictory data schemes; Bureau), 10 informants from the Education Unit methodological triangulation was used for data (Police Education Bureau), and one retired high collection entailing document review and in- rank officer (police major-general and above). depth interviews.

The Crime Prevention and Suppression Unit was Results and discussion selected largely due to the evident characteristic Question 1: Which cultural factors may of being a male-dominated environment and with contribute to the lack of women in law more masculine or ‘manly’ assignments. The enforcement in Thailand ? (recruitment and Education Unit was selected as it was something retention) of an opposite character, comprising mainly 2436 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077

Answers to this question revealed that the as opening a bakery, or expressing a wish to majority of the police officers employed in all transfer to a different unit after they have units are influenced by their friends and family to completed their three-year contract as an inquiry join the police force. This suggests that existing officer. A reluctance to challenge or express female and male police officers are not entirely concern about actions by more senior staff self-reliant, and that the decision-making is emerged when participants were asked for their largely a factor of acceptance from extended opinion on the Royal Police Cadet Academy family and other members of the same social decision to cease recruiting females. They groups. This result confirms Hofstede’s theory simply claimed it is the judgement of senior that Thais are very ‘collective’ and cherish the executives, and it is not their place to voice an values of their reference network. opinion. Participants do not know the reasons behind this decision, but hope the force has Participants in this study observed that the decided to recruit more female officers through existing pattern of recruitment in the Thai police other channels. is extremely gender biased, i.e. overwhelmingly male dominated. A counter-argument emerged The same question was posed to a former police however, with some participants suggesting that commissioner and he stated that the cost of female police officers should not complain about producing female graduates is as high as a selective recruitment as they “should have producing male graduates, and female cadets are recognised that the police force is a male simply not worth the investment because their culture.” ‘Male culture’ is described by Susan career choices do not correspond to the initial Ryan (Government of South Australia, 2016, goals of the Royal Thai Police force – whatever pp.13 - 14) as aggressive physical activity, these are. Because the Force cannot hold them competitiveness, exaggerated hetero-sexual indefinitely as inquiry officers, it saw no point orientation, misogynistic and paternalistic recruiting females as cadets. Clearly it seems attitudes towards women, rigid in-groups with desirable that, ending the recruitment of potential exclusionary sanctions towards out-groups and female officers by the Royal Police Cadet strong expectations of loyalty and affinity in the Academy should be something of the short-term in-groups. As a result of this study, it seems clear measure at most, as evidence from very different that the Royal Thai Police service is a very police services, clearly shows that recruiting and highly masculinised organisation, within which, retaining female police officers is both desirable certain largely feminised groups operate e.g. the and necessary. Education Bureau. Interestingly, this study found that about half of respondents, with the Currently, women are still being recruited for majority from the Education Bureau, did not ‘front office’ policing which may also be consider a career change as necessary or contributing to the Academy’s decision to cease desirable. recruiting female cadets, as those in ‘front office’ or secretarial roles, do not normally require Participants from the Crime Prevention and extensive training. Though the former Suppression Unit are the least hesitant about commissioner commented that female inquiry expressing concerns with their potential career officers are ambitious and seek an easy way out path. Female respondents expressed by transferring to different units which provide apprehension about their future career paths as higher career advancement opportunities. It is not they have little career advancement when overly surprising that the evidence emerging in compared with their male counterparts. Some this study confirms the findings of the Freiburger also mentioned the need to have a ‘side job’ such and Marcum (2016) research in the USA, and 2437 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 which noted that turn-over rates for female police opportunities for those who have not graduated officers are high in comparison with their male from the Royal Thai Police Cadet programme by peers, and that issues related to female establishing their suitability for promotion and recruitment and retention should be explored career advancement. Evidence emerging during more fully in future research. this study, strongly suggests that female enquiry officers will need extra assistance given that they The findings here are also consistent with the are working within a male dominated, highly Nhamkham and Laohong (2018) study which masculinised organisation if they are to achieve found that that female cadets experience limited gender equity and equality. Noting that, gender career paths when compared with males. It does equality does not mean women and men have to seem likely though, that a solution for low become the same, but that their rights, female recruitment and retention might be found responsibilities and opportunities should not in examples such as the South Australian police depend on whether they were born male or service. This could involve a female retention female. Gender equity means fairness of programme, which provided a ‘voice’ enabling treatment for men and women according to their policy changes in the Royal Thai Police. As in respective needs. According to SHRM's South Australia, an approach which encourages Employee Job Satisfaction and Engagement: The gender equity and equality, develops a 50:50 Doors of Opportunity are Open research, low recruitment model, and incorporates women into employee retention is not always a result of a low selection and promotion panels will obviously job satisfaction (SHRM, 2020). In contrast improve existing policy frameworks. Moreover, though, higher retention rates derive from an approach that provides guidance and respectful treatment, equal compensation, trust mentoring for female inquiry officers, advises between colleagues and senior manager, job them on career pathways and career security and opportunities. Establishing a female opportunities, and addresses the struggles they recruitment and retention programme in the encounter due to gender discrimination, will also Royal Thai Police will obviously help the assist with recruiting and retaining female police organisation move towards gender equity and officers. equality.

Such an approach should also help female police officers establish their own networks and create

Figure 2: Achieving gender equality through women’s retention programme

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Question 2: What challenges do women face in being allocated to a ‘buddy system’ they could policing? (performance) complement their male peers and perform better in the field. Despite their wider confidence, a few Participants in this study see the need to more participants apparently believe that women are fully integrate women into the police force as a more suited to work in administrative roles, necessary step to achieving gender balance. nursing, education, or tourism. This provides a Overall, participants agreed that female police very clear indication of how female police officers currently only have mainly passive roles officers have become “accustomed to the in the organisation, largely because they are seen stereotype and conformed to the hegemony a as more detailed, sensitive, patient and society has prescribed for them” (Dekeseredy & meticulous when it comes to administrative Dragiwics, 2012, p.316). One male police work. More widely, participants felt that female officer claimed that female police officers should officers should receive training for field-work always remain only in administrative areas policing. because of their womanly nature - whatever that means. Participants from the Crime Prevention and Suppression Unit as well as the Crime Prevention Female participants felt there is a need to prove and Suppression Support Unit given the same their ability to fellow officers and society more opportunities in those positions as much as their generally, as they did not enjoy the same level of male counterparts. In general terms, female ‘automatic’ respect their male peers received. enquiry officers did not mind handling cases Perhaps interestingly, female participants did not involving women and children, but they also feel inferior as their status was simply a factor of wanted to work in roles which advanced their the way in which the organisation worked and knowledge and widened both their perspectives how they viewed themselves in Thai society and career opportunities. Female participants did more generally. In contrast, female police not want to be limited to only day shifts, nor to officers noted that they tended to be supportive being left behind in locked cars during the of each other because they are very much the pursuit of suspects because they are seen as less minority gender. For example, one police station capable than their male peers. Interestingly, the had over 100 male officers, but only three female majority of female participants in this study officers. This study also found that female believed they were actually better at handling participants did not experience explicit intra- weapons, as many of their female colleagues out- gender challenges. Although a participant from performed their male counterparts during the Police Education Bureau assumed intra- competitions. They did however express the gender challenges exist, but that these are not view that sometimes they were more physically explicitly marked in Thai society. This belief is limited, which might prevent them performing consistent with Meyer’s analysis that Thai equally effectively in ‘the real world’, with a few society is high context (communicating) culture participants mentioning they were out-run by which means messages are not delivered suspects. Participants from the largely female explicitly, but concealed between the lines. staffed Education Unit reported similarly, “Communication is sophisticated, nuanced, and however, the majority of them felt their age did layered” and that messages are implied but not not permit changes in their current range of plainly expressed (Meyer, 2015, p.39). duties. Other than Thailand, high context It was also noted by participants that with enough communication cultures are apparent in countries training, some additional assistance, and perhaps such as Japan, Korea, and China. In these 2439 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 cultures, evaluation is indirect and diplomatic more suited to work in administrative roles. (p.69) especially when it comes to a subordinate Apparently due to their smaller build and speaking to a superior. Though it is more physical limitations, female police officers are apparent that younger police officers, i.e. those not equipped for field work. Moreover, he aged under 40, tend to be more confrontational asserted that Thai culture raised women to be than their older peers. Older officers reported gentle and submissive something quite unlike having been more confrontational when they women from western settings, meaning that Thai were younger, but over the course of a few years women needed to be taken care of. From they learnt to master when and where they should Australia’s Workplace Gender Equality Agency be submissive as “open confrontation is perspective, if the individual described above inappropriate and will break group harmony were to represent the Royal Thai Police more which has negative effects on relationships” generally, the organisation is undoubtedly at (p.201). Such theories also go some way to stage 0 of the Gender Equality Roadmap as it is explaining why gossiping is common in Thai incapable of recognising gender-bias in the culture and in various public organisations. It is organisation. Overall it seems very clear that the also in the nature of the force that younger Royal Thai Police harbours and fosters gender officers respect older officers, and lower rank discrimination meaning that female police officers respect more senior ones. This is officers do not enjoy equal opportunity to work referred to as the Poo-noi Poo-yai principle. at their optimum. The views described above, are During interviews, the majority of participants also consistent with Bhowmick (2012) involving (17) reported hierarchy, discipline and order as policing in India. This study reported that male their organisational culture; something officers claimed they do not see any need for corresponding closely to Hofstede’s analysis. integrating women into mainstream policing This strongly suggests that the Royal Thai Police simply because women are not enthusiastic about is a very hierarchical organisation with high their jobs, and that females can work as cooks in ‘power distance’ and high ‘uncertainty the police mess (Bhowmick, 2012, p.4). avoidance’, which also means the organisation is multi-layered and fixed, and communication As a means of addressing its structural failings follows the chain of command. Despite some and gender inequality, it seems the Royal Thai uneasiness, this factor did not limit police Police may need to adopt bottom up rather than officers from performing effectively as they had top down decision-making which further become accustomed to prevailing traditions. A encourages power de-centralisation for an finding such as this corresponds with the exceedingly hierarchical organisation. Evidence approach apparent in Police Discipline Act B.E. for an alternative approach is apparent in in 2477 (1934) which stresses ‘politeness and Japan, where a ringisho system is used and respect towards the elders as well as senior which means decision making begins with officers.’ everyone at lower levels, this is then passed upwards to the next level once group agreement Overall, it seems that female police officers felt is reached. A ringisho system creates “root they could perform as efficiently as male police binding” before a consensus is imposed from officers, but they were never really given above. With this approach, women at the base of opportunities, the support to demonstrate this, or a hierarchy know they have more chance of have it reflected in their career trajectory. Such expressing their position. If a vastly different perspectives stand in marked contrast to those approach was taken by the Royal Thai Police, the expressed by a former police commissioner who organisation would need to offer female police baldly asserted that female police officers are officers far more scope and encourage them to 2440 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 work in operational roles with extended responsibilities, rather than limiting them to their Cultural changes can take place and gender administrative positions. Female police officers stereotyping in the Royal Thai Police can be should also be encouraged and enabled to gain reduced over time, but only if ‘new cultural and additional training boosting their self-confidence behavioural norms’ (Biccheri, 2016) are given to and respect for their performance. To do this, the the organisation. In the other words, for the Royal Thai Police must enact clear policies policy to take effect and for female police establishing gender equality organisational officers to rise in such a traditional organisation, values as well as developing a friendly staff must first collectively be informed about communication strategy to promote those and come to believe there are sound reasons for policies. such changes.

Figure 3: Achieving gender equality through long-term communication strategy

Question 3: Does gender discrimination/sexual seems likely to be because the number of females harassment exist for women pursuing careers in working in the Education Unit is higher than law enforcement? If so, what cultural aspects those of others. One participant reported being contribute to it? (workplace culture) asked if she ‘likes it at the top or the bottom’ after she had described a victim’s sexual Initially, all female police officer participants in encounter to other officers. Another reported this study reported that they are treated as equals that comments were made about her breasts and and have not suffered a lack of respect from male her gender identity. Often, participants reported police officers. On the other hand, they were they would joke back, but they felt treated more like ‘sisters’ and were always taken uncomfortable doing so. A few participants care of and endured paternalistic attitudes claimed even though they felt uncomfortable, (Government of South Australia, 2016, p.xii). succumbing to unpleasant banter simply came as For instance, female inquiry officers were always part of a job in a male dominated organisation excused from attending night shifts. When because ‘it is how they talk.’ They reported interviewed further however, this study found never having confronted male police officers that female police officers are sometimes who carried on in inappropriate ways, and some challenged by their male colleagues about their mistakenly viewed this as part of relationship- job performance. On other occasions, they were building within the force. bombarded with sexual or ‘inside jokes.’ Generally, female inquiry officers and female The US National Institute of Justice Special police officers working in the Crime Prevention Report found sexual harassment in police forces and Suppression Support Unit (Immigration are often made through sexual comments or Bureau) were treated more harshly than female jokes, and that these actions had been so officers working in the Education Unit. This ‘normalised that they don’t think it’s at the level 2441 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 of harassment’ (Muhlhausen 2019, p.iii). not openly discuss sexual or sex-based Moreover, the US National Institute of Justice harassment with other people. This is something Special Report (2019, p.8) also found also observed in this study and it was very policewomen of today face more ‘subtle sexism difficult to obtain accurate or detailed answers as opposed to overt harassment’, which from interviews conducted with participants. corresponds to statements made by all This study also found that participants from the participants from the Police Education Bureau Police Education Bureau and the Royal Police that sexual harassment in the unit could only be Cadet Academy were extremely careful about read ‘between the lines’; something which their answers, demonstrating a high degree of Meyer’s (2015) high-context interpretation of loyalty toward the organisation. Participants in Thai culture reinforces. According to Stockdale the study were more hesitant to answer when it (2005 ed. Siriwato, 2017, p.36) sexual came to sensitive issues, and were vigilant and harassment is common in male-dominated avoided making negative comments about the professions, as it is used for maintaining Royal Thai Police. One male Royal Police Cadet masculinity and status differences between men Academy participant even went as far as saying and women. The findings in this study support there had been no sex harassment incident ever those of Siriwato (2017) who found that Thai throughout the entire history of the Royal Thai female police officers believed sexual harassment Police. is normal if it is done with good intentions. Siriwato also concludes that Thai female officers Of the four units with participants in this study, have high endurance and toleration towards only the Royal Police Cadet Academy agreed to sexual harassment; they are unknowingly provide a copy of its internal policy dealing with working in what Huang and Cao (2005) describe gender issues. The framework (2015) describes as a hostile work environment which can entail sexual harassment as inappropriate behaviour, characteristics such as habitually offensive jokes, and that female officers as well as cadets should un-wanted sexual personal discussion, offensive ‘dress appropriately, avoid private gathering with remarks on appearance, and joking in a male co-workers or be in a concealed place uncomfortable manner. with them, and should avoid making unwanted sexual jokes.’ In the 21st century, few if any Further, according to Meyer (2015) ‘trust’ is built organisations would publish a policy asking differently in different cultures and in Thailand it women to dress appropriately to avoid sex- is based on, and built, via outside-work related encounters or crimes however, the Royal relationships. In the other words, trust is built Thai Police is one organisation that does. when individuals share their personal time and Participants were also asked if they were given personal information which is often non-work- equal treatment from the organisation in aspects related. Participants in this study were asked if such as accommodation, allowances, and they had ever been taken an advantage of during uniforms. These were reported being equal outside-work incidents to which they collectively except for uniforms. Female police officers must answered ‘no’. They added that they always wear skirts which are considered ‘neat’ and went out as a group, which again suggested ‘respectful’ of their tradition. This conforms to collectivism, or else they did it ‘privately’, not data seen in the findings made by Kukudrua’s against one’s will and they do not explicitly talk (2019, p.25), that workplace inequality includes about it. Often women try to avoid inability to wear trousers at work. In some units confrontation, as they like to ‘save face’, and though, female police officers are allowed to they are scared to disagree. (Meyer, 2015, p.199 - wear trousers but only if permitted by a 201). Siriwato (2017) found that Thai women do supervisor. The majority of participants in this 2442 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 study seemed very surprised to learn that did not see the need to risk the life of female Thailand and Nigeria were two of the very few police officers in the field. He further added that countries that required female police officers to physical limitations are always going to be one append ‘W’ to their rank as a form of gender- thing which prohibits women from ever having based label (NPF, UN Women, and UNFPA, gender equality in a male-dominated workplace 2010, p.15). such as this one. According to him, gender equality is an impractical set of ideas which are In terms of job responsibilities, participants were not applicable in real life. In addition, he claimed asked if job allocation is treated fairly and if they that sexual harassment barely exists in the Royal are given more workload in comparison to male Thai Police due to strict rules and regulations as police officers. Responses indicated that well as harsh disciplinary penalties. During this participants are are not given more work, but study, four male police officers were they felt they had to work harder to be accepted interviewed, of whom, three reported a very as part of the police force; and that there is a similar perception to the former commissioner. constant need to prove themselves as helpful, in Interestingly, one participant cited Israel as an particularly in the beginning of their careers. It is example apparently because in Israel, female and worth noting that one participant assertively said male police officers sleep on the same floor and ‘no’ to all questions which might infer any are not separated into different buildings, but negativity towards the Royal Thai Police. This is sexual harassment never occurs because of the the same participant, a graduate of the Royal heavy penalties which may be involved. Police Cadet Academy, who previously expressed the view that women are incapable of Overall, this study shows how gender inequality performing male duties. The former police is so deeply rooted in the Royal Thai Police, that commissioner interviewed as part of this study, it has become normalised as part of the historical re-affirmed that inequality is part of the and prevailing organisational culture. As other organisation and it has been there from the studies have shown, achieving gender equality in inception of the Royal Thai Police which is a high power, distance society is a very difficult essentially a male culture, and one in which the process, but it can eventually happen when newer nature of work is not female-related. norms are created and fruitfully carried by those less concerned with tradition and more concerned On this basis, he believed it is unreasonable to with fairness and equity. In moving towards a compare Thai culture with those of western new organisational approach, the Royal Thai countries. He argued that mentally, Thai females Police must explicitly define sexual harassment, are not taught to be as independent as their initiate open discussion about such matters, western peers. Physically, they have different establish new policies and guidelines as well as body builds, notably that Thai females are seen contemporary complaint and dispute resolution as small and fragile, and they are trained to be processes which should be simple, direct, and not soft, polite, and non-aggressive. In a sweeping time-consuming. Cases involving gender generalisation, the claim was made that even in inequity, sexual harassment and like matters western countries, female police officers are should be treated fairly and under regular always paired with a male partner and are never supervision and review by panels and bodies allowed to be in the field alone. This led the comprising members of both genders. former police commissioner to conclude that he

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Figure 4: Achieving gender equality through open discussion on sex-based harassment

Question 4: Which cultural factors appear to the Brinser (2016) description of the ‘glass- contribute to lack of advancement opportunities ceiling’ as “an invisible barrier which inhibits the for women in law enforcement? (promotion) progression to higher levels of an organisation’s hierarchy for women and other disadvantaged In this study, the majority of participants claimed minority groups” (Shabbir, Shakeel, and Zubair, the current system does not support women from 2017, p.236) which also stated that ‘personal the very beginning of their careers, starting from challenges’ are non-organisational challenges a recruitment system which quite deliberately such as family responsibilities and self- makes room for a very small number of women confidence which limited policewomen to certain to be admitted. As noted earlier, it is possible for roles in the force. women to be promoted and gain better career advancement in administrative, educational or One female participant in this study reported that medical areas, as opposed to crime prevention as a female she is expected to nurture her family, and suppression. A few female participants from so getting married would also make the job even the Education Unit stated that they receive the more impossible. Since the advent of the new same opportunities for career advancement as monarch, participants in this study felt a great men, but that in reality, Thai society readily deal of discrimination against female police accepts men as leaders but not women. Women officers was more apparent, with many additional still encounter many disadvantages in the police rules and regulations imposed on their uniforms force because it is the nature of the Thai social for example. One participant voiced the view values to show more respects towards men as that the Royal Thai Police was a better opposed to women. organisation when the prime minister was also a former police officer. In broader terms, the This study found that because the main priority Royal Thai Police is seen as about politics where for female inquiry officers are cases involving organisational changes arise depending on who women and children, these circumstance create the new ‘big boss’ is. Promotion in the Royal disadvantages when it comes to career Thai Police also very much depends on ‘how advancement, as they have very limited good connections you have’ because other than experience and exposure to other kinds of ‘seniority’, 33 per cent of the pool is selected for policing work. Further, in the Crime Prevention their ‘outstanding competency’ as determined by and Suppression Unit, female police officers those in more senior posts. Participants in this usually reach a glass ceiling at about 35 - 36 study stressed that ‘knowing where to place years of age when they begin families. After yourself’ is a technique all police officers must which, they felt a need to be transferred acquire in order to prosper, because the Royal elsewhere for routine duty and further career Thai Police is a ‘relationship based’ organisation advancement. This is a finding consistent with 2444 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 where ‘business is personal’ (Meyer, 2015, prove themselves as exceptional experts in a field p.170). such as in budgeting or nursing. Again according to the former commissioner, this is In a high-power distance and a collectivist because female police officers are not meant to culture such as the Royal Thai Police, loyalty is work in operational roles due to their seeming often traded for trust, protection and guidance. physical limitations. Female police officers Additionally, when participants were asked if encountered career advancement challenges, but they preferred close monitoring and if they when executives give them an opportunity to expected direct guidance from their superiors, the work in an operational unit such as being an majority of the participants except one academic inquiry officer in the Crime Prevention and from the Royal Police Cadet Academy answered Suppression Unit, the former commissioner ‘yes’. These answers re-affirmed Hofstede’s claims they are seen to ‘shoot themselves in the position that Thailand is a high-power distance foot’ by wanting to transfer elsewhere. On this country, reflected via apparent attitudes for basis he sees no point on prescribing further paternalistic approaches to management. changes. Overall, interviews carried out during Thailand stands in quite marked contrast to this study, show that the Royal Thai Police is an countries like Australia, Denmark and the USA, overtly patriarchal organisation where male but shares similarities with China and other dominance and gender segregation is endorsed. eastern cultures in the ways that business In the Royal Thai Police, gender stereotyping is relationships are personal relationships, where common and other than having a high-power trust is invested in the individual, not the distance in the chain of command, there is also a company (Meyer, 2015, p.173). high-power distance in between genders. Career advancement depends a very great deal on Relationship here result from ‘affective trust’ connections, loyalty, and relationship-based rather than ‘cognitive trust’ which means these associations. Essentially, the Royal Thai Police business relationships arise from “the feelings of has a broadly collective outlook and seemingly emotional closeness, empathy, or friendship … short-term orientation as it places traditions at the seeing each other at a personal level” (Meyer, top and views societal changes with suspicion. 2015, p.168). Therefore, getting to know each other at a personal level will help create stronger To break away from this traditional hierarchy, personal relationships and professional the Royal Thai Police executive must look connections within the Royal Thai Police, which beyond gender stereotyping norms, embrace explains how social gatherings with colleagues equality, incorporate women as part of the are extremely crucial and part of the job. organisational culture by encouraging equal Overall, police officers regardless of gender, recruitment, and equipping them with the skills, reported working in a very low-trust organisation knowledge and understandings that can provide where one could never be sure who to trust; female police officers with the values and ‘because it is so competitive, people are ready to approaches that foster long-term career stab you in the back whenever you have taken a advancement. What the Royal Thai Police also wrong step.’ needs is a contemporary approach to education and a more sharply future-focussed outlook. It Answers from the former police commissioner should also establish clear, unambiguous ethical are consistent with those arising from the guidelines and encourage their effective majority of participants in this study, notably that implementation so that ‘outstanding female police officers are given fewer achievement/competency’ is not all about opportunities for career advancement unless they ‘connections’ 2445 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077

Figure 5: Achieving gender equality through modern education and ethical guidelines formulation

Question 5: What do female police officers hope Huang and Cao, 2005). Participants in this study to see in organisational reform? (organisation reported they had heard of ‘relationships’ change) exchanged for ‘advancement’, though these behaviours were not conducted explicitly All participants including the former police because Thai culture requires discretion. When commissioner, confirmed that patronage and a asked if they sought an end to such approaches, quid pro quo system definitely exist in the participants responded positively as this would organisation, this being part of wider Thai provide fairness and equity for everyone. It was culture. Being a high ‘uncertainty avoidance’ also seen that becoming increasingly westernised and an ‘indulgent’ culture, the Royal Thai Police in organisational terms, it was younger police believes everything should be controlled and it is officers who would initiate these changes, while a culture that avoids unforeseen situations. the more traditional structures reduced with While there are apparently strict regulations, retirement. there does not seem the capacity to to control individual desires and impulses, hence patronage Moving towards gender equality, gender reform is commonly accepted and welcomed by many. and organisational change can be achieved by: (i) One officer in this study stated that those who un-freezing, (ii) changing, and (iii) work closely with supervisor deserve to get confirming/supporting such changes (Skinner et promoted and gain benefits the most, because al., 2005). One of the hoped-for features of this having a good relationship with supervisor study is ‘un-freezing’ the ground allowing actually meant the person does more work than progress on the other two steps. Moving forward others. It was also claimed that the system is far means the Royal Thai Police acknowledging that from appalling, as long as the ‘right’ officers are current practices entailing: chosen to receive benefits. A few participants stated that such approaches are common and  low diversity recruitment which does not acceptable as they have become the usual incorporate sufficient places for female practice within the force and in other employees and low retention rates within several organisations. Bicchieri (2016) noted that people units; act accordingly to their reference network, therefore, if a patronage system is accepted by  assumptions about performance due to their friends, family, or peers, it is likely that the apparent physical limitations in combination with practice become a social norm. insufficient training and gender stereotyping;

One example of a quid pro quo may arise when a female officer is bribed with special treatment to engage in sexual behaviour (MacKinnon ed. 2446 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077

 unfair and inequitable opportunities for education about gender stereotyping, as well as promotion due to limited roles and duties as well open discussion of sex-based harassment at as prejudicial job allocations; and executive and non-executive level; and establish bottom-up policy formulation, as well as  lack of knowledge and awareness about implementing ethical practices/guidelines within sexual harassment in male dominated workplace the organisation to eliminate hostile work cultures; all of which require environment. Once way of achieving this will be if the Royal Thai Police adopts the Gender  embracing an outlook for organisational Equality Roadmap (Workplace Gender Equality change which includes eliminating patronage and Agency, 2018, p.11) to identify a new quid pro quo approaches regardless of gender. organisational gender equality process and progress towards fulfilling its ambitions. Noting It seems that in order to effect gender reform, the that change must be constantly monitored and Royal Thai Police should employ programmes of evaluated using among other things a long-term the kind developed elsewhere, those that address communication strategy. women’s retention and which mentor and The key transformation can be illustrated as promote their position; incorporate modern follows:

Figure 6: Pathways towards organisational transformation

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Conclusions them organisationally and socially. Female police The results of this study clearly contradict officers within the RTP are forced to work in a prior findings by the Royal Thai Police that there hostile environment which would not be tolerated is gender equality in the police force, and they in other western countries, where male police support the conclusions seen in Siriwato (2017) officers frequently comment on their looks and as well as Ngamkham and Laohong (2018) on habitually use so-called ‘jokes’ to sexually the matter. Findings from this study are harassed them. Female enquiry officers and consistent with those of research carried out in investigation officers encountered these other countries such as Australia, India, Nigeria experiences more than others as they typically and the USA. This strongly suggests that it is in work in male-dominated departments such as the the responsibility, and it is the duty, of the Crime Prevention and Suppression Unit. executives within the Royal Thai Police to drive change and not waiting for it to occur. Within the Royal Thai Police, connections, ‘naturally’. In summary, this study concludes patronage and quid quo pro approaches are that, gender inequality in the Royal Thai Police is deeply embedded and widely practised. Some a result of cultural factors such as high-power see these things are beneficial as it allows more distance, hierarchical social structure, senior staff to move ‘good’ staff to higher ranks collectivism, high-context and non- sooner. Many in this study though, viewed these confrontational culture, relationship-based trust, things as damaging as they provide loopholes for and short-term orientation. It also concludes corruption as well as encouraging inefficient and that the majority of female police officers, unfair promotion. Moreover, this study found whether occupying administrative or operational that, even in the 21st century, some male police roles, felt they had physical limitations which officers still feel and treat women as an inferior might exclude them from certain kinds of work. second-gender. They perceive woman as having Overall though the views obtained from lower physical and intellectual ability, thus, participants corresponded with those of the outcasts from their ‘boys-clubs’. Perhaps former police commissioner. Interestingly, the unsurprisingly, some female officers, especially former Commissioner also saw that ‘culture’ those who were older maintained that ‘looks and plays a crucial role in determining what takes appearances’ are among the most important place in the Royal Thai Police; namely that Thai qualities in being a police officer. More women are raised to be soft, gentle, and subtle; worryingly, female police officers have they are valued for their ‘feminine’ quality and conformed to the gender stereotyping culture small body build; and they are taught to be subsequently found it excluded them from their submissive rather than active or dominant. entitlements. A review of documents within this study found for example, that material from the The study identified gender inequality within the Royal Police Cadet Academy reportedly Royal Thai Police, where fewer female officers addressing sexual harassment, notably required are recruited, retained or promoted, where they female police officers to dress appropriately and are routinely provided with fewer opportunities be discreet when around their male peers. to advance, and are confined to prescribed domains where they are not as likely to advance This study provides evidence supporting the as their male peers. Female police officers within Hofstede (2011) and Meyer (2015) findings that the RTP not only suffer from fewer career Thais are collectivists; they live in a higher- opportunities, they reach the glass ceiling far context culture as they communicate implicitly sooner than their male counterparts due to the and between the lines; and trust is relationship- impersonal and personal roles prescribed for based and business are always personal. Thais 2448 www.psychologyandeducation.net PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION (2021) 58(2): 2428-2452 ISSN: 00333077 typically do not talk openly about matters such as [3] Bhowmick, S. (2012). Gender Sensitization sexual harassment, and being in a very and Police. Academia. [Online URL: hierarchical culture means female police officers https://www.academia.edu/1931007/Gende have accepted inequalities whether in terms of r_Sensitization_and_Police] accessed on recruitment/retention, performance, workplace November 9, 2019. culture, or promotion, as part of their traditional [4] Bicchieri, C. (2016). Diagnosing Norms. norms and have succumbed to paternalist Norms in the Wild. 1st ed., pp.25-30. treatment. Participants in this study placed an Oxford. United Kingdom: Oxford emphasis on a younger generation and hope that University Press. hostile environments can be eliminated through [5] Bohwongprasert, Y. (2019). Reforming the time, westernisation and globalisation. As a Police. Bangkok Post. [Online URL: result, this research suggests it the Royal Thai https://www.bangkokpost.com/life/social- Police should initiate a women’s retention and-lifestyle/1771719/reforming-the- programme to mentor and promote their position police] accessed on November 9, 2019. in the force, gaining higher retention within the [6] Brinser, K. L. (2016). An Examination of units and higher recruitment ratio. More Perceptual Challenges Faced by Female importantly, the Royal Thai Police must provide Officers. The Faculty of the Department of modern education on gender stereotyping as well Criminal Justice and Criminology. Sam as organise open discussion about sex-based Houston State University. harassment at executive and non-executive level. [7] Burke, R. J. and Mikkelsen, A. (2005). RTP should establish an up-to-date, bottom-up Gender Issues in Policing: Do they Matter?. policy approach as well as implementation Women in Management Review 20(2):133- particularly on non-gender biased ethical 143. 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