The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services

Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services

Authors: Noor Huijboom, Tijs van den Broek, Valerie Frissen, Linda Kool, Bas Kotterink, Morten Meyerhoff Nielsen and Jeremy Millard

Editors: Yves Punie, Gianluca Misuraca and David Osimo

2009

EUR 24080 EN The mission of the JRC-IPTS is to provide customer-driven support to the EU policy-making process by developing science-based responses to policy challenges that have both a socio-economic as well as a scientific/technological dimension.

European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for Prospective Technological Studies

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JRC 54203

EUR 24080 EN ISBN 978-92-79-14059-4 ISSN 1018-5593 DOI 10.2791/31908

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged Printed in Spain Osimo who was theprojectofficer when he was still working atIPTS. David to acknowledgement goes special report.Patricia A the and of inclusion, editing final Farrerthe for social and education healthcare, on studies case the respectivelyon feedback, their for HachéAlexandra and Kluzer Stefano and Ala-Mutka, A. particular,JoseValverde,Kirsti review.In and design research the to contributed who colleagues Unit Society Information activities.validation to online too and Thanksgo IPTS would like to thank TNO and DTI for their work, and the experts who participated in the meetings Acknowledgements

3 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 4 4 3 2 1 Executive summary Preface Acknowledgements

Table ofContents 4.6 4.5 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 Key areas ofimpact 3.5 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.1 Social computingliterature 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 Trends inpublicservices 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 Introduction

Conclusions andimpacts Confrontation trends between Legal impacts impacts Organisational Socio-cultural impacts Political impacts Conclusions The impactofsocialcomputing Take upby businesses Take upby users The scopeofsocialcomputing Conclusions Health Inclusion Learning Government ofthereport Structure oftheresearch Limitations Objectives andmethodology ICT andinnovation inthepublicsector The riseofthesocialweb

4 2 2 1 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 9 1 3 9 7 3 6 4 2 8 5 2 9 7 6 2 9 7 6 4 3 1 0 8 7 5 3

5 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 6 Table of contents List oftables List offigures Table 4: Table 3: Table 2: Table 1: Figure 4: Figure 3: Figure 2: Figure 1: ANNEX 4–Survey Tables ANNEX 3 ANNEX 2–Involved Stakeholders ANNEX 1–References 7 6 5

7.6 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.2 7.1 Overall conclusions 6.3 6.2 6.1 Future opportunitiesandrisks 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.3 5.2 5.1 Evidence ofsocialcomputingimpact

Percentage ofvisitorspercountry, Wikileaks Top 20mostpopularcountriesonwhichleaked provided, documentsare Wikileaks Take upby role task Overview ofmethodologyapplied toeachresearch Economic value ofSocialComputing by sector, accordingtoForrester (2007) Social Computing userroles, Slot(2009) Popularity of the terms ‘social software’,’ social computing’ and ‘Web 2.0’ according to tasks ofresearch Overview andrelationship Google Trends Research challengesandpolicyrecommendations Future risksandopportunities The drivers ofsocialcomputing Social-computing impactonthepublicsector General characteristicsofsocialcomputing Level ofusage Conclusions The “Wall-E” scenario The “Yes, wecan!” scenario Conclusions Survey Wikileaks case PatientsLikeMe case Doctors.net.uk case Connexions case – Sample Questionnaire

11 12 11 10 8 8 5 7 7 3 1 3 3 1 3 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 3 7 5 3 9 3 7 2 2 3 9 6 1 0 8 9 7 6 4 1 9 7 5 3 0 7 1 5 1 7 4 3 2 1 of opportunities the seize to social computingbutalsotomitigateany undesirable effects. makers policy for lead a provides report and the risks that ensuing hope We the opportunities. and sector public the on have may it implications the phenomenon, computing and thenatureofpublicservicesitprovides. government, of set-up institutional and organisational the relations, government-citizen future on have may it impact the and computing social of phenomenon the address research this of findings 2009. The IPTS services, public commissioned TNO of future the on computing social of impact the of understanding profound more generating in play could applications computing social role what of raised was question the observation, this on Based governments.by services public citizen-centred of provision recommendations forthefutureofpublicservicesinEU. policy and research challenges identifies and issues cross-cutting to points impacts, of evidence together ecosystem. mobile converging the and health, suchasinclusion, areas on (i.e. management identity industries, ICT/media the competitiveness and on also and learning,) and education governance and their services public specific on computing applications intermsoftheirdiffusionandimplicationsfortheEUeconomy andsociety. by IPTS in 2007-2008. This aimed to assess systematically the socio-economic impact of social computing conducted was project researchexploratory in-house an policymakers, EU to support provide to order in Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS)

Danish Technological Institute voorOrganisatie Nederlandse Toegepast( NatuurwetenschappelijkOnderzoek Social of Impact Socio-economic The include: These research. exploratory the of outcome studies several published IPTS Commission European the of Centre Research Joint General Directorate the of Institutes Research seven the of one is IPTS Research) jrc.ec.europa.eu/publications/pub.cfm?id=156 Applications, workshop, options ec.europa.eu/publications/pub.cfm?id=188 policy and publications/pub.cfm?id=188 validation a cfm?id=188 of Proceedings Computing: ( social the of impact the of understanding greater a to contribute to aims IPTS study, this With of beginning the and 2008 during out carried whichwasinvestigation this of result the is Thisreport limited a time, same the at but, applications computing social of up take ‘viral’ a observed IPTS social of impacts the investigate to continued IPTS the research, exploratory this completing While The social computing trend has been recognised and monitored by the Information Society Unit of the Preface http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.e 7 Sca Cmuig Suy n h Ue n Ipcs f olbrtv Content, Collaborative of Impacts and Use the on Study Computing: Social ; http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu/publications/pub.cfm?id=168 3 andDTI u ). 5 ; Social Computing: Study on the Use and Impact of Online Social Networking, Social Online of Impact and Use the on Study Computing: Social ; 4 toconductin-depthresearch onthistopic. 4 ; An Empirical Analysis of the Creation, Use and Adoption of Social Computing Social of Adoption and Use Creation, the of Analysis Empirical An ; 2 5 hs eot ae ti ivsiain se frhr I brings It further. step a investigation this takes report This 1 since 2005. Given its importance and relevance, and 4 ; Web 2.0 in Government: Why and How?, and Government:Why in 2.0 Web; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Applied Organization Netherlands http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu/publications/pub. ulc value public http://ipts.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ o civ a achieve To. http://ipts.jrc. http://ipts.

7 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 8 Executive summary

Since 2003, the Internet has seen impressive markets, and new business models are emerging growth in user-driven applications such as blogs, rapidly. Current research shows that, in the public podcasts, wikis and social networking sites. This sector too, considerable impacts can be found. trend is referred to here as ‘social computing’ However, these impacts seem to be broader as online applications increasingly support the and more diverse, in line with the multifaceted creation of value by social networks of people. character of government. The study identifies four The social computing trend has been recognised categories of impact: political, socio-cultural, and monitored by the Institute for Prospective organisational and legal. and Technological Studies (IPTS) over the past few years. IPTS observed a viral take up of social computing applications but – at the same time – a Impacts limited provision of citizen-centred public services by governments. Based on this observation, IPTS − Political impacts. The cases studied for raised the question of what role social computing this research show that the empowerment could play in generating public value. To answer and transparency characteristics of social this question, a more profound understanding of the computing initiatives seem to disrupt existing impact of social computing on the public sector was power balances. This impact may be best required. Consequently, the key goal of the present illustrated by the publication by citizens’

research, commissioned by IPTS, is “to collect and watchdog Wikileaks of a confidential Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public analyse solid evidence, in order to qualify and government report online, causing a 10% quantify the significance of the social computing swing in the election results in Kenya. The impact and to understand its implications.”5 sharing of information on governments and politics by ‘the crowd’ enables citizens A review of the literature on social computing to hold public officials and politicians to shows that the phenomenon continues to grow account. People seem more able to come in popularity and penetration across the globe. together around a specific subject, where they Users all over the world blog, network, tag and can enhance their knowledge by exploiting review. Social networking sites have entered ‘the wisdom of the crowd’ and thereby the mainstream and now attract users across exercise influence on government and all generations and levels of society. Most users politics. Furthermore, the instant hype and seem to assume a relatively passive role, although ‘long-tail’ mechanisms of social computing recent research shows that the number of active platforms seem to support issue-based users may be significantly larger than the 1% political involvement. Online, people gather rule used in most studies. The immense take around specific issues and spontaneously up of social computing applications has clearly self-organise into advocacy groups. Here started to impact upon the private sector. New the representation of citizens may become players have entered the news and entertainment more fragmented; citizens’ participation in social computing platforms is not necessarily 9 related to a specific party ideology. Instead, social computing offers an effective means 5 IPTS, Technical Specifications, Call for Tenders J04/013/2007, Public Services 2.0: Social Computing of mobilising support, disseminating and its implications for future public services. information and providing advice on specific and students generate scholarly material issues. A difference between party politics which was previously created by publishers. and issue-based politics is that the assessment The survey results indicate that services as to whether all groups in society are are changing. Approximately 24% of the equally represented in the debate does not respondents from professional communities take place automatically in the latter. stated that their daily practice (e.g. the Executive summary Executive − Socio-cultural impacts. In the socio-cultural products they provide) has altered as a result area, the inclusive and horizontal character of their engagement with the community. of social computing applications seems to 18% found that the quality of their service yield new values. The functionalities of social had improved due to their involvement computing websites and also the members in the community. Furthermore, the cases themselves seem to stimulate openness, reveal that processes and business models informality and equality. The design of these are also beginning to change. In all cases, websites aims to offer participants equal the content creation process is much more opportunities to create and share content. bottom-up and horizontal. However, the Participants behave informally, use informal process is not necessarily more democratic; language and the threshold to introduction is in most cases we found a strong control over low. For example, in the educational content content by the initiating organisation. In community Connexions and the doctor’s addition, we found that online cooperation community Doctors.net.uk, senior and junior is crossing organisational and geographical professionals work together on equal terms, boundaries and that other boundaries, such often in stark contrast with how they behave as language and discipline boundaries, seem in their offline professional life. Participants to become more dominant. Finally, we found are valued more for their knowledge than that organisations can become more efficient their seniority and position. These findings through the use of Social Computing. In are endorsed by the survey carried out as part particular, the allocation mechanism of of this study. It shows that the communities social computing platforms allows for a more studied share five core values, namely: efficient match of demand and supply. openness, expertise, informality, community − Legal impacts. In all the case studies, we sense and sharing. Furthermore, long-tail found that existing legislation can come and efficient allocation mechanisms in social under pressure from activities undertaken computing applications seem to stimulate within the community. The collaborative the emergence of new cohesion within content created on Doctors.net.uk and communities that have grown up around Connexions requires a new, more inclusive very specific issues. Another socio-cultural type of legal protection, for example through impact is the growing threat to privacy as the use of Creative Commons Licences. members publish large amounts of sensitive PatientsLikeMe has – instead of a privacy data online. policy – an openness philosophy. The CEO − Organisational impacts. In all the cases of PatientsLikeMe stated in an interview studied for this research, new players have that members of PatientsLikeMe simply entered the public arena and new allocations weigh up the pros and the cons of joining of roles between traditional and new parties the PatientsLikeMe community and often 10 are emerging. On PatientsLikeMe, members come to the conclusion that the valuable are taking over support tasks (e.g. advice, information they receive through the support) hitherto carried out by healthcare website outweighs any privacy implications. professionals. On Connexions, teachers The information published implies a very substantial reduction in patients’ privacy, − Privacy infringements. As more and more since data on their medical condition are citizens publish highly sensitive information accessible to anyone. This may run counter on social networking sites, the potential to privacy regimes promoted in public policy. threat to privacy grows. The Wikileaks case shows that new actors are − Reliability of published information. Both beginning to play an important role in legal experts and users question the reliability procedures and court cases. In Wikileaks, of the information published on social the crowd play an important role in the networking sites. collection of evidence and lawyers have − Inclusion of all. Skills and resources such as relied on this type of evidence in a number time, knowledge and (in some cases) financial of cases to support their legal argument. capital may be critical for participation in a social network. In the near future, some groups may be excluded from participation Future opportunities in online social networks.

− Transparency. Social computing applications may enhance transparency of citizen demand Research challenges and government services and processes, as public-sector information is easier to collect, More research is required because literature structure and disseminate. This process is in the area of social computing impact on the likely to empower citizens to hold their public sector is still highly tentative, exploratory public officials to account. and lacks consistent theory building and sound − Citizen-centred and generated services. evidence. An overarching conceptual framework

Forms of social computing can stimulate should be developed to stimulate a more coherent Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public the accessibility and personalisation of approach to research in the broad area of social some public services because groups of computing impact. This framework could be users are enabled to create those public operationalised by building on the typologies services themselves or tailor them to their defined in the present study. In-depth research preferences. on specific social computing applications, in − Improvement of efficiency (cost/benefit). specific sectors or on specific impacts should Social computing trends may enhance the be coordinated and set within the conceptual efficiency of public value production as the framework. Sector, application and impact- knowledge needed to create public value specific studies should be combined, following can be built up efficiently (e.g. efficient the general framework so that more generic allocation). conclusions on the impact of social computing in the public sector can be drawn while advancing an overall theory. Specific attention should Future risks be paid to potentially high-impact and highly disputed topics, such as the effect of citizen- − Ensuring good governance principles. Good generated services on inclusion of all, privacy governance principles (such as legitimacy, and principles of good governance. accountability, transparency, integrity, audiatur et altera pars and impartiality) are 11 not automatically ensured in the new models Policy recommendations of citizen-generated public service. − Social computing networks very effectively mobilise the energies of users (citizens) by allowing them to pool and direct resources at education. Any new data-gathering approach a particular challenge quickly and intuitively, or act should therefore be preceded by all via the social connection. Even the smallest a cost-benefit analysis that includes the groups ('niches') of scattered users may assessment of the short-term and long- succeed in reaching critical mass and thereby term impact on privacy. Monitoring should thrive. By employing social computing address in particular any cumulative effects. Executive summary Executive strategies (and 'tools'), government can enlist To create awareness of these issues, critical important niche audiences and leverage analysis and 'cyber behaviour' should be their insights. Overall, this would contribute taught through formal, informal, life-long to a higher resolution of 'ground truth' to learning and vocational learning systems underwrite policymaking. However, in order when appropriate and relevant. to employ social computing strategies, civil − It is most likely that, within a decade, servants would need to become intimately digital illiteracy will decrease as new familiar with the tools and values of social interfaces become more embedded and computing communities. intuitive to cater for an ever-wider section − Where 'public' value and 'public' service of the population. However, studies show are being generated or directed outside the that although new generations will be usual sphere of influence of government, more experienced in using social software, the role of government radically changes. To they will not necessarily have the skills to ensure that core values and rights continue understand the implications (e.g. social or to be respected, governments need to enter legal) of their behaviour in social networks. this new participative public realm. One Governments need to continuously monitor way to do this is to open up traditional the risks and effects of high levels of public service to third-party participation. participation in social network sites and This would ensure a continuing – albeit to inform citizens about risks, for example more facilitating – role for governments in through awareness, information and/or the design and delivery of public service. education programmes. − The downside of citizens expressing − There is much anecdotal evidence that themselves on social networking platforms is social computing technologies enable the growing number of privacy infringement (groups of) elderly people and citizens cases. Any privacy infringements could with special needs to support each other, be easily traced back to the perpetrator by and mobilise and organise themselves. enacting new legislation. However, this very Social computing technologies enable self- legislation may set us on a course towards organisation and self-regulation. With fewer still further potential privacy infringements, options for orchestrating and regulating in an accidental or intended, this time by or increasingly connected world, governments through government agencies and third should stimulate the emergence of these parties operating at arm’s length in sensitive mechanisms particularly where they support public-service domains such as health and key public values and goals.

12 1. Introduction

1.1 The rise of the social web6 the amount of content created, captured and replicated on the Internet was about 3 million In 2004, O’Reilly Media popularised the times larger than the information contained in term ‘Web 2.0’ – also referred to as the ‘social all the books ever written. Their prognosis is that web’- which describes a new and potentially this will keep on growing in the coming years. disruptive stage in the development of the By 2010, 70% of the content on the Internet will Internet. The concept has since become hugely be created by individuals (Gantz et al., 2007: popular - if not hyped - and has thus created as 2). Remarkable too is the lightning speed with much confusion as consensus about what it really which the trend spread. It took barely three years means. There is no coherent definition, rather a for social computing to grow from a marginal conceptual set of principles and practices.7 The community pastime to become the dominant concept originated from the observation that the Internet trend it is today. Internet was far from dead after the burst of the dot.com bubble at the turn of the 21st century. According to O’Reilly, behind the success Although the Internet crisis caused a substantial of many Web 2.0 applications are smart ways of shakeout of Internet firms, it also marked a using the web as a platform for data management, turning point for the web. A whole new range particularly by exploiting the connectivity and of successful Internet applications burst onto a collective intelligence of users. Web 2.0 services

scene in which on-line social communities with a exploit connections between users, as these Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public strong bottom-up character play the key role, and connections provide manifold opportunities to create where the mobilisation (aggregation, syndication) added value. Not only are users actively consuming of user-generated content is the main function. content, they are also taking on distribution roles in The nature of these applications gave rise to the peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing, and content creation qualification ‘the social web’. Most remarkable roles in the case of user-generated content. Users and perhaps not comparable with what went actively rate and tag content (a phenomenon known before is the exponential growth of this new as folksonomy), download content, comment on it, generation of applications, both in terms of and discuss it with their peers. Furthermore, users the number of applications and the number of share agendas, locations, bookmarks, documents, users. According to Gantz et al. (2007),8 in 2006 photos, videos and even friends, all online and on a large scale. These user roles, combined with the scope and speed of the Internet, provide many 6 Pascu C., Osimo D., Ulbrich M., Turlea G. and opportunities to design new and innovative services. Burgelman J.C. (2007) ‘The potential disruptive impact of Internet 2-based technologies’ First Monday, 12(3). Thus, it is fair to state that one of the crucial features Slot, M. & Frissen, V. ‘Users in the ‘golden’ age of the of this second stage of the web is the empowerment information society”, In: Sapio B., Fortunati L., Haddon 9 L., Kommonen K.H., Mante-Meijer E. & Turk, T. (eds), of the user. Proceedings of COST 298 Conference Moscow, May 2007 The Good, The Bad and the Unexpected. The User and the Future of ICTs. 7 Madden, M. and Fox, S. (2006) ‘Riding the waves of Web 2.0. More than a buzzword, but still not easily defined’ 9 Frissen V., 2004 De domesticatie van de digitale wereld. 13 Pew Internet Project Accessible at: http://www.pewinternet. Erasmus Universiteit Rotterdam; Frissen, V. & van Lieshout, org/pdfs/PIP_Web_2.0.pdf (retrieved April 2007). M., (2006) ICT and everyday life: the role of the user. 8 Gantz, J.F. et al. (2007) ‘The expanding digital universe. In: Verbeek, P., & Slob, A. (eds.) User Behaviour and A forecast of worldwide information growth through Technology Development. Shaping Sustainable Relations 2010’ IDC/ EMC. between Consumers and Technologies. Kluwer, Deventer. In the Web 2.0 era, it is no longer appropriate mediated social networks that is likely to have to conceive of users as ‘end-users’, as they have an important impact on the fabric of society. moved into the heart of the value chain.10 They In economic terms too, impacts are becoming have become important actors in virtually all more visible now. O’Reilly concludes about

1. Introduction 1. aspects of online services. Web 2.0 services: “Network effects from user contributions are the key to market dominance The fast growth and massive uptake of in the Web 2.0 era.”13 Web 2.0 services are at the origin of a deeper socio-economic impact, the signs of which are Pascu et al. distinguish the following four only just becoming evident. However, it is still aspects of the potential economic relevance of quite difficult to build an empirically sound case social computing: for specific impacts since evidence is largely anecdotal and in most cases not systematically − the providers of these applications are gathered and analysed.11 According to Pascu increasingly profitable (especially the big et al. (2007), citizens now have many ways of ones); informing themselves, of expressing opinions − social computing is increasingly contributing and of organising themselves in all sorts of ways, to growth and employment; possibly “leading to greater social engagement − these applications are increasingly being and providing the basis for a ‘glocal’ (i.e. adopted as a productivity tool in the private simultaneously both global and local) civil and public sector; and society”.12 These authors also point to the ‘trust − in all sectors of the economy, customers seem and confidence’ being developed in these to be getting smarter thanks to the horizontal exchange of information with other users.

10 See also: Tuomi, I. (2002) Networks of Innovation: In our view, the massive take up and Change and Meaning in the Age of the Internet. Oxford: Oxford University Press. deployment of social computing may engender 11 Recently, Slot & Frissen (2007) began a more systematic a profoundly disruptive socio-economic impact. analysis of Web 2.0 services. In March 2007, 150 Web 2.0 services were analysed. These services were selected from The transformations that are already wreaking the Seth Godin Web 2.0 Traffic Watch List. Godin employs havoc in the telecommunications and content the Alexa service to construct the list. This online service measures Internet traffic by storing traffic data provided by industries are destined to spread to all sectors and users who have installed the Alexa toolbar. Godin uses this data to construct a Web 2.0 traffic watchlist, comprising spheres of society. The proliferation of ‘Peer-to- 952 services. The first 150 services on the list were selected Peer’(P2P) content networks have put a sudden for an analysis of user roles in the services and the way these services generated an income. end to business as usual in the media and content 12 Cf: Van Bavel, R., Punie, Y. & Tuomi, I. (2004) ´ICT- industries, prompting knee-jerk reactions such Enabled Changes in Social Capital´, The IPTS Report, Special issue: Building the Information Society in as incisive amendments to delicate regulatory Europe: the contribution of socio-economic research, frameworks as in the case of intellectual property Issue 85, June 2004, 28-32. ; See also: Bardoel, J. & Frissen, V., (1999) Policing participation: New forms of rights. The new positions that users have taken up citizenship and participation in the Information Society. In: Communications & Strategies, 24, second quarter, pp. in the value chain are forcing traditional players 203-227. Frissen, V. & H. van Bockxmeer, (2001). The in this field to reconsider their business models Paradox of Individual Commitment. The implications of the Internet for social participation. In: Communications and restructure their organisations. & Strategies, nr. 42, second quarter 2001. Pp.225-258. Frissen V., 2003 ICTs, civil society and global/local trends in civic participation. Paper for Workshop ICTs and Social Capital in the Knowledge Society. EC IPTS/DG 14 Employment, Seville, November 2003. Frissen, V, (2005) The e-mancipation of the citizen and the future of e-government. Reflections on ICT and citizens’ participation. In: M. Khosrow-Pour (ed.) Practicing E-Government: A Global Perspective. Idea Group Inc., 13 http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/ Hershey-London-Melbourne-Singapore-Beijing. news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html?page=2 This shift is resulting in more open and 1.2 ICT and innovation in the public networked business and innovation models, sector and new regulatory frameworks are necessary in order to be able to take a strong position in these In European policy, high standards in public emerging markets. According to Carlota Perez,14 it services are considered a key driver in realising takes several decades before the full benefits of a inclusion, social cohesion and quality of life, all technological revolution can be reaped. Not only cornerstones of the Lisbon goals for the European a high degree of deployment of the technology, Union. Overall, a public sector that functions but particularly ‘societal re-engineering’ and well is expected to be a crucial precondition for ‘creative institutional destruction’ constitute the economic growth and for making Europe one necessary conditions for a real ‘golden age’ of of the ‘most competitive knowledge economies technological development. The disruptive effects in the world’. ICT in this context is considered of social computing could be interpreted as the to be one of the most promising instruments first signs of the phase of ‘creative institutional for the improvement and innovation of public destruction’ in the information technology services and the public sector in general, and in revolution. application fields such as public administration, healthcare and education. Therefore, in the past It is clear that the social computing trend decade, national, local and European governments described here may be of crucial importance have invested heavily in ICT-enabled public to government-citizen relationships and services. Nevertheless, until now the results of organisational and institutional aspects of these investments have not met expectations, government (‘governance’). User empowerment particularly in the public sector, where the take up also implies citizen empowerment. In a prior of e-enabled public services has been relatively

study for IPTS on future ICT-driven models for low and the anticipated transformation of the Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public eGovernment,15 we argued that a shift towards administrations not as rapid and radical as was empowerment could be the main driver for the anticipated.17 In economic terms, the picture is future of eGovernment. This shift will necessarily only marginally better. Although we can see clear force governments to seriously (or to follow growth (ICT is making a substantial contribution Perez: creatively) reassess their traditional role to productivity gains in European economies, and functioning and explore concepts such as there is a relatively high expenditure on ICT and ‘networked government’ or even a ‘user-generated a renewal of a strong and dynamic ICT sector), state’.16 There is a growing body of experience this growth is still considerably less than in the and knowledge in the field of social computing USA and in the new emerging economies.18 to help guide this re-assessment and to explore the opportunities and risks that could result In the public sector, there is little to show from a shift in government-citizen relationships. for deployment of ICT so far. More and more One of the key objectives of this project was to generic public services are moving online systematically collect this evidence for a sound but their take up is still quite limited. In the analysis of the future of public services. Netherlands, for example, at first sight take up seems to be acceptable, but a second look shows that online tax returns account for the majority of eGovernment service take up. There is an 14 Perez C. (2002)’Technological Revolutions and Financial Capital. The Dynamics of Bubbles and Golden Ages’. 15 15 Frissen V., Huijboom N.M., Kotterink B. et al, The Future of eGovernment, Research project commissioned by the Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, 2008. 17 OECD, The economic impact of ICT, 2004; OESO. 16 http://www.charlesleadbeater.net/archive/public- 18 Task-Force on ICT Sector Competitiveness and ICT services-20.aspx Uptake. awareness of the need for making public services This points to a more fundamental problem: in more citizen-centric, but this awareness has not order to realise high-quality public service, more yet manifested itself in e-services being fully profound organisational and institutional changes designed around user needs and preferences. This are urgently needed (we may label this as a need 20

1. Introduction 1. is in stark contrast to the much more significant for ‘public innovation’). Looking more closely at success and wide appeal of community- and the deployment of ICT in the public sector, we can user-driven ICT applications in civil society and conclude that up until now ICT has been deployed business in recent years. primarily in an instrumental way and not so much as a driver of more fundamental innovations. ICT The public sector is experiencing an is seen as a tool for the modernisation of existing endemic and systemic failure in the adoption governmental functions by optimising back-office of much-needed innovations. Applications that processes and procedures and by streamlining and have proven their value on a limited scale (e.g. consolidating information flows for administrative example in healthcare and education) are not purposes (e.g. Digital IDs, electronic dossiers). This being deployed on a wide scale. This is not due innovation has a strong technocratic character. to technical limitations but rather to the way in Zuurmond et al. coined the term 'infocracy' to which social services are organised. Key factors illustrate this government tendency (Zuurmond, limiting the take up and spread of innovations 1994).21 The infocracy obscures the fundamental are barriers such as organisational fragmentation, transformations or creative destruction necessary institutionalised distrust and misalignment of to allow citizens (patients, students, residents, etc.) financial incentives.19 Equally important factors a more prominent role in the public value chain. are deep-seated cultural, political and social organisations and processes, which make it In the context of the trend described in difficult to introduce new transformative measures chapter 2 of the report, this points to two crucial such as ICT applications rapidly. This problem is problems for the public sector. First, the paradox accentuated when trying to implement e-service between the ‘viral’ take up of user-driven social solutions and innovations across Europe, where computing applications on the one hand and, the cultural, regulatory and political landscape on the other hand, the slow take up of public and traditions are even more complex and services by citizens. ICT-enabled public services fragmented. These factors are now coming to do not appeal to users in the same way that social the surface, and are taken into account when computing applications do. Second, the public developing and in particular analysing impact sector seems unable to apply ICT in such a way and trends in public-sector service development. that it produces the necessary organisational and However, despite the awareness, the results institutional innovation. of these ‘obstacles’ persist in the absence of harmonisation and the use of ill-defined business If we look at the social computing trend - as models. The demand for ICT-enabled innovation argued above - successful applications of ICT need is not well articulated and is poorly orchestrated to pair up with more fundamental innovations in at government level. The combined effect of all business models, value-chain concepts and user/ these barriers may explain the high failure rate of innovation in the public sector.

20 See: Valerie Frissen (2007): ‘ICT en maatschappelijke innovatie: Van pijplijn naar open netwerken’ (ICT & 16 Public Innovation: from stovepipe to open networks), essay for the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs (in the series ‘Reflecties op elektronische communicatie’). 19 See for example, Huijboom, N.M. (forthcoming), Factors 21 Zuurmond, A. (2007), De Infocratie: een theoretische en that Determine Innovation in Government, PhD thesis, empirische heroriëntatie op Weber’s ideaaltype in het Erasumus University Rotterdam. informatietijdperk, Den Haag, Phaedrus. producer relations to produce the leapfrog in type network effects created by participative innovation dominant in the current crop of Web architectures harnessing collective intelligence.23 2.0 applications. Unfortunately, there are stark differences between the top-down, supply-driven In order to achieve the research goals and closed structure of most public services, described above, the objectives have been and the open, decentralised and user-driven translated into six research tasks, namely: organisational models of social computing. • Review of the relevant trends in public services in Europe, 1.3 Objectives and methodology • Review of literature on social computing uptake and impact, The key goal of the present research is “to • Collection of cases of applications of social collect and analyse solid evidence, in order computing in public services, to qualify and quantify the significance of the • Analysis of key areas of impact, social computing impact and to understand its • Case studies and survey,24 implications.”22 This research goal covers four • Foresight on prospective impact.25 main objectives: The following figure presents an overview • To identify the key areas of potential impact of the research tasks and the interrelationship of social computing in public services and between them. The research activities are not describe the nature of the impact; depicted in chronological order. The literature • To assess the weight of these impacts – their review summarises and organises documented significance now and in the future; evidence of social computing as a driver for

• To understand the opportunities and risks of change in civil society and business. Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public these impacts for future public services, in particular regarding general policy goals; The review of relevant trends analyses • To define the policy options and research the broader potential for ‘user-generated’ challenges for grasping the opportunities and transformation of the public sector as evidenced avoiding the risks. in factual trends and normative visions. Case studies collected early evidence of social The notion of social computing is defined by computing in public services. The analysis of key IPTS as “a recent development of the world wide areas of impact combines the evidence with the web, and refers to a new set of ICT applications potential in order to arrive at likely impact areas and to a specific new attitude in using them”. In in public services. The foresight exercise and the terms of ICT applications, it covers blogs, podcasts, final report study the most significant impact areas wikis, social networking websites, massive online to assess their significance (weight) now and in role-playing games, as well as search engines, the future, as well as the associated risks and auction websites and peer-to-peer services. In terms of attitudes, it focuses on the proactive role of users in participating in the services delivered, and 23 See also Pascu C,. Osimo D., Ulbrich M., Turlea G. and refers to concepts such as user-generated content, Burgelman J.C. (2007) ‘The potential disruptive impact of Internet 2-based technologies’ First Monday, volume user participation, empowerment and long-tail- 12, number 3. 24 Initially, a survey was not part of the research framework. However, as a survey can contribute to a 17 more quantitative understanding of the impact of social computing trends on public-sector services, it was 22 Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, Technical agreed to incorporate a survey into the research. Specifications, Call for Tenders J04/013/2007, Social 25 This activity included meetings with experts to discuss Computing and its implications for future public services. and validate findings and scenarios. Figure 1: Overview and relationship of research tasks

Review of literature on social computing take-up and impact FINGERPRINTS 1. Introduction 1. Review of relevant trends in Collection of cases of applications public services in Europe of social computing POTENTIAL PROOF

Analysis of key areas of impact IMPACT areas

Foresight exercise on Case studies prospective impact Weight of IMPACT RISKS & OPPORTUNITIES

Final Report

opportunities to inform policy options towards indications of impact found in case descriptions. a responsible implication of social computing in It was not possible to validate all references e.g. transforming the public sector. by searching for and studying contra-references. Therefore, the evidence used in this research For each research task, a methodology was must be considered as indicative. developed to generate solid evidence on types of impact. Different research methods such as desk Second, because the unit of analysis of the research, interviews, participative observation research is relatively new (social computing), and surveys have been applied. The survey there were some severe scientific blind spots. method in particular led to a more quantitative In some specific fields little or no research has understanding of the impact of social computing been carried out. Examples are specific cultural trends on public-sector services, thereby impacts (e.g. change of values, beliefs, rituals) advancing existing research on social computing. of forms of social computing on teachers, the The following table gives an overview of the specific organisational impacts (e.g. changing methodologies applied for each research task. business models) of social networking sites on structures of healthcare institutions and the specific sociological impact (e.g. changing 1.4 Limitations of the research strength of ties) of social computing on minority involvement. The scientific field of social During the study, the research team was computing is so new that - with all the evidence confronted with several research constraints. First collected - we can merely identify pointers of of all, the scope of the analysis is very broad as impact on the public-service clusters. Moreover, 18 well as in-depth, and it proved difficult to provide with the perpetual “beta-version” as a defining a comprehensive insight into all the specific characteristic of social computing technologies, impacts within the public-service clusters under any research on the status quo will have a investigation (learning, health, inclusion and limited shelf-life. To mitigate this effect, the study government). Therefore, it was decided to focus on continued monitoring the evidence throughout impacts that were mentioned in literature and on the lifetime of the project. Table 1: Overview of methodology applied to each research task Research Task Methodology Review of relevant trends in public services − Desk research1 of existing studies and key policy documents on trends and in Europe to place social computing in the normative visions in public services (including current trends in ICT applications). wider context of public-service evolution. Review of literature on social computing − Definition of key research notions, e.g. social computing and public services uptake (by citizens and businesses) and − Desk research of academic articles and studies on uptake (by citizens and impact in order to find pointers for likely businesses) and impact impact on public services. − Translation and analysis of likely impact on public services. Comprehensive gathering of cases in social − Definition of selection criteria for cases of social computing in the public sector computing adoption in public services − Desk research: cases of adoption of social computing in public services (while covering Europe, United States and − Internet research: cases of adoption of social computing in public services; Asia). − Incorporation of selected cases into a database. Analysis of research results deriving from − Development of an analytical framework for the research findings of previous previous tasks in order to identify and de- work packages scribe a set of key areas of expected change − Desk research on evidence of impact of social computing trends in public in public services. services (government, inclusion, health and learning); − Identification of key areas of social computing impact on public services − Confrontation of likely impact with public service trends and normative visions; − Validation of key areas and divergence/synergy with trends and visions (online validation session in which experts identified divergences and synergies). Case studies and survey Case studies:2 − Definition of selection criteria for case studies. Criteria included: (a) indications of impact, (b) coverage of the public service domain as defined by IPTS (health, learning, government and inclusion), (c) coverage of several types of social computing websites (professional, support, crime watch and political) and (d) coverage of initiatives in Europe as well as the U.S. − Selection of four case studies − For each case study: desk research, interviews and participative observation − For each case study: validation of the case study report by initiators of social

computing site Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public − Cross-case study analysis.

Survey:3 − Definition of selection criteria for social computing websites on which survey is to be published. Criteria included: (a) indications of impact, (b) coverage of the public service domain as defined by IPTS (health, learning, government and inclusion), (c) coverage of several types of social computing websites (professional, support, crime watch and political) and (d) coverage of initiatives in European well as the U.S. − Design of questionnaire;4 − Selection of social computing websites − Collection of the survey results and translation into graphs; − Cross-survey analysis. NB: The questionnaire has been online for two weeks on 8 websites and has been filled in by 1,406 visitors. 83.5% of respondents completed the whole questionnaire. Foresight exercise on prospective impact of − Collection of existing foresight research5 on social computing impact on public social computing on public services (risk and services opportunities). − Selection of the scenario axes (uncertain developments and likely high impact) − Development of 2 scenarios − Analysis of key areas of impact, risks and opportunities of public service social computing − Validation of impact, risks and opportunities of public-service social computing by experts. 1 Desk research methods of this research are based upon (among others), Patton, M.Q., (2002), Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods, Sage Publications. 19 2 The case-study methodologies applied are those of Yin R.K., (1994), Case Study Research, Design and Methods, Sage Publications and Miles, M.B. and Huberman, A.M. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis, An Expanded Sourcebook, Sage Publications. 3 Babbie, E. (2001), The practice of social research, 9th edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company. 4 For a sample questionnaire, see Annex 3. 5 The methods used for the foresight research in this study are based upon (among others) Popper, R. (2006) Selecting foresight methods and tools, paper prepared for 4SIGHT-GROUP.org, Ringland, G., (2002), Scenarios in Public Policy, John Wiley & Sons LTD and Duin, P. van der, (2006), Qualitative futures research for innovation, Eburon. Third, little scientific data could be found on future public services. Chapter 3 will provide the case studies selected for this research because an overview of social computing literature. First, they are by definition relatively new (most of the scope of social computing will be explored these online communities were launched only and the uptake of social computing applications

1. Introduction 1. a few years ago). Although searches have been by citizens and businesses will then be assessed. carried out in several academic databases (e.g. The chapter will conclude with a typology of Picarta, ScienceOnline and SageOnline), very few potential impacts in the public sector. In Chapter scientific articles on the cases could be found. 4, the types of impact – political, socio-cultural, The case studies selected are thus predominantly organisational and legal – will be studied in based on data retrieved from Internet searches greater depth. For each type of impact, concrete (e.g. journalistic articles, interviews with founders effects of social computing in several public of websites), participative observation and sectors will be explained. Representative cases of interviews. As for the survey carried out for this social computing impact in the public sector are research, it was outside the scope of the study to described in Chapter 5. This chapter also reveals generate and study a representative sample from evidence of social computing impact, yielded the hundreds of thousands of social computing by the eight surveys published on online social communities that possibly affect the public networks. Chapter 6 will depict two possible service sector. The aim of the survey was rather future scenarios of social computing impact and to yield clues of public sector impact and provide their related risks and opportunities. In Chapter points of departure for further research. 7, overall conclusions on the research questions will be drawn. It will provide an overview of the level of usage, general characteristics, impact, 1.5 Structure of the report drivers and future risks and opportunities of social computing initiatives in the public sector. In Chapter 2 of this report, the social The chapter will conclude with an overview of computing trend will be placed in the wider research challenges and policy recommendations. context of an evolving public sector. This chapter Finally, references, a list of stakeholders involved, will give an overview of relevant government a sample questionnaire and detailed survey trends and normative policy visions within results can be found in the annexes. and across European Union Member States on

20 2. Trends in public services

In this chapter, the social computing trend insight into the key factual and visionary trends will be placed in the wider context of an evolving in government: public sector. Public sector trends and normative policy visions within and across European − Evidence based policy making, reorganisation Union Member States will be reviewed. This and the business case. This trend is linked to background information is necessary not only to the issues of limited resources and increasing understand the societal and political context in demands by citizens for more and better which the social computing trend takes place, services. As taxpayers, citizens increasingly but also to detect divergences and synergies expect governments to justify their decisions. between the social computing trends and current Consequently, the importance of evidence developments within the public sector. The based policy making grows at all levels of chapter is structured around the four key public- government. sector domains identified by IPTS: government, − Goal driven policy making. As a trend, goal- learning, inclusion and health. An overall analysis driven policymaking can be divided into of the trends in government will be provided in two sub-trends, (1) effectiveness, efficiency the final paragraph of this chapter. and value for money, and (2) evaluation, evaluation criteria and assessment. Increased attention to the first sub-trend is driven by

2.1 Government the pressure on governments to address Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public issues such as demographic change, growing Governments in Europe face an increasing expectations of citizens and lack of financial number of challenges such as ageing populations, resources.27 The second sub-trend emerges immigration, climate change and globalisation. as a consequence of the increased attention The globalisation trend has limited the freedom of to performance management.28 governments to manage their national economies − Simplification of processes and organisation. and new challenges such as immigration and Simplification of processes is a key priority an ageing population seem to be fundamentally in most public sector reforms. Issues of affecting the scope of public sector activities. At importance include efficient structures the same time, society’s expectations of public and processes and administrative burden service delivery have by no means diminished as reduction for citizens and businesses.29 citizens from the 1980s onwards have become − Privatisation, outsourcing and market more concerned with choice and service quality. mechanisms. One of the ways in which The paradox faced is one of open-ended demand public administrations are increasingly versus a capped or falling resource share for actual delivery.26 Consequently, public administrations are under constant pressure to modernise their 27 For the importance of public sector reform, see also http://eupan.essenceserver.com/files/repository/project/ practices to meet new societal demands with SurveyPublicSectorReform/PublicSectorReformUnit reduced budgets. The following overview gives 28 See for example: OECD (2005), Public Sector Modernisation: The Way Forward, OECD Publications. 21 29 See, for example, the OECD paper on administrative simplification (OECD, 2003) and European Commission, 2005c and d, Communication on a strategy for the 26 See for example: OECD (2005), Public Sector simplification of regulatory environment, European Modernisation: The Way Forward, OECD Publications. Commission, Brussels. trying to increase value for money is through − Effectiveness and efficiency. eGovernment privatisation, outsourcing and letting the trends in this area follow naturally from market provide a given service. effectiveness and efficiency policy goals, − Good governance. Good governance, as a as ICTs are perceived to be the means concept, is increasingly used in the literature to achieving an efficient and effective and may be seen as a set of interconnected government (e.g. through eServices).33 issues including eight major characteristics, − eGovernance. eGovernance is distinct i.e. participation, rule of law, transparency, from eGovernment as it is concerned with

2. Trends in public services public in Trends 2. responsiveness, consensus orientation, management and organisation cultures, equity and inclusiveness, effectiveness and eSkills and eCompetences. In contrast efficiency, as well as accountability.30 with eGovernment, eGovernance involves − Decentralisation, devolution and subsidiarity. the impact of ICTs on the regulatory and Across Europe there is a growing trend policymaking functions of the States.34 towards decentralisation, local ownership, The increased attention to eGovernance putting more power in the hands of regions becomes apparent when considering the and an acknowledgement that most services growing body of research and policy on are delivered by the local rather than the management, organisational culture, eSkills central authority. This trend is becoming more and eCompetences.35 visible in European reforms and visions.31 − Interoperability, standards and architecture. − Democracy, participation and inclusion. The move towards interoperability, standards This trend is an integral part of the founding and architecture is related to trends of principles of EU policies. The promotion of privacy and data protection, ICT know-how, European diversity by fostering participation the development of technology, emerging and inclusion in a democratic society based standards and new types of service delivery on values such as freedom, tolerance, channel.36 equality, solidarity though pluralism, cultural − eParticipation. This trend covers the and linguistic diversity is at the heart of many emergence of eDemocracy and eInclusion, policies.32 as well as the way in which civil society and NGOs, citizens, businesses and other In relation to the information society stakeholders and intermediates interact.37 and the use of ICT in governments, a number − Empowerment. Empowerment revolves of complementary but at times also unique as a trend around the citizen, freedom of eGovernment trends come into play: information, the transparency of decision

33 See for example: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/ activities/egovernment/docs/e_e_2007_2010.pdf 30 See for example: The Swedish Statskontoret’s “Principles 34 See, for instance, Misuraca et al (2007, 2008). of Good Administration” (Statskontoret, 2005). Also 35 See for example: European Commission (2006a), UNDP, UNDESA and World Bank have published Riga Ministerial Declaration – eInclusion, European many reports on Good Governance, see for instance: Commission, Brussels, European Commission (2006b), Daniel Kaufmann and Aart Kraay (2008), Governance i2010 - An Information Society for growth and Indicators: Where Are We, Where Should We Be Going? employment, COM(2002)229, DG INFSO, Brussels. World Bank, Washington. 36 See for example: eEurope Advisory Group (2004), 31 See for example: Maastricht Treaty, European Commission, eEurope Advisory Group of leaders of national Brussels, Treaty of Amsterdam, European Commission, eGovernment initiatives, Working Paper on eGovernment Brussels, and European Commission, Regional Cohesion Beyond 2005 - An overview of policy issues, European 22 policy, European Commission, Brussels. Commission DG INFSO, Brussels, European Commission 32 See for example: European Commission (2001), (2004), Action Plan for the implementation of the legal eEurope 2002 - An information society for all, framework for electronic public procurement, European COM(2001)140, DG INFSO, Brussels. European Commission DG INFSO, Brussels. Commission (2002), eEurope 2005 - An information 37 See for example: http://ec.europa.eu/information_ society for all, COM(2002) 263, DG INFSO, Brussels. society/events/ict_riga_2006/index_en.htm making and information, choice and requires new IT competencies both at the access, and ability to communicate directly user and professional level.40 with other individuals, interest groups and − Migration and offshoring. The migration of decision makers.38 workers from Eastern to Western European countries requires the rethinking of education policies as this group of migrants 2.2 Learning needs specific training. Another trend which may affect the education sector is the shift of In recent years there has been considerable specific categories of work (mostly IT support) focus on new trends in education and training with from European towards Asian countries.41 a strong focus on harvesting and systematising − Diversification of life and learning trajectories. innovation, digital resources and digital Trends, such as fast changing work processes, possibilities.39 These trends are influenced by blurring of school and private environments several societal developments, including a changed and new, informal learning settings are demography, increased internationalisation and putting pressure on the sector to absorb these globalisation which, for example, imply the changes. It raises the need for skilling in the participation of new stakeholders offering new workplace, coping with private learning types of content and services. There is a need to demands and developing of informal learning understand the possibilities for innovative solutions modes.42 that benefit individual learners (including a digital − Lifelong learning and new competence generation demanding more sophisticated teaching acquisition. Lifelong learning policies are methods, adult learners and early school leavers). increasingly seen as important for economic In the area of skills, workforces need new types of growth, competitiveness, quality of life and 43 skills to match trends such as internationalisation active participation of all. Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public and immigration. The awareness that European − Evidence-based learning policy. This countries need to develop relevant services and trend entails the growing attention to the policies for learning and training across Europe perceived need to develop a solid statistical has grown over the years. This is emphasised in and research base for the improvement of the many documents from organisations such as educational policy. Benchmarks are generally the OECD, the CERI unit, UNESCO, Cedefop, the European Commission and IPTS. The main trends in the learning domain can be summarised as 40 See for example: European Commission (2001), ‘Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality’, follows: Brussels, European Commission (2006c), ‘Delivering on the modernisation agenda for universities: education, research and innovation’, 10 May 2006, Brussels, − Changing skills and competences. The European Commission (2005a), Communication to the trend towards increased specialisation Spring European Council – Working together for growth and jobs. A new start for the Lisbon Strategy, Brussels. raises the demands for new skills to work 41 See for example: European Commission (2003), Expert meeting on offshore outsourcing, Brussels in collaborative working environments. In OECD (2004), Potential offshoring of ICT-intensive using addition, the digitisation of work processes Occupations, Interim Report, OECD (2006), The share of employment potentially affected by offshoring – an empirical investigation’. 42 See for example: OECD and Punie, Y. (2007), ‘Learning Spaces: an ICT-enabled model of future learning in the Knowledge-based Society’, European Journal of Education, 42(2), pp. 185–199. 43 See for example: European Commission (2006d), 23 38 See for instance European Commission (2006a), European Education and training progress on the Riga Ministerial Declaration – eInclusion, European Education and Training programme’, Brussels, European Commission, Brussels. Commission (2007a), Action Plan of Adult learning, 39 See for example: the OECD’s initiative New Millennium European commission (2007b), Lifelong Learning Learners. Programme (2007-2013), Brussels. seen as an essential way of monitoring the for people in remote places, disadvantaged effects of policies and practice.44 regions and developing countries.47 − Efficiency and return on investment. The − Learner empowerment, user-created content education sector is under increased pressure and the participative web. Learners are to organise educational processes more becoming active owners of their learning effectively and efficiently and to ensure a processes. Online services are becoming return on investments.45 centred on their users, or even co-built with − Education content. A change can be users. In addition, learners are increasingly 48

2. Trends in public services public in Trends 2. perceived in the traditional way scholarly involved in content creation. material has been developed hitherto. More − Digital literacy, eSkills and competences. As stakeholders are being involved, a trend ICTs are embedded in the everyday life of which is likely to continue as content- citizens, ICT skills and competencies are seen creation tools will become cheaper, more as key contributors to the knowledge society. widely available and easier to use. Consequently, there is increased attention to − Greater choice in schools. A strong tendency digital literacy, eSkills and competences. has been the call for greater choice in schools − New teaching environments. There is an for parents. Also the trend of families moving increased use of new virtual teaching to the city where the preferred school is environments such as games, open based is growing.46 education environments and online learning applications. In relation to the developments towards an − ePortfolio and curricula. A last trend is the information society, a number of complementary growing attention to the use of e-portfolios. but at times also unique eLearning trends come Increasingly, students and professionals are into play: publishing their portfolio and/or curricula online (e.g. on websites such as LinkedIn). − ICT infrastructures and pervasive technology. Networks and connectivity are seen as critical to the development of successful eLearning 2.3 Inclusion infrastructures. The trend towards pervasive technologies is becoming apparent in mobile Today, inclusion is more widely thought of learning facilities such as mobile access as the practice of ensuring that people in a given societal or organisational setting feel that they belong, are engaged, and connected to society or organisation. In Europe, inclusion is considered an all-encompassing practice of ensuring that 44 See for example: European Council (2004), Conclusions people with different abilities belong, are on new indicators in education and training’, Brussels, European Council (2007), ‘Council Conclusions on a Coherent Framework of Indicators and Benchmarks, Brussels. European Commission (2007c), ‘Towards more knowledge-based policy and practice in education and 47 See for example: European Commission (2004b), training’, Brussels, OECD- CERI, 2007, ‘Evidence in ‘Implementation of Education and Training 2010 work Education, linking research and Policy’. programme’, Brussels, EUN (2006), Monitoring and 45 See for example: European Commission (2004b), Benchmarking access and use of ICT in European Implementation of the education and training 2010 Schools, BECTA (2005), ICT and eLearning in further work programme. Mapping Analysis, Brussels, education. The challenges of change. European Commission (2007d), Communication from 48 See for example: European Commission (2004c), 24 the Commission to the Council and to the European ‘Facing the Challenge: The Lisbon strategy for growth Parliament on equity in European education and training and employment’, Brussels, European Commission systems, Brussels. (2006a), eInclusion Riga Ministerial Declaration, 46 See for example: UK Department for Education and Skills Brussels, Finland ICT strategy (2006), ‘A Renewing, (2005), Schools White Paper “Higher Standards, Better Human-Centric, and Competitive Finland The National Schools for All - More Choice for Parents and Pupils”. Knowledge Society Strategy 2007–2015’, Helsinki. engaged, and are connected to society. That In relation to the information society, a being said, Europe is by no means homogeneous number of complementary but at times also in relation to the degree with which inclusion unique eInclusion trends come into play: as a topic or a definition is influenced by local conditions. Basically there are two overarching − eAccessibility, quality of life and assisted trends identified within the field of inclusion. First, living. eAccessibility policies aim to empower there are various types of existing and emerging people to fully benefit from ICT in society. divides (e.g. eSkills) and, second, an increasing Quality of life and assisted living in relation demand by citizens and businesses for high to ICT are playing an increasingly important quality government services. More specifically, role in improving autonomy and safety (e.g. the following sub-trends affect inclusion policy: of the impaired and elderly).52 − Bridging divides by means of ICT. On the − Divides. The divides which are recurrently European as well as national level, policy- addressed by European and national policies makers perceive ICT as an enabler to bridge include the digital, geographical, economic, existing and emerging divides. ICT may, for socio-cultural and the disability divides.49 example, promote social and economic − Competences, skills and training. Although prosperity in rural areas, remote regions skills and competences have already been and economically disadvantaged regions. In mentioned in this chapter in the paragraph on addition, there is a growing attention to the learning, they should also be mentioned here fostering of pluralism in digital spaces and because they are increasingly considered to be cross-national access to digital information a cornerstone to ensure the inclusion of all.50 and cultural heritage.53 − Democratisation and participation of all. − Digital literacy, skills and competence. Wide

As a trend, active participation of all in the attention is being paid to the knowledge Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public democratic decision-making process should and ability of citizens to use computers and be seen as part of an increasing demand on technology efficiently. However, European the part of citizens and businesses to have Member States have different views on how influence on government policy.51 digital literacy relates to the competitive − Organisation and management of public position of a nation in the knowledge society.54 administrations. Emerging one-stop-shop − eDemocracy and eParticipation. ICT concepts, personalised services and serving is often perceived by national and EU citizens with special needs require new policy makers as an enabler to stimulate organisational structures of governments. democratic participation of citizens. On both the European and Member State level,

49 See for example: European Commission (2005b), Report on Social Inclusion 2005 - An analysis of the National Action Plans on Social Inclusion (2004- 2006) submitted by the 10 new Member States, Brussels. European Commission, Brussels European 52 See for example: European Commission, Inclusion, Commission, 2000, Social Inclusion Process, European better public services and quality of life, European Commission, Brussels European Commission, European Commission, Brussels European Commission, Social Protection Social Inclusion Process, European 2002-2006, 6th framework programme, European Commission, Brussels. Commission, Brussels European Commission, 50 See for example: European Commission (2000), 2002-2006, 7th framework programme, European European Social Protection Social Inclusion Process, Commission, Brussels. Brussels, European Commission (2001), Mobility Action 53 See for example: European Commission (2001), Plan, Brussels, European Commission (2001), eLearning Inforegions - regional policy, Brussels, European 25 Action Plan, Brussels. Commission (2006), Bridging the Broadband Gap, 51 See for instance European Commission (2001), eEurope COM(2006) 129, Brussels. 2002 - An information society for all, COM(2001)140 l, 54 See for example: European Commission (2007), Brussels, European Commission (2002), eEurope 2005 - European i2010 initiative on e-Inclusion - To be part of An information society for all, COM(2002), 263, Brussels. the information society, COM(2007)694, Brussels. all manner of ePetition, eDeliberation and − New framework for health services. As a eLegislation projects have been launched.55 result of the rapid development within the area, key actors have identified the need for a new framework to provide greater legal 2.4 Health certainty in terms of liability regarding health products and services, within the context of Several key trends are influencing the policies existing product liability legislation.59 that are being developed, both on a European − Patient empowerment. There has been a

2. Trends in public services public in Trends 2. and national level. Important trends include development towards a larger role for patients in demographic developments such as ageing, which their own treatment.60 This has manifested itself are likely to increase the demand for healthcare in different ways, but in general patients have services. Another emerging trend is the growing been increasingly empowered to participate in competition within the healthcare market. This decisions concerning their own illnesses. development may increase the mobility of both − Health infrastructure. Health infrastructure patients and health professionals.56 Dominant are can be defined as all the parts within the also the growing expectations and empowerment health system that work to help health of patients, trends which will affect the future professionals provide essential health healthcare sector in the sense that patients will ask services. The health infrastructure in the for more personalised and high-quality services Member States is currently undergoing and will take over some traditional healthcare changes that will direct the focus to more tasks. Another dominant trend that we are life-science-oriented R&D, ICT-enabled witnessing is the ever-growing budget constraints infrastructure and ICT-oriented R&D.61 that healthcare organisations face. Healthcare − Focus on health economy. A healthy providers are increasingly forced to focus on population has been repeatedly noted as a the cost-efficiency of treatments, thus obtaining significant contributor to economic growth maximum “value for money”. More specifically, and prosperity.62 This makes health policy the following sub-trends can be discerned: important for the overarching goals of the Lisbon Agenda.63 − Reaffirming health values. A major trend in − Global health governance. A number of health policies is the aim of reaffirming basic reports highlight the challenges posed to values in healthcare on a European level.57 healthcare providers by the globalisation of Four basic values have been identified by the health issues.64 In line with this, it has been European Council as central to health policy: universality, access to good-quality care, 58 equity and solidarity. 59 European Commission (2007g), eHealth Action Plan – Progress Report 2005, Brussels. 60 OECD (2005b), Transforming Disability into Ability, OECD (2005c), Long-term Care for Older People. 61 OECD (2005d), Health Technologies and Decision Making, Artmann, J. et al. (2007): Scenarios for ICT- 55 See for example: European Commission (2006), Enabled New Models of Health Care, Brussels. eParticipation Initiative, Brussels, European Commission 62 OECD (2004c), Towards High-performing Health (2007), CIP ICP PSP draft, Brussels, European Systems, OECD (2007b), International Migration Commission, 2002-2006, 6th Framework Programme, Outlook 2007. European Commission, Brussels. 63 See for example Suhrcke M., McKee M, Sauto Arce R., 56 European Commission (2007g), eHealth Action Plan – Tsolova S., Mortensen, J. (2005): The contribution of Progress Report 2005, Brussels health to the economy in the EU, Brussels or Gabriel, 26 57 See for example: WHO (2000), The world health report P. & Liimatainen, M.-R. (2000): Mental Health in the 2000 - Health systems: improving performance, NY Workplace. International Labour Organisation: Geneva. Also, the Millennium Development Goals are in line 64 See for example WHO (2006a), The world health report with this: http://www.who.int/mdg/en/ 2007 - A safer future: global public health security in the 58 European Council (2006) 2006/C 146/01: Council 21st century or WHO (2006b), Health and Economic Conclusions on Common values and principles in Development in South-Eastern Europe or OECD (2007b), European Union Health Systems, Brussels. International Migration Outlook 2007. stated a priority for the EC and its Member stressed that developing an up-to-date ICT States to create better health outcomes for infrastructure is a major concern.70 Given EU citizens and for others through sustained that patients are mobile, interoperability of collective leadership in global health.65 electronic health records will also improve conditions for treatment in other European In relation to the information society and Union countries.71 the use of ICT in the healthcare sector, a number − eHealth economy. The need for cost-efficient of complementary but at times also unique provision of health services or “value for eInclusion trends come into play: money” in healthcare has highlighted the benefits of using ICT applications. The − Assisted living. Personalised systems for eHealth economy relates to the development monitoring and supporting patients can and use of ICTs to the improvement of the facilitate assisted living, a trend which efficiency and effectiveness of the sector.72 is particularly relevant for elderly and/or − ICTs in the healthcare sector. Wide attention disabled citizens.66 is being paid to ICT as enabler to improve − Community of care. Digital platforms can care.73 Access to information has been a enable more effective networking among crucial element, both in empowering patients clinical institutions.67 Electronic health and supporting professionals in their everyday records enable the extraction of information practice as a professional.74 In addition, for research, management, public health or personalised health systems will facilitate other related statistics of benefit to health the assisted living approach and help shorten professionals.68 hospital stays. Finally, eHealth applications are − Evidence-based support to professionals and essential in reducing costs and making health

management. There is an increased attention systems more productive and cost-efficient. Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public to eHealth applications that can securely process large amounts of integrated data are perceived as being essential for good 2.5 Conclusions management.69 − ICT infrastructure. With its focus on When cross-analysing the trends within interoperability and integration as crucial individual sectors, it may be clear that many concerns in eHealth, the Commission has developments have similar characteristics across all domains. In addition, it seems that the general

65 European Commission (2007h), White Paper - Together for Health: A Strategic Approach for the EU 2008-2013, 70 European Commission (2007g), eHealth Action Plan – COM (2007) 630, Brussels. This also follows from Article Progress Report 2005, Brussels 152 calling for cooperation with third countries and 71 European Commission (2004d), COM(2004) 356: international organisations in public health and from the e-Health - making healthcare better for European Commission’s strategic objective of Europe as a World citizens: An action plan for a European e-Health Area, Partner (Annual Policy Strategy for 2008 - COM(2007) 65). Brussels. 66 See for example: European Commission (2004d), 72 See for example: European Commission (2007i): e-Health - making healthcare better for European Accelerating the Development of the eHealth Market citizens: An action plan for a European e-Health Area, in Europe, Brussels, European Commission (2004d), COM(2004) 356, Brussels, Artmann, J. et al. (2007): COM(2004) 356: e-Health - making healthcare better Scenarios for ICT-Enabled New Models of Health Care. for European citizens: An action plan for a European 67 European Commission (2004e), COM(2004) 301: e-Health Area, Brussels. Follow-up to the high level reflection process on patient 73 This has been noted in several reports and has resulted mobility and healthcare developments in the European in many initiatives (see for example http://www.oecd. 27 Union, Brussels. org/document/16/0,3343,en_2649_37407_1895632_1 68 European Commission (2004d), COM(2004) 356: _1_1_37407,00.html) e-Health - making healthcare better for European citizens: 74 European Commission (2004d), COM(2004) 356: An action plan for a European e-Health Area, Brussels. e-Health - making healthcare better for European citizens: 69 http://www.epractice.eu/ehealth An action plan for a European e-Health Area, Brussels. trends within a sector do not fundamentally differ new stakeholder roles. Citizens, civil society from the digital trends. For example, the changes and advocacy groups are increasingly to government are not essentially different in empowered to organise themselves and play eGovernment. The picture that is emerging across a role in public-service delivery. the four domains can be captured in the following − Stronger evidence-based policy. A core policy trends: resurgence of governance models that value principles such as justification, monitoring − Greater transparency and accountability of and evaluation reaffirms the principles of

2. Trends in public services public in Trends 2. the public sector. In all domains a demand evidence-based policy as a necessity for for a more transparent and accountable making informed decisions. government can be discerned. Many European − Citizens’ empowerment, expression of diversity, Union Member States have put transparency choice. The role of users is being re-evaluated in and accountability policies in place. a way that acknowledges their new-found skills − Improved accessibility of public services. An and growing empowerment. The principles increased awareness and perception of the of facilitating increased participation, user- needs and wishes of customers is resulting created content, user engagement, increased in a drive towards greater choice and independence and ownership of public accessibility of public services. services applies to all domains. − Efficiency. In all sectors we found increased − Improved digital competencies, bridging the attention to efficiency. As in many sectors, digital divide. As in all domains, technologies government institutions face considerable are playing an increasingly important role in budget cuts, achieving efficiency is an urgent the provision of public services, in all sectors priority. questions are arising as to the ICT skills of − Quality and effectiveness of the public citizens required to have access to those sector. This trend is also driven by dwindling services. public finances. Many policies are aimed at − Promotion of independent living and self- delivering cheaper solutions while ensuring organisation. Policymakers in all sectors quality. acknowledge that ICTs can play an important − New models of governance and new role in the empowerment of citizens. In many stakeholders. A trend that can be discerned countries, ICT policies aim at enhancing the in all domains is the emergence of independence of citizens – for example the new partnerships, the involvement of elderly. intermediaries and the acknowledgement of

28 3. Social computing literature

This chapter will provide an overview of the trails running through them, ready to be dropped existing literature on social computing.75 First, into the memex and there amplified’. the scope of social computing will be explored. The history of the phenomenon will be sketched In an authoritative blogpost,77 Christopher and a definition will be provided. Subsequently, Allen (2004) traces the history of social software uptake by users will be explored for each of through the rise (and fall) of notions such as Arpa’s the social computing roles (e.g. consuming, Augmented Computing (Doug Englebart, 196278), communicating, facilitating, sharing and creating) Bulletin Board System front-runner ‘EIES’ (Turoff, as well as uptake by businesses. The chapter will 197279), Groupware in the 1980s (Johnson-Lenz, conclude with an elaboration on the potential 197880), Computer-supported Collaborative impact in the public sector and a typology of Working (CSCW, 1984) and Groupware in the public sector impacts. 1990s (Johansen, 198881). The actual term ‘social software’ surfaces in the eighties (Drexler, 198782) but only really takes off after 2002 when it is used 3.1 The scope of social computing to describe the new kind of social networking tools that seem to drive a new generation of web The history of social computing and social communities. Adina Levin from Social Text83 software is deeply entangled with the evolution describes the emergence of this new breed of

of the (personal) computer and the Internet. The social software: Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public earliest mention of something akin to collaborative computing predates the computer itself. In a "Several years ago, in the depths of the visionary article on the future of computing, tech recession, there were signs of creative Vannevar Bush (1945)76 conceives of a device life in weblog and journal communities, he called the ‘memex’ that evokes the image of conversation discovery with daypop a personal computer. Bush may be the first to and then technorati, the growth curve introduce the hyperlink notion when he discusses of wikipedia, mobile games, photo and how personal data stored on the memex meshes playlist sharing. The liveliness was about with data on a friend’s memex in a process out the communities, and also about the of which ‘Wholly new forms of encyclopedias appear, ready-made with a mesh of associative

77 Allen, C. (2004), Tracing the Evolution of Social Software, see http://www.lifewithalacrity.com/2004/10/ tracing_the_evo.html 78 Englebart (1962), Augmenting Human Intellect: 75 During our literature study we found that sound data on A Conceptual Framework, available at: http:// the uptake and impact of social computing applications is www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/ lacking. This conclusion has been endorsed by the OECD, augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html. which found that “In order to make informed policy 79 Turoff, M. (1972), Delphi conferencing: Computer-based recommendations regarding user created content official Conferencing with Anonymity, available at: http://web. data is necessary. However, there is a lack of internationally njit.edu/~turoff/Papers/DelphiConference.pdf comparable data on user created content from national 80 Johnson-Lenz, P. and Johnson-Lenz, T. (1978), statistical sources, and of knowledge on changing usage Humanising Hyperspace. 29 habits. As a result, it is often hard to accurately assess the 81 Johansen, R. (1988), Groupware: Computer Support for statistical, economic, and societal effects of user created Business Team. content and to devise appropriate policies”. 82 Drexler, E. (1987), Hypertext Publishing and the 76 Bush, V. (1945), As We May Think, , available at http:// Evolution of Knowledge. www.ps.uni-sb.de/~duchier/pub/vbush/vbush.shtml 83 Levin, A., http://alevin.com/weblog/ Figure 2: Popularity of the terms ‘social software’,’ social computing’ and ‘Web 2.0’ according to Google Trends 3. Social computing literature computing 3. Social

culture of tool mix’n’match bricolage. According to Forrester Research (2006):84 Many of the attributes of social software ‘a new social structure is emerging in which -– hyperlinks for naming and reference, technology puts power in communities, not weblog conversation discovery, standards- institutions’. Forrester calls this evolution Social based aggregation -– build on older forms. Computing. ‘Sounds like Web 2.0, right? We But the difference in scale, standardisation, think not. And here’s why: Web 2.0 is about simplicity, and social incentives provided specific technologies (blogs, podcasts, wikis, by web access turn a difference in degree etc) that are relatively easy to adopt and master. to a difference in kind." Social Computing is about the new relationships and power structures that will result. Think of She makes a key point when she attributes it another way: Web 2.0 is the building of the the rise of this new kind of social software or Interstate Highway System in the 1950s; Social social computing to the critical mass and scale Computing is everything that resulted next afforded by mass deployment on a ubiquitous (for better or worse): suburban sprawl, energy web. Cheap broadband access to the Internet dependency, efficient commerce, Americans’ lust turned the personal computer (and subsequently for cheap and easy travel’. the telephone, the PDA, the mp3) into an ultimate collaborative device. The outburst of Here Forrester depicts Web2.0 as the service web technologies and web services that ensued, platform on top of which new relationships and marks the beginning of an era in which harnessing new power structures will emerge. From Dion the collaborative potential of mass numbers of Hinchcliffe’s blog on Enterprise 2.0:85 users accessing the web is likely to be a prime driver of growth. The phenomenal interest in the 30 community-centric Web 2.0 platform (see Figure 1 below) reflects a realisation that this new era is 84 Charron C., Favier J., and Li C.(2006), Social Computing all about connecting people not computers. This How Networks Erode Institutional Power, And What to Do About It, Forrester, http://blogs.forrester.com/ new web is a social and participative one. charleneli/2006/02/forrsters_socia.html 85 http://blogs.zdnet.com/Hinchcliffe/index.php?p=21 Figure 3: Social Computing user roles, Slot (2009)

"Consequently, it appears that the two-way social networking unleashed with the emergence Web is increasingly moving the power of the Web as the key platform for social out of the hands of trusted institutions computing (somewhere around 200386). Based and into the hands of everyday users, on the considerations in the sections above who decide for themselves what products and the definitions put forward in literature, they should buy, whose information we propose to define Social Computing as the

they should consume, what marketing systems concerned with creating value through Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public they want. Thus, online communities the aggregation of large numbers of individual are increasingly driving the vision of contributions generated in computer-mediated institutions because these technologies social networks and platforms.87 put the majority of power into the hands of communities, essentially take it away The importance of user roles from existing formal social structures and organisations…Forrester in particular A key way in which to establish the disruptive recently told me their customers are effects of new user-driven services (value creation) increasingly tracking this and they believe in social computing is to analyse the shift in the this shift is affecting all major industries, roles that users take on in the value chain. Slot not just media, which up to know has (2009)88 introduced a classification of user roles borne the brunt of the disruptive changes for assessing social computing services in the driven by the increasingly pervasive and immersive Web". 86 The emergence of the web as a platform for computing is more specifically thought of as the result of high levels While Web2.0 tools and technologies of PC and broadband penetration, the democratisation of facilitate a mass deployment and uptake of new, content production tools and the availability of platform glue in the form of service and data interoperability community-centric web-based services, the real standards and protocols such as XML, SOAP and AJAX. story is that through social computing these The details of the Web2.0 story have been described in many places and we will not repeat it here. For a first 31 communities are beginning to disrupt existing reading see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0 power structures and driving new institutional 87 With reference to prevailing concepts and definitions as in wikipedia:social_computing arrangements. The present study therefore 88 Slot, M. (2009), ‘Exploring user-producer interaction in an online community: the case of Habbo Hotel’, Int. J. focuses on the dynamic of user creativity and Web Based Communities, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.33–48. media and entertainment domain, depicted in User demographics Figure 3. It seems that social networking sites are The scheme can be used to categorise types becoming mainstream and gaining popularity of user role in social computing applications and across all generations and levels of society. will be used in the following paragraph to gain Although a study by Kemp (2007)92 among US insight into the uptake for each type of social social network users indicates that young adults computing application. (16-26) are the most avid users and that adults seem to be lagging behind, other studies show

3. Social computing literature computing 3. Social that adults are catching up with significant 3.2 Take up by users speed. Already at the end of 2006, according to comScore Media Metrix’s analysis of US Internet Social computing usage traffic, half of the MySpace US users were 35 or older. The 35–54 age group at MySpace grew to When surveying the literature, it becomes 41% in August 2006, from 32% a year earlier. apparent that social computing systems are continuing to grow in popularity and penetration As regards teens, the Pew Internet & across the globe.89 According to Technorati American Life Project (2007) found that in the (2007), there are now approximately 1.1 billion US, 64% of online teens aged 12-17 participate Internet users. An estimated 60% of European in one or more from a wide range of content- Internet users are involved in some form of social creating activities on the Internet (including computing. The uptake by users differs for each uploading self-made video/audio), up from 57% type of social computing application. Whereas the of online teens in a similar survey at the end of number of visitors of social networking websites 2004.93 Under the European Sixth Framework (such as Facebook) is still growing significantly, Programme, the CitzenMedia project94 came to the number of weblogs currently appears to be the conclusion that: “For the first time ever, 16- levelling off.90 24 year olds across Europe are now accessing the internet more frequently than they are watching This paragraph provides an overview of user TV - 82% of this younger demographic use the uptake for each role (consume, communicate, internet between 5 and 7 days each week while facilitate, share and create) in the Slot classification only 77% watch TV as regularly (a decrease of introduced in the previous paragraph.91 5% since last year).”95

According to a Forrester study (2008),96 nearly two-thirds of US online teens – those 89 See for example: Pascu, C. (2008), An Empirical Analysis of the Creation, Use and Adoption of Social Computing Applications, IPTS Exploratory Research on the Socio- economic Impact of Social Computing, Seville and 92 Kemp, M. B. (2007b), Social Computing Comes of Age, Cachia, R., (2008), Social Computing: Study on the Forrester. Use and Impact of Online Social Networking, IPTS 93 Lenhart, A. et al (2007), Teens and Social Media. PEW, Exploratory Research on the Socio-economic Impact of available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/230/ Social Computing, Seville. Note that nearly 100 sources report_display.asp have been examined and analysed. 94 Limonard, S. & Esmeijer, J. (2007), Citizen media and 90 It is important to stress that the distinctions used in societal change, Business requirements and potential the Slot-Frissen framework – commenting, creating, bottlenecks for successful new CITIZEN MEDIA communicating – are blurring fast because applications applications (Deliverable 6.1.1), TNO, commissioned by 32 are converging. European Commission DG Information Society & Media. 91 As we were not able to find sound quantitative data on 95 EIAA (2007), Mediascope Europe 2007, Executive all activities of a specific role (e.g. the activities “read” summary, http://www.eiaa.net/Ftp/casestudiesppt/EIAA and “search” of the consumer role) some activities (for %5FMediascope%5FEurope%5F2007%5FPan%5FEuro which we could not find sound data) are not covered in pean%5FExecutive%5FSummary%2Epdf the tables. 96 Li, C. (2008) Youth and Social Networks. Forrester. Table 2: Take up by role CONSUME Listen According to a 2008 survey by Arbitron-Edison Research, 9% of Americans downloaded and listened to a podcast in March 2007 with overall podcast awareness (having listened to a podcast at least once), compared to 13 to 18% in 2008.1 Overall, online music consumption is dominated by streaming audio. Fast-growing social streaming sites such as Imeem.com are riding and propelling this wave.

Play In 2008 there were 170 million registered users of Massive Multiplayers Online Roleplaying games (MMO).2 The number of active users is less than 20 million, or around 10%.3 Other sources report 30-50 million active users.4 Based on total numbers of active users, the most popular virtual world is World of Warcraft with over 8 million active subscribers. 42% of Americans play games online (NPD, 20085). The MMO market is likely to expand.6

COMMUNICATE Comment Blogging. It seems that the growth of the blogosphere has levelled off recently. Although there are over 100 million blogs and over 100,000 new blogs are still created each day, many people seem to be moving on to micro-blogging.7 Micro-blogging. Between April and May 2007, Twitter – one of the most popular microblogging services – had grown rapidly from 300,000 to over 600,000 users. By March 2008, the number of users had exceeded 900,000.

Messaging In the USA, 34% of adults were using instant messaging (IM) in 2007.8 In Europe, IM is the most popular online activity, and was performed by 37% of European consumers in 2007. An ITU report9 estimates that the corporate IM market will grow globally at an annual rate of around 20%, at least until 2009. Research by In-Stat found that in 2005 there were around 2.5 million wireless IM users worldwide, generating revenue of USD 54.5 million, and In-Stat forecast that revenues would reach USD 3.6 billion by 2009.

Networking In early 2008, MySpace and Facebook remained the largest social network sites with a predominant North American user base, each with over 100 million unique visitors.10 The number of visitors to social network sites worldwide is estimated at about 500 million. The fastest growth, however, is coming from other regions (e.g. Latin-America: Orkut and Asia: Friendster) and niche sites such as the Social Music streaming site Imeem and the professional network LinkedIn.11 These thematic social networks are part of the long tail of social network sites. A Forrester study12 mentions that 17% of European online consumers have signed up for at least one networking site, such as LinkedIn, peuplade.fr, or Windows Live Spaces (MSN Spaces). Yet, only 40% of the members frequently visit the sites they have joined.

Rate According to a study conducted by Synovate, 27% of users in selected European countries are involved in rating and Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public reviewing content.13 A popular and growing category is sites for reviewing and comparing customer products and prices. More generally, Forrester reports14 that 18% of European Internet users post comments online. Commenting includes writing customer reviews about a product or service at sites such as reviewcentre.com, becoming involved in a forum or chat room at sites such as Lycos, or responding to a blog post.

1 Arbitron-Edison Research (2008), The Podcast Consumer Revealed 2008, available at http://www.edisonresearch.com/home/ archives/2008/04/the_podcast_con_1.php http://www.edisonresearch.com/home/archives/2008/04/the_podcast_con_1.php 2 See http://www.kzero.co.uk/blog/?p=1832 3 http://www.mmogchart.com/Chart4.html 4 http://gigaom.com/2007/06/13/top-ten-most-popular-mmos/ 5 Online gaming 2008, NPD. See http://www.webpronews.com/topnews/2008/04/02/42-of-americans-play-games-online and NPD.com 6 http://forge.ironrealms.com/2008/04/28/mmosvirtual-worlds-among-most-valuable-private-web-companies/ 7 Ars Technica, 2007 and See also http://www.caslon.com.au/weblogprofile1.htm 8 Golvin, C.S. (2007) The State of Consumers And Technology: Benchmark 2007. Forrester. 9 ITU (2006) Digital Life. Available at: http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/publications/digitalife/ 10 Comscore (2008), see http://www.techcrunch.com/2008/02/27/the-global-race-among-social-networks-heats-up-keep-an-eye- on-hi5-friendster-and-imeem/ 11 See http://www.techcrunch.com/2008/02/27/the-global-race-among-social-networks-heats-up-keep-an-eye-on-hi5-friendster- and-imeem/ 12 Kemp, M.B. (2007a) Europeans Have Adopted Social Computing Differently. Forrester 13 EIAA (2007), Mediascope Europe 2007, Executive summary, http://www.eiaa.net/Ftp/casestudiesppt/EIAA%5FMediascope%5 FEurope%5F2007%5FPan%5FEuropean%5FExecutive%5FSummary%2Epdf 14 Kemp, M.B. (2007) Europeans Have Adopted Social Computing Differently. Forrester 33 Table 2: Take up by role (cont.) FACILITATE Tag The December 2006 survey by Pew20 found that 28% of US Internet users tagged or categorised content online such as photos, news stories or blog posts. On a typical day online, 7% of US Internet users say they tag or categorise online content. 10% of US online consumers identify themselves as ‘Taggers’. The act of tagging is likely to be embraced by a more mainstream population in the future because many organisations are making it ever-easier to tag Internet content. New forms of tagging will emerge. According to Weinberger (2007):21 “We’ll also undoubtedly figure out how to intersect tags with social networks, so that the tags created by people we know and respect have more “weight” when we search for tagged items. In fact, by analysing how various social groups use tags, we can do better at understanding how seemingly different worldviews map to one another.”

Book- In contrast, the social bookmarking based sites appear to be levelling off. The number of unique visitors to Delicious, for marking example, dropped from around 2,000 in September 2007 to approximately 1,000 in January 2008. One explanation for 3. Social computing literature computing 3. Social the falling numbers is the use of browser extensions, which use is not measured in terms of unique visitors. However, there may also be other reasons for the fall in popularity. Statistics from Addthis show that bookmarking activity in social networking sites such as Facebook may take over from dedicated services.22

SHARE/CREATE Upload The popularity of online video streaming also continues to soar. Between 150,000 and 200,000 videos are uploaded daily to YouTube, growing the total to over 80 million videos.23 February 2008 saw 80 million unique YouTube visitors in the US alone, viewing nearly 2 hours of online videos each,24 a 66% increase from February 2007.

Publish Wikipedia has grown by 8000% (sic!) in the last five years (as of 2008).25 After peaks in 2005 and 2005, growth is now levelling off to 22% year on year. The number of unique users in the US stands at 55 million in 2008 (Nielsen online, 2008). In 2006 Wikipedia counted 60 million users (Comscore 2006). If Europe mirrored the growth in the US, the numbers of users would exceed 100 million. Some 2,000 articles per day are submitted to the English Wikipedia. Articles in English represent around one-quarter of total Wikipedia articles.

Produce This study found no relevant data on the proportion of user-produced goods. What could be found were many anecdotal examples, such as the frequently cited community-created Lego (Lugnet), user-produced films (e.g. Elephant Dream) and user-designed car (Open Source Car Oscar), but also in the academic field, such as the sharing of scientific problems and solutions in the InnoCentive community.26

20 Rainie, L. (2007), Tagging, Pew Internet and American Life Project, available at: http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Tagging.pdf 21 Weinberger, D. (2007) Everything Is Miscellaneous: The Power of the New Digital Disorder, Times Books. 22 Social bookmarking, the rise of SNS based bookmarking. Source: Addthis (2007). http://blog.addthis.com/?p=35 23 See http://mediatedcultures.net/ksudigg/?p=163 24 Comscore (2008). http://www.comscore.com/press/release.asp?press=2190 25 Nielsen Netratings (2008), See http://www.nielsen-netratings.com/pr/pr_080514.pdf 26 See for example: http://blog.futurelab.net/2006/09/crowdsourcing_and_financing_mu.html and http://www.innocentive.com/

ages 15-17 – visit social networking sites at least more equal gender distribution. Furthermore, monthly. Including early teens (12-17), half of audio/video websites, such as YouTube and Flickr US youth visits social networking sites at least are visited by both men and women, but mainly monthly. More than two-thirds of US online teens men seem to upload content. These websites are who use social networking sites update their visited by young people in particular. Wikipedia profile at least weekly, as opposed to 55% of US is visited by both men and women of all age adult (18+) users of social networking sites. The groups, and older men seem to be the most active use of social media – from blogging to online editors. This research endorses the conclusion of social networking to creating all kinds of digital other studies (see for instance Pascu et al, 2008) material – is central to many teenagers’ lives. that social computing platforms are becoming part of everyday life and gaining popularity across The CitizenMedia research team, referred all generations and levels of society.97 34 to above, concluded with regard to social networking websites that both young men and women engage in social networking, but that 97 See for example: Pascu, C. (2008), An Empirical Analysis young women are most active. Topic-related of the Creation, Use and Adoption of Social Computing social networks seem to attract older users with Applications, IPTS Exploratory Research on the Socio- economic Impact of Social Computing, Seville. Furthermore, there seem to be cultural inequality was first studied in depth by Will Hill differences in the use of social computing in the early ‘90s.”102 applications.98 The Germans and the Dutch are not very active in commenting on forums. The Dutch According to Nielsen, user participation also tend to shy away from writing customer tends to follow a 90-9-1 rule:103 reviews, as do Swedish consumers, with only 3% actively doing so in each country. The masters − 90% of users are ‘lurkers’ (i.e. they read or of commenting and giving their opinions are the observe, but do not contribute), Spanish and the French. Of US online consumers − 9% of users contribute from time to time, between 12 and 18 years old, 35% comment on but other priorities dominate their time (the blogs and 20% post ratings or reviews at least contributors), monthly. In Korea, one of the most advanced social − 1% of users account for the majority of computing countries, official statistics99 indicate contributions (the creators and, in the case of that 46.1% of Internet users engage in posting social networking, the communicators). comments on news articles and postings by others more than once a month; 29.3% post to the Nielsen furthermore contends that blogs are Internet bulletin board of social networking sites even worse in terms of participation inequality; the i.e., clubs, communities, and blogs/minihompys,100 rule here is more like 95-5-0.1. Other inequalities and 20.1% engage in asking questions online or are found by Nielsen on Wikipedia, where more providing answers to others.101 than 99% of users are lurkers (consumers). At the time of this research, Wikipedia’s ‘about’ page listed Type of usage only 68,000 active contributors, which is 0.2% of the 32 million unique visitors it had in the US alone.

According to Technorati: “all large-scale, Wikipedia’s most active 1,000 people - 0.003% of Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public multi-user communities and online social its users - contributed about two-thirds of the site’s networks that rely on users to contribute content edits. Wikipedia is thus even more skewed than or build services share one property: most users blogs, following a 99.8-0.2-0.003 rule. don’t participate very much. Often, they simply lurk in the background. In contrast, a tiny minority Participation inequality seems to exist in of users usually accounts for a disproportionately many places on the web.104 Amazon.com sells large amount of the content and other system thousands of copies of books with around 10 activity. This phenomenon of participation reviews. Nielsen (2006) calculates that fewer than 1% of customers contribute reviews. In addition, over 150,000 of the reviews were contributed

98 Limonard, S. & Esmeijer, J. (2007), Citizen media and by a few “top-100” reviewers, with the top societal change, Business requirements and potential reviewer submitting a staggering – and unlikely bottlenecks for successful new CITIZEN MEDIA applications (Deliverable 6.1.1), TNO, commissioned by – 12,000 reviews. In most online communities, European Commission DG Information Society & Media. 99 Shim, J.M. et al. (2007), Survey on the Computer and 90% of users are lurkers (consumers) who never Internet Usage, Korean Ministry of Information and Communication (MIC), National Internet Development Agency of Korea (NIDA), Survey on the Computer and Internet Usage, October 2007, http://isis.nida.or.kr/ board/service/bbsView.jsp?bbs_id=10&item_id=300&c 102 Nielsen, J. (2006). Participation Inequality: Encouraging urPage=1&dummy=20080123234224 More Users to Contribute. Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, 9 100 The name of a mini-homepage on Cyworld, a very popular October 2006, available at: www.useit.com/alertbox/ South Korean virtual space and web community site. participation_inequality.html 35 101 Shim, J.M. et al (2007), Survey on the Computer and 103 Ibid. Internet Usage, Korean Ministry of Information and 104 Nielsen, J. (2006). Participation Inequality: Encouraging Communication (MIC), National Internet Development More Users to Contribute. Jakob Nielsen’s Alertbox, 9 Agency of Korea (NIDA), Survey on the Computer and October 2006, available at: www.useit.com/alertbox/ Internet Usage, October 2007. participation_inequality.html Figure 4: Economic value of Social Computing by sector, according to Forrester (2007) 3. Social computing literature computing 3. Social

contribute, 9% of users contribute a little (the In conclusion: contributors), and 1% of users account for almost all the activity (the creators). • The percentage of creators on new social computing services seems to depend on An initial critique of the 90-9-1 rule is, the aim of the community, skills level and however, provided by Slot (2009),105 who states required skills; that, although more passive activities such as • The percentage of creators multiplied by consuming are very popular online, Internet the massive number of users means a huge users also engage in a large variety of more addition of user-created value; active roles. The survey conducted by Slot among • Even consumers represent value by leaving Internet users yields indications that a far larger traces that are valuable to the Amazons of percentage than 1% may be creating content this world. online.106 Almost 38% of the respondents stated that they have a website, over 27% reported writing a weblog, over 15% stated that they 3.3 Take up by businesses were engaged in writing news messages, and 3.5% record and upload a podcast at least once According to Forrester, social computing is a year. Slot’s research findings thus raise some starting to move past early adopter firms and on important questions regarding Nielsen’s widely to the early majority. Recent Forrester surveys find adopted 90-9-1. that, while large-scale investments are still rare, more than one in four large US firms has made some investment in blogs, wikis, and RSS each,

105 Slot, M. (forthcoming), Web Roles Re-examined: and a minority of firms today report no intentions Exploring User Roles in the Online Media Entertainment whatsoever to adopt the technologies.107 36 Domain, Proceedings of the COST Conference “The Good, the Bad and the Challenging”, Copenhagen. 106 Slot conducted a user survey among approximately 600 Internet users. There may be a bias in the research of Slot as most of the respondents have a relatively high 107 Enterprise Web2.0 Q&A: Northwestern Mutual, level of education and have Dutch nationality. Forrester, 2007. In a survey of 119 chief intelligence officers, virtual worlds and (serious) games are considered Forrester (2007) found that “fully 89% of the CIOs promising in a company environment, in said they had adopted at least one of six prominent particular for simulation and education. They social computing tools - blogs, wikis, podcasts, reduce costs and improve the work experience.112 RSS, social networking, and content tagging - and Companies have been slower to pick up on the a remarkable 35% said they were already using new phenomenon of tagging. Honeywell, an all six of the tools. Although Forrester did not industrial conglomerate, is among the first to break down adoption rates by tool, it did state introduce a tagging capability behind its firewall. that CIOs saw relatively high business value in The aim, says Rich Hoeg, a senior Honeywell RSS, wikis, and tagging and relatively low value manager and blogger, is to allow engineers “to in social networking and blogging.108 perform knowledge discovery research, and sharing across the miles, even if they don’t know In a broader study tracking the use of the each other.”113 same technologies (replacing mashups for tagging) among 2800 executives around the Research of McKinsey (2008, 2009) shows world, McKinsey (2007)109 found a more modest that companies continued to invest in web 2.0 in uptake and a different distribution across tools: 2007 and 2008.114 Companies that are deriving “Social networking was actually the most popular business value from web 2.0 tools appeared to tool, with 19% of companies having invested shift from using them experimentally to adopting in it, followed by podcasts (17%), blogs (16%), them as part of a broader business practice. RSS (14%), wikis (13%), and mashups (4%). When you add in companies planning to invest in the tools, the percentages are as follows: social 3.4 The impact of social computing

networking (37%), RSS (35%), podcasts (35%), Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public wikis (33%), blogs (32%), and mashups (21%)”. Private sector The survey also found that “Leading the way are Indian firms, 80% of which plan to increase their In 2007, in the report “Participative Web and investments in social computing over the next User-Created Content”, the OECD115 described three years, compared with 69% of Asia-Pacific two types of impact that social computing trends firms, 65% of European firms, 64% of Chinese are currently having on the private sector, namely firms, 64% of North American firms, and 62% of economic and social impact. As regards social Latin American firms.” impact, the OECD states that the way in which users produce, distribute, access and re-use More specifically, some research shows it information, knowledge and entertainment is will become more and more common for highly potentially giving rise to increased user autonomy, placed corporate executives and public officials to act as bloggers themselves.110,111 Furthermore, 112 McKinsey (2007), How businesses are using Web 2.0: A McKinsey Global Survey, McKinsey Quarterly, March 2007, Available at: http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/ links/26068 108 As quoted in “Social media slowly scaling the walls of 113 KPMG (2007), ‘Enterprise 2.0: Fad or Future? The corporate halls”, Globe and Mail update, (2007). Business Role for Social Software Platforms’ 109 http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/links/26068, 114 http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/Six_ways_to_make_ 110 http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/Building_the_ Web_20_work_2294, http://www.mckinseyquarterly. Web_20_Enterprise_McKinsey_Global_Survey_2174 com/Building_the_Web_20_Enterprise_McKinsey_ http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/Six_ways_to_make_ Global_Survey_2174 37 Web_20_work_2294 115 Wunsch-Vincent, S. and Vickery, G. (2007). Participative 111 Wyld, D,C. (2008), The Blogging Revolution, Web: User-Created Content. OECD, Directorate for Government in the Age of Web 2.0, IBM Centre for Science, Technology and Industry, Working Party on the The Business of Government, available at: http://www. Information Economy, April 2007, available at: http:// businessofgovernment.org/pdfs/WyldReportBlog.pdf www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/14/38393115.pdf participation and diversity. Discussion forums privacy”. Hodge (2006) argued that the Fourth and product reviews can lead to more informed Amendment to the United States Constitution user and consumer decisions. Participative web and legal decisions concerning privacy are not technologies may improve the quality and extend equipped to address social network sites. For the reach of content (e.g. educational content). example, do police officers have the right to access And the long-tail mechanism of social computing content posted to Facebook without a warrant? applications, which are used on a massive scale, The legality of this hinges on users’ expectations allows a substantial increase in, and a more diverse of privacy and whether or not Facebook profiles array of, cultural content to find niche users. are considered public or private.” 3. Social computing literature computing 3. Social Other studies identify other social impacts, The economic impacts described by the such as the strengthening of existing social ties or OECD (2007)120 relate mostly to business models the support of making new social contacts. The of traditional companies. According to the OECD, Oxford Internet Survey 2007, for example, found new forms of content provision are more based on that social networking sites and instant messaging decentralised creativity, organisational innovation enhance social capital. One-third (35%) of and new value-added models, which favour new student users in Britain have met someone online, entrants, and less on traditional scale advantages and 13% have met a person offline who they first and large start-up investments. Search engines, met online.116 Other studies (see for instance IPTS, portals and aggregators are also experimenting 2007), however, stress that engagement on social with business models that are often based on network sites or instant messaging particularly online advertisement and marketing. The shift to strengthens existing relationships.117 This trend Internet-based media is only just beginning to may have positive impacts (having fun together affect content publishers and broadcasters. At the and providing mutual support) but also negative outset, user-created content may have been seen impacts. The Stony Brook University, for example, as competition. However, some traditional media found that intensive communication between organisations have shifted from creating online teens about their problems on social network content to creating the facilities and frameworks sites made them more depressed.118 for user-created content creators to publish.

Another social impact frequently referred Forrester121 writes the following on economic to in the literature is the increased possibility of impacts: “…To sum up, we can identify four privacy infringements. In their article on Social aspects of economic relevance of social Network sites, Boyd & Ellison (2007)119 claim computing. The providers of these applications that “SNSs are challenging legal conceptions of are increasingly profitable and contribute to growth and employment. At the same time, they already constitute an important threat to the 116 Dutton, W. & Helsper, E. (2007), Oxford Internet Survey telecommunication and content industries. They (OxIS): The Internet in Britain 2007, Oxford Internet Institute, available at: http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/ are increasingly being adopted as a productivity oxis/OxIS2007_Report.pdf tool in the private and public sector. And in all 117 Cachia, R., (2008), Social Computing: Study on the Use and Impact of Online Social Networking, IPTS (2007), sectors of the economy, customers are becoming Exploratory Research on the Socio-economic Impact of Social Computing, Seville Dutton, W. & Helsper, E. (2007), Oxford Internet Survey (OxIS): The Internet in Britain 2007, Oxford Internet Institute, available at: http:// 120 Wunsch-Vincent, S. and Vickery, G. (2007). Participative 38 www.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/oxis/OxIS2007_Report.pdf Web: User-Created Content. OECD, Directorate for 118 http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-1132788/ Science, Technology and Industry, Working Party on the Why-chatting-long-Facebook-girl-down.html Information Economy, April 2007, available at: http:// 119 Boyd, D.M. and Ellison, N.B., Social Network Sites: www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/14/38393115.pdf Definition, History, and Scholarship, available at: http:// 121 Li, C. (2007) How Consumers Use Social Networks. jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/boyd.ellison.html. Forrester. smarter thanks to horizontal exchange of all generations and levels of society. The large information with other users.” majority of users seem to have a passive role. However, new research shows that the number of active users may be significantly larger than 3.5 Conclusions the 1% rule used in most studies. The immense uptake of social computing applications is clearly When surveying the literature on social having an impact in the private sector. New computing, it becomes apparent that these players have entered the market (such as the news systems are continuing to grow in popularity and and entertainment industries) and new business penetration across the globe. Social computing models are emerging rapidly. Cases collected for can be understood as the systems concerned with this research reveal that impact can also be found creating value through the aggregation of large in the public sector. These impacts, however, numbers of individual contributors generated seem to be broader and more versatile. Scrutiny in computer-mediated social networks and of the cases indicates that four types of impact platforms. Users from all over the world blog, can be distinguished: political, socio-cultural, network, tag and review. Social networking sites organisational and legal. These types of impact are becoming mainstream and attract users across will be discussed further in the next chapter. Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public

39 40 4. Key areas of impact

In this chapter four categories of impact – One of the political impacts may, for political, socio-cultural, organisational and legal example, be the emergence of volatile cause- will be described. For each type of impact, a oriented forms of civic involvement in politics. literature review will be presented on the specific Many of the cases found for this research effects of social computing in the public-service concerned online mobilisations of citizens around clusters (as defined by IPTS: health, learning, a specific subject. Another political impact may government and inclusion). Subsequently, the be that political practice is becoming more policy visions of European Union Member States transparent. We have found dozens of websites as set out in Chapter 2 (an overview is provided on which political information is structured and in paragraph 2.5) and the likely impact identified published. One of the many examples is the in this chapter will be dealt with, identifying key website www.opensecrets.org in the US, a user- risks and opportunities linked to social computing. generated database for the campaign finance The chapter will conclude with a summary of key data of all federally elected politicians since impacts and the divergences and synergies with 1989. An example of the socio-cultural impacts existing government policies. is the inclusion of particular groups of citizens in the public sphere. We found many communities In general terms, it can be observed that the initiated by or for minority groups such as the impacts found in the private sector as described in elderly (silver surfers, e.g. www.seniorweb.nl)

the previous chapter, may be translated to the public and immigrants (e.g. www.maroc.nl). Several Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public sector. In particular, the social impacts mentioned cases from the database also point to improved by the OECD (2007122) have a significant potential quality of life because citizens (e.g. patients to affect governments. The growing possibilities or the disabled) feel more empowered to gain of privacy infringements, for example, has put control over their illness or disability (e.g. www. increased pressure on governments to create new PatientsLikeMe.com). regulatory frameworks to protect users’ privacy. Yet the impacts of the social computing trend on Organisational impacts in the public sector governments seem to be broader and more versatile could be found in the several examples in our than the economic and social impacts described database of user-generated public-sector content. by the OECD. A screening and investigation of the It seems that new networked forms of organisation cases collected for this research shows that some may be emerging. We found multiple examples of other types of social computing impact in the cross-agency cooperation through the use of social public sector can be discerned, namely political, computing platforms. An example is Doctors.net. socio-cultural, organisational and legal impacts.123 uk, an online community for doctors and medical students who jointly build medical knowledge. In addition, several cases indicate that some online communities are taking over tasks hitherto carried 122 Wunsch-Vincent, S. and Vickery, G. (2007). Participative Web: User-created Content. OECD, Directorate for out by government institutions. An example is Science, Technology and Industry, Working Party on the www.mylanguageexchange.com, a website on Information Economy, April 2007, available at: http:// 41 www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/14/38393115.pdf which users teach each other languages. A last 123 As set out in paragraph 1.2 of this report, we have type of social computing impact in the public collected many cases of social computing adoption in public services. These have been included in a database sector may be legal impact. Several cases from of social computing cases. our databases indicate that social computing − Several recent elections in western trends require a new regulatory framework. In democratic countries demonstrate the the learning domain, this need is clearly evident emergence of new forms of fundraising, as joint creators of educational content urge the candidate exposure and mobilisation, governments to provide legal possibilities for the based on social computing trends.124 In the safe dissemination of content. 2004 US presidential elections, supporters of Howard Dean used networking websites 4. Key areas of impact areas of 4. Key In the following paragraph we will elaborate to contact each other, plan gatherings and on these four types of impact. customise phrases, all of which helped to grow support for their candidate. Dean created a groundswell of more than 700,000 4.1 Political impacts core supporters through decentralised online campaigning, and raised over $50m One of the crucial political impacts of – mostly through online donations of social computing is the emergence of volatile, $100 or less.125 Moreover, in 2008 Obama cause-oriented forms of civic involvement in attracted some three million donors through politics. Through social computing websites (e.g. his website, who together donated a total of Facebook, MySpace), people can instantly be $650 million. It seems that the trend towards mobilised around specific political issues. Within democratised fundraising will continue online communities all kinds of advocacy and to soar in the coming decades. The Pew issue groups instantly emerge and disappear. Internet Center found that, in June 2008, Because the social computing phenomenon 8% of Internet users (representing 6% of all enables people to create critical mass around adults) had donated money online to one very specific subjects,niche “ politics” becomes of the candidates of the 2008 election,126 relevant. Furthermore, the social computing trend whereas in 2006 only 3% of Internet users seems to stimulate the creation of political hypes. (representing 2% of all adults) did so. The Videos of politicians, polemic blogs and political community-based model for raising money rumours disseminate with unprecedented speed is quick, cheap, easy and increases the pool and can generate great and acute attention to a of small donors.127 In addition, Scientist political subject or event. Political incidents can who studied the impact of social computing be viewed by millions of citizens, turning the trend on the 2008 election found that incident into a considerable phenomenon that support by members social network sites, impacts the image of politicians or their party. such as Facebook, appeared to be an In addition, certain types of social computing important additional indicator of electoral seem to be eroding traditional political structures. success that is independent of traditional New forms of party financing are emerging and measures like expenditures, media coverage the political process seems increasingly to be organised as a grid rather than by committee ‘spokes’ around a hub. Finally, social computing seems to open up politics. Mashups and crowdsourcing websites enforce the cognitive 124 Simon, R. (2005), The mobilisation of democracy, RSA Journal, October 2005. surplus; the political knowledge of citizens. As 125 Trippi, J. (2004), The Revolution Will Not Be Televised: a result, citizens are increasingly empowered to Democracy, the Internet and the Overthrow of 42 Everything, Harpin-Collins Publishers, 2004. hold politicians accountable for their promises, 126 Rainie, L. (2008), The Internet and the 2008 election, statements and actions. Pew Internet and American Life Project, June, 2008. 127 See for example: Institute for Politics, Democracy and the Internet, George Washington University, The Political Consultants’ Online Fundraising Primer, 2004. and organising activities as represented by sites such as MySpace and Facebook.132 campaign events.128 Roughly 41% of people under the age of 30 − Another political impact that is clearly have watched at least one form of campaign noticeable is the effect of social computing video online, compared with 20% of those activities (e.g. posting of videos on YouTube) aged 30 and older. on the image of politicians.129 Videos posted − A third impact may be on the way public by users affect the perception of and support opinions are shaped. Several scholars argue for election candidates. One of the many that there is strong anecdotal evidence of an examples is the John Edwards’s “John Edwards ever-expanding number of situations in which Feeling Pretty” video on YouTube, which had the blogosphere exercises influence over over 1,142,00 views and showed Edwards and traditional media, the formation of political an assistant fixing his hair with a great deal opinions and, eventually, politics.133 Wright of hairspray and much fussing over his image (2003) and Bloom (2005), for example, in a small mirror.130 Whereas incidents like found that blogs played a major role in the these previously went unnoticed, YouTube fall of Senator Trent Lott in 2002 in the US.134 allows them to be analysed by millions of Whereas the traditional press ignored a citizens and turns them into a phenomenon politically sensitive comment by Senator Trent that impacts the image of and/or support for Lott, weblogs turned Lott’s comment into a a candidate. A survey research by the Pew major story and even caused his resignation. Research Centre shows that the proportion Schiffer (2005), however, demonstrated of Americans who rely on traditional news that not all weblogs have the same impact. sources for information about a campaign The left-leaning blogosphere in the UK, for (such as television) has declined significantly example, failed to stir up interest in a memo 131 since the last presidential campaign. By - now infamous and published in the Times Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public contrast, the proportion of Americans who of London - which suggested that facts and say they regularly learn about campaigns intelligence leading up to Iraq II were being from the Internet has more than doubled manipulated by the Bush administration. since 2000 – from 9% to 24%. Substantial Unlike the Trent Lott case, bloggers were numbers of young people (over 25%) say unable to reopen the discussion on the start they received information on the campaign of the Iraq war using the new information. or the candidates through social networking Sroka (2006) concludes that the question of whether a story discussed in the blogosphere

128 Christine B. Williams and Girish J. “Jeff” Gulati (2008), What is a Social Network Worth? Facebook and Vote 132 This practice is almost exclusively limited to young Share in the 2008 Presidential Primaries, Department of people; just 4% of Americans in their 30s, and 1% of International Studies and Government Bentley College, those ages 40 and older, have obtained news about the Boston, http://blogsandwikis.bentley.edu/politechmedia/ campaign in this way. wp-content/uploads/2008/10/apr-sept-1.pdf 133 Sroka, T.N. (2006), Understanding the Political Influence 129 www.thestar.com, A lesson for today’s politician: Get of Blogs, A Study of the Growing Importance of the yourself on YouTube, June 2008, In August of 2006, Blogosphere in the U.S. Congress, George Washington YouTube had roughly 500,000 registered users and was University. hosting more than 6 million videos. At the beginning 134 In December 2002, Republican Senate leader Trent Lott of 2008, almost 79 million users watched more than 3 said that if Strom Thurmond had been elected president billion videos in the month of January alone. in 1948 on a segregationist platform, “we wouldn’t have 130 Other examples are the “I Got a Crush…On Obama” had all these problems over all these years”. For four video, which has been watched around 7.5 million days, the press all but ignored his comments. The New times, the video “CBS Exposes Hillary Clinton Bosnia York Times, for example, failed to mention them. The 43 Trip” has almost 2 million views. story looked ready to disappear into the ether. Then, 131 Kohut, A. (2008), The Internet Gains in Politics, Pew all at once, the remarks were front-page news. Even Internet and American Life Project, January 2008, President Bush scolded Lott, saying that his words did available at: http://pewInternet.org/PPF/r/234/report_ not reflect the spirit of our country. Weblogs made Lotts display.asp, comments into a major story. merits attention depends on the perceived The burgeoning of activist communities on the newsworthiness of the story by journalists Internet also indicates increased online activism. and other influential decision-makers.135 A quick search on the Internet provides thousands Cornfield, Carsonet al. (2005) also show that, of links to activist communities.138 Several scholars in order to influence decision-makers, the argue that politicians are more than ever obliged blogosphere typically needs the assistance of to take serious note of grassroots activism and the a contingent of the mainstream media that is increased ease with which popular movements and 4. Key areas of impact areas of 4. Key willing to listen to its claims and arguments. thinking can now spread. Norris (2004), for example, Nevertheless, the vast majority of scientists studied the impact of online social movements have stressed the blogosphere’s potential for on the existing political establishment and found influencing, guiding, and generally shaping that “the primary impact will be upon facilitating how the media perceives and frames political cause-oriented and civic forms of political activism, events.136 thereby strengthening social movements, voluntary − Another political impact that can be associations, and interest groups.”139 discerned is the emergence of online community activism - the use of social − The last political impact that is increasingly networking websites to advocate a specific becoming apparent is the growing interest. The Pew Internet Center states that transparency of the political practice. There online activism using social media has grown are numerous online communities and substantially since the first time they probed mashup websites on which information this issue during the 2006 midterm elections. on politicians, policy and the political Among the findings in their survey:137 process is collected and made accessible • 11% of Americans have contributed to in a structured way. For example, www. the political conversation by forwarding Opencongress.org offers RSS feeds to follow or posting someone else’s commentary the latest news and blog mentions relating about the race. to a bill, a vote or a member of Congress. • 5% have posted their own original www.Opensecrets.org provides a searchable commentary or analysis. database for the campaign finance data of all • 8% have gone online to donate money federally elected politicians in the US since to a candidate or campaign. 1989. www.votesmart.org offers detailed • Young voters are helping to define the information – biographical information, online political debate—12% of online campaign finances, interest groups’ ratings, 18-29 year olds have posted their own issue positions, and public statements – on political commentary or writing to an elected officials including the President, online newsgroup, website or blog. members of Congress, state officials and leadership in state legislatures. These are just three examples of the hundreds of online communities and mashups that seek to make

135 Sroka, T.N. (2006), Understanding the Political Influence of Blogs, A Study of the Growing Importance of the Blogosphere in the U.S. Congress, George Washington University. 136 See for example: Wallsten, K. (2005), Political Blogs and the Bloggers Who Blog Them: Is the Political 138 In one search we found approximately 1,500 online 44 Blogosphere an Echo Chamber? Paper presented at the activist communities. annual convention of the American Political Science 139 Norris, P. and J. Curtice, (2004), If you build a political Association, Washington D.C. website, will they come? The supply and demand model 137 http://media.mcclatchydc.com/smedia/2008/06/13/16/ of new technology, social capital, and civic engagement Pew-Internet-2008press-release.source.prod_ in Britain, Harvard University, John F. Kennedy School affiliate.91.pdf of Government, September 2004. politics more transparent.140 Several scientists shared openly and hence the privacy paradigm argue that mashups and crowdsourcing seems to be shifting. Particularly in blogs and websites have a considerable potential to specific support groups, more and more people make politics more transparent and that openly share personal information such as name, increased transparency may in turn stimulate address and specific information about illnesses citizens to hold politicians accountable for or treatments. Individuals increasingly find like- their promises, statements, earnings and minded people or people with whom they share activities.141 Yet others argue that online a passion or interest through social networking communities need basic government data websites. Relationships are maintained on social in order to be able to make politics more networking websites and new relationships are transparent. According to these researchers, created. Both social segregation and integration government should provide the necessary take place on social networking websites. informational building blocks which can be used by communities to collect, structure − One of the sociological impacts that social and disseminate information. Most of these computing technologies are having is what building blocks however, are still lacking in Boyd et al. (2007) have coined as online many western democratic states.142 identity production.143 Profiles on social computing websites such as MySpace, Friendster and Facebook have become a 4.2 Socio-cultural impacts common mechanism for presenting one’s identity online. Boyd et al. argue that When considering the socio-cultural “Profiles are digital bodies, public displays of impact of social computing, the literature and identity where people can explore impression

anecdotal evidence show that social computing management. Because the digital world Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public (and other technological trends) particularly requires people to write themselves into enhances existing offline social behaviour and being, profiles provide an opportunity to craft dynamics. Social networking websites support the intended expression through language, sociality among users; maintaining contacts with imagery and media.” Teens in particular tend friends, lurking profiles of others and polishing to mould their online identity in an effort to of their own profile. Because this social activity impress their peers. Among teens, the peer takes place in what Boyd (2007) coined as pressure to “be cool” is high and stimulates “networked publics” (relationships in the network the creation of a profile that is deemed are publicly articulated, profiles are publicly socially appropriate (Boyd, 2006:10). The viewed and comments are publicly visible), dominant reason for teens to participate in an new privacy questions are arising. However, online social network is to maintain contact it appears that social computing platforms with their friends. The answer to the question (particularly blogs and support groups) stretch of why teens join MySpace is simple: “Cuz the perception of which information can be that’s where my friends are” (Boyd, 2006:9). Adults have more diverse reasons for joining social networks. They are less present on platforms that support social processes and 140 For a catalogue of the many mashups available on the Internet, see ProgrammableWeb – Mashups, APIs, and the Web as Platform, http://www.programmableweb.com 141 Sturges, P. (2004), Corruption, Transparency and a Role 45 for ICT, in: International Journal of Information Ethics 143 Boyd, D. and Heer, J. (2007), Profiles as Conversation: Vol. 2 (11/2004), pp. 1614-1687. Networked Identity Performance on Friendster, University 142 Brito, J. (2008), Hack, Mash & Peer, Crowdsourcing of California, In: Proceedings of the Hawai’i International Government Transparency, The Columbia Science and Conference on System Science (HICSS-39), Persistent Technology Law Review, page 119-157. Conversation Track, Kauai, HI: IEEE Computer Society. more present on platforms that support personal information in order to make new business-oriented activities. Whereas 26% friends. However, Huffaker (2005) found that of Facebook users are between the age of 26 users of blogs reveal a considerable amount and 45, the percentage of users in this age of personal data, including real name, age group on LinkedIn is 73%.144 Furthermore, it and location, as well as a variety of ways of seems that transparency is the norm among contacting them. It thus seems that the goal adults who create social networking profiles. of the publishing of information and platform 4. Key areas of impact areas of 4. Key In a Pew survey, 82% of adult respondents used may affect the extent to which private said that their profile is currently visible information is exposed. A study of IPTS compared with 77% of online teens who (2009) shows that most young people are report this (Pew, 2007).145 Among adults who sceptical of the internet as an environment say they have a visible profile, 60% say that for the exchange of personal data and have their profile can be seen by anyone who major doubts about personal data protection. happens to stumble upon it, while 40% of the They perceive high risks in giving personal teens say their profile is visible to anyone. data and fear that these will be misused in − Because people create online profiles, publish specific eService settings.147 personal information and communicate − Another socio-cultural impact is that personal on social computing websites, a second behaviours, attitudes, values and lifestyles profound impact of the social computing are being influenced by participation in trend is on the attitudes towards and the social networks. As the uptake of social way users manage their personal privacy. computing is considerable, the opportunities However, research results in this field are for mutual online influencing are growing.148 ambiguous. Whereas some scientists argue For example, people influence each other’s that the privacy of individuals is increasingly political opinions (e.g. through political blogs), threatened as they openly display their life recommend books and music (e.g. preferences and thoughts on social computing sites (see on sites such as Facebook and MySpace) and for example Westwin, 2008), other research persuade each other to join online mobs (e.g. shows that people actively manage and MSN, SMS and social networking websites). protect their personal information on social Less peaceful and harmless are the examples networks (see for example Pew survey, of organised riots and criminal networks.149 2007).146 The difference in findings may be Benschop (2007), for example, demonstrated explained by the type of social computing the crucial role that social computing medium used. The Pew Internet Survey shows technologies played in the radicalisation of that users of social network sites are able to the Hofstad Group in the Netherlands.150 The perform a precarious balancing act between downside of the social computing trend is keeping information confined to their network also illustrated in the literature on the effect of trusted friends and disclosing some of their of social communities on suicide. According

144 http://blog.rapleaf.com/2007/11/13/statistics-on- 147 IPTS, (2009), Young People and Emerging Digital googles-opensocial-platform-end-users-and-facebook- Services, An Explanatory Survey on Motivations, users/ Perceptions and Acceptance of Risks, Seville. 145 Madden, M., Fox, S., Smith, A. and Vitak, J. (2007) 148 Each month 6.5 million teens are on Habbo hotel, a “Digital footprints: online identity management and social networking website for teenagers. For more data 46 search in the age of transparency,” Pew Internet & about uptake (e.g. MySpace, Bebo, etc.), see section 3.1. American Life Project, Washington, DC. 149 See for example: Frissen, V. (2008), De Digitale Diaspora, 146 Madden, M., Fox, S., Smith, A. and Vitak, J. (2007), De Virtuele realiteit van de multiculturele samenleving, “Digital footprints: online identity management and describing the digital networks as a driving force behind search in the age of transparency,” Pew Internet & the radicalised Hofstadgroep. American Life Project, Washington, DC 150 http://www.sociosite.org/jihad_nl.php to Becker (2004), for example, online suicide on social relationships depends on the communities can herald a trend in suicide degree of interaction in the communication, pacts. Becker describes how a 17-year-old e.g. synchrony. Chan (2004)155 confirms this youngster actively seeks help to commit premise and states that the differences in suicide. Another example of the negative quality between online and offline friendships impact is the presence of online pro-anorexia/ diminish over time. In the health sector, online bulimia communities. Bardone-Cone et al. support groups are an example of how social (2007) show that online social communities computing contributes to social cohesion. can have a profoundly negative effect on social Here in particular, new relationships are being self-esteem and self-efficacy of participants.151 built around specific diseases. About 28% of − Literature reports contrasting findings on Internet users visited an online support group the impact of social computing on social in 2001 (Pew, 2001).156 relationships. According to Pew (2007), 91% − Social computing has the potential to of social network teens have used social contribute to both social inclusion and network sites to meet their regular friends, social exclusion (e.g. Zajicek, 2007).157 This and 28% meet friends they would rarely see dichotomy is a result of a long-standing in person. Apart from existing relationships, debate on the effect of ICT on social inclusion 49% of the social network users make new (see e.g. Ferlander, 2003).158 Social computing friends online and 32% of the users were applications give users the opportunity to contacted online by strangers. Meeting new strengthen existing ties and develop new ties, people online is especially popular with but until now only a few can profit from these students: one-third of student users have met new technologies (IPTS, 2007).159 However, someone online (Oxford survey 2007).152 there are some signs of effect: the number

The survey also shows that making new of silver surfers that use social computing Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public friends is more popular among retired and to communicate with family and friends unemployed people. There is contradiction as increased by 115% in 2005 (EIAA, 2007)160 regards the extent to which social computing to 18%. In addition, there is much anecdotal positively affects relationships. According evidence of inclusion initiatives. Examples to Pew (2001),153 48% of the teenagers state are social websites for immigrants, such as that social computing enhances their social Mahgreb.nl and Marokko.nl for Moroccan life. By contrast, 64% of the teens admit that immigrants in the Netherlands. Frissen social computing diminishes the time they (2008)161 elaborates on social inclusion, but spend with their family. Cummings (2000)154 points out that the impact of social computing

155 Chan, D. K.-S., & Cheng, G. H.-L., (2004), A comparison of offline and online friendship qualities at different stages of relationship development. Journal of Social 151 Bardone-Cone, A.M., Cass, K.M. (2007), What Does and Personal Relationships, 21(3), 305-320. Viewing a Pro-Anorexia Website Do? An Experimental 156 Horrigan, J. (2001), Online communities: Networks that Examination of Website Exposure and Moderating nurture long-distance relationships and local ties., Pew Effects, Int. Journal Eat Disorder 2007; 40:537–548. Internet & American Life Project, Washington DC. 152 Dutton, W. & Helsper, E. (2007), Oxford Internet Survey 157 Zajicek, M., (2007), Web 2.0: Hype or Happiness? (OxIS): The Internet in Britain 2007, Oxford Internet Presented at the 16th ACM International World Wide Institute, available at: http://www.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/ Web Conference. oxis/OxIS2007_Report.pdf 158 Ferlander, S. (2003), The Internet, Social Capital and Local 153 Lenhart, A., Rainie, L., & Lewis, O. (2001), Teenage Community, Doctoral dissertation, University of Stirling. life online: The rise of the instant message generation 159 IPTS, Zinnbauer, D., (2007), What can Social Capital and the internet’s impact on friendships and family and ICT do for Inclusion? Technical Report, EUR 22673, 47 relationships. Washington D.C.: Pew Internet & Seville. American Life Project. 160 EIAA (2007), Silver surfers report, Executive summary. 154 Cummings, J., Butler, B., & Kraut, R. (2002), The quality 161 Frissen, V. (2004), De digitale diaspora: de virtuele of online social relationships. Communications of the realiteit van de multiculturele samenleving, Forum ACM, 45(7), 103-108. jaarlezing, Utrecht. concludes that social computing can cause 2004).168 Apart from the health aspect of both social segregation and integration. quality of life, Rideout et al. (2005)169 report − Social computing can possibly have an impact a negative correlation between the happiness on the perceived quality of life, both in positive of children and longer daily exposure to and negative terms. An increasing number new media: the least contented children of people are seeking online emotional spent about 1:30 hours more on media than support on social networks sites, such as the cohort of most contented children. This 4. Key areas of impact areas of 4. Key the aforementioned support groups and difference in happiness can be explained by a communities (Potts, 2005). Most people (44%) smaller proportion of time spent with friends seek information on health issues, 9% seek and the struggle with (e.g. game) addiction. emotional support and the remaining 34% seek a combination of the two (Stromberg, 2007).162 Apart from uptake, the effect of social 4.3 Organisational impacts computing on quality of life in terms of health shows some conflicting results in academic Private-sector literature shows that social literature. Pioneering research by Gustafson computing technologies have the potential (1999)163 demonstrates that a computer-based to disrupt existing organisations. Although personal health support system can improve government institutions have not yet changed a patient’s quality of life and promote more significantly as a result of the social computing efficient use of healthcare. However, research trend, there seems to be a considerable potential thereafter draws two important conclusions. for disruption. Anecdotal evidence shows First of all, online support groups drastically that new online communities are emerging, increase the accessibility and participation generating public value previously provided rate due to factors such as anonymity (Iafusco, through government agencies.170 Examples 2000)164 and the omission of distance are peer counselling (replacing professional barriers (Lieberman, 2003).165 As regards counselling) and educational communities the subsequent effectiveness of these online (replacing traditional learning environments). support groups, a positive effect was found The values, processes and structure of the online (Alemi et al, 1996; Houston, 2002),166, 167 communities which provide public value are but this effect did not significantly differ from fundamentally different from the traditional offline measures (Alemi, 1996; Eysenbach, government bureaucracy. The communities are open instead of closed, horizontal instead of hierarchical, and informal instead of formal. If the trend towards networked provision of public 162 Stromberg, C. (2007), Health Marketeers: Create A Social Computing Game Plan. Forrester. services continues, it is likely that the character 163 Gustafson D.H., Hawkins R., Boberg E., Pingree S., of government bureaucracies will change Serling R.E., Graziano F., et al (1999), Impact of a patient-centred, computer-based health information/ support system, American Journal Prev Med, 1999; 16:1-9. 164 Iafusco, D., Ingenito, N. and Prisco, F. (2000), The chatline as a communication and educational tool in adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes: 168 Eysenbach G., Powell J., Englesakis M., Rizo C., Stern preliminary observations, Diabetes Care; 23:1853. A. (2004), Health-related virtual communities and 165 Lieberman, M.A., Golant, M., Giese-Davis, J. (2003), electronic support groups: systematic review of the Winzlenberg, A. et al., Electronic support groups for effects of online peer-to-peer interactions, BMJ, 328:1166 breast carcinoma, Cancer, 97:920-5. (15 May), doi:10.1136/bmj.328.7449.1166 http://bmj. 48 166 Alemi F., Mosavel M., Stephens R.C., Ghadiri A., bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/328/7449/1166 aswamy J., Thakkar H., (1996) Electronic self-help and 169 Rideout V., Roberts D. F., & Foehr U. G. (2005), support groups, Med Care, 34: OS32-OS44. Generation m: Media in the lives of 8-18 year-olds. 167 Houston T.K., Cooper L.A., Ford D.E. (2002), Internet Washington D.C.: Kaiser Family Foundation. support groups for depression: a 1-year prospective 170 Osimo, D. (2008). Web 2.0 in government: why and cohort study, Am Journal for Psychiatry, 159:2062-8. how? Technical Report. JRC, EUR 23358, EC JRC. substantially and that ‘creative destruction’ – a this type discourages collaboration. Yet term coined by Perez (2002) – will take place. many researchers, be it in the educational, health or government domain, argue that − Studies and cases in the private sector social computing technologies provide illustrate that social computing has a huge opportunities for future services. Guy, considerable potential impact in terms of for example, comes to the conclusion that new, networked forms of organisation (e.g. wikis hold great potential for enhancing Siemens, 2005, McKinsey, 2007).171 Social the efficiency, effectiveness and quality of software is increasingly being used for public services. In the areas of education developing and sharing knowledge and for and health there are several examples of cultural interchange and networking between joint creation, sharing and preservation professionals of different organisations and of information by, respectively, teachers users. In the private sector, professionals and students and doctors and patients. and users are increasingly attempting to Examples in the education sector are the jointly create meaning and value through MIT Opencourseware, the Webcast.Berkeley engagement in networks (Siemens, 2005). initiative and the OpenLearn project in the Despite this connectivity trend in the UK.174 A well-known example of knowledge- private sector, several scholars contend building and sharing in the healthcare domain that institutions in the public sector remain is GANFYD, an online community in which rigidly tied to existing – rather isolated - physicians share information about diseases, processes and procedures. Guy (2006), for drugs and treatments. However, scientists example, studied the uptake of collaborative who studied open knowledge creation working in the public sector through the and sharing in the healthcare, education

use of wikis and found that public-sector and government sectors also point to some Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public organisations still make little use of wikis.172 important complications (e.g. reliability One of the main barriers to the cross-border of information, lack of understanding of creation of wikis in public sectors is the learning modes, plagiarism).175 government culture in which values such as − Another impact of social computing on formality, hierarchy and legitimacy prevail. In existing organisations is the replacement of educational terms too, scholars are reaching government tasks, in the sense that public the conclusion that a centre-staged model of value was previously created in public teaching prevails today.173 Herrington et al. institutions and is now generated by users. (2005) show that, in most universities, the Although there is not much quantitative dominant teaching model is one in which data on this phenomenon of user-generated experts transmit theoretical knowledge public services, there is substantial anecdotal that passive learners receive and consume. evidence that the provision of public services According to Herrington et al., a model of by citizens is taking place in various public service sectors. In the learning domain for example, there are many learning communities 171 Siemens, G. (2004), A Learning Theory for the Digital Age http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism. in which users meet each other in student and htm, and McKinsey (2007), How Business are using Web 2.0, A McKinsey Global Survey http://www. ectolearning.com/Ecto2/File.aspx?f=11b9e0ed-18d2- 4d2e-aaef-73000fd5b460 174 http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/web/home/home/index. 172 Guy M., (2006) Wiki or Won’t He? A Tale of Public htm, http://webcast.berkeley.edu/, http://openlearn. 49 Sector Wikis, October 2006, http://www.ariadne.ac.uk/ open.ac.uk/ issue49/guy/ 175 See for example: Mike Cannon-Brookes, Using Wiki in 173 Herrington, A. et al, (2005), Authentic learning Education, http://www.wikiineducation.com/display/ environments in higher education, Hershey, PA: ikiw/Home, http://askdrwiki.com/mediawiki/index. Information Science Publishing. php?title=Physician_Medical_Wiki teacher roles. Within the online community Skipper, 2006).179 Butler (2005) contends “My language exchange” for example, over that blogging occurs mostly among younger 1 million members from 133 countries teach researchers and that many of them make use languages to each other.176 In the healthcare of anonymous names to avoid being traced sector there are thousands of self-support to their institutions.180 In their study “The communities where patients conduct peer Blogging Revolution: Government in the Age counselling. A survey by the Pew Internet of Web 2.0”, IBM found many examples of 4. Key areas of impact areas of 4. Key Center found that 28% of Internet users had government practitioners (e.g. city mangers, contacted an online support group, a figure policemen, university presidents) who write that has increased since.177 Online support blogs.181 Yet IBM also argues that blogging groups seem to exist for any disorder from is still in its infancy in taking hold amongst alcoholism to Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, and bureaucrats. Government practitioners’ use cover a wide range of issues beyond medical of blogs appears to be twofold: on the one conditions (e.g. parenting, bereavement, hand they use blogs to spread their views victims of professional misconduct). In other and, on the other hand, their opinions are government sectors too, online communities affected by influential blogs.182 The principal can be found that create services traditionally impact of blogs lies in the fact that they have provided by government agencies. An the potential to disseminate very quickly example in the social security sector is Zopa, through the social network and instantly a social lending and borrowing marketplace, become known and influential on a global which enables people to lend to and borrow scale. The blog of a bureaucrat may be picked directly from each other. The main goal of the up by several individuals and – via their community is to give people around the world networks – receive widespread attention, the power to help themselves financially and thereby impacting on public opinion and help others at the same time.178 – more indirectly - his profession and his − A third impact on traditional organisations organisation. An example of a blog that that can be observed is a change in the way became known worldwide was that of Jan in which government practitioners form Pronk, U.N. representative in Sudan, on the and disseminate their professional opinion. Dafur crisis.183 Because of its outspokenness, This trend is clearly evident in the science Pronk’s blog drew global attention which sector, for example. Although evidence eventually led to his resignation. is only anecdotal, blogging seems to be becoming more popular with researchers of all disciplines in order to engage in peer 179 Anderson, P. (2007) What is web 2.0? Ideas, technologies and implications for education. JISC Technologies and debate, share early results or seek help Standards watch, available at: http://www.jisc.ac.uk/ on experimental issues (Anderson, 2006, media/documents/techwatch/tsw0701b.pdf, Skipper, M., (2006), Would Mendel have been a blogger? Nature Reviews Genetics. 7, 664 (September 2006). Available online at: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v7/n9/full/ nrg1957.html 180 Butler, D. (2005), Science in the web age: Joint efforts. Nature. Nature 438 (1 December 2005), pp. 548-549. 176 http://www.mylanguageexchange.com/Default.asp 181 Wyld, D,C. (2008), The Blogging Revolution, 177 Potts, H.W.W. (2005), Online support groups: An Government in the Age of Web 2.0, IBM Centre for overlooked resource for patients, Centre for Health The Business of Government, available at: http://www. Informatics and Multiprofessional Education (CHIME), businessofgovernment.org/pdfs/WyldReportBlog.pdf University College London http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/1406/1/ 182 See for example: the Trent Lott case, described in 50 Online_support_groups.pdf, DR. PLATO: The emergence paragraph 5.4.4 of online community. 1994. http://thinkofit.com/plato/ 183 Steele, J. (2006), Sudan expels UN official for blog dwplato.htm and Fox S, Fallows D. (2003) Internet health revealing Darfur military defeats: Report details loss of resources. Washington DC, Pew Internet & American Life hundreds of soldiers’ lives, move likely to sour relations Project, www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/95/report_display.asp further. Guardian, October 23, 2006. http://www. 178 http://uk.zopa.com/ZopaWeb/ guardian.co.uk/sudan/story/0,,1929019,00.html. − Another impact of social computing in the improves the performance of professionals. public sector is the increased transparency On the other hand, many researchers of government institutions, their services and question the validity of the evaluations their employees. In the health and learning by users. Several studies show a strong domain we found numerous examples of correlation between the communication websites (mostly privately initiated) which skills of healthcare professionals (and not aim to make the healthcare, education and necessarily their medical skills) and patient law enforcement sector more transparent. satisfaction with healthcare services.187 Frequently visited are websites such as www. Davidson et al. (2006) found that students in ratemyteachers.com, www.ratemyprofessors. their ratings on www.ratemyprofessors.com com, www.ratemycop.com and www. focus more on how easy, nice, hot, helpful ratemydoctor.net, where students, citizens and entertaining professors are, and less and patients can give their opinion on the on their teaching skills, knowledge and the performance of teachers, professors, the teaching programme.188 police and doctors.184 Nearly one million − There are some anecdotal indications that the teachers at 7,500 schools are listed on the social computing trend is beginning to affect www.ratemyteachers.com website. In 2006, personnel management and job seeking. the website www.ratemyprofessors.com Users of social networking websites such as had almost 6 million ratings from some LinkedIn and MySpace and Facebook – be it 6,000 colleges and universities, and nearly employers or job-seekers – are starting (albeit 800,000 instructors are listed across nine slowly) to use these websites for recruiting countries.185 With over 8 million student and job-seeking purposes. Igoe (2008) members, daily traffic averages more than found that employers seem to be in the

200,000 unique visitors per day. The uptake early stages of recognising the importance Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public of rating websites seems substantial. The and usefulness of social networking sites, Pew Internet Center reports that 33 million but use social networking sites primarily Internet users in America have reviewed or to gather information on prospective rated something as part of an online rating employees.189 CNN conducted a study system.186 Of users who have participated reporting that roughly 43% of employers run online for more than six years, 32% have Internet background searches on prospective rated something online, compared to 14% of employees using Internet sites, including those with either two or three years of access and just 12% of those with up to one year of access. Literature on the precise impact 187 See for example: Lewin, S., Skea, Z., (2002), Interventions for providers to promote a patient-centred approach to of rating websites is hard to find. Anecdotal clinical consultations, The Cochrane Library, 2002;2, evidence demonstrates various types of Wong, S.Y.S and Lee, A. (2006), Communication Skills and Doctor Patient Relationships, Medical Bulletin, impact of rating websites. On the one hand, 3(11), pp. 7-9, March 2006, CME programme of the Medical Council of Hong Kong, Jackson, J.L., Chamberlin some cases show that the feedback generated J., Kroenke K. (2001)Predictors of patient satisfaction, Social Science and Medicine, 52, pp. 609-620. See also Hickson, G.B., Clayton, E.W. (1992), Factors that prompted families to file malpractice claims following 184 www.ratemyteachers.com, www.ratemycop.com perinatal injuries, JAMA, 268(11), pp.1413-1414. and and www.ratemydoctor.org, other examples are Hickson, G.B., Clayton, E.W. (1994), Obstetricians’ www.pickaprof.com, www.campusdirt.com, www. prior malpractice experience and patients’ satisfaction myprofessorsucks.com, www.ratemyprofessors.com and with care, JAMA, 272, 1583-1587. www.rateyourprof.com 188 Davison, E., and Price, J. (2006), How Do We Rate, An 51 185 Davison, E., and J. Price (2006), How Do We Rate, An Evaluation of Online Student Evaluations, Department Evaluation of Online Student Evaluations, Department of of Sociology and Social Work, Appalachian Sociology and Social Work, Appalachian State University. 189 Igoe, J.M. (2008), Social Networking Sites as Employment 186 www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Content_Creation_ Tools, George Mason University, http://u2.gmu.edu:8080/ Report.pdf dspace/bitstream/1920/3147/1/Igoe_Jennifer.pdf online social networking sites such as on an offline world.193 Many laws appear to be MySpace and Facebook.190 However, other obsolete – and intellectual property legislation studies illustrate a much smaller percentage. may be the best-known example of this.194 There A study on the website CareerBuilder found seems to be a tension between the “all-sharing that 12% of hiring managers have used social and co-creation” character of social computing networking sites when screening candidates, technologies and traditional rules of ownership and a NACE study found that 11.1% of the of information, ideas and creations. In the 4. Key areas of impact areas of 4. Key employers review profiles of candidates on learning domain, this tension is evident when social networking sites.191 Statistical data on it comes to online libraries and open access to the use of social networking sites by job- educational resources. Although seamless access seekers seems to be lacking. Yet Igoe (2008) to knowledge has been recognised as a key driver concluded, after a survey among members of educational development, copyright prevents of LinkedIn and Facebook, that job-seekers learning environments from openly sharing – compared to employers – are less aware didactic content.195 Copyright law, which derives of the usability of social network sites as from international conventions and is similar employment tools. Nevertheless, Igloe in most countries, stipulates that one cannot argues that the current generation entering reproduce, copy, communicate and/or transmit the workforce – with 10 years of experience to the copyright material without the permission with social networking sites and an of the owner.196 Court rulings regarding copyright awareness of the importance of professional infringements in peer-to-peer communities are networking – could boost uptake. It seems burgeoning.197 that further research is needed on the current impact of the use of social networking − Yet, in response to copyright constraints, websites on job-seeking and recruitment several initiatives have emerged that attempt processes. Nevertheless, some scientists to provide alternative regulations. One of contend that, as transaction costs continue these initiatives is the Creative Commons, to decrease, it is likely that in the future an organisation that developed a software work will be increasingly allocated among application for the Internet that allows freelancers in an online labour market and copyright holders who do not want to that organisations (in their current form of exercise all of the restrictions of copyright static firms) may eventually disappear.192

193 See for example: Latham, R.P., Brown, J.T. and C.C. Butzer (2008), Legal Implications of User Generated 4.4 Legal impacts Content: Youtube, Myspace, Facebook. available at: http://www.lexbe.com/hp/Art.aspx?art=http://images. jw.com/com/publications/892.pdf The social computing trend raises all 194 Lessig, L., (2004), Free Culture, The Nature and Future of Creativity, Creative Commons. manner of regulatory and legal questions, since 195 Fitzgerald, B., (2007) Open Content Licensing (OCL) for Open Educational Resources, paper commissioned by the much legislation of western countries is based OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) for the project on Open Educational Resources. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/33/10/38645489.pdf 196 See, Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and 190 McIntosh, S., (2006) Facebook and Myspace Used by Artistic Works, 1886 (Berne Convention), Agreement Employers as Screening Device, The Pacer, http://pacer. on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property utm.edu/3296.htm Right 1994 (TRIPS Agreement) and bilateral free trade 191 Gardner, D. (2006), Survey: Employers Checking Job agreements (FTAs) such as the Australia-US Free Trade 52 Hunters by Scouring Social Networks, Techweb, www. Agreement 2004 (AUSFTA). techweb.com/wire/ebiz/193402565 and Koncz, A. 197 Latham, R.P., Brown, J.T. and C.C. Butzer (2008), Legal (2006), One in 10 Employees Will Use Social Networking Implications of User Generated Content: YouTube, Sites to Review Job Candidate Information, NACEWeb MySpace, Facebook. available at: http://www.lexbe. 192 See e.g. Benkler, Y. (2002), Coase’s Penguin, or Linux and com/hp/Art.aspx?art=http://images.jw.com/com/ the Nature of the Firm, The Yale Law Journal, vol 112. publications/892.pdf law to dedicate their work to the public data would hinder a culture of open science domain or license it on conditions that allow (Tapscott and Williams, 2006:164).202 Some copying and creative reuse.198 The Creative 20% of the human genome was already under Commons framework enables teachers and private ownership, including the genes for students, for example, to reuse and alter hepatitis C and diabetes. The owners of these documents, photographs or videos, with patents influenced the level of participation of the authorisation of the initial creator. In a scientists and the costs of research, and thus digital world, where educational users will played a disproportionate role in determining increasingly engage with a culture of cut the overall rate and direction of the research and paste, remix, collaboration and instant in these areas. Both academe and commercial Internet access, open content licensing will businesses (such as the pharmaceutical firms) play an increasingly vital role in the sharing warned that lack of access to biological and reshaping of knowledge. Consequently, information was raising costs and lowering there are more and more examples of the efficiency of drugs discovery. As patents open content licensing. In Australia, for proliferated, R&D budgets were rising example, AEShareNet has developed a Free to inefficient levels, and biotechnology for Education License (FfE) which can be companies, pharmaceutical firms, universities, used by government or any other person or government agencies, purchasers of healthcare entity to label content that can be utilised and the legal system were becoming entangled for educational activities. In addition, more in expensive and damaging struggles for and more educational resources are being associated economic benefits (Tapscott and published under Open Content Licences. The Williams, 2006:165). Yet the majority of Public Library of Science and BioMed Central, actors involved recognised that unrestricted

for example, license their publications under access to gene information would boost Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public the Creative Commons licenses.199 Another scientific discovery and ultimately lead to example is the BBC, which has adapted the new therapeutics for a wide range of diseases. Creative Commons Licensing model for use Consequently, Merck Pharmaceuticals and the by the BBC Creative Archive to allow people Gene Sequencing Center at the Washington to download clips of BBC programmes for University School of Medicine started the non-commercial use.200 The content published Merck Gene Index project – an initiative to on these websites is open to educational use. create a public database of gene sequences.203 − In the healthcare sector, too, the tension Other pharmaceutical firms started similar between property-rights legislation and activities and today the Merck Gene Index the open sharing of information is evident contains millions of gene sequences. (OEC, 2008).201 In the 1990s for example, − In addition to alternative legislation (e.g. researchers in the field of medicine feared that open content licensing replacing copyright patents on large amounts of DNA sequence and patent right), there is an increasing need for new regulations because new forms of

198 See www.creativecommons.org and Boynton, R.S., The Tyranny of Copyright? The New York Times, January 25, 202 Tapscott, D. and Williams, A.D. (2008), Wikinomics: 2004, http://www-personal.si.umich.edu/~rfrost/courses/ How Mass Communication Changes Everything, SI110/readings/IntellecProp/Copyright_Tyranny.pdf Penguin Group. 199 See www.plos.org, www.biomedcentral.com/home 203 Eckman, B.A., Aaronson, J.S., et al. (1998) The Merck 200 See www.creativearchive.bbc.co.uk Gene Index browser: an extensible data integration 53 201 OEC (2008), Harnessing Openness to Transform system for gene finding, gene characterization and American Health Care, A Report by the Digital EST data mining, Bioinformatics, Vol 14, 2-13, Oxford Connections Council of the Committee for Economic University Press http://bioinformatics.oxfordjournals. Development. http://www.ced.org/images/library/ org/cgi/content/abstract/14/1/2http://bioinformatics. reports/health_care/report_healthcare07dcc.pdf oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/14/1/2 crime and violation may emerge from social collaborative law-making is the LexiPation computing and other technological trends. project of the European Commission.208 An example is cyberbullying, the use of social This project involves the development of computing sites (and other technologies) an integrated ICT platform for conducting to deliberately violate an individual.204 In moderated online discourses on legislative the UK for example, cyberbullying is a key proposals, involving policymakers, issue for young people, with 35% of Year 6 citizens and other socio-economic groups. 4. Key areas of impact areas of 4. Key (aged 12) pupils reporting bullying as a main Furthermore, the “We the People” project of concern. This percentage decreases with the Dutch newspaper NRC aimed to provide age, with 25% of Year 8s reporting bullying citizens with a platform to collaboratively as a main concern, and only 15% of Year create an alternative European constitution 10 pupils.205 In the UK, evidence shows that by using a wiki (see also the case description 22% of young people have been victims of in paragraph 5.3.4).209 However, evaluations cyberbullying at least once, reporting that of some of these projects show that, they have received hurtful comments via text although the projects intended to involve message or experienced abuse on forums large numbers of citizens with all manner and social networking sites. In recent years, of backgrounds, participation is low and the cyberbullying has become a key public profile of the participants is homogeneous concern, especially in the case of pupils using (mostly professionals who have an interest in their digital technologies (particularly video the subject such as lawyers, politicians and captured on mobile phones and publishing researchers). In addition, the legal world is also on platforms) to bully their teachers.206 This opening up in the sense that legal practices is just one of the many new online violations are becoming more transparent. There is that require new legislation. much anecdotal evidence, for example, − Another legal impact of social computing on the emergence of legal communities in technologies that is becoming increasingly which legal knowledge is shared. Examples apparent (although anecdotally) is the are Jurispedia and WikiLawGuru; wikis on opening-up of the law making process. The which users collaboratively create large OpenLaw project of the Berkman Center repositories of legal terms, definitions and for Internet and Society of Harvard Law information.210 School is an example of an open platform on which existing legislation is discussed and modifications are proposed.207 In addition, 4.5 Confrontation between trends and users, together with the initiators of the impacts platform, work together to develop arguments and draft pleadings. Another example of An important research question in this study is the extent to which the impacts set out in the previous paragraphs match the current normative 204 Withers, K. and R. Sheldon (2008), Behind the Screen, visions and trends in the policy domain The hidden life of youth online, Institute for Public Policy Research, http://www.ippr.org/members/download.asp?f described in Chapter 2 of this report. The outline =%2Fecomm%2Ffiles%2Fbehind%5Fthe%5Fscreen%5 F20%2Epdf 205 Department for Children, Schools and Families (2007a), Every Child Matters, London: HMSO and Department for 208 http://www.lexipation.eu/ 54 Children, Schools and Families (2007b), The Children’s 209 Huynink, S., Roodenburg, H., Schnakers (2006), M., Hoe Plan: Building Brighter Futures, London: HMSO. verder met de Europese Grondwet? “We the People”: 206 Harrison, A., (2007), When online friends spell danger, een lappendeken van creatieve voorstellen, correcties en online news story, 22 October, available at: http://news. commentaren., in NRC Handelsblad, 19 June 2006. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7046986.stm 210 http://en.jurispedia.org/index.php/Main_Page and http:// 207 http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/openlaw/ wiki.lawguru.com/index.php/Main_Page below provides a summary of the confrontation report). The confrontations between the visions/ between visions/policies and the impact of social policies and social computing impacts have computing. For each vision/policy, conclusions been translated into hypotheses that have been are drawn as to whether the social computing rejected, supported and/or commented upon trend strengthens or undermines the vision/ by experts through an online survey. The results policy. The confrontation has been validated by of the online validation session have been experts by means of an online validation session incorporated in the synopsis below (the vision/ (see also the methodology paragraph 1.3 of this policy is given in italics).

Greater transparency / + Social computing applications may enhance transparency of citizens’ demand and government products and accountability of public sector processes. Crowd sourcing mechanisms mean that public sector information can easily be collected, structured and disseminated and thus provide the potential to make government more transparent and empower citizens to hold public officials accountable.1 - However, several experts question the quality of the information published within social network sites. Statements within communities often lack authoritative sources and a small group of users may dominate the discussions within the network. The latter in particular may cause a bias in the information provided through social networks. In addition, advanced technologies enable people to easily manipulate content Improved accessibility of + Forms of social computing (e.g. online communities) can stimulate the accessibility and personalisation of some public services public services because groups of users are enabled to create those public services themselves and tailor them to their preferences. - However, it may be the case that not all people have equal access to these services. Skills and resources such as time, knowledge and (in some cases) financial capital may be critical in terms of being able to participate in a social network. In the future, specific groups may be excluded to a greater or lesser extent from participation in social computing communities Improvement of efficiency in + Social computing trends may enhance the efficiency of the production of public value (e.g. public services or public sector legislation). By using social computing technologies, knowledge to create public value can be built in an efficient Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public way. Furthermore, resources to produce public value (e.g. human resources) can be allocated in an efficient way. Improvement of quality and - Although the use of social networks may enhance the effectiveness of policy instruments (e.g. greater ability of effectiveness public sector governments to monitor citizen demand) the social computing trend may also threaten existing principles of good governance. When citizens or new players take over tasks hitherto carried out by public sector parties, the question arises as to whether good governance principles are sufficiently ensured. The exercise of government power has been legally restricted and regulated by principles such as legitimacy, accountability, transparency, integrity, audiatur et altera pars and impartiality. These principles are not legally embedded in cases of citizen-generated public tasks. New ways of organising, new + Literature and cases show that social computing techniques enable groups and individuals to participate more actively models of governance, new in the public domain. There are many examples of groups of citizens creating their own public services (e.g. education, stakeholders healthcare, peer support). The way in which these groups are organised differs from the traditional models of governance in the sense that these groups act in a more horizontal and informal way and are more open to newcomers. Stronger evidence-based + Crowd sourcing techniques and online communities can enhance the knowledge of government practitioners as policy they are enabled to make use of the wisdom of the crowds, and use this wisdom to substantiate specific strategies or policies. However, as previously stated, several experts are questioning the quality of the information published within social network sites. Citizen empowerment and + Social computing technologies empower citizens to express themselves and to mobilise. expression of diversity - However, citizens also become more vulnerable to new forms of digital violation. Improved digital As stated previously, not all people may have equal access to public services provided through social computing competencies/bridging the techniques. Skills and resources such as time, knowledge and (in some cases) financial capital may be critical in terms digital divide of being able to participate in a social network. In the future, specific groups may be excluded to a greater or lesser extent from participation in social computing communities. Enhancement of independent + Social computing technologies stimulate self-organisation and self-regulation in all kind of groups within society. living, self organisation and autonomy - However, just as governments are becoming more transparent, more information on individual citizens can be found through social computing applications. It is therefore very likely that there will be more potential threats to privacy in 55 the future and an increased demand for privacy protection.

1 Precondition: mashups and crowd sourcing can only be effective if the building blocks of public sector information are provided by government agencies. Research shows that in many western countries only a limited number of public sector documents are accessible online. 4.6 Conclusions When analysing these impacts against the government policies of European Union Member Four key areas of social computing impact States, it becomes apparent that some of these can be discerned, namely political, socio-cultural, impacts strengthen government policies, while organisational and legal. Examples of political others undermine them. Some future opportunities impact are the emergence of volatile, cause- may be that the social computing trend enhances oriented forms of civic involvement in politics, the transparency of citizen demand and of 4. Key areas of impact areas of 4. Key niche politics becoming relevant (citizens being government services and processes. In addition, able to generate mass around a very specific public sector services may become more subject), growing number of political hypes accessible and personalised as users are more and new forms of party financing. The socio- involved in service provision. In addition, the cultural impacts we found include changing efficiency of governments may increase. Social values (e.g. from formal to informal, hierarchic to computing platforms enable groups of government horizontal and closed to open), increased social practitioners to allocate resources in an efficient cohesion around specific subjects and increased way. A future risk may be that principles of good empowerment of citizens in their relation to governance (e.g. legitimacy, integrity, inclusion governments (e.g. patient-doctor relationship). of all) are not automatically embedded in forms The organisational impacts which yield from our of user-generated public services. Furthermore, it literature research included the trend towards is likely that the potential threat to privacy will networked forms of organisation, government grow due to the sensitive information that citizens tasks being taken over by citizens, and increased publish on social networking sites. The quality of transparency of the public sector. Examples of the information generated within communities legal impacts are existing regulatory frameworks is questioned by experts but also by users (e.g. intellectual property) becoming obsolete, themselves. Lastly, it may be the case that not all the emergence of alternative regulations (e.g. groups will have equal access to user-generated Creative Commons) and the law-making process public services. becoming more transparent.

56 5. Evidence of social computing impact

This chapter reveals evidence of social worldwide can create and freely share scholarly computing impact yielding from case studies and materials.214 According to the founder, Richard a survey (for an explanation of the methodologies Baraniuk, Connexions is an online community used, see paragraph 1.3 of this report). Four cases which provides “the conditions for the widespread which cover the four public-service clusters re-use of educational or scholarly materials by (health, learning, government and inclusion) communities of educators and learners.”215 Today, have been studied, namely the educational Connexions offers a platform to instructors, content community Connexions, the doctors’ authors and learners who share knowledge, network Doctors.net.uk, the patients’ support continually updating it and weaving together a site PatientsLikeMe and the citizens’ watchdog variety of concepts. Wikileaks.211 The survey was published on eight sites: the professional communities Flu Wiki, The Connexions website has five key ECGpedia, ePractice and Doctors.net.uk, the applications: patient support community Endometriosis.uk.org, the political community Petities.nl and the crime- • Course roadmap: a guide for instructors watch communities Patewire and WikiCrimes.212 and learners. Learners can add their own In this chapter, the impacts found in the cases annotations to the materials, which are kept and survey will be set out. In the last paragraph private to them.

of the chapter, conclusions are drawn as to the • Authoring Interface: support to authors Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public weight of the impact. in creating modules to contribute to the repository. Authors can work in their individual workspace and in workgroups 5.1 Connexions case with colleagues to jointly develop modules. • Course Composer/Instructor Interface: Introduction allows instructors to work individually as well as collaboratively to create courses The Connexions project began in the autumn using modules in the repository. of 1999 as an idea, building into a vision, for • Repository: supports searching and moving teaching and learning from a static, linear management of the content. progression through a set of topics to a dynamic • Endorsement system: a window into the “ecosystem” of shared knowledge.213 The goal Content Commons of material that has been of Connexions is to provide and maintain a endorsed by professional authorities. commons where individuals and communities

211 www.cnx.org, www.Doctors.net.uk, www.PatientsLikeMe. com and www.wikileaks.org 214 Baraniuk, R.G. et al, (2002), Connexions,: Education for 212 www.cnx.org, www, http://www.Doctors.net.uk, www. a Networked World, IEEE International Conference on patientslikeme.com, www.wikileaks.org, www.fluwikie. Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing – ICASSP’20, com, http://www.en.ecgpedia.org, www.epractice.eu, Orlando and Baraniuk, et al (2006), Connexions – Sharing 57 http://www.endometriosis-uk.org, http://www.petities. Knowledge and Building Communities in Signal Processing, nl, http://www.platewire.com, http://wikicrimes.org, , IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, 21(5), 10-16. 213 Henry, G. (2004), New Models and Tool – Connexions: 215 Dholakia U.M., King W.J. and R. Baraniuk, (2006), an Alternative Approach to Publishing, in: Heery, R. et What Makes an Open Education Program Sustainable, al: ECDL, 2004, LNCS 3232, pp. 421-431. The Case of Connexions, Connexions, www.cnx.org. Level of usage relating these new figures to the calculations of Pertrides et al. (2008) it becomes clear that Connexions has four distinct user groups:216 between 2005 and 2008 the number of author (1) authors, who create original educational users continued to grow steadily. As the total content and make it available in the Content number of author users in 2005 was 247 (see Commons, (2) instructors, who can select the Table 1), until 2008 the number of author users available content and compile or otherwise has grown by an average of 100% each year. manipulate it, to create customised instructional materials such as a course or a curriculum for Impact use in their classes and teaching activities (3) students (e.g. of primary, secondary schools The impact of the Connexions community and universities), who consume the educational seems diverse; existing products, processes, materials and (4) reviewers, who review and can organisation structures and legislation are 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence endorse content published on Connexions. In the changing. First, products: the Connexions past few months, the average number of visits community generates open and freely available per day was around 32,000, the number of pages scholarly material. Whereas traditional publishers viewed was around 70,000 and the number of hitherto had the exclusive rights to publish and files accessed approximately 1,200,000.217 sell textbooks, the educational content created on the Connexions website can be created, More user statistics are provided by Petrides published and disseminated by anyone. In terms et al. (2008), who focused on the size of the group of product change, the creation of the product has of co-creators; the “author users” who actively become more open (several authors co-creating create, modify, upload and discuss content.218 Her the product), the status quo of the product research shows that the vast majority of users read, has altered (the textbooks are in a perpetual download and use the online material for their beta version; there are many final versions of a courses and that only a small minority of users are Connexions textbook), the number of versions of the creators of content. However, by examining the product increases (hyper-customisation; books log files, Petrides et al. (2008) also found that the are tailored to the needs of each individual) and number of new author users joining each year the availability of the product has changed (freely increased at an average rate of 93% - from seven available to anyone). The fact that text books are new author users in 2000 to 83 in 2004. available to students for free has, in turn, an effect on the learning opportunities for students all In an interview with TNO and DTI, Joel over the world. In the interview with TNO, Joel Thierstein (CEO of Connexions) estimated the Thierstein told TNO that the Maxfield Foundation current number author users at 1,000. Of these had bought the rights to the book “Collaborative 1,000 author users, approximately 500 remix and Statistics” and made the content available free edit modules and 500 create content.219 When through Connexions under the Creative Commons Attribution License. The online version of the book has already been chosen as the primary text 216 Dholakia, U.M., King, W.J. and R. Baraniuk, (2006), What Makes an Open Education Program Sustainable, for autumn classes enrolling more than 1,000 The Case of Connexions, Connexions, www.cnx.org. students. The release of the book in Connexions The Connexions Project http://cnx.rice.edu 217 http://cnx.org/stats, website accessed December 2008. makes it possible for students all over the world 218 Petrides, L., Nguyen, L., Jimes, C. and A. Karaglani to study this subject at no cost. In the US alone, 58 (2008), Open educational resources, inquiring into author use and reuse, Int. J. Technology Enhanced almost 100,000 students take a statistics course Learning, Vol. 1. Nos. 1/2. at a community college each year and many pay 219 Joel Thierstein was interviewed by TNO and DTI on 2 December 2008, for the “Impact of Social Computing” $100 or more for a traditional statistics textbook. project. “Collaborative Statistics” is not only used by a few dozen to a few thousand copies. The retail Connexions members in the traditional way price of textbooks is high and the revenues for (downloading and reading); several members the author relatively low. Academic recognition have already customised the book by re-mixing rather than revenue is the main driver for authors or adding other scholarly material.220 to publish. Publishing works on Connexions substantially increases the reach of the work. Furthermore, the professional processes for creating educational content are changing, Open education communities seem to as well as the preparation of courses. Market stimulate inclusion of all. Anecdotal evidence research (Dholakia et al., 2005) on the shows that modularity and open-content Connexions community reveals that instructors development lowers the barrier to entry into the who participate in the Connexions community author community.223 A member of the Electrical realise time savings in their everyday profession Engineering faculty at the University of Illinois as a teacher.221 Many of the instructors who use said the following about his participation in Connexions have intensive teaching schedules Connexions: “For years I have wanted to write during the working week and therefore appreciate a textbook, because I love to write about being able to have a repository of educational Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs). However, any materials organised in a modular format to make complete text in my field also has to cover their course preparation more efficient. Online z-transforms, on which I have no interest in activities in the Connexions community also seem writing.” Connexions allows this faculty member to stimulate a further specialisation of professions. to contribute his FFT material and then weave a As Joel Thierstein argues: “Connexions teachers are custom text for this course using contributions able to find other teachers who are experts in very from other authors who are passionate about

specific field, which contacts stimulate a further FFTs. In addition, Dholakia et al. (2005) show Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public development of the expertise. Moreover, highly that, while many authors and instructors are specialised knowledge - which normally would professors, others are “shut outs” like Kitty Jones, disappear – is preserved and further developed a private music teacher from Champaign, IL, because experts are able to find the few other who is writing on music theory.224 Interestingly, experts in other parts of the world who have the Kitty’s materials are among the most popular in same highly specialised knowledge.” In addition, Connexions at present. Her materials had over the individual impact of professionals seems to 600,000 page views in January 2006 alone. be increasing. Dholakia et al. (2005) show that Connexions’ authors experience having a greater Furthermore, organisational structures and impact on scholars, practitioners, and students business models are shifting. Processes of content within their disciplines through the widespread creation, professional feedback and course dissemination and use of their educational preparation, for example, are starting to cross and scholarly materials.222 The vast majority of organisational boundaries. Teachers at individual traditional text-books are small-run, selling from separate schools and colleges, who were not in contact before they joined the Connexions community and now collaborate on the creation

220 For textbook see http://cnx.org/content/col10522. See also http://www.media.rice.edu/media/NewsBot. asp?MODE=VIEW&ID=11300. 223 Dholakia U.M., King W.J. and R. Baraniuk, (2006), 221 Dholakia, Utpal M., Stacy Roll and John McKeever What Makes an Open Education Program Sustainable, 59 (2005), Building Community inConnexions. Market The Case of Connexions, Connexions, www.cnx.org Research report for the Connexions project. 224 Dholakia U.M., Stacy Roll and John McKeever (2005), 222 Dholakia, U.M., Stacy Roll and John McKeever (2005), Building Community in Building Community inConnexions. Market Research Connexions. Market Research report for the Connexions report for the Connexions project project. of educational content, provide each other with contribute to a greater knowledge base. As Joel feedback, discuss learning methods and help Thierstein argues: “One of the main purposes of each other with course preparation. Furthermore, the academy is for its faculty to contribute to the in contrast to the hierarchic structure of a school, knowledge base of their respective disciplines.” the social structure of the Connexions community Academic recognition may be a second driver for is horizontal. Professors, instructors, students and users to contribute to the creation of educational textbook authors all have the same position within content. Contributors of the Connexions website the community. Status within the community is are seeking a broader exposure of their work. based on knowledgeability: the higher the quality Citations, re-use of and elaborations upon their of the content produced by a member, the more publications strengthen the academic position he/she is appreciated by peers. In addition, it of authors. In addition, they are more able to appears that traditional organisations, such as the advance their work with the feedback they receive publishers, are under competitive pressure from from other Connexions members. 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence open education communities. The business model of traditional publishers is based on conventional Evaluations of co-creation processes in production and distribution processes and Connexions also show that the most vibrant channels. However, it seems that publishers in communities within Connexions are those the United States are not currently in the position which already have a content base (a basis of to put a new business model into place.225 scholarly material). “No-one likes to start with a blank page” explains Joel Thierstein. ”it is easier Another impact which can be discerned is to continue with something that has already the amendment of policy and legislation. In the started. Blocks of knowledge attract authors and United States, several states are reconsidering facilitate the building of an online community. their policy on the dissemination of scholarly These blocks can really accelerate the growth material as a result of content creation within and liveliness of the community.” Most Authors open education communities such as Connexions. will not write a whole book online. “We learned States have the task of monitoring the quality of from Wikipedia that people are willing to educational content and are currently discussing contribute freely, but only small blocks of their the acceptance of open materials. Several states, time.”226 Another driver for users to participate such as Texas, are starting to accept open created is the online presence of a critical mass. The educational content. Furthermore, various greater the number of professionals and students government institutions are themselves beginning online, the more appealing the community is to to openly share the content they create. An other professionals and students. It seems that example is the National Institute of Health in the the Connexions website has currently reached a United States, which adopted a “public access tipping point; the membership to Connexions is policy” in April 2008. becoming rapidly more common. Joel Thierstein states “this is the network effect; people joining Drivers and barriers up because their peers have joined up.”

There are several drivers for users to A barrier for teachers, authors and students participate in the Connexions community. The to use Connexions could be the limited quality of most important driver may be possibility to 60 226 Joel Thierstein: “a group of very active author users had 225 Joel Thierstein states the following about the traditional created a solid basis of content which attracted many publishers: “As the American stakeholder model stresses other users to the website. From that moment (the short term profit, publishers do not have the incentive to presence of a solid basis of content) the average number fundamentally change traditional processes.” of users started to grow rapidly.” the content. According to Joel Thierstein, quality is discipline. Discipline-based repositories lead to not an issue because Connexions has put in place fragmentation based upon knowledge domain, a quality control system. Connexions works with which hinders interdisciplinary knowledge “lenses” - selections of content in the Connexions exchange. repository which enable both organisations and individuals to give their seal of approval to content in the Connexions repository, allowing for user- 5.2 Doctors.net.uk case driven quality control of Connexions modules and collections.227 Through these lenses, Connexions Doctors.net.uk describes itself as a peer-led users can provide their own endorsements service, set up by ‘doctors for doctors’.230 The for items in the repository. Lenses can also be website contains both traditional web services used as “bookmarks” within the repository to (e.g. gateway to online literature searching) as keep track of related or otherwise interesting well as social computing functionalities (e.g. a content. A search will yield a ranking of the most medipaedia). The website was founded in 1998 popular and user-approved content. In addition, by Dr Neil Bacon, a nephrologist at the Oxford organisations, such as professional societies, can renal unit. The initial goal of Doctors.net.uk was create endorsement lenses containing content to stimulate Internet use among doctors and they have carefully reviewed and deem to be of thereby realise the potential of the Internet to high quality. Organisations use their own criteria improve healthcare services. The website started for endorsement and are encouraged to describe as a gateway to medical information while offering their selection process on the lens home page.228 members free e-mail addresses. Over time, Doctors.net.uk steadily evolved from a service- Another challenge (and not unique) for oriented, static website into a lively community

Connexions is planning for and ensuring the in which doctors jointly build knowledge. The Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public sustainability of the community (long-term website contains the following social computing viability and stability). The complication is that functionalities which are accessible only to the traditional revenue models employed as a registered doctors and medical students:231, 232 matter of course in other educational settings (earning revenue from knowledge creation and • Forum for discussion groups: where dissemination such as enrolment fees, tuition, doctors debate complex medical questions. book sales, subscriptions, etc.) do not directly Automated e-mails alert doctors to new apply to open education communities, since their posts made in their favourite forum or materials – and often their software platforms – messages containing their chosen keywords are freely available on the web.229 The Connexions of interest. community does not have permanent funding, • Medical Image Library: contains over 1,400 which makes the future and the possibilities for images to search and is used by doctors growth unsure. However, Connexions have been and students for learning, training and in existence for 10 years. A last challenge for presentations. Doctors and students can Connexions may be to achieve full exploitation upload their own images, download others, of the potential of interdisciplinary knowledge- and discuss images. building. Intellectual ties are often much stronger between colleagues and peers in the same 61

227 http://cnx.org/help/lens_what 230 http://www.Doctors.net.uk/ 228 http://cnx.org/endorsements 231 http://www.sovereign-publications.com/Doctors.net. 229 See also Geneva, H. (2005), Managing “Open”: An uk.htm Oxymoron or Formula for Success? Rice University. 232 http://www.Doctors.net.uk/ • Medipaedi: an online textbook written and The most popular social computing edited by members. Members can edit and applications seem to be the image library and update another member’s article. the forum.236 Over 2,000 images have currently • eCases: a collection of medical cases been published and discussed in the medical submitted by members of the Doctors.net.uk image library. Tim Ringrose, CEO of Doctors.net. community. Doctors can create, share and uk stated about the medical image library: “The rate eCases. content of the medical images library seems to be • Medical Education Modules: this database most compelling; the pictures provide concrete contains 160 free, accredited eCME modules medical content to be discussed by doctors. The which are revised annually. Doctors can user statistics show that the usage of the medical create and publish modules. images library climbs steadily”. Medipaedia and eCases are only used by groups of early adopters. Level of usage The Medipedia was launched in 2006. Four 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence months after its launch, around 35,000 members In November 2008, 161,327 doctors were had used it and 1,000 articles had been submitted. member of Doctors.net.uk, which is more than According to Tim Ringrose a growth in the use of 90% of the doctors in the UK. The average the Medipaedia and eCases has yet to happen. number of doctors online on a daily basis was Popular among users is the Medical eModules around 13,000 at that time, and the average application; almost two-thirds of Doctors.net. number of doctors online on a weekly basis uk members use the eModules. Interestingly, was approximately 50,000. The number of the number of user-generated modules seems to participating doctors has grown rapidly over the be increasing. Today, between 40 and 50 of the years (approximately 10,000 members in 1999, 219 modules have been created by users. Other 40,000 in 2001, 80,000 in 2003, 100,000 in 2005, modules are provided commercially or by the 138,000 in 2007).233 The average yearly growth of Department of Health. Doctors.net.uk is around 85%. In its early years the website grew by around 150% each year and Impact in the past few years growth has levelled off to around 15% each year. This growth is expected to Although the impact reported by respondents decline further, since almost all UK doctors have of a survey conducted by TNO and DTI237 seems joined Doctors.net.uk. The users include general to be substantial (varying from increased quality practitioners, physicians and medical students, of treatments to a more efficient use of their representing over 50 medical specialisations. network), no less than 47% of respondents of the Of the 161,327 doctors, 47,246 are general survey state that they wish Doctors.net.uk to have practitioners and 114,081 are specialists (some of even more impact. This survey outcome could whom are in training).234 In 2007 the website saw point to a social computing potential that is yet 250,000 new postings every month.235 to be exploited. Desk research and the survey results show that the current Doctors.net.uk community is already affecting existing healthcare services, processes, organisational structures and legislation. Most significant may be the impact

233 http://www.stlcomms.com/index.php?section=179, of Doctors.net.uk on the everyday practice of http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0ECZ/is_/ 62 ai_62060639, http://www.nma.co.uk/Articles/31558/ Profile+-+Dr+Neil+Bacon.html, http://www.bmj.com/ cgi/eletters/326/7382/176 236 Interview with Tim Ringrose, CEO of Doctors.net.uk, 234 Reference date November 2008. 5 December 2008, TNO AND DTI “Impact of Social 235 http://www.nma.co.uk/Articles/31558/Profile+- Computing” Project. +Dr+Neil+Bacon.html, 237 See also paragraph 5.4 of this report. doctors. In the TNO and DTI survey, around 63% can find each other more easily. Only 3% of the of the respondents stated that their service to respondents consider the time spent on Doctors. patients has improved due to their involvement net as one of the drawbacks of the website. One in Doctors.net.uk.238 Tim Ringrose explains the of the respondents states, for example: “it is easy impact of social computing applications of to waste a lot of time on Doctors.net.uk.” Doctors.net.uk with some examples: “One of the Doctors.net.uk members had uploaded a Furthermore, Doctors.net.uk seems to picture of a pacemaker complication of one of stimulate community building. Many respondents his patients. This image was examined by several of the TNO and DTI survey referred to social other doctors and one of them found that there networking activities they undertake on Doctors. was a second complication which the doctor in net.uk. As one of the respondents stated “one of attendance had missed. Another example is of a the most important impacts of Doctors.net.uk on child who had a gunshot injury in his head. The my professional life is the sense of ‘community’ doctor who treated the child uploaded pictures with other medics”. Others said that they of the injury including an X-ray. He wrote on the expanded their network of medical friends and image page that he intended not to perform any that they were more informed about what peers surgery because of considerable medical risks. are doing. Another respondent reported that he/ A plastic surgeon however reacted to this while she had “several times started at new hospitals in saying that new methods where being developed strange parts of the country, and found someone which made surgery possible. The doctor of the there who I knew on Doctors.net.uk”. And a child with the injury subsequently invited the member writes that he/she is “less isolated when plastic surgeon to further collaborate on this working in remote locations”. In addition, 34% of medical case.” the respondents state that they make better use of

their network. Overall it seems that ties between Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public Another impact of Doctors.net.uk professionals are becoming more horizontal and experienced by members of Doctors.net.uk relates crossing organisational boundaries. The values to improvements in their efficiency. 54% of the shared within the Doctors.net.uk community respondents of the TNO and DTI survey stated endorse this horizontalisation trend, as the top that they save time by accessing information and 5 values shared within the community are: communicating with peers through the Doctors. professionalism, community sense, openness, net.uk website.239 For example, doctors are more informality and equality. efficient in finding and disseminating information. As one of the survey respondents stated: “I am Doctors.net.uk also seems to generate a long- more efficient in obtaining and updating my tail effect - because a large number of UK doctors knowledge”. Knowledge is acquired through are connected, doctors with a very specific medical static applications (such as the eJournals) and profession are able to locate each other. This long-tail social computing applications (e.g. the forum and effect could increase if doctors from other countries the medical image library). Time savings also seem could also join Doctors.net.uk. Furthermore, to be realised through the efficient allocation of interaction on Doctors.net.uk seems to stimulate human resources. Specialists on Doctors.net.uk interdisciplinary cooperation and knowledge exchange. Respondents to the TNO and DTI survey comment: “an important impact of Doctors.net.uk is the increased awareness of concerns from other 238 Of this 63%, 43% found “improved quality of services” 63 to be the most important impact of Doctors.net.uk on specialities”, and “I am more able to test skills their everyday practice as a doctor. knowledge in other areas of medicine (not just my 239 Of this 54%, 49% found “time savings” to be the most important impact of Doctors.net.uk on their everyday own specialty)”, and “I am more knowledgeable of practice as a doctor. issues affecting other disciplines within medicine.” the Medical Image Library, Medipaedia, eCases However, most interaction is between peers who or Photography Forum; the latter is subject to a report that “Doctors.net.uk provides me with the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Licence.243 opportunity to exchange my opinion with others”, and “I am enabled to seek peer views on complex Drivers and barriers issues”, and “I use Doctors.net.uk to discuss contract issues with peers.” Besides obtaining a free e-mail address, access to Doctors.net.uk in hospitals is an important driver The fact that individual contributions to for doctors to join up. According to Tim Ringrose, the Doctors.net.uk community may generate UK hospitals block access to Google and Yahoo on substantial impact can be demonstrated by their computers, but do provide access to Doctors. the “Dr Scot Junior case”. A trainee surgeon at net.uk.244 Other reasons for participating are the Raigmore Hospital insulted a professor of revealed by the TNO and DTI survey, which shows 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence medicine on the forum of Doctors.net.uk.240 The the following top 5 drivers: (1) having an e-mail trainee expressed his anger about the role of the account, (2) acquiring knowledge, (3) access to professor at the head of what has been called ‘the specialist knowledge, (4) acquiring skills and (5) UK government’s Modernising Medical Careers professional advice. The generation of knowledge (MMC) fiasco’.241 Another member of Doctors.net. is thus – apart from having an e-mail account uk saw the trainee’s comment and reported him – the key driver for doctors to join Doctors.net. to the authorities in Scotland which immediately uk. The knowledge-generation is very versatile suspended him. Through the Doctors.net.uk and may concern information about medical community, a group of supporters of the trainee politics, general medical information, conference mobilised, arguing that the suspension would reports, specific medical case information, and appear on the trainee’s permanent record and concrete medical advice. Tim Ringrose refers in damage his future employment or promotion this respect to the “wisdom of the professionals”, prospects. Several members of the Doctors.net. which enhances the knowledge of doctors and the uk community report that Doctors.net.uk enabled effectiveness of treatments. supporters of the trainee to mobilise. Some, for example, state that: “Doctors.net.uk has been Another driver to participate the Doctors.net. instrumental during the MMC fiasco” and “Ability uk (and not another professional community) in for Drs to ‘stick together’ over issues - e.g. when particular may be the Doctors.net.uk brand, which Dr Scot was suspended after the MTAS fiasco”.242 represents four core values: trust, transparency, independence and collaboration. Doctors.net.uk has Finally, it seems that the content generated published a clear mission statement on the home at Doctors.net.uk raises new legal issues, for page of the website, namely to provide doctors with example on intellectual property. Doctors the largest independent network for collaboration assign to Doctors.net.uk the copyright of all the and improvement in healthcare. The TNO and DTI material they post, except for content posted in survey reveals that community members seem to identify with the Doctors.net.uk values and mission because their core values are professionalism, 240 http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/09/09/inverness_ community sense, openness, informality and doctor_suspension/ 241 The MMC regime has been applied to postgraduate equality. Furthermore, the fact that the majority of medical training with “the aim of bringing more structure 64 into the career path for doctors and better training towards the very best care for patients”. In 2007, this resulted in the inability of thousands of newly-qualified 243 http://about.doctors.net.uk/Terms-And-Conditions junior doctors to find work, and hospitals has problems 244 Interview with Tim Ringrose, CEO of Doctors.net.uk, with recruiting the staff they needed. 5 December 2008, TNO AND DTI “Impact of Social 242 See also http://www.remedyuk.org/ Computing” Project. peers are connected may be a driver for others to the liability and accuracy of co-created content. connect to Doctors.net.uk. As Tim Ringrose explains: The TNO and DTI survey shows that around 37% “it seems that at a certain moment in time there has of Doctors.net.uk members question the quality been a tipping point in usage; the Doctors.net.uk of the information generated by peers. In order website gained a critical mass which attracted even to ensure the quality of the content as much as more doctors to the site.” possible, Doctors.net.uk gives access to the co- creation applications only to registered doctors However, the Doctors.net.uk community and students.247 Furthermore, as Tim Ringrose is also facing some challenges. 53% of the states “A great advantage of the doctors.net.uk respondents to the TNO and DTI survey, for social computing applications in comparison example, find that their or their patients’ privacy with other – general accessible - social is at risk. One of the respondents states, for computing applications (such as wikipedia) is example: “I fear for lurking deans and therefore that the profile and seniority of the contributor feel that I cannot chat freely.” To address the is traceable. Readers can look into the profiles privacy issue, Doctors.net.uk has developed a of the contributors and find out the track record comprehensive privacy policy.245 In principle, of the doctors, which results in a greater level Doctors.net.uk does not disclose members’ of confidence in the quality of the information”. personal data, but will occasionally ask members Members of Doctors.net.uk are responsible whether their personal data may be passed on to for use or misuse by any person accessing the third parties. Doctors are always able to refuse website through their password or ID. Doctors permission, except where the information is are invited to report inaccuracies and incomplete included in the Doctors.net.uk bulletin. Doctors. information they find on the website. net.uk uses personal data to provide services,

to carry out membership administration and - if A third drawback of Doctors.net.uk perceived Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public allowed by the member - for direct marketing by users is the domination of the discussions and purposes. Members are reminded by Doctors. content by a few peers. As many as 56% of the net.uk of the GMC and BMA (Britisch Medical respondents to the TNO and DTI survey found Association) guidance that they should not send this to be a shortcoming of the community. any patient-identifiable data across the Internet, Some of the respondents report that they find and that they should not post such information in the advertisements (with which Doctors.net.uk is the Forum area. Forum comments are annotated partly financed) annoying. with the user name of the member commenting, and cannot be posted anonymously. Unless specifically indicated, the forum is only provided 5.3 PatientsLikeMe case for GMC-registered doctors. PatientsLikeMe was founded in 2004 Another challenge – and not unique to the by three MIT engineers, Jamie Heywood, Doctors.net.uk community246 – may be to ensure Benjamin Heywood and Jeff Cole. Their personal experiences with Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) motivated them to create a community 245 http://www.doctors.net.uk/targetting/article. of patients, doctors and organisations that aspx?areaid=2&articleid=4619 246 See for example: Gustini, D. and Barsky, E. (2007), Introducing Web 2.0: wikis for health librarians, JCHLA/ JABSC, 28, 147-150, Guistini, D. (2006), How web 2.0 65 is changing medicine [editorial], BMJ, 333, 1283-1284, see also, McLean, R., Richards, B.H. and Wardman, J. (2007), The effect of Web 2.0 on the future of medical 247 Doctors.net.uk holds individual members responsible for practice and education: Dwarikinian evolution or keeping their password and ID secret and not allowing folksonomic revolution?, MJA, 187, 3, 174-177. anyone else to use them. inspires, informs and empowers individuals.248 An important element of the website is the The founders started with their own case and data-gathering to enhance knowledge about the developed a website where ALS patients could diseases. The website collects patient information share experiences, support each other and enter on two levels. First, a quantitative breakdown of data on their medical condition and treatment, symptoms and dosages is provided through data such as symptoms, drug prescription, dosages, entry by patients. In their profiles, patients fill out and effectiveness of treatments. In March 2006, data on their medical conditions and treatments PatientsLikeMe opened for business. Within which is then translated by software into charts a year, the company added communities for and graphs. Second, the forum generates more patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and qualitative information in the sense that members Parkinson’s disease. The number of users grew share general advice and provide feedback on rapidly and in the autumn of 2007, the company certain drug or treatment issues.250 opened a community for people with HIV. Today, 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence PatientsLikeMe also has communities for Mood Usage disorders, Fibromyalgia and orphan diseases like PSP, MSA and Devic’s.249 PatientsLikeMe has The number of members of PatientsLimeMe online communities for 16 different conditions, has grown rapidly since its launch in 2006. In with each community having the following only four years, the website has attracted a total of functionalities: 38,904 members.251 The size of the communities varies, from the Moods Community with 6,653 to • Community search: a search application the Neuroendocrine Conditions community with with which patients can find peer patients. 633 members. Differences between the sizes of • Personal page: each member can create the communities may be due to the prevalence his/her own page by filling out their or rareness of a particular disease. In 2008, profile (details registered include personal the website reached approximately 150,000 information, diagnosis summary, information unique visitors by month. PatientsLikeMe has on medical condition, treatments and members from all over the world. However, the symptoms). largest number of members live in the United • Forum: online platform on which patients States, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, the can discuss treatments, symptoms and Netherlands and New Zealand.252 exchange personal experiences. • Treatment statistics: aggregated data on the Ben Heywood, one of the founders of treatments of members. PatientsLikeMe, stated the following in an • Symptom statistics: aggregated data on the interview about the type of usage of the symptoms of members. PatientsLikeMe website: “Our patients are really • Research page: page with community engaged. Their time on the site is very long. They reports, staff presentations and information do a number of things. They view other patient about partner programmes. profiles, so they can learn from them. They find • Private Message: members have their own a ‘patient like me,’ and there are some really inbox to exchange messages privately. interesting stories about that. They learn from the

250 New York Times Magazine, Practicing Patients, 23 March 66 2008, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/23/ magazine/23patients-t.html 248 www.PatientsLikeMe.com, accessed on 9 December 251 Website accessed on 26-03-2009. 2008 252 New York Times Magazine, Practicing Patients, 23 March 249 www.PatientsLikeMe.com, accessed on 12 December 2008, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/23/ 2008. magazine/23patients-t.html collected treatment reports and symptom reports the following message to all other patients who that we have, which is the aggregated data of all received a specific treatment: “I see you are using of our patients within the community, and then Glyconutrients. What are the exact ones that they share and answer questions in the forum. you’re using, how long have you been using them So, there is an emotional support as well as for, and what benefits if any have you seen. I have helping with standards of care and how patients heard a lot of encouraging things about them, do the little things that help them with their but I have yet to hear anything about their use by disease.”253 And in the interview with TNO and ALS patients. Are they helping with a particular DTI, Ben Heywood states: “About 60% is actively symptom? Please let me know what you have engaged in the sense that they are more than just learned by taking these supplements. Blessings to watching profiles, for example communicating you and your family.“256 The knowledge built by on the forum. 10 to 20% of the patients really the patients can be used by patients as a basis for uses PatientsLikeMe to manage their disease, medical decisions. James Heywood, one of the providing all health information. This proportion founders, stated in an interview with Newsweek is consistent over the years.”254 that the site is all about gathering the collective wisdom and making it available to patients and Impact professionals. “In the end, it’s the same as open- source software. If you can see all the information, It seems that the PatientsLikeMe community you can correct errors.”257 generates substantial organisational, social and legal impacts. The most important impact may Aggregated data yielding from the be that the knowledge of diseases increases PatientsLikeMe community is also impacting as members’ data on their medical condition, on existing research programmes and methods.

symptoms and treatments is collected, translated James Heywood gives the following example Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public into graphs and analysed. PatientsLikeMe claims in an interview with Frontline:258 “One of our that the effectiveness of treatments and drugs is also researchers, Dr. Paul Wicks, recently read a increasing. James Heywood explains this impact published clinical observation report on two ALS by using an example in which a drug evaluation patients experiencing excessive yawning. Several on PatientsLikeMe was negative and affected the patients were already tracking excessive yawning drug prescription. “We have data in our system on as a symptom on PatientsLikeMe, through our over 100 patients who have been on a drug long user-added symptom tracker. Using a system- enough to demonstrate the hope of that drug was wide invitation, patients were asked to endorse not what was originally assumed – and that means whether they experienced no, mild, moderate or thousands of patients won’t take it.”255 In addition severe excessive yawning, described as “attacks to the aggregated data, which is automatically of uncontrollable yawning, sometimes when they generated from the patient-reported data on are not even tired”. The results were impressive. individual profiles and reported in Treatment Excessive yawning was reported to be absent in and Symptom reports, members themselves 30% of responders, mild in 30%, moderate in collect data. One of the users, for example, sent 32%, and severe in 9%. Dr. Wicks also identified an unexpected association between yawning

253 See: http://www.mylot.com/nr/viewframe.aspx?id=61 4543&url=http%3a%2f%2fwww.healthbusinessblog. 256 www.PatientsLikeMe.com, accessed on 12 December com%2f%3fp%3d1612&type=Blog 2008. 67 254 Interview with TNO and DTI, 13 January 2009. 257 Newsweek, Power to the bottom, September 15, 2008, 255 The Boston Globe, Through website, patients creating available at: http://www.newsweek.com/id/157540/ own drug studies, November 16 2008, available at: http:// 258 Frontline, Ben Heywood’s new website, http:// www.boston.com/news/health/articles/2008/11/16/ www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/somuchsofast/ through_website_patients_creating_own_drug_studies/ heywoods/ben.html severity and site of ALS symptom onset. Patients Furthermore, it seems that patients with very with a bulbar onset of disease (57%) were more specific or rare symptoms are able to find other likely to have moderate or severe yawning than patients who have the same symptoms - which patients with arm onset (42%) or leg onset (31%). points to a long-tail impact of the PatientsLikeMe Dr. Wicks was able to respond to the case report community. Peer patients who did not previously within two weeks of its publishing with a sample have contact are now able to find each other. population of 254 and taking only about 10 One of the many examples is provided by Mary hours. These results are being published as a letter Sontz in an interview with the Boston Globe.261 in response to the original article.” It thus seems Mary, who suffers from the Parkinson’s disease, that research projects from traditional research recalls complaining to her doctor that the institutes may become more intertwined with medication she took for young onset Parkinson’s research conducted on PatientsLikeMe.259 disease was causing her rapidly to lose weight. Because she tracked her weight and medication 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence An important social impact may be generated on PatientsLikeMe, she was able to find a dozen by the personal support and advice that members other women of her age who had experienced of PatientsLikeMe give each other. Many of the the same side effect. posts on patients’ pages contain encouraging messages from other patients. The level of social PatientsLikeMe also seems to affect traditional networking in most PatientsLikeMe communities healthcare organisations. Patients appear more is very high. Patients search for peer patients, empowered to have their say in the healthcare often become friends and sometimes also meet in dialogue. Ben Heywood explains in an interview real life. The location filter of the search engine on the World Health Care Congress:262 “That is can be used by members to see if there are any part of what is so exciting about PatientsLikeMe peer patients living in their neighbourhood. When – patients now have the ability to drive change, feeling depressed, members of PatientsLikeMe make their issues central to the dialogue.” In receive support from other members.260 An the interview with TNO and DTI, Ben states: HIV patient, for example, posted a message in “The usual format is around the loudest voices which he said that he was feeling very down. He convincing others on an anecdotal basis. The received many encouraging messages from other PatientsLikeMe format is different: it is really patients, including the following. “…Hang in based on quantitative data from all patients: not there. Your babies and the rest of us need you. anecdotal data. Therefore it has a largely positive We are all here to support you. What is going on impact on the doctor–patient relation. It opens up regarding your depression. I recently checked out the dialogue. Patients ask: What treatments are of an inpatient facility so I somewhat understand most effective? Besides, PatientsLikeMe increases where you are coming from.” the personalisation of treatments; patients are not the same and will ask what works for a patient like them.”263 It thus seems that the bilateral relationship between doctors and patients is changing as information asymmetry decreases

259 Also: the biggest set of data available on lithium use by ALS patients comes from the reports on PatientsLikeMe. So far, the data –which are still being gathered – indicate that the drug is considerably less effective than indicated 261 The Boston Globe (2008), Through websites, patients by the Italian study, published in the Proceedings of the creating own drug studies, by Carolyn Y. Johnson, 16 68 National Academy of Sciences. While that discovery has November 2008. been disappointing, the online reporting is still useful 262 The World Healthcare Congress, Speaker Live Chat (The Boston Globe, November 2008). Series, Ben Heywood, co-founder, president and 260 www.PatientsLikeMe.com, forum, accessed on 12, 16 director of PatientsLikeMe, http://www.worldcongress. and 18 December 2008, PatientsLikeMe permitted TNO com/transcripts/Ben_Heywood_Transcript.pdf and DTI to publish this statement. 263 Interview with TNO and DTI, 13 January 2009. because patients are well-informed about their system. You learn what’s working for others. You medical condition, symptoms and treatments. A improve your dialogue with your doctors. Best of concrete example is provided by Todd Small, a all, you help bring better treatments to market in Multiple Sclerosis patient, who became a member record time.” In the interview with Ben Heywood, of PatientsLikeMe in June 2007.264 He learned TNO and DTI asked why PatientsLikeMe does not from PatientsLikeMe that he was taking the wrong use more privacy-enhancing technologies (e.g., dose of drugs. Contrary to what his neurologist not sharing profiles, or only between friends), to told him, the PatientsLikeMe website showed which Heywood responded: “We chose to apply that other patients took a higher dose of the drug a fully open model because of two reasons. Firstly, which worked well with them. He started taking it gives a validation: everything can be drilled a higher dosage and his treatment improved. down, verified and validated at the individual level by others. It allows some kind of self-police, The last impact seems to be on the legal much like the open-source model. Secondly, it is rights of patients to privacy protection. Members difficult to capture individual patient experiences of PatientsLikeMe can choose to make their in more closed models. An open model ensures data viewable by all PatientsLikeMe members transparency which is required to have an impact or to anyone on the Internet.265 As anyone can at the individual level.” And: “PatientsLikeMe become a member of PatientsLikeMe, anyone is not for everybody. Also it is too hard to work with a computer and Internet connection can with this open model in the formal public sector access the patient data on PatientsLikeMe. because of public policy limitations.”266 Data access is not protected by authentication processes or technologies. This seems to have Drivers and barriers a substantial impact on the patients’ privacy

protection. PatientsLikeMe states the following There are several drivers that attract patients Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public about their privacy policy in an interview on to the website. The most important driver may the World Health Care Congress: “We have a be the support and information they can find unique take on privacy, well outlined in our on PatientsLikeMe. The following statement Openness Philosophy (a link is on our home by a PatientsLikeMe member illustrates the page). We talk openly with our patients about social motivation for patients to join up: “I also the risks of sharing information – but we (as do appreciate this site, there are so many different our members) feel the benefits outweigh the personalities that make this site so fun. I really risks.” On the website, PatientsLikeMe states in love the things that I have been reading and their Openness Philosophy: “Currently, most learning and I like being able to express what I healthcare data is inaccessible due to privacy feel about what we live with and talking about regulations or proprietary tactics. As a result, it to people that understand.”267 Another driver research is slowed, and the development of of patients may be the fact that PatientsLikeMe breakthrough treatments takes decades. Patients provides them with a personal medical record. also can’t get the information they need to make Patients continually enter data about their medical important treatment decisions. But it doesn’t have condition, drug usage and treatments, resulting in to be that way. When you and thousands like a comprehensive status report with graphs and you share your data, you open up the healthcare charts of their medical situation.

69 264 New York Times Magazine, Practicing Patients, 23 March 2008, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/23/ 266 Interview with TNO and DTI, 13 January 2009. magazine/23patients-t.html 267 www.PatientsLikeMe.com, forum, accessed on 12, 16, 265 www.PatientsLikeMe.com, accessed on 12 December and 18 December 2008, PatientsLikeMe permitted TNO 2008. and DTI to publish this statement Furthermore, several patients state that a serious medical condition, and it may leave a social reason for joining the PatientsLikeMe community stigma attached to illnesses.272 When signing up, is that they can contribute to the improvement of patients must agree to the use and selling of their treatments and drugs by sharing their data and data. PatientsLikeMe acknowledges that the sharing experiences. As one PatientsLikeMe member of personal information that patients may choose to stated in an interview with The Boston Globe: engage in on the site can carry risks.273 According “If my information benefits scientists in finding a to Alan Westwin, a political scientist and expert in treatment or a cure, even after I die, then it was privacy issues, the members of PatientsLikeMe fit the worth the sharing of personal information.”268 profile of pragmatists.274 They weigh up the pros and The large number of other patient members cons of PatientsLikeMe and then decide whether to also attracts people to the website. The fact that join. other patients join up is a reason for patients to become involved. And, as Ben Heywood states Another important perceived drawback of the 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence in an interview with Frontline: “The bigger our PatientsLikeMe community is the limited accuracy communities get, the more information there is of the information generated. William Stamney, for everyone to learn from.”269 neurologist of one of the patients on PatientsLikeMe sees - besides advantages such as mutual support – However, being a member of PatientsLikeMe also some disadvantages of PatientsLikeMe such as the has some important disadvantages for users. The most risk of patients taking the wrong medical decisions important downside of the community is the threat based upon incomplete or inaccurate information.275 to privacy. Although not required to do so, patients “There are downsides to trying unproven treatments can choose to enter comprehensive data into the site, and looking to individual experiences for medical such as residence, age, symptoms and medications. advice. The course of a disease can vary widely They post not only their own photos but often pictures between individuals, making it difficult to of their children and spouses too.270 They add brief disentangle the many factors – including a new autobiographies and describe their conditions in drug – that might influence its progression. There precise detail – including potentially embarrassing are also risks to taking drugs when they have not details.271 PatientsLikeMe allows researchers and been fully vetted by clinical studies.” Some other healthcare product and service companies to buy doctors endorse this statement by Stamney and and access de-identified patient data, both individual argue that the patient-led research lacks rigor and and aggregated, for advancing medication and other may lead to unreliable results, false hopes and harm health products or services. There are several risks to patients.276 In an interview with Frontline, Ben to sharing one’s health information: most insurers Heywood acknowledges the possible bias of their exclude pre-existing conditions from their coverage, patient-reported data and states that PatientsLikeMe giving people an incentive to hide early warning tries to reduce this bias.277 signs of disease. Employers might discriminate against potential employees if they are aware of a

272 Newsweek, December 2008. 273 http://www.PatientsLikeMe.com/help/faq/Read%20 268 The Boston Globe, Through website, patients creating This!#a_safe own drug studies, November 16 2008, available at: http:// 274 New York Times Magazine, Practicing Patients, 23 March www.boston.com/news/health/articles/2008/11/16/ 2008, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/23/ through_website_patients_creating_own_drug_studies/ magazine/23patients-t.html 269 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/somuchsofast/ 275 The Boston Globe, Through website, patients creating heywoods/ben.html own drug studies, 16 November 2008, available at: http:// 70 270 New York Times Magazine, Practicing Patients, 23 March www.boston.com/news/health/articles/2008/11/16/ 2008, available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/23/ through_website_patients_creating_own_drug_studies/ magazine/23patients-t.html 276 Psychorg.com, Patient-led drug trials defy medical 271 Dimick, C. (2008), Openness, Not Privacy, Web Site establishment, 2008. Promotes Sharing Disease Successes, Hardships, Journal 277 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/somuchsofast/ of AHIMA, 79(6), pp. 30. heywoods/ben.html A last drawback of the PatientsLikeMe and stronger democracies.” The Wikileaks website website may be the peer pressure to provide was launched in December 2006, a few months certain (intimate) information and the domination earlier than planned.281 Among the founders of of a few patients’ opinions on the forum. When Wikileaks are Chinese dissidents, mathematicians registered as a member, users can be approached and start-up company technologies, from the US, by others and encouraged to fill out their profile. Taiwan, Europe, Australia and South Africa. As Also, the PatientsLikeMe staff frequently tell one of the initiators stated: “We are serious people users about the benefits of entering their data, working on a serious project, three advisors have which may pressure members to enter intimate been detained by Asian government, one of us for information. Administrators of the website remind over six years”. users to fill out their profile and PatientsLikeMe also develops other incentives for users to The website has the following key enter their personal data. In an interview with functionalities which support the leaking and Frontline, Ben Heywood states, for example: “we further dissemination of sensitive information: just implemented data quality grading of patients where users earn stars for filling out their profile, • Wikileaks search. Search engine for finding keeping their information current and tracking documents on a specific subject on the periodically over the course of their illness.”278 Wikileaks website. Furthermore, it seems that there is a small number • Country index. An overview of leaks and of users who are very active on the forums, leaving analysis for each country. On the country other voices unheard and possibly resulting in a page, documents can be accessed, discussed bias in the qualitative information provided. Yet and uploaded. the data used by PatientsLikeMe for research • Media kit. An overview of how the data on

purposes is based on the user profiles (not on the the website is generated and can be used by Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public forum) and are therefore more sound. journalists. • Writers’ kit. Introduction to posting, discussing and analysing leaked documents 5.4 Wikileaks case and the nature of these documents. • Donations page. Online payment module Wikileaks is designed to allow anyone to for donating money to the Wikileaks post documents which contain evidence of community. government corruption or other wrongdoings on • Chat. Secure chat for whistleblowers and the web without the possibility of being traced. journalists to discuss specific cases or seek The goal of Wikileaks is to enable whistleblowers advice. and journalists to disclose sensitive information without being arrested.279 Wikileaks phrase their mission thus: to provide an uncensorable In an interview with a former Advisory Board Wikipedia for untraceable mass document member (who wishes to remain anonymous for leaking and analysis.280 Wikileaks has an idealistic reasons of personal security), TNO and DTI motive: “transparency in government activities asked if Wikileaks could provide some more leads to reduced corruption, better government information about the founders. Wikileaks stated in this interview that “Wikileaks cannot provide more information about the founders.” However, 71 278 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/somuchsofast/ Wikileaks could reveal that: “The founders have heywoods/ben.html 279 New Scientist, ‘How the MySpace mindset can boost medical science’, 15 May 2008. 280 Wikileaks website, accessed on 24-11-2008. 281 Wikileaks website, accessed on 2-12-2008. Table 3: Top 20 most popular countries on which leaked documents are provided, Wikileaks # Top 20 most popular countries on which leaked documents are provided 1. United States 11. China 2. United Kingdom 12. India 3. Bermuda 13. Poland 4. Kenya 14. Israel 5. Canada 15. Russia 6. Germany 16. Israel and Occupied Territories 7. Iraq 17. Norway 8. Australia 18. Denmark 9. Afghanistan 19. Netherlands 10. Iran 20. Thailand

Source: Alexa, accessed on 27-11-2008 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence

Table 4: Percentage of visitors per country, Wikileaks # Country % of visitors # Country % of visitors 1. United States 28.3% 12. Italy 0.9% 2. Germany 24.5% 13. Ireland 0.9% 3. United Kingdom 22.3% 14. Greece 0.7% 4. India 4.3% 15. Netherlands 0.6% 5. Austria 2.8% 16. Switzerland 0.5% 6. France 1.8% 17. Spain 0.5% 7. Canada 1.4% 18. Brazil 0.5% 8. South African 1.3% 19. Mexico 0.3% 9. China 1.2% 20. Thailand 0.3% 10. Sweden 1.0% 21. Other countries 4.9% 11. Australia 0.9%

Source: Alexa, accessed on 27-11-2008

the rare combination of very high consciousness overview of the top 20 countries from which and vision on government issues and specialist leaked documents are published on Wikileaks technological knowledge. This is the basis of the (see Table 3). Wikileaks’ uniqueness.”282 Wikileaks is available in 30 languages and its Level of usage visitors originate from the following countries285 (see Table 4). The Wikileaks website claims to have received 1.2 million documents.283 There are In the interview with TNO and DTI, leaked documents from 128 countries available Wikileaks explain the high involvement of on Wikileaks.284 The following table gives an visitors from the United States, Germany and 72

282 Interview by TNO and DTI with former Advisory Board member, 15 January 2009. 283 Wikileaks website, accessed on 27-11-2008. 284 Wikileaks website, accessed on 27-11-2008. 285 Source: Alexa, accessed on 27-11-2008. United Kingdom as follows:286 “There are several to recognise each other, and is likely to be of reasons why Wikileaks is most popular in these broad interest to parents.287 Another example countries. Firstly in these countries there are is a PowerPoint presentation by the American many non-government organisations and media Center for Disease Control and Prevention. The that are very interested in Wikileaks. So there is presentation gives insight into the collaboration a relatively established community scrutinising between the United States and China as regards government compared to many developing global disease detection.288 Wikileaks states countries. Secondly, these are all countries with about this document “The material is of a type a high level of freedom of speech compared to that is often made public, however we have so many other countries – there is some censorship far been unable to find reference to the report but in general they are characterised by high on cdc.gov or elsewhere on the internet or in the freedom and a lot of transparency. So there is press.” These documents published on Wikileaks a comfort level with and expectation of freely contribute to the opening-up of governments. available information. Thirdly, particularly in Wikileaks organisers hold the view that, since the United States, citizens have a high sense government paid for these types of report to be of accountability. They often ask, ‘What are created (and taxes paid for government to do politicians doing with my taxes?’ So there is a this), the information should be freely available to culture of demanding accountability.” citizens, as when the US government decided to require the open publication of research funded Impact by the National Institute of Health, rather than selling publications to publishers.289 Activities within the Wikileaks community seem to yield organisational, political and legal However, the majority of documents

impacts, including increased transparency of published on Wikileaks do reveal – some Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public government practice, political pressure to fight documents to a greater extent than others – government corruption or misconduct, and the governments’ deviations from determined and generation of legal evidence used in court cases. To communicated policies, the breaking of rules start with, the increased openness of governments; or agreements, and violations of national and many of the documents published on Wikileaks international law. Several disclosed documents concern internal government files. These files can have had a substantial political impact. An contain government documents such as (including example is the confidential investigation report military) strategies, policies, annual accounts, by Kroll (a private investigation and security firm). duplicate bookkeeping, budgets, formal letters, This report on government corruption in Kenya bulletins, e-mails, presentations, Excel sheets, was published on Wikileaks.290 The investigation pictures, manuals, handbooks and procedures. was assigned by the Kibaki administration in The documents published do not necessarily order to fight corruption in the former Moi reveal a government’s misbehaviour. Various administration. The Kroll report was issued in documents merely provide more insight into 2004 and uncovered a bribery scandal involving internal standards, agreements and proceedings, which are not published by governments but may be of interest to citizens or journalists. An 287 https://secure.wikileaks.org/wiki/FBI_pedophile_ example is an FBI document which reveals the symbols secret symbols that organised paedophiles use 288 See: https://secure.wikileaks.org/wiki/US_Centers_for_ Disease_Control_Collaborations_with_China:_rabies_ 73 explosion%2C_10_Dec_2008 289 http://arstechnica.com/science/news/2009/02/congress- may-slam-door-on-nih-research-open-access-policy.ars 286 Interview by TNO and DTI with former Advisory Board 290 https://secure.wikileaks.org/wiki/The_looting_of_ member, 15 January 2009. Kenya_under_President_Moi billions of US dollars.291 President Kibaki decided and human-rights groups. For example, Jamil not to use the evidence against Moi, since he Dakwar, advocacy director of the ACLU’s Human entered an alliance with him for the elections Rights programme, found hints in the report of in 2007. However, the report was published the violation of international law. In a section on Wikileaks in 2006 by a public official of the of the report, guards are instructed to use dogs Kenyan government and was picked up globally to intimidate prisoners. He also raises concerns by journalists from traditional media, including about a section on the International Committee the Guardian, Sunday Times, Daily Telegraph and of the Red Cross (ICRC), which indicates that Kenyan broadcasters and newspapers (The Daily some prisoners were hidden from Red Cross Nation and The Standard).292 Wikileaks claim that representatives. In addition, four attorneys from the revelation of the report changed the result the Center for Constitutional Rights (CCR) used of the Kenyan presidential election of 2007, the document analysis with Wikileaks in their swinging the vote by 10% towards the opposition, legal battle over Guantánamo.296 CCR has been 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence which won the election by 1%-3% of the vote.293 responsible for coordinating a coalition of pro- bono lawyers in order to defend the detainees at Documents published on Wikileaks have Guantánamo, ensuring that nearly all have been been used by lawyers and interest groups to represented hold governments accountable and/or strengthen evidence in a court case against a government Any person can contribute to the site agency or official. An example is a military manual anonymously and become a watchdog of published on Wikileaks detailing the day-to-day good government. This is empowering for the operations of the US military’s Guantanamo Bay individual citizen. The fact that users of the detention facility.294 The document “Camp Delta Wikileaks website are taking on the role of Standard Operating Procedures” is dated 28 watchdog is illustrated by the many documents March 2003 and was leaked in 2007.295 Since uploaded which provide evidence of countries 2003, the Pentagon has resisted a request by the violating international conventions, agreements American Civil Liberties Union to access this and treaties. One of the Wikileaks users, for document under the Freedom of Information example, published documents which reveal Act. Since its disclosure in 2007 on Wikileaks, that the United States government is violating the document has been used by several lawyers the international Convention on Chemical Weapons (1997)297 by employing in Iraq some of the weapons listed in the convention.298 As

291 https://secure.wikileaks.org/wiki/KTM_report, Wikileaks: stated on the Wikileaks website: “The following “The leaked report is 106 pages long and contains several information suggests that the United States has sections: executive summary (1-10), source enquiries (11-54), business associates and front men (55-76), and breached the Chemical Weapons Convention by appendix (77-106).[8] The executive summary outlines employing riot control agents not only for non- the most suspicious financial transactions, properties and business links discovered in its investigation. A domestic riot control, but as a method of warfare. series of additional enquiries is proposed. The following sections proceed in intricate detail, investigating the In particular, the M33A1, pictured at the start of background, ‘modus operandi’, business links, financial transactions, business associates, and property holdings, all around the world, of several powerful members of Kenyan society linked to Daniel arap Moi.” 292 https://secure.wikileaks.org/wiki/The_looting_of_ 296 http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Guantanamo_manual_shows_ Kenya_under_President_Moi continued_abuses 293 http://www.wired.com/politics/onlinerights/ 297 http://www.opcw.org/chemical-weapons-convention, The 74 news/2008/07/wikileaks and http://wikileaks.org/wiki/ CWC aims to eliminate an entire category of weapons Wikileaks.org_under_injunction of mass destruction by prohibiting the development, 294 http://www.wired.com/politics/onlinerights/ production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer or news/2007/11/gitmo use of chemical weapons by States Parties. 295 http://wikileaks.org/wiki/Camp_Delta_Standard_ 298 http://wikileaks.org/wiki/US_violates_chemical_ Operating_Procedure_%282004%29 weapons_convention this article, is ideally suited to offensive urban organisations. Analyses of the posted documents “flush out” operations but with its full body suit show that well more than 90% of the leaks clearly has limited defensive application.” have an altruistic motive. If any don’t, it would be only a very small proportion of the users who In conclusion, the disclosure of sensitive upload a document who might have another information on Wikileaks by the crowds has an agenda. If so, it is a very small price to pay for impact on the transparency of government in the the enormous benefit of honest government and sense that particularly confidential government other institutions such as corporations.” information is made available to the general public. This in turn impacts governments because The most important enabler for this activity government agencies and officials are being held is the anonymity with which they can disclose accountable and may have to change their policy information.302 With regard to the leaking of and practice. The disclosure of the information information in particular, anonymity is of interest also has a legal impact in the sense that it provides to the user. Wikileaks states the following about evidence for and thus influences the outcome of anonymous leaking on the Wikileaks website: court cases. In addition, existing watchdogs are “To date, as far as we can ascertain, none of affected as – in some cases - citizens are taking the thousands of Wikileaks sources have been over some of their roles.299 exposed, via Wikileaks or any other method. (…) Wikileaks applauds the courage of those who Drivers and barriers blow the whistle on injustice, and seeks to reduce the risks they face. Our servers are distributed There are several motives for users to publish over multiple international jurisdictions and do sensitive information on the Wikileaks website. not keep logs. Hence these logs cannot be seized.

According to Wikileaks activists, the most Anonymisation occurs early in the Wikileaks Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public important of these is the desire to see an injustice network, long before information passes to our corrected.300 Individuals may turn to Wikileaks webservers. Without specialised global internet because they believe that the current correction traffic analysis, multiple parts of our organisation mechanisms of a government have failed, and and volunteers must conspire with each other public disclosure will therefore right a wrong. to strip submitters of their anonymity. However, we also provide instructions on how to submit The site users’ sense of justice is a key material to us, by post and from netcafés and driver for them to leak information. In the wireless hotspots, so even if Wikileaks is infiltrated interview with TNO and DTI, Wikileaks state by government intelligence agency submitters that:301 “The number one motive for users to cannot be traced.” upload information is altruistic. They believe that transparency leads to good government and better Despite their altruistic character, the Wikileaks community receives some severe critique. The most frequently cited drawback of 299 In some cases the disclosure of sensitive information the website is the infringement of individuals’ had a significant financial impact. In January 2008, for example, Wikileaks published secret banking privacy. In this respect, the publishing of the documents from the Cayman Islands branch of the Swiss e-mails of vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin private bank Julius Baer, despite not being certain of their veracity. The documents show that the bank knew may be of interest. In September 2008, some of about, and even aided, money laundering. Wikileaks Sarah Palin’s personal e-mail messages (which notes on its site that Bank Julius Baer’s stock has dropped 75 20% since January (Informationweek, March 2008). included posted copies of two e-mails, a contact 300 Based on written correspondence by a former Advisory Board member, 9 April 2009. 301 Interview by TNO and DTI with former Advisory Board member, 15 January 2009. 302 Wikileaks website, accessed 2-12-2008. list and family photos) were published on the A media coalition, comprising all the major US Wikileaks website. The reason for the leaker (a newspaper publishers and press organisations, member of Anonymous, an online group known filed a friend-of-the-court brief on behalf of for its attacks against the Church of Scientology) Wikileaks and called attention to relevant to publish the emails was that he/she found it points of law that the court had apparently inappropriate for Sarah to use a personal e-mail overlooked.307 The broad dissatisfaction with the address for business purposes. According to the judge’s decision to try to block all of Wikileaks in campaign management of Sarah Palin this was: “a order to limit access to a few documents played shocking invasion of the Governor’s privacy and an important role in helping the judge to re- a violation of law.”303 The FBI and Secret service evaluate the breadth of his decision.308 The judge launched a joint investigation into the hacking.304 dissolved the injunction, effectively rebooting the site. Despite the injunction, Wikileaks had Another criticism that Wikileaks has received been readily available at several mirror locations 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence is that the published information could endanger around the world, including domains registered public security. Many of the documents published in Belgium, the Christmas Islands and Germany, on Wikileaks have a military character (e.g. and at its numerical IP address. military plans, strategies, equipment overviews). According to some of the critics of Wikileaks, Furthermore, since January 2007, the Chinese this military information can be used by criminal government has attempted to censor every and terrorist networks.305 Military agencies from website with Wikileaks in the URL, including the countries all around the world have made many primary.org site and the regional variations .cn efforts to have sensitive information removed and .uk. However, the site is still accessible from from the Wikileaks website. behind the Chinese firewall via one of the many alternative names used by the project, such as Several organisations have tried to prevent secure.lsjsf.org and secure.sunshinepress.org. The Wikileaks from publishing documents on their alternative sites change frequently and Wikileaks websites. For example, in February 2008 the encourages users to search Wikileaks cover names Zurich-based bank Julius Baer filed suit in the outside mainland China for the latest alternative United-States, claiming that an ex-employee had names. Baidu and Yahoo China censor references passed stolen internal documents to Wikileaks.306 to Wikileaks.309 The leaked information pointed to money laundering, asset-hiding and illegal tax evasion. A last, and perhaps most important, Judge Jeffrey White issued an injunction sealing drawback of the Wikileaks community is that the US IP address of Wikileaks. A hailstorm of there is no control of the Wikileaks community criticism followed from public interest and media itself in the sense that their processes are clear organisations, who denounced the order as an and they can be held accountable. Since unconstitutional prior restraint on free speech. Wikileaks sees itself as augmenting the existing “ombudsman” function, greater transparency of organisation, processes and decisions is

303 Washington Post, Hackers Access Palin’s Personal needed to be able to hold them accountable E-Mail, Post Some Online, September 2008. 304 Foxnews, FBI, Secret Service Investigate Hacking of Palin’s E-mail, September 2008. 305 Foreign service journal, march 2007, Available at: http:// 76 mirror.wikileaks.morphium.info/wikileaks-crs-reports/ 307 The Inquirer, Judge reverses Wikileaks injunction, Feb RL33721.pdf 2008, available at: http://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/ 306 Reuters, Guantanamo operating manual posted on news/527/1039527/judge-rethinks-wikileaks Internet”. 15 November 2007, available at: http://www. 308 Information week, Swiss Bank Abandons Lawsuit against reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN142420702007111 Wikileaks, 6 March 2008. 4?pageNumber=1 309 Wikileaks website, accessed on 24-11-2008. and ensure good governance principles (such as Age integrity, audiatur et altera pars, impartiality). The Wikileaks representatives counter this view with The age of the population involved in the the argument that all the information leaked to the community seems to depend strongly upon the site has already been published.310 Any delays are activity supported and the content provided only caused by the limited resources of the non- by the community. The peer support offered profit organisation. They hold the view that, since within the Endometriosis community is between the leaked information submitted is completely (female) patients with a medical condition which uncensored, it does not matter who operates mostly concerns diagnosed women of around Wikileaks. They view the site as a vehicle for 25-35 years of age. Consequently, the majority releasing the information submitted without fear (52.4%) of women involved in the Endometriosis or favour, and as a venue for those interested in community are between 25 and 40. In the the information to discuss ideas. In this way, they professional communities, most visitors are aged do not see themselves as a screening or vetting between 25 and 40 (e.g. 58.5% at ePractice and service, but rather almost as a semi-automated 42% at Doctors.net.uk) or 40 and 55 (e.g. 24.6% at machine following a clearly stated process of ePractice and 32.3% at Doctors.net.uk), numbers uncensored publication. Therefore they view their that reflect the age of the working population. The own identities as unimportant. average age of visitors to the ECGpedia website is somewhat lower (42.9% are aged between 18- 25 and 42.9% between 25 and 40) most likely 5.5 Survey due to a substantial involvement of students (35%). A considerable part of the content created The community surveys have been published on ECGpedia concerns educational material

on eight sites: the professional communities Flu (more than Doctors.net.uk and ePractice), Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public Wiki, ECGpedia, ePractice and Doctors.net.uk, e.g. a course, textbook, cases and examples. the patient support community Endometriosis. By contrast, the average age of the Flu Wiki uk.org, the political community Petities.nl and community is significantly higher (53.5% aged the crime-watch communities Patewire and 25-40 and 32.3% > 55), which may be explained WikiCrimes.311 The survey was published for two by a relatively high participation of silver surfers weeks on the websites and filled out by 1,406 (16.1% of visitors are retired), a target audience in visitors. 83.5% of the respondents completed the the preparation for and response to pandemic flu. whole questionnaire. For a further explanation of On Petities, a political community, participation the methodology used, see paragraph 1.2 of this of silver surfers is equally significant as 41.6% of report. This paragraph presents a summary of the the visitors are aged 55 or older. Here, as many survey results. as 23% of visitors are retired. The visitors to the crime-watch communities are evenly distributed over the age groups, although the population of Platewire seems somewhat older than the population of WikiCrimes (11.4% are 55 or older compared to 1.9% age 55 or older).

Gender 310 Based on written correspondence by a former Advisory Board member, 9 April 2009. 77 311 www.cnx.org, www, http://www.Doctors.net.uk, www. The gender of visitors is partly determined patientslikeme.com, www.wikileaks.org, www.fluwikie. by the subject of the content created. The high com, http://www.en.ecgpedia.org, www.epractice.eu, http://www.endometriosis-uk.org, http://www.petities. percentage of female members (97.6%) of the nl, http://www.platewire.com, http://wikicrimes.org, Endometriosis community is of course due to doctors and policymakers or researchers/ the fact that endometriosis is a disease found consultants. The educational level on ECGpedia is only among women. On websites which enable somewhat lower due to participation of students peer support for women as well as men, the and nurses. On Flu Wiki, levels of education involvement of both sexes is more equal. For are more diverse than on Doctors.net.uk and example, the percentage of female and male ePractice. The particular communities chosen for members of PatientsLikeMe – a community for this research (e.g. healthcare professionals’ and life-threatening diseases – is respectively 57% and policymakers’ communities), may account for the 43% (see paragraph 2.3 on PatientsLikeMe). More high level of education within the “professional” research is needed to address the question of type of community. Other professional whether some activities on support communities communities (e.g. plumbing community) will (e.g. seeking and providing encouragement) show lower average levels of education. On particularly attract women (a conclusion which Endometriosis, WikiCrimes and Platewire, the 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence cannot be drawn from the data collected in this diverse educational groups (Master, Bachelor, study, but which is frequently suggested). The vocational/technical, high, grammar school) are slightly higher participation of men in professional more equally represented (patient support and communities such as Doctors.net.uk (53.7%) crime-watch may be subjects that cut across and ePractice (67.2%) is likely to be in line with educational levels). the percentages of men and women involved in particular professions (respectively healthcare Employment and government/consultancy). The involvement of men in crime-watch communities is significant The occupation of visitors to professional higher (89% of visitors to WikiCrimes are male communities correlates closely with the purpose and 76.3% of Platewire visitors are male) than of the community. While visitors to support, the involvement of women. Male visitors are also crime-watch and political communities, are more present in the political community – Petities from all professional backgrounds, visitors to the – that we studied (65.4% are male). On the other professional communities work in specific sectors hand, women seem to be more interested than for which the community has been initiated. men in content on preparing for and responding Overall, retired users account for a significant to pandemic flu: 64.4% of the visitors to Flu Wiki part (e.g. Platewire 20% and Petities 23%). are female. Benefits Education The survey results show that the benefits It appears that the education levels of visitors perceived are strongly related to specific purposes to professional communities corresponds to the of the website. Whereas, in support communities, typical education levels of associated professions. both knowledge acquisition (around 33%) and Whereas the level of education in the professional mutual support among patients (around 31%) are communities and political community is rather important benefits, in the professional community high (high percentages of Bachelor’s and Master’s the dominant advantages perceived by users are degrees), the membership bases of the support inspiration and the acquisition of knowledge and crime-watch communities represent several and skills. In some cases, advantages perceived 78 levels of education. The level of education is by users can be very practical and ordinary, as highest on Doctors.net.uk (76.1% Master’s or shown by the survey of Doctors.net.uk where the higher) and ePractice (64.2% Master’s or higher), number-one benefit perceived by users is to have where the majority of visitors are, respectively, an e-mail account. On WikiCrimes, the most important advantage perceived by users seems privacy risk may concern not only doctors but to be the access to detailed information about also their patients, since doctors share patient one’s neighbourhood. Interestingly, on Platewire information (e.g. medical images, medical cases) some 12.3% of the users find the content created within the community. The percentage of 16.6 is entertaining. noticeable as Doctors.net.uk is only accessible for registered doctors (and not, as with the Drawbacks other website, to anyone with Internet access). The dominance of a small number of users is Limited reliability of the published also mentioned as an important drawback on information is seen as an important disadvantage six of the eight websites. In four of these six on seven of the eight websites. Only on Doctors. communities (Endometriosis, Doctors.net.uk, net.uk this disadvantage is not mentioned, which Flu Wiki and Platewire) the percentage of users may be due to the fact that co-created content is who perceive this as a disadvantage is between only a small part of content offered on the website 17 and 21%. Dominance by a small number (which gives access to many academic articles). of users seems to occur in all types of social On Endometriosis, ePractice, WikiCrimes and computing communities (support, professional, Platewire, the percentage of users who are crime-watch and political) and may be related concerned about the reliability of the information to the tendency that a few people generate most published is between 17 and 22%. Furthermore, of the content (see also the case analysis and users of seven of the eight sites report that they section above on activities). find the impact of the website on their medical condition, work, politics or law enforcement quite Other drawbacks of the websites mentioned limited. Whereas the percentage of users who by users are spam/inappropriate comments

report this on Endometriosis, Doctors.net.uk and (five of the eight cases) and the limited quality Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public Flu Wiki is between 8 and 14%, on the websites of online services (three of the eight cases). ECGpedia, Petities, WikiCrimes and Platewire Drawbacks mentioned by users of single websites this percentage is between 17 and 26%. When are intimidation and harassment (ECGpedia), considering the comments made in the survey, peer pressure (Petities) and limited access to the it seems that users would like these websites to Internet and thus the website (WikiCrimes, mostly have more impact. Several users of Petities and Brazilian users). Platewire, for example, state that they would like to see, respectively, politicians and police officers Impacts make more active use of the content for policy and enforcement purposes. There are two significant outcomes of the survey question on impacts: (a) in each survey On six of the eight websites, privacy the answers were more diverse than the answers infringements are perceived as an important to other questions, and (b) the types of impact potential risk of participating on the website. mentioned are closely related to the specific 20.5% of the members of Endometriosis find type of social computing community (e.g. this the most important drawback to joining the support, professional, political or crime-watch). community. This relatively high percentage is The outcomes point to the conclusion that the probably due to the fact that, on the Endometriosis impacts that social computing communities may website, patients share personal medical and have are versatile and many concern personal 79 thus highly sensitive information. Some 16.6% relationships, products, processes, services, of the doctors on Doctors.net.uk find privacy methods, legislation and politics. infringements an important potential risk. This The survey published on the support website Around 7% of the respondents say that policies Endometriosis shows that the impacts concern have changed as a result of the petition and some social aspects (e.g. making new friends, improved 3% state that local or national politicians have life circumstances) as well as organisational responded to the petitions. It thus seems that the aspects (e.g. changing relationship between impact is primarily on agenda–setting, with less professional and patient, change of treatments, effect in terms of changes to policy. Some 26% of medications, doctors, treatment becoming more the respondents feel that they or other participants effective). The central impact seems to be the have become more politically engaged. empowerment of patients in their relation ship with professionals; they have changed their views The most dominant impact of the crime- on their medical condition and have come to rely watch communities (WikiCrimes and Platewire) more on self-treatment and self-diagnosis. seems to be the political and media attention to crime. Around 23% of the respondents see 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence The most important impact perceived by this as an important impact. Some 13% of the users of the professional communities studied respondents report that they think the information (Doctors.net.uk, ECG-Pedia, ePractice and Flu generated by the website is used by the police to Wiki) is that – based on the knowledge they detect or arrest offenders. Around 9% state that acquire through their participation – professionals the information on the website has resulted in and organisations have changed products, actual regulatory amendments. methods, processes policies and strategies. On average, 24% of the respondents answered that Values one of these organisational aspect has altered as a result of their engagement in the community. The survey results show that, although the Around 18% of the respondents find that the communities share core values, each type (e.g. quality of the service they provide has improved support, professional, political and crime-watch) due to their involvement in the community. Here has its own specific values. In all four types too, the empowerment impact is evident since of community, respondents have mentioned around 15% of the respondents state that they are openness, expertise and informality as core values more capable of solving professional problems. (on average 9.6%, 9% and 6% respectively). In Some 12% answered they save time by applying three of the four types of community, respondents the knowledge generated within the community. have stated that they highly value community The users of Doctors.net.uk and ePractice in sense and sharing (11.3% and 7% respectively). particular feel that they make better use of their In addition, the four types of communities all professional network and/or that cooperation with seem to have their own core values. Empathy is peers has improved. The impact perceived by the an important value in the support community, users of these websites predominantly concerns professionalism in the professional communities the organisational dimension. (16.8%) respect for norms and values in the crime- watch communities (11.5%) and engagement in Unsurprisingly, within the political the political communities (7.8%). community Petities, the political impact is dominant. No less than 50% of the respondents state that they experience some kind of impact 5.6 Conclusions 80 on local or national political levels. 27.2% state that a petition has put an issue on the local or The impacts we have found in the four cases national agenda. 12.7% reports that local or and survey can be summarised as follows: national politicians have acted upon petitions. − Political. The cases studied show that Participants behave informally, use informal the empowerment and transparency language, and the threshold to introduction characteristics of the social computing is low. Both on Connexions and Doctors. initiatives seem to disrupt the existing power net.uk, senior and junior professionals work balances. This impact may be most clearly together more equally than in their offline illustrated by the Wikileaks case, in which professional life. Values such as seniority the publication of a report by a Wikileaks and position have been replaced by values user resulted in a 10% swing in the outcome such as knowledgeability. These findings are of the elections in Kenya. The sharing of endorsed by the survey, which shows that the information about governments and politics communities studied share five core values: by the crowds enables them to hold public openness, expertise, informality, community officials and politicians accountable. sense and sharing. Furthermore, long-tail People seem to be more able to mobilise and efficient allocation mechanisms of social around a specific subject, to enhance their computing applications seem to stimulate knowledge by exploiting the wisdom of the emergence of new cohesion within the the crowds, thereby exercising influence communities based on specific merits. On on government and politics. Furthermore, Connexions, teachers and students gather the instant hype and long-tail mechanisms around educational content, on Doctors. of the social computing platforms seem to net.uk doctors find new colleagues with the particularly support issue-based political same specialisation, and on PatientsLikeMe involvement. People are able to find each members make contact with peer patients. other around very specific subjects and Another socio-cultural impact is the growing spontaneously organise an advocacy group. threat to privacy as members publish large

Here the representation of citizens may amounts of sensitive data online. Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public become more fragmented; citizens are not − Organisational. In all cases studied, new ideologically attracted to a specific party players had entered the public arena and but feel represented by a different party new allocations of roles between traditional for each issue. A difference between party and new parties were emerging. On politics and issue-based politics is that the PatientsLikeMe, members are taking over assessment as to whether every group in support tasks (e.g. advice, support) hitherto society is equally represented in the debate carried out by healthcare professionals. does not take place automatically in issue- They are also taking over some of the based politics. Whereas in a party system, research tasks traditionally carried out by the participants deliberately strive to cover all pharmaceutical industry (e.g. generation of societal groups for all subjects, in topic- statistical data on side effects of drugs). On based politics the assessment as to whether Connexions, teachers and students generate all groups are heard has to be made for each scholarly material which was previously issue raised. created by publishers. The survey results − Socio-cultural. In the socio-cultural area, show the same kinds of impact. Around the inclusive and horizontal character of 24% of the respondents from professional social computing applications seems to be communities stated that their daily practice yielding new values. The functionalities of (e.g. the products they provide) has altered the websites but also members themselves as a result of their engagement in the 81 seem to stimulate openness, informality and community. 18% found that – due to their equality. The designs of the websites aim at involvement in the community – the quality the equal creation and sharing of content. of their service had improved. Furthermore, the cases reveal that processes and business community and often come to the conclusion models are also starting to change; in all that the information they receive through the cases, creation takes place in a horizontal website is more important for them than the way, for example. The creation process is not privacy risks. Yet the information published necessarily more democratic; in most cases still implies a substantial reduction in patients’ we found that the initiating organisation privacy because data on their medial condition exercised strong control over the content. In are accessible to anyone. The Wikileaks case addition we found that online cooperation shows that new parties are starting to play an is crossing organisational and geographical important role in legal procedures and court boundaries. Patients, teachers and doctors cases. The crowds play a role in evidence- from all kinds of organisations and countries gathering through Wikileaks; this evidence work together. Other boundaries, such as has been used several times by lawyers to language and discipline boundaries, seem to strengthen their case. 5. Evidence of social computing impact computing social of 5. Evidence become more dominant. A last organisational impact we found is increased efficiency. Concluding on the weight of the impact, one In particular, the allocation mechanism of could argue that we might be in the first stage social computing platforms stimulates a more of what Carlota Perez has labelled a “disruptive efficient match of demand and supply. The transformation” of traditional paradigms fuelled survey results support this finding as around by technology. This phase involves creative 12% of the respondents from professional destruction from which new inputs, products, communities stated that they save time stakeholders, power balances and/or industries through efficient knowledge allocation. emerge. The impacts described above could be − Legislation. In all case studies we found interpreted as the first signs of creative destruction that existing legislation is coming under as we witness new engagement, services, players pressure from activities undertaken within the and interdependencies. It appears that a more community. The collaborative content created fundamental disruption is likely to occur as the on Doctors.net.uk and Connexions requires social computing trend reaches its full potential. new legal protection, for example by the use of Although the large majority of European citizens Creative Commons Licences. PatientsLikeMe have Internet access and social software is cheaply has – instead of a privacy policy – an openness available, social computing platforms could evolve philosophy. The CEO of PatientsLikeMe to become much more embedded in the everyday stated in an interview that members of activities of groups of users. Then, if indeed the PatientsLikeMe simply weigh up the pros social computing trend deepens, the weight of its and the cons of joining the PatientsLikeMe impact will loom much larger in the future.

82 6. Future opportunities and risks

This chapter will explore two - relatively they have an important meeting at the office in extreme - future scenarios of social computing Stockholm, where representatives of the MS impact. The exploration of social computing community from all over Europe will participate trends in two scenarios serves as a thought in a video conference. They will discuss new experiment of how social computing could scientific research regarding the possibilities for potentially impact the public sector. In the “Yes preventing MS. Medical specialists will present we can” scenario, citizens are actively engaged the results from their latest trials, in which Astrid in the public domain and social computing participated as an experimental test subject. She technologies have empowered all groups was given the opportunity to participate by the within society. Citizens use social network sites community due to her active involvement within to mobilise, creating a continuous stream of the community. political hypes. Public services are delivered by decentralised public organisations in close But first, Astrid has a video consultation with cooperation with private actors and citizens. her medical specialist Stina in Oslo – the hospital By contrast, in the “Wall-E” scenario, citizens in Oslo has the most prominent MS specialists in are indifferent and governments have delegated Europe. Stina will be there this afternoon as well. power to an involved technological system. Astrid’s condition requires that her medication Both users and government are left with a rather is adjusted weekly. Stina reads the results from

passive role; technology has become the fabric of the monitoring devices that Astrid uses herself at Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public society. home. She combines the results with data from the global online MS community that links her with other MS patients and healthcare professionals. 6.1 The “Yes, we can!” scenario The system provides Stina with a recommendation for adjusting Astrid’s medication based on an It is 8 o’clock on Monday when Astrid wakes algorithm that carefully balances patients’ up in a small town near Stockholm. She suffers experiences, professional knowledge and the from Multiple Sclerosis (MS), and the disease has ecological footprint. Astrid may choose a different reached the stage where she is immobile and medication from the recommendation, but her dependent on others.312 The doorbell rings. It’s her insurance company may charge her extra for not brother Lars - she can see this on the little display choosing the recommended treatment path. next to her bed. With a ‘Yes, come in’, the door opens for him. Every morning, Lars helps her to Society get out of bed and get ready for work. In 2025, Europe can be characterised as Although Astrid’s condition is progressing a diverse and innovative society. Citizens are fast, it is an exciting day for both her and Lars. Both optimistic about the future and believe that work for the MS community and this afternoon they actively contribute to it. “We can do it together” is an important slogan endorsed by 83 citizens, government and businesses. All groups 312 Multiple Sclerosis (MS) also known as disseminated in society have full access to the web and have sclerosis or encephalomyelitis disseminata) is an autoimmune condition in which the immune system now acquired sufficient ICT skills. Citizens make attacks the central nervous system. extensive use of social computing technologies on the political decision-making process. They for all kinds of purposes in their daily lives. As succeeded in determining the main political a result, citizens are empowered, well-informed, agendas, which are led more and more by and eager to employ new, innovative initiatives the issues of the day, possibly undermining in networked cooperation with government, the representative political system. Citizens businesses and non-profit organisations. Citizens have become extremely well-organised and play important roles in the development of new mobilise their networks to bring volatile, niche services (both public and private) as co-creators communities into being, creating a continuous and initiators. Senior citizens participate actively stream of political hypes. The extreme number in society, and are able to maintain extensive of issues demanding government attention are

6. Future opportunities and risks and 6. opportunities Future social contacts through their networks. Citizens overloading the system, further eroding citizens’ are highly engaged in the political decision- trust in governments and eventually leading to making process and make optimum use of the abandonment of the traditional representative social computing technologies to exert political democratic model in most European member influence. A new political participative model states by 2020. Over time, however, an increasing has emerged in which feedback loops and co- number of the communities, at first so volatile, creation are fully integrated into the policy and begin to stabilise. Citizens align themselves with decision-making cycle of the European Union one particular community that best represent and the Member States. their interests, lifestyle and philosophies. Citizens put their trust in the community and start to Sustainability was taken as the key organising delegate several tasks to it, creating a strong civil principle for both private and public service society that replaces the representative model. delivery, out of sheer necessity when faced with Governments have decentralised most tasks and depleting fossil-fuel resources, and because of activities to this ‘third sector’. The communities the growing social awareness and mobilisation of represent new alliances between citizens, private citizens on this matter. After years of economic companies and government, leading to networked depression following the collapse of the financial governments that continuously cooperate with system in 2008, Europe makes a remarkable the third sector for optimum service delivery. The recovery in the period 2015-2025 and experiences representative model is only used at the European a period of sustainable economic prosperity and level for long-term policy issues. fast technological development, driven by user involvement. The ambitious goals set by citizens Public services in cooperation with government with regard to sustainability spurred innovative developments in Public services are delivered by decentralised all sectors of the economy and created a front- public organisations, in close cooperation runner position for Europe. The concern for with private actors and involving civil society, sustainability has resulted in advanced systems businesses, non-profit organisations and citizens. that recommend products and services on the Through self-organised collectives, citizens basis of their ecological footprint. have been able to organise themselves and claim a role in several public domains such as Politics healthcare, education and law enforcement, giving rise to effective public-private partnerships 84 This scenario represents a shift that has for the provisioning of public services. These taken place over the years. Citizens were platforms and communities have led to the increasingly using the possibilities of social further empowerment of users, providing them computing technologies to exert their influence with a strong voice towards professionals and government. Their knowledge is recognised by wide social health network Wall-E. Suddenly, professionals and fully integrated into the services their euphoria is interrupted by a beeping provided. This has resulted in decentralised public sound from Tomaz’s personal mobile device. It services as users themselves take on certain tasks is a message from SocialAdmin, the moderation that used to be the sole domain of government system of ’the Web’. “SocialAdmin congratulates institutions. In healthcare, for example, patients you on your first child, born at 11.06 on Monday can perform a number of tasks themselves 6-3-2025. Based on a poll among your peers through self-monitoring and self-diagnosis and by we recommend the following names. Please exchanging experience and knowledge with both pick one of the names and press OK. A personal patient and professional communities. Lifelong profile will be generated after your choice. Have learning is made possible by strong cooperation a nice day!” Fortunately the list includes one of between citizens, academics and businesses. their favourite names, so they quickly choose Students of any age have their own education ‘Danica’. Then another message arrives. It is ‘portfolio’ and receive advice from peers and “HealthyLife”, a health provider and insurance professionals concerning modules that fit their company, the on Vall-E.. They require a saliva learning needs and educational level. Textbooks sample to run a full gene scan. “The necessary have been abolished; learning materials are equipment for collecting and sending the saliva created online by students and professionals will arrive in 25 minutes. The full gene scan will themselves. take one day, after which Danica’s profile will be ready to receive continuous health data ranging Technology from simple characteristics such as eye colour and blood type, to advanced details such as life In 2025, innovation is fast-paced. The expectancy, probability profiles for diseases, and

open environment in which universities, private the monthly health-insurance premium that will Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public companies and prosumers work together has be charged. Anja and Tomaz are happy to comply: created an open approach to R&D in which users Danica deserves the healthy and prosperous life participate and contribute actively to research they are now able to afford for her. and development. All actors are ‘linked in’, creating instant feedback on new ideas, products Society and services. Ethical principles are incorporated into new technologies, products and services In 2025, European society can be by means of value-sensitive designs. This has characterised by indifference among citizens, resulted, for example, in decentralised databases, the diminished role of government, and strong distributed control and privacy-enhancing reliance on intelligent technological solutions. technologies that provide users with powerful Citizens generally live their life in economic tools to control access to vital personal data used prosperity and harmony. A high degree of for personalised services. incremental innovation makes life comfortable, predictable and transparent. Ambient intelligence and biometric technology is mature and optimises 6.2 The “Wall-E” scenario daily life. The evolution of Web 2.0 into a system of autonomous web services is accompanied It is 11.02 am in Maribor, Slovenia. In their by fine-grained data collection on the daily spacious flat on the outskirts of Maribor, Anja living environment, resulting in high citizen 85 and Tomaz are in a state of bliss: Anja has just transparency and enabling the provision of fully given birth to a healthy girl. Friends and family customised private and public services. Privacy followed every detail of the birth on the Europe- – as a downside of transparency – is no longer considered a delicate issue, provided citizens Politics can pursue their lives of luxury. The European Union and national governments exert only The strong focus of governments and private limited power over the oligarchic consortium of companies on restoring economic growth by multinationals that are feeding new technologies implementing large and intelligent autonomous and data to perfect the service-centred architecture systems meant that private companies determined at the core of this semi-autonomous web. the direction of economic and technological development, leaving little room for citizen This scenario represents a shift that has involvement. Over the years, idealism was taken place over the years. During the economic slowly replaced by pragmatism due to the focus

6. Future opportunities and risks and 6. opportunities Future depression at the end of the first decade of the on economic and scientific values. So long 21st century, European governments focused as the services provided bring economic and solely on repairing the economy. In most EU technological prosperity, citizens do not feel Member States, reduction of the administrative the need to be involved, and accept the course burden during the crisis led to ‘lean governments’ of development. Their motto is: “They probably with a key responsibility to boost technological know what they are doing”. Between 2015-2020, innovation and economic growth. An additional European and national politics gave up on attempts factor for the diminished role of government was to regain citizens’ interest and decided to focus the paralysis of the public system. Between 2010 on minimising administrative responsibilities. The and 2015, the exponential growth in citizen political system can be described as an evidence- initiatives using social computing caused an based democratic technocracy: decisions are information overload for citizens and government based on scientific facts and the most recent agencies. The public system was paralysed, as technological developments. All decisions are few could cope with this complexity. Citizens in fully transparent and can be monitored in real- particular grew weary of the muddle of initiatives time. Due to the lack of engagement, the political and decided to focus on regaining the wealth party structure in most European Member States they experienced at the end of the 20th century. evolved into a homogenous two-party system. They felt rather indifferent about most other Power is out of balance: the private sector public issues. After the economic crisis and the outweighs the public sector and there are few freezing of the public system, large private firms countervailing powers to compensate. sensed the gap left by citizens and governments and started to provide their own ‘public Public services services’: education, health, security, transport services, etc. An innovation race for the best Public services, mostly offered by large and most optimised public services begun, and companies, are centrally organised in a few the government lost its grip on innovation. The optimum public systems. They are of very high market-dominated delivery of public services quality: intelligent technologies enable mass focused on optimisation, productivity and customisation, efficiency and virtualisation. For efficiency. The increased absence of concern for example: almost all physical government offices societal issues among government, citizens and have been replaced by virtual offices, as most private companies caused societal problems, services are web-based. They imply the use of such as environmental devastation and obesity. large electronic databases with extensive and 86 Technology helped citizens to make decisions detailed profiles of citizens. Intelligent technology in favour of the environment and physical is implemented to monitor and track the activities condition. For example, personal healthcare of citizens, and the information is used in all monitoring systems forced citizens to take more public domains, including healthcare, security exercise if their BMI is above the critical level. and education. In healthcare, new technologies are able to screen the body and the brain for both everything in the virtual and physical realm. mental and physical shortcomings (in some cases This process further accelerated the degree of even before birth or at the time of conception). innovation. Advancements in ambient intelligence Healthcare providers and insurance companies technologies increased the Internet’s intelligence: use the information to personalise their services. it anticipates citizens’ needs in real-time. All data Instead of the annual and monthly check-ups, that are generated make our lives transparent bodily functions are monitored constantly from and personalised. Ethics on technology is best home. In the security domain, ‘preventive tracing’ described as blind technology optimism. Some has become the norm. Databases are coupled to rebellious intellectuals argue that personal an extensive network of sensors and the Internet autonomy is being surrendered to technology, but in order to analyse risk profiles and track potential who cares? suspicious behaviour. The same kind of system is used to monitor the safety and well-being of children and young adults; extensive profiles 6.3 Conclusions concerning the behaviour of children alert public servants in the event of abnormalities and existing Both scenarios build on the evolution of risk factors. Learning is virtualised and optimised: current Web 2.0 developments. The scenarios are citizens can plug in to online modules developed governed either by the social forces unleashed by the private sector. Intelligent systems, by social computing or by an autonomous, connected to databases, monitor learning connected technological regime that has evolved performance and determine the educational path from social computing technologies and other by recommending new modules. ICT innovations. Both factors are unlikely to decline in importance. Gradually, but inevitably,

Technology they will lead to a changing - facilitating - role Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public for governments that are facing two important In 2025, growth and the pace of technological challenges: (a) avoiding the pitfalls of an anarchic innovation are very high. Private universities society ruled by the issues of the day, and (b) and research institutes play an important role avoiding delegating too much decision-making in society. They are the source of the profound power and autonomy to semi-autonomous scientific knowledge that led to the rapid pace technological systems. An important question for of incremental innovation. The Internet and the future is whether governments will be able social computing technologies evolved over the to safeguard core public values and functions in years into an autonomic system that connects such an environment.

87 88 7. Overall conclusions

In this final chapter of the report, overall slowing; after peaking in 2005 and 2006, growth conclusions will be provided as to the level of usage has declined to 22% in recent years. of social computing, the general characteristics of the cases studied, the impact of social computing Take up studies also indicate that the percentage on the public sector, social computing drivers, and of users engaged in social computing activities in the future risks and opportunities. The chapter will the government realm has increased in the past conclude with an overview of research challenges few years. A study by the Pew Internet Center, and policy recommendations. for example, found that, in 2008, around 25% of American citizens received information on political campaigns or electoral candidates through social 7.1 Level of usage networking sites,318 while in 2000 the percentage of citizens who regularly learned about the campaign Social computing take up from the Internet was only around 9%. In 2008, roughly 41% of people under the age of 30 watched The review of the literature on social at least one form of campaign video online, computing shows that these systems continue compared with 20% of those aged 30 and older. Pew to grow in popularity and penetration across also found that social media may support political the globe.313 According to Technorati (2007), activities. In 2008, 11% of Americans contributed

an estimated 60% of Internet users in Europe to the political conversation by forwarding or Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public are involved in some form of social computing. posting someone else’s commentary about the A study conducted by Synovate314 reveals that, presidential election. 5% posted their own original in 2007, 27% of European consumers were commentary or analysis, and 12% of online 18-29 involved in rating and reviewing content. Golvin year-olds posted their own political commentary or (2007) found that, in 2007, 37% used instant writing to an online newsgroup, website or blog. messaging315 and Forrester (2007) calculated that, Social computing applications are not just used in the same year, 17% had signed up for at least for political purposes. Several studies show that one networking site.316 The growth in take up the number of patient-support communities (social by users seems to differ for each type of social networks for patients) has grown steadily in the computing application. Whereas the number past decade. For example, Eysenbach et al. (2004) of visitors to social networking websites (such found that, as of April 2004, Yahoo!Groups listed as Facebook) is still growing significantly, the almost 25,000 electronic support groups in the number of weblogs currently seems to be levelling health and wellness section.319 In 2008, this number off.317 The growth of Wikipedia also seems to be

313 Nearly 100 sources have been examined and analysed. 318 Kohut, A., The Internet Gains in Politics, Pew Internet 314 EIAA, 2007. and American Life Project, http://pewInternet.org/ 315 Golvin, C.S. (2007). PPF/r/234/report_display.asp, January 2008. 316 Kemp, M.B. (2007) Europeans Have Adopted Social 319 Gunther Eysenbach, John Powell, Marina Englesakis, 89 Computing Differently. Forrester. Carlos Rizo, Anita Stern, Health related virtual 317 It is important to stress that the distinctions used in communities and electronic support groups: systematic the Slot-Frissen framework – commenting, creating, review of the effects of online peer to peer interactions, communicating – are blurring fast because applications BMJ 2004;328:1166 (15 May), doi:10.1136/ are converging. bmj.328.7449.1166 increased to approximately 200,000.320 Similarly, User demographics the Pew Internet Center found that in 2001 around 28% of Internet users had visited an online support It seems that social networking sites are group.321 In December 2005, Pew found that 36% becoming mainstream and gaining popularity of e-caregivers (people who care for a loved one across all generations and levels of society. during a health crisis and find that the Internet plays Although a study by Kemp (2007)325 among US a crucial role in their support – or 12% of American social network users indicates that young adults 7. Overall conclusions Overall 7. adults) said that the Internet helped them find advice (16-26) are the most avid users and that adults or support from other people.322 seem to be lagging behind, other studies show that adults are catching up with significant speed. In other sectors too, the take up of social At the end of 2006, according to comScore computing applications seems to be growing. Media Metrix’s analysis of US Internet traffic, half Although hard data is scarce, searches on the the users of MySpace US were 35 or older. The Internet reveal more and more examples of 35–54 age group at MySpace grew to 41% in people collaborating online to create educational August 2006, from 32% a year earlier. content. Well-known examples are MIT Opencourseware, the OpenLearn project in the In the present research, the results of the UK and Connexions.323 Yahoo! Groups listed over survey, which focuses mainly on social computing 30,000 “craft groups”, online networks where initiatives in the public sector, seem to support people share knowledge on a specific craft.324 The these findings. The demographic data from the case studies conducted for this research confirms survey indicate that, in western countries with that take up of social computing applications a high level of broadband penetration, all age in the public sphere is increasing. All the cases groups are involved in public-sector social studied (the educational content community computing networks. We found that the age of Connexions, the doctors’ community Doctors. the population involved in a specific community net.uk, the patient community PatientsLikeMe and seems to depend strongly the activity supported the whistleblowers’ community Wikileaks) have and content provided by the community. Whereas expanded significantly over the past few years. The the professional communities we studied reflected Connexions community, for example, has grown the age of the working population (around 50% of annually by approximately 100% since its launch. visitors are aged between 25- 40 and around 30% The PatientsLikeMe community has grown by are between 40-50), in the learning environments almost 200% over the past two years. we studied, the average age is lower because more students are involved (around 40% are aged between 18-25). The participation of silver surfers in particular communities was also significant. No less than 41.6% of the visitors to the Dutch petition 320 See: website www.petities.nl are aged 55 or older. http://health.dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/Health___Wellne ss?ch=web&pub=groups&sec=bestOfGroups&t=bestofy ahoogroups, website accessed in December 2008. Furthermore, the survey reveals that the gender 321 Horrigan, J. Online communities: Networks that nurture long-distance relationships and local ties. Washington of visitors is partly determined by the subject of the DC, Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2001. content created. The high percentage of female 322 Pew Internet & American Life Project Report, Finding Answers Online in Sickness and in Health By Mary members (97.6%) of the Endometriosis community Madden and Susannah Fox, 2 May 2006, http://www. is simply due to the fact that Endometriosis is a 90 pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Health_Decisions_2006.pdf 323 http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/web/home/home/index. htm, http://webcast.berkeley.edu/, http://openlearn. open.ac.uk/, www.cnx.org 324 http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1600062985, website 325 Kemp, M. B. (2007) Social Computing Comes of Age. accessed in December 2008. Forrester. disease that is found only among women. On The case studies in the present research show websites which enable peer support for women as that the percentage of active users may depend well as men, the involvement of both sexes is more on the type of community. Although only a small equal. For example, the percentage of female and number of users of the Connexions, Wikileaks male members of PatientsLikeMe – a community and Doctors.net.uk communities create content, for life-threatening diseases – is 57% and 43% the PatientsLikeMe community seems to have respectively. The involvement of men in crime- a significantly larger active user base. In an watch communities is significantly higher (89% interview with TNO and DTI, one of the website’s of visitors to WikiCrimes are male and 76.3% of founders, Ben Heywood, stated that no less than Platewire visitors are male) than the involvement 60% of all users are actively contributing, e.g. of women. Male visitors are also more present in through debate on the forum or in other ways. This the political community – Petities – that we studied high percentage of active users may be related to (65.4% are male). On the other hand, women seem the type of social network, in this case a peer- to be more interested than men in content relating support community where patients share medical to preparing for and responding to a flu pandemic: information and where users greatly value a 64.4% of visitors to Flu Wiki are female. Therefore sense of community. This finding is endorsed by the phenomenon of social computing itself does the survey results of the present research, which not seem to have a gender bias per se. showed a particularly high level of user activity in the support community studied. Over 30% of As regards the educational level of visitors the respondents stated that they use the website to public-sector social computing networks, it to ask for advice, chat with other members or appears that this corresponds to the educational debate at the forum. level of the community’s target audience. Whereas

the level of education in professional communities Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public and the political community is rather high (high 7.2 General characteristics of social percentages of Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees), computing several levels of education are evident in the support and crime-watch communities. Again, A cross-analysis of the four social- for these niche communities, social computing computing cases demonstrates that they share applications do not seem to preselect on the basis general characteristics and mechanisms as of educational attainment. well as a potential for deep impact, partly as a result of rapid, massive take up. The following Type of usage shared characteristics and mechanisms were identified: Research on social networks in the private sphere stresses that only a small number of users − The first is the empowerment of networked participate actively. The Nielsen rule is well individuals. The social computing platform known: 90% of users are lurkers, 9% of users enables the individual to acquire and contribute from time to time, and 1% of users accumulate information, news, knowledge make the majority of contributions. However, and – perhaps most importantly – social Slot (2009) criticised these percentages, stating status by exchanging content in networks that her research indicates that far more than 1% with a predominantly social character. of users may be creating content online. Almost Well-informed users exert greater influence 91 38% of the respondents in her research on Dutch on society or government. Members of Internet users stated that they have a website, PatientsLikeMe, for example, state that they over 27% reported that they write a weblog, and experience an improvement in their position over 15% stated that they write news messages. as regards information, as a result of the peer-reviewed content on PatientsLikeMe. hype waves. The cases show that massive Likewise, doctors on Doctors.net.uk feel that participation and connectedness stimulate their professionalism is enhanced by having the rapid emergence and subsidence of access to peer-reviewed medical images and community events. Small incidents can up-to-date eModules on medical procedures. rapidly develop into major themes within a The users who disseminate content through social network community. An example is Connexions find they have a greater impact the “Dr Scot Junior case” on Doctors.net. 7. Overall conclusions Overall 7. on scholars, practitioners and students uk: an offensive post by a trainee surgeon on through the widespread dissemination the medical forum was disseminated through and use of their educational and scholarly the network and read by hundreds of doctors material. The empowerment of the individual within a short space of time. A spontaneous may be most apparent in the Wikileaks case, online campaign emerged to safeguard where individuals can post incriminating doctors’ freedom of speech. Then the hectic evidence against governments. Contributors debate about the incident seemed to vanish to Wikileaks have had considerable impact, overnight. Just as hypes can emerge around a a key example being the swing of 10% in single forum post, they can also be triggered national election results after a resident by a textbook on Connexions or a drug or published a confidential investigation report treatment on PatientsLikeMe. A statistics on government corruption in Kenya. textbook published on Connexions became − Second, all four cases demonstrate a a major hit through the wide dissemination substantial increase in the transparency of both within and outside the Connexions users, subjects and organisations. Patients network. Wikileaks also provides several on PatientsLikeMe fill out a comprehensive examples, notably the leaked Sarah Palin medical profile that is visible to everyone on e-mails. E-mails from Sarah Palin published the Internet. By automatically aggregating on Wikileaks were forwarded through the information of individual patients, the multiple social computing platforms (e.g. PatientsLikeMe websites provide better Facebook, MySpace) and were viewed by insight into drug usage, side effects of drugs, thousands of people. and the effectiveness of drugs and treatments. − Fourth, it seems that in all four cases the Profiles of members on Doctors.net.uk and threshold to joining an online community Connexions also contribute to a greater is lower than in comparable groups in real transparency among professionals, but life, and in this sense online communities these websites emphasise the transparency seem to be more inclusive. A clear example of professional practice and improving is provided by the Connexions case in which expertise. Doctors.net.uk members share “shut out teachers” are accepted as peer information on medical conditions, and members. Also on Doctors.net.uk users Connexions members share educational experience that within the online Doctors.net. content, but in both cases the free content- uk community they are more easily accepted sharing stimulates open access to domain by peer doctors. It seems that some dominant expertise. Wikileaks is an example of a values associated with group boundaries social computing platform that stimulates in the offline world (e.g. seniority) are less transparency of organisations (typically important in the online communities we 92 governments) as users expose information on studied. For example, professors and students government practices. and doctors and assistants feel more equal on − A third characteristic which can be found Connexions and Doctors.net.uk than in their in all cases is the occurrence of instant offline professional life. However, it is not clear from the four cases if there are specific and improved; the Medipaedia articles on online values that may stimulate exclusion. Doctors.net.uk are always under discussion; There are some indications that these exist; the educational content on Connexions is patients in the PatientsLikeMe community always being elaborated upon and users of are not accepted by peers if they do not fill Wikileaks are endlessly trying to strengthen out their profile. Further research on this their case against a government. Large subject may be needed. Furthermore, online numbers of users seem to deliver bits and communities also appear to be all-inclusive pieces of content (snippets of information, in the sense that anyone with a computer, advice, opinions), which together drive value Internet access and basic Internet skills has higher and higher. The Connexions case, for access to the community’s knowledge. On example, shows that users are only willing Connexions, scholarly material is published to spend 15 minutes on contributing to the by anyone, for anyone. People unable to pay educational content base. As the CEO of $100 for a statistics text book are able to Connexions stated “no one is willing to write download it for free. his PhD on Connexions, but merely to make − All cases, perhaps understandably, exhibit a small contribution to a shared textbook”. a strong community sense. As the social − All four cases show an efficient allocation computing initiatives studied in this of resources. As profiles of users are research are merit-based - people join the transparent and content is tagged, specific community to generate a certain community people and information are more easily value (be it support, medical knowledge, traceable. On Connexions, teachers with an scholarly material or court evidence) - interest in a specific subject can easily find people feel bonded around their interest in each other; on PatientsLikeMe users can

and expertise on the subject. Unlike more trace others based on medical condition, Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public general communities oriented towards social drug use, nationality or place of residence; networking (such as MySpace, Facebook and doctors on Doctors.net.uk report that they Bebo), users of professional, support, crime- benefit from finding colleagues who work watch and political communities frequently in the same area or are dealing with specific acquire and maintain new contacts. Whereas medical questions. In other words, the communities such as MySpace are mainly registering, structuring and tagging of data used by members to strengthen existing ties, on people and subjects enables an effective on the social computing websites studied match of demand and supply. for this research new (patient, professional − The eighth and perhaps ultimate and political) communities emerged. characteristic demonstrated by all four social Participants of these topic-based social computing case studies is the long-tail effect. computing platforms report that they feel On PatientsLikeMe, patients with the rarest more connected to people who share the of symptoms are able to find each other and same passion or interest. In other words, in start exchanging experiences, supporting merit-based networks, social cohesiveness each other and building knowledge. The seems to emerge around specific values or Doctors.net.uk case shows that doctors from interests. separate healthcare providers who share − A sixth characteristic found in all cases is a very specific medical interest find one that the user-created content is subject to another. Physicians who are treating a patient 93 infinite refinement, it is in perpetual beta; with a very rare disorder are also able to find there is no final version. On PatientsLikeMe, one another. People from all over the world the user statistics are continuously enriched contribute on Wikileaks to provide evidence in very specific legal cases. Connexions users and Connexions communities (as it is the goal of report that they are able to preserve and Wikileaks community), some examples show that further develop highly specialised knowledge these platforms can – and probably will – be used which under normal circumstances would for political mobilisation purposes if the necessary disappear. In all cases, it appears that the conditions occur. For example, in the Doctors.net. larger the number of people involved, the uk case, doctors were mobilised around the right greater the long-tail effect. If Doctors.net.uk, of UK doctors to freedom of speech. The political 7. Overall conclusions Overall 7. for example would allow doctors from other mobilisation features of social computing websites countries to participate in their medical could be exploited much further in the future. This community, the long-tail effect would be finding seems to be endorsed by the fact that over much stronger. The long tail seems to result 20% of the respondents to this study’s survey on in hyper specialisation; highly specialised Petities.nl – a Dutch petition platform – stated that knowledge that is allocated very efficiently, they would like the platform to have more political and is combined and further developed. impact in the future.

The instant hype and long-tail mechanisms of 7.3 Social-computing impact on the social computing platforms seem to particularly public sector support issue-based political involvement. People are able to find each other around very specific The impacts we have found in the four subjects and spontaneously organise advocacy cases and the survey can be distributed among groups. The representation of citizens may hence the categories distinguished in this report become more fragmented. Citizens may not be (see paragraph 3.4 for an explanation of the ideologically attracted to a specific party but may typology used), namely: political, socio-cultural, feel represented by a different party for each issue. organisational and legal impacts. A difference between party politics and issue- based politics is that, in issue-based politics, the Political assessment as to whether every group in society is equally represented in the debate does not take The cases studied for this research show place automatically. In a party system, participants that the empowerment and transparency deliberately strive for inclusion of all societal characteristics of social computing initiatives (see groups for all subjects, whereas in topic-based also section above on general patterns) seem to politics the assessment of whether all groups are disrupt existing power balances. This impact can heard has to be made for each issue raised. be most clearly illustrated by the Wikileaks case, when the publication of a report by a Wikileaks Socio-cultural user resulted in a 10% swing in the outcome of the elections in Kenya. The sharing of information In the socio-cultural area, the inclusive about governments and politics by the crowd and horizontal character of social computing enables citizens to make public officials and applications seems to be yielding new values. politicians accountable. People seem to be The architecture and functionalities of the more easily mobilised around a specific subject, websites studied seem to stimulate openness, to enhance their knowledge by exploiting the informality and equality, as do the community 94 wisdom of the crowd, thereby exercising influence members themselves. The design of the websites on government and politics. Although mobilisation aims to increase openness, an equal sharing of around a political interest is not the initial information, and all users have the same rights to purpose of the PatientsLikeMe, Doctors.net.uk create and use information. The communities often adopt the Creative Commons Licence and some care organisations. Furthermore, it seems that the of them use open source software. Participants members of PatientsLikeMe are taking over some behave informally, use informal language and the of the research tasks traditionally carried out by the threshold for the introduction of new members pharmaceutical industry. They collect information is low. Both on Connexions and Doctors.net.uk, on the effectiveness of drugs, analyse the results senior and junior professionals work together more and – moreover – base medical decisions upon equally than in their offline professional lives. research outcomes. On Connexions, teachers Values such as seniority and position-based status and students generate scholarly material hitherto seem to be less relevant in the online communities. created by publishers. Textbooks are published Here, members who are knowledgeable and have which would otherwise not have been considered valuable expertise receive the most respect. These by high-street publishers. The survey results also findings are endorsed by the survey conducted for show these kinds of impact. Around 24% of the this research, which shows that the communities respondents from professional communities studied share five core values, namely: openness, stated that their daily practice has altered as a expertise, informality, community sense and result of their engagement in the community (e.g. sharing. their products had changed). Approximately 18% of the respondents from these communities found Furthermore, the long-tail and efficient that – due to their involvement in the community allocation mechanisms of social computing – the quality of their service had improved. applications seem to stimulate the emergence of new cohesion within the communities around Not only are the players and the products specific merits. On Connexions, teachers and changing, but also the process whereby the students gather around educational content, products are created and the business models

on Doctors.net.uk doctors find new colleagues behind their creation. In all cases, the creation Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public with the same medical specialisations, and on process is horizontal, all members can contribute PatientsLikeMe members make new contacts bits and pieces to the whole. However, the creation with peer patients. Another socio-cultural impact is not necessarily more democratic; in most cases perceived is the threat to the personal privacy we found that the initiating organisation exercises of community members. The transparency strong control of the content. Wikileaks has a team mechanism in particular makes members more which verifies and decides upon the publication vulnerable to privacy infringements. This threat of the uploaded information; Doctors.net.uk has may be most visible on PatientsLikeMe, where a group of knowledge architects who are able to members’ personal medical information can be remove content, and on PatientsLikeMe there is accessed by employers and insurance companies. also strong supervision of the content published on the website. Furthermore, cooperation on Organisational social computing platforms seems to cross organisational and geographical boundaries. In all the cases studied in this research, we Patients, teachers and doctors from all manner found that new players had entered the public of organisations and countries are working arena and that new allocations of roles between together. Other boundaries, such as language traditional and new parties were emerging. On and discipline boundaries, seem to be becoming PatientsLikeMe, members seem to take over more dominant. Two of the cases studied – support tasks hitherto predominantly carried out PatientsLikeMe and Doctors.net.uk – have put a 95 by healthcare professionals. They advise and more scalable business model in place whereby encourage each other, a type of support that commercial parties pay for advertising space and/ until now has mainly been provided by patient- or community-generated data. Further research would be needed to identify the opportunities and community and often come to the conclusion that risks of such models. Wikileaks and Connexions the information they receive through the website are donation-based (donations from individuals is more important for them than the risk to their as well as foundations and governments). privacy. Yet the information published still implies a substantial reduction in patient privacy because Finally, it was found in several cases that social data on their medial conditions are accessible computing can make organisations more efficient. to anyone. The Wikileaks case shows that new 7. Overall conclusions Overall 7. In particular, the network-based allocation parties are starting to play an important role in mechanism of social computing platforms legal procedures and court cases. In this case, stimulates a more efficient match of demand and the crowd plays a role in the evidence-gathering, supply. The survey results support this finding: and this evidence has been used several times by around 12% of the respondents from professional lawyers to strengthen their case. communities stated that they save time by finding and applying knowledge generated within the community. The users of Doctors.net.uk and 7.4 The drivers of social computing ePractice in particular find that they are making better use of their professional network and/or While cross-analysing the cases and analysing experiencing improved cooperation with peers. the outcome against the survey results, we found that the following variables predominantly drive Legislation the social computing initiative.

In the case studies, we found that existing − User interest. All CEOs interviewed for this legislation (be it copyright, patent rights research stated that the key driver for users or privacy) is coming under pressure from to join up is the community meeting one of activities undertaken within the community. their (specific) demands. On PatientsLikeMe, The collaborative content created on Doctors. members can find support and information net.uk and Connexions requires a new, more about symptoms, drug use and treatments; on inclusive type of legal protection, for example Doctors.net.uk doctors can obtain specific through the use of Creative Commons Licences. advice and medical information; Connexions PatientsLikeMe has – instead of a privacy policy users can find content which they can use – an openness philosophy in which they state: for preparing their lessons or exposure of “Currently, most healthcare data is inaccessible their work, and on Wikileaks users can due to privacy regulations or proprietary find or publish evidence of government tactics. As a result, research is slowed, and the misbehaviour. People participate because the development of breakthrough treatments takes community has added value for them. The decades. Patients also can’t get the information survey results support this conclusion as they they need to make important treatment decisions. reveal that the perceived benefits are strongly But it doesn’t have to be that way. When you related to the specific aim of the community. and thousands like you share your data, you Whereas in support communities both the open up the healthcare system. You learn what’s acquisition of knowledge (around 33%) and working for others. You improve your dialogue the mutual support among patients (31%) with your doctors. Best of all, you help bring are important benefits, in the professional 96 better treatments to market in record time.” The communities the acquisition of knowledge, CEO of PatientsLikeMe stated in an interview that skills and inspiration are dominant PatientsLikeMe members simply weigh up the advantages perceived by users. pros and the cons of joining the PatientsLikeMe − Critical mass. Another driver for users to survey, in which significant percentages of become involved is the fact that their peers users state that they feel they benefit from the are involved. In all cases studied, a significant information published on the website (e.g. increase in user numbers could be observed 24.5% ePractice, 33.7% Flu Wiki, 34.3% after the website had reached a critical mass ECG-Pedia and 22.9% WikiCrimes) of users. It seems that, at a certain moment − Quality of the content. The cases show in time, there is a tipping point in usage – that users find it important that the content i.e. when there is a solid base of users that published is of high quality. On all websites, rapidly attracts other users. high-quality content (be it an important − User-friendliness. Both the CEOs of textbook, clear medical images or valuable Connexions and Doctors.net.uk reported the patient statistics) seems to attract users. On fact that the usability of the site affects actual the other hand, not surprisingly, visitors seem usage. The Connexions case in particular to be put off by content of limited quality. The showed that users can easily become survey shows that, for many users, limited frustrated with a complex interface or slow reliability of the information is an important website, and will then drop out. drawback (e.g. 19.1% Endometriosis, 17.3% − Connectedness. Furthermore, it seems that ePractice, 15.4% Flu Wiki, 21.1% WikiCrimes, the connectedness of the community to 19.3% Platewire and 10.7% Petities) other communities (e.g. Facebook, MySpace, − Sustainable business model. The etc.) stimulates take up by users. The more sustainability of the business model behind the community is networked in other a particular social computing site seems communities, the more users (who make to drive participation. It appears that use of other networks) feel attracted to the sustainable development of the community

community. inspires confidence in users that the content Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public − Brand. The Doctors.net.uk case shows that the delivered will be preserved. brand of the website (e.g. name, logo, look and − Privacy protection. The survey shows that feel) may influence users’ decision to become privacy protection is an important issue for involved. Doctors.net.uk was launched as users. Significant percentages of users of the a brand, and the look and feel have been communities studied state that they see the risk of deliberately aligned to the user values. The privacy infringements as an important drawback fact that users associate Doctors.net.uk with of the community (e.g. 20.5% Endometriosis, reliability, transparency and professionalism 16.6% Doctors.net.uk, 9.3% ePractice, 13.7 Flu may be one of the motives for joining. Wiki, 6.7% WikiCrimes, 14.1% Petities). − Content base. All four cases show that a content base (be it textbooks, medical articles, patient statistics or government 7.5 Future risks and opportunities documents) attract users to the website. As the CEOs of Doctors.net.uk and Connexions The present research reveals the following reported, users are not interested in creating key risks and opportunities for the social a textbook or Medipaedia by themselves but computing trend in the public sector: prefer to contribute pieces to a greater whole. The more users participate, the stronger the Opportunities: content base. As the CEO of PatientsLIikeMe 97 stated: “the bigger our community gets, the − Transparency. Social computing applications more information there is for everyone to may enhance the transparency of citizen learn from.” This finding is supported by the demand and government services and processes. Crowdsourcing mechanisms allocated efficiently (e.g. global teachers’ mean that public sector information can network). However, evidence in the private be more readily compiled, structured and sector shows that efficiency gain can disseminated and thus provide the potential only be achieved if existing processes are to make government more transparent while transformed. empowering citizens to make public officials accountable.326 In addition, social computing Risks: 7. Overall conclusions Overall 7. techniques may provide governments with powerful tools, for example to gain − Ensuring principles of good governance. insight into citizens’ demands. A recurring Present research shows that, in many cases, discussion, however, is the reliability and citizens or new players are taking over tasks liability of the content generated by the hitherto carried out by public-sector parties. crowd (see the section on Risks below). Here the question arises as to whether − Citizen-centred and citizen-generated the principles of good governance are services. Forms of social computing (e.g. sufficiently ensured in the new models of online communities) can stimulate the citizen-generated public service. The exercise accessibility and personalisation of public of government power has been legally services when groups of users are enabled restricted and regulated by principles such to create those public services themselves as legitimacy, accountability, transparency, and tailor them to their preferences. It seems integrity, audiatur et altera pars and that content-related (intangible) public impartiality. These principles are not legally services in particular can be provided by embedded in cases of citizen-generated citizens (e.g. counselling, teaching, tracing, public tasks. The regulatory framework is designing, criticising) and less tangible lacking. In addition, the cases studied for this products (e.g. production of an infrastructure, research reveal that democratic involvement public transport, housing) by government/ in decision-making on the type of data business alliances. A question that remains is gathered and the dissemination and control whether the services provided by citizens are of data is absent in most cases. sufficiently inclusive. − Privacy infringements. Just as governments − Improvement of efficiency (cost/benefit) are becoming more transparent, more in the public sector. Social computing information on individual citizens can be trends may enhance the efficiency of the found through social computing applications. production of public value (e.g. public A telltale example of privacy risks is the services or legislation). By using social PatientsLikeMe case. Patients publish large computing technologies, knowledge for amounts of sensitive data online, e.g. photos, creating public value can be built in an residence, drug use, treatments and personal efficient way (e.g. statistical data on drug stories. The data on PatientsLikeMe are not use yielded by members of PatientsLikeMe). protected; they are accessible for anyone Furthermore, resources to produce public with Internet access. Patients are willing to value (e.g. human resources) can also be publish their information online in order to find peer patients, to exchange experiences and to build knowledge by aggregating the individual data (e.g. on side effects of drugs). 98 326 Precondition: mashups and crowdsourcing can only be effective if the building blocks of public sector The survey conducted for this research shows information are provided by government agencies. that patients are not naive; they know that Research shows that in many western countries only a limited number of public sector documents are their privacy is endangered. However, the accessible online. advantages of finding peers and gaining an effects on the whole public sector, but is strongly increased understanding of a disease seem to focused on the application of specific social outweigh the privacy risks. Vulnerable groups computing applications in a particular public such as patients need more protection. sector. For example, there are many studies on − Reliability of published information. High the emergence of patient-support communities in percentages of users in the survey conducted the healthcare sector and the trend towards more for this research state that they do not open educational-content environments in the trust the information published within the education sector. community. Statements within communities often lack authoritative sources and many In addition, we found that most studies are survey respondents said the opinion of a highly empirical, describing particular cases small group of users can be dominant within of social computing application and deriving the network. The latter may cause a bias in conclusions from the cases. Inductive theory- the information provided through social building is limited to specific fields and case studies. networks. Also, advanced technologies A broader theoretical framework for evaluating enable people (and organisations) to easily the impact of social computing on public sector manipulate content. services is lacking. Such a framework could help − Inclusion of all. Research results seem to be to operationalise research following more rigid contradictory with regard to the question classification schemes (e.g. a typology of impact, of whether social computing technologies typology of social computing applications). The increase or decrease inclusion of all. fragmented character (in terms of unit of analysis, The results of the survey in this research research questions and methodology) of existing show that women and men, all ages and research (and the paucity of reliable data) did not

education groups are represented within allow the design and validation of a more generic Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public these networks, and that their participation theory. Future research should address these gaps. seems to depend upon the subject and An overarching conceptual framework is needed, in activities of the community. Resources such particular, to guide sector- and application-specific as time, knowledge and (in some cases) research. The framework could help to align units financial capital may be critical in terms of of analysis, research questions and methodologies being able to participate in a social network. in separate sectors or application-specific studies. As inclusion of all is an important principle Research results from different studies could then of public-service provision, further research be combined and compared so that more general is needed to assess the potential risk of conclusions on social computing impact in the exclusion of groups. public sector can be drawn.

A further research challenge is to strengthen 7.6 Research challenges and policy the quantitative base of evidence regarding recommendations the impact of social computing on the public sector. Most of the evidence found in this Research challenges research remained at the anecdotal level and provided a limited foundation for assessing the Studies on the broad impact of social magnitude of the impact. Propositions yielding computing in the public sector are scarce. In from existing literature should be underpinned 99 an exhaustive review of academic literature, we with more statistical evidence. An example is the found that current research does not examine proposition that crime-watch communities, such the generic social computing trend and its as Wikileaks, are increasingly influencing the intelligence processes of traditional intelligence computing impact in the public sector. This agencies. However, existing literature is not framework should be operationalised and clear about the annual growth in the number could build on the typologies defined in of crime-watch communities, the percentage existing research. In the present research we of intelligence agencies making use of these distinguish between different types of impact communities and in which percentage of cases. (political, organisational, socio-cultural and Consistent quantitative impact data is needed in legal), public service sectors (healthcare, 7. Overall conclusions Overall 7. order to be able to make an accurate assessment learning, inclusion and government. This of the impact of social computing applications. typology does not reflect the public sector very well and needs to be improved) and Furthermore, we found that specific impacts types of social computing communities may need extra academic attention because the (professional, support, crime-watch and research results on the precise manifestation of political). these impacts were contradictory and – at the − In-depth research on specific social same time – the impacts may have the potential computing applications, specific sectors or to substantially disrupt existing policy and specific impacts should be coordinated and government practices. An example is the question based upon an overarching framework. of whether the public services generated by users − Sector, application and impact-specific of social networks are all-inclusive (and thus studies should be combined, following the impact on inclusion policy). Some studies found general framework so that more generic that most of these networks are all-inclusive, conclusions on social computing impact whereas other reports showed new mechanisms of in the public sector can be drawn, while exclusion within the networks. Another important advancing an overall theory. topic may be privacy. The literature does not make − Specific attention should be paid to it clear to what extent privacy is protected in the potentially high impact and controversial various forms of social computing communities. topics such as the effect of citizen-generated The same can be said about ensuring principles services on inclusion of all, privacy and good of good government within these networks, such governance principles. as democratic involvement, integrity, legitimacy, Policy recommendations and accountability. Since changes in the extent to which inclusion of all, privacy and good Based upon the conclusions and research government principles are ensured may have challenges formulated in the previous paragraphs, considerable implications, more research is the following policy recommendations can be needed in these areas. made:

To conclude: − Citizens more readily express and discuss their preferences with others when using − More research is needed because literature social computing. This occurs on a basis of in the area of social computing impact in the trust, among users in a social computing public sector is highly tentative, exploratory community and between the community and and lacks theory building and sound the platform 'providers'. For government to evidence (strengthening of the deduction engage in this process in order to learn and 100 and induction cycle). discuss the needs of citizens, similar levels − An overarching conceptual framework should of trust will be required. A key ingredient in be developed that stimulates a more coherent building trust is information symmetry. By research approach in the broad area of social embarking on an open process of actively sharing data and information, government role of government is radically changing. To can establish the required levels of trust. ensure that core values and rights continue to − Government organisations used to be the only be respected, the government needs to enter agents delivering public services and they this new participative public realm. One dominated public value creation. Now that way to do this is to open up public service to social computing platforms are liberating the third-party participation. This would ensure a energies of the ‘masses’, they are increasingly continuing – albeit more facilitating – role in directed at the public service domain. the design and delivery of public services. Communicated via the social connection, − Crowdsourcing (e.g. mashups, wikis) this enormous energy materialises in the techniques and online communities (e.g. form of information and news (blogosphere), activist and interest groups) can enhance the knowledge (Wikipedia), creative content knowledge of government practitioners in a (Creative Commons, YouTube), social goods particular field and therefore strengthen the (social networks, online communities), evidence and argumentation for new policy virtual goods (Second life, MMOs) and even (many examples in the policing area, tracking ICT ‘hardware’ (processing cycles, hard and tracing of criminals). However, advanced disk space). In each domain (or ‘sphere’), technologies enable people to easily public resources proliferate: social and legal manipulate content (e.g. change photos, counselling, environmental monitoring videos, formal writings) that is disseminated and crime-watch, virtual urban planning, through the networks. To deal with the etc, etc. With so much potential for user- limitations in accuracy, the government could created public value, public sector agents employ a staged approach whereby the use and agencies should very seriously consider and scrutiny of user-generated data is guided

including (financing, facilitating) a user- by required security levels. Only sensitive Services Public on Computing Social Services 2.0:of Impact The Public generated approach in order to address new uses would demand certified sources, while and old challenges in service delivery. general-purpose applications would draw on − Social computing networks very effectively wider, public databases. mobilise the energies of users (citizens) by − (Groups of) citizens are empowered by social allowing them to quickly and intuitively pool computing technologies, which enable their resources and direct them at a particular them to express their personal interests challenge, all via the social connection. Even and preferences. However, the downside the smallest groups ('niches') of scattered of citizen expression on social networking users succeed in reaching critical mass and platforms is the growing number of cases of thereby become more visible. By employing privacy infringements. Citizens may become social computing strategies (and ‘tools’), more empowered to express themselves government can enlist important niche but at the same time they become more audiences and leverage their insights. Overall vulnerable to privacy violations (e.g. this would contribute to a higher resolution cyberbullying, happy-slapping, etc.). Any of ‘ground truth’ to underwrite policymaking. privacy infringements could be easily traced In order to employ these strategies and tools, back to the perpetrator by enacting new civil servants would need to become very legislation. However, this very legislation familiar with them and the values of social may set us on a course towards further computing communities. potential privacy infringements, accidental or 101 − Where 'public' value and 'public' service intended, this time by or through government are being generated or directed outside the agencies and third parties operating at arm’s usual sphere of influence of government, the length in sensitive public-service domains such as health and education. Any new data- and software will be more user-friendly, gathering approach or act should therefore users will not necessarily have the skills to be preceded by a cost-benefit analysis that understand the implications (e.g. social or includes an element for assessing the short- legal) of their behaviour on social network term and long-term impact on privacy. sites. The government needs to continuously Monitoring should address, in particular, monitor the potential risks of participation in any cumulative effects. To create awareness social network sites and inform citizens about 7. Overall conclusions Overall 7. of these issues, critical analysis and cyber these risks, for example through awareness, behaviour should be taught through formal, information and/or education programmes. informal, lifelong-learning and vocational − There is much anecdotal evidence that learning systems when appropriate and social computing technologies enable relevant (e.g. ICT courses). (groups of) elderly and citizens with special − Social computing trends may, on the one needs to support each other, mobilise and hand, stimulate digital competencies as ever- organise (e.g. silver surfers, seniorweb). more learning communities emerge and there Social computing technologies enable self- may be a potential for learning digital skills organisation and self-regulation. With fewer in online communities. On the other hand options to orchestrate and regulate in an (and this evidence seems stronger), social increasingly connected world, governments computing trends may – at least in the short should stimulate the emergence of these term– contribute to a wider digital divide mechanisms, particularly where they support when, in particular, the digital literates are key public values and goals. One way to empowered by social computing platforms do this is by promoting social computing while digital illiterates lag behind. Over the architectures and governing models that years, however, this problem will decrease facilitate self-regulation. Principles of as new interfaces are increasingly embedded good governance that apply to traditional and intuitive and can cater for an ever-wider government should extend to social section of the population. However, studies computing initiatives when these initiatives show that although new generations will be cross into the realm of public-service more experienced in using social software delivery.

102 ------Academic literature

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Kemp, M.B. (2007a)EuropeansHave Adopted SocialComputing Differently. Forrester. ITU (2006),DigitalLife, Available at:http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/publications/digitalife/ TechnicalReport, Inclusion?, for do ICT and Capital Social can What (2007), D.,Zinnbauer, IPTS, IPTS, Pascu, C.(2008), An Empirical Analysis oftheCreation,Useand Adoption ofSocialComputing 23358, how? whyEUR and Technicalgovernment: JRC, in Report. 2.0 WebD.(2008). Osimo, IPTS, Lusoli, (2009), IPTS, W.,Maghiros, I. and R., Compañó, YoungPeopleServices, Digital Emerging and IPTS Cachia, R., (2008), Social Computing: Study on the Use and Impact of Online Social Networking, Horrigan, J. (2001), Online communities: Networks that nurture long-distance relationships and local availableat: 2006, October Wikis,Sector Won’tor A He? TalePublic Wiki(2006), of M. Guy Golvin, C.S.,(2007), The StateofConsumers And Technology: Benchmark 2007.Forrester. Gardner, D. (2006), Survey: Employers Checking Job Hunters by Scouring Social Networks, Techweb, J.F.Gantz, Labour International Workplace. the in Health Mental (2000), M.-R. Liimatainen, & P. Gabriel, Frissen, project ResearcheGovernment,(2008), of al V.,TheFuture et Kotterink,B. N.M., Huijboom, Life American & Internet Pew DC, Washington resources. health Internet (2003), D.Fallows S, Fox paper Resources, Educational Open for (OCL) Licensing Content Open (2007), B., Fitzgerald, Organisation: Geneva. commissioned by theInstitute forProspective Technological Studies. Project, www.techweb.com/wire/ebiz/19340256 through 2010’IDC/EMC. EUR 22673,Seville. Applications, IPTSExploratory Research ontheSocio-economicImpactofSocialComputing,Seville. EC JRC. An ExplanatorySurvey onMotivations, Perceptions and Acceptance ofRisks,Seville IPTS Exploratory Research ontheSocio-economicImpactofSocialComputing,Seville. ties, Pew Internet& American LifeProject, Washington DC. www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue49/guy on OpenEducationalResources. project the for (CERI) Innovation and Research Educational OECD’sfor the Centre by commissioned www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/95/report_display.as et al. et (2007) ‘The expanding digital universe. A forecast of worldwide information growth information worldwide of forecast universe. A digital ‘Theexpanding (2007) / . http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/33/10/38645489.pd 5 . p f . http:// 111 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 112 ANNEX 1 – References ------

Nielsen Netratings (2008),available at:http://www.nielsen-netratings.com/pr/pr_080514.pdf Nielsen’s Jakob Contribute. to Users More Encouraging Inequality: Participation (2006), J. Nielsen, McKinsey (2007), How businesses are using Web 2.0: A McKinsey Global Survey, McKinsey Quarterly, Pacer,The Device, Screening as Employers by used MySpace and Facebook (2006), S. McIntosh, management identity online footprints: “Digital (2007), J. and Vitak, A. Smith, S., Fox, M., Madden, not still but buzzword, a than More 2.0. Web of waves the ‘Riding (2006) S. Fox, and M. Madden, KPMG (2007),‘Enterprise2.0:Fad orFuture? The BusinessRoleforSocialSoftware Platforms’. and requirements Business change, societal and media Citizen (2007), J. Esmeijer, & S. Limonard, Li, C.(2008), Youth andSocial Networks. Forrester. Li, C.(2007),How ConsumersUseSocialNetworks. Forrester. Levin, A., http://alevin.com/weblog/ Lessig, L.,(2004),Free Culture, The NatureandFutureofCreativity, Creative Commons. http://www.pewinternet.org/ at: available PEW, Media. Social and Teens (2007), al et A. Lenhart, message instant the of rise The online: life Teenage (2001), O. Lewis, & L., Rainie, A., Kenhart, Candidate Job Review to Sites Networking Social Use WillEmployees 10 in One (2006), Koncz,A. Kohut, A. (2008), The Internet Gains in Politics, Pew Internet and American Life Project, January 2008, Kemp, M.B. (2007b),SocialComputingComesof Age, Forrester. Internet & American LifeProject. PewD.C.: Washington relationships. family and friendships on internet’simpact the and generation Information, NACEWeb. available at: Alertbox, 9October2006, available at:www.useit.com/alertbox/participation_inequality.html March 2007, Available at:http://www.mckinseyquarterly.com/links/26068 http://pacer.utm.edu/3296.ht and search intheageoftransparency,” Pew Internet& American LifeProject, Washington, DC. (retrieved April 2007). defined’ easily TNO, 6.1.1), (Deliverable applications commissioned by EuropeanCommissionDGInformationSociety&Media MEDIA CITIZEN new successful for bottlenecks potential PPF/r/230/report_display.asp http://pewInternet.org/PPF/r/234/report_display.as Pew Internet Project PewInternet m . Accessible at: http://www.pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Web_2.0.pdfat: Accessible p . ------

Suhrcke, M., McKee, M, Sauto Arce, R., Tsolova, S., Mortensen, J. (2005): The contribution of health (2005): of TheJ. contribution Mortensen, R., Arce,Sauto S., Tsolova, M, McKee, M., Suhrcke, Stromberg, C.(2007),Health Marketeers:Create A SocialComputingGamePlan.Forrester. http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/ Age. Digital the for Theory Learning A (2004), G. Siemens, Information of Ministry Korean Usage, Internet and Computer the on Survey (2007), al et J.M. Shim, Rideout, V.,D.Roberts, F., Foehr,& livesthe Generationin (2005), Media G. m: year-olds.U. 8-18 of June Project, Life American and Internet Pew election, 2008 the and Internet The(2008), L. Rainie, http://www. at: available Project, Life American and Internet Pew Tagging, (2007), L. Rainie, OECD (2007b),InternationalMigration Outlook2007. empirical an OECD- CERI(2007),‘EvidenceinEducation,linkingresearch andPolicy’. – offshoring by affected potentially employment of share The (2006), OECD OECD (2005d),Health Technologies andDecisionMaking. OECD (2005c),Long-termCareforOlderPeople. OECD (2005b), Transforming Disabilityinto Ability. OECD (2005),PublicSectorModernisation: The Way Forward, OECDPublications. OECD (2004c), Towards High-Performing HealthSystems. OECD (2004),Potential offshoringofICT-intensive usingOccupations,InterimReport. OECD (2004), The economicimpactofICT, OESO. Digital the by Report A Care, Health American Transform to Openness Harnessing (2008), OEC connectivism.htm id=10&item_id=300&curPage=1&dummy=20080123234224 http://isis.nida.or.kr/board/service/bbsView.jsp?bbs_ 2007, October Usage, Internet and Computer the on Survey (NIDA),Korea of Agency Development Internet National (MIC), Communication and Washington D.C.: KaiserFamily Foundation. 2008. pewinternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Tagging.pdf investigation’. http://www.ced.org/images/ Development. Economic library/reports/health_care/report_healthcare07dcc.pdf for Committee the of Council Connections to theeconomy intheEU,Brussels. 113 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 114 ANNEX 1 – References ------

Wyld, D,C. (2008), The Blogging Revolution, Government in the Age of Web 2.0, IBM Centre for The Centre IBM 2.0, Webof Age the in Government Revolution, Blogging (2008), TheD,C. Wyld, OECD, Content. User-Created Web: Participative (2007). G. Vickery, and S. Wunsch-Vincent, WHO (2006b),HealthandEconomicDevelopment inSouth-EasternEurope. WHO (2006a), The world health report 2007 - A safer future: global public health security in the 21st WHO (2000), the to Report online, youth of life hidden The Screen: the Behind (2008), R. Sheldon, K. Withers, Share Voteand Facebook Worth? Network Social a is What (2008), Gulati C.J. and C.B. Williams, VanPunie, Bavel,R., Y.& Tuomi,´ICT-Enabled(2004) Capital´, I. Social in TheReport, Changes IPTS Better Standards, “Higher Paper White Schools (2005), Skills and Education for Department UK n h 20 Peieta Piais Dprmn o Itrainl tde ad oenet Bentley Government and College, Boston. Studies International of Department Primaries, Presidential 2008 the in socio-economic of contribution the Europe: in research, Society Issue85,June 2004,pp.28-32. Information the Building issue: Special Schools for All -MoreChoiceforParents andPupils”. Business ofGovernment, available at: 2007, available at:http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/14/38393115.pdf Economy,April Information the Industry,PartyTechnologyScience, on Workingand for Directorate century. Institute tothePublicPolicy Research. The world health report 2000-Healthsystems:The worldhealthreport improving performance http://www.businessofgovernment.org/pdfs/WyldReportBlog.pd , NY. f Bogdan Guzman Miriam Nick Isidro Maya Ajit Gareth Edwin Ben Bernie Hans Syb Luis A. Antonio Suelette Loris Miguel Lee Maarten Ronald Frank Sylvia Name Fabrizio Alexander Lori Tomas Tim Patrice Andre Maria Chiara S Arvo David Jim Dominic James Jose Luis Ian ANNEX 2–Involved Stakeholders Sestimi Schellong Scanlon Sabol Ringrose Riemens Richer Pettenati Paulussen Ott Osimo Norton Newbould Munro PeñaMonteagudo Miles Manolea Mancho Bares Lips Kings Jariego Jaokar Hughes Horlings Heywood Hogan Hellendoorn Groeneveld Galindo Fumero Dreyfus Di Pietrantonio Cabrer Bryant Botterman Beelaard Bannister Archmann DG INFSOF4 School Kennedy Harvard PatientsLikeMe Marketing Manager Technical UniversityofKosice, Slovakia CEO Doctors.net.uk Waag societyold–newmedia Amsterdam DG ENTR, University ofFlorence Universiteit Gent, MediaenICT-IBBT of Ministry Transport andCommunications partnerat Managing Tech4i2 ltd Sheffield University UK OpenUniversity Patient opinion Instituto deSaludCarlosIII, Madrid PREST Professor of Technological andSocialChange Innovation for Association Technology andInternet Universidad de Alcala Universiteit Twente British Telecom Universidad deSevilla Futuretext Eris@ Rathenau Founder PatientsLikeMe University of Toronto TU Delft Nederland Kennisland Telefonica Universidad Politecnica deMadrid University ofMelbourne DG INFSOH3 Innovation, Research&Communication Headshift RAND/GNKS Board Wikimedia Netherlands Trinity CollegeDublin EIPA Organisation Online validation session Online validation Interview session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation Interview session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation Final workshop validation session Online validation session Online validation Involved in Online validation session Online validation session Online validation Interview session Online validation Final workshop validation Interview session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation Final workshop validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation Review futurescenarios session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation Final workshop validation session Online validation 115 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 116 ANNEX 2 – Involved Stakeholders Irina Dave Philip Pascal Freek Hein Leo Chris Joel Mildo Chris Torhild Jamal Name Zalisova Waltho Von Haehling Verhoest Van Krevel Van Duivenboden Van Audenhove Smissaert Tierstein Staden Smissaert Slåtto Shahin European Projects & Management European Projects&Management Agency SAS UK Accenture DG INFSOH2ICTforGovernmentandPublicServices DG INFSOH2ICTforGovernmentandPublicServices CapGemini Vrije UniversiteitBrussel oftheInteriorandKingdomRelations Netherlands Ministry CEO Connexions oftheInteriorandKingdomRelations Netherlands Ministry oftheInteriorandKingdomRelations Netherlands Ministry Norwegian forDistanceandflexibleEducation Association University ofBrussels Organisation Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation session Online validation Final workshop validation Interview Final workshop validation session Online validation session Online validation Final workshop validation session Online validation Involved in 2. 1. survey, pleasevisit WWW.TNO.NL/HYPERLINK. and impactofonlinesupportcommunities.Itonlytakes5minutes! perspective user the reveal to us help and questions 10 out fill Please life? your impact participation the communities

______visitsayear ______visitsamonth ______visitsaweek ______hoursaweek/minutesweek How much timedoyou website? spendon thecommunity ______years ofInternetexperience Profession ______Ethnic background ______Nationality ______Education attainment______Gender ______Age ______Please fillout your profile Thank you very much, this of terms exact the confidential. For as treated be will survey this in provide you Theinformation on survey our join to you invite to like would We Dear member, ANNEX 3–SampleQuestionnaire . How do you benefit from joining the community? And, how did how And, community? COMMUNITY>

What are What the are top 3 with topics on engaged are the website (please rank on a scale of 1 to 3 – 1 being important most the being 1 - 5 to 1 from scale a on rank (please activities youronline 5 are top What         answer)? the mostimportant               answer)? Other______Other______Other______Non-healthmatters Personal feelings Medicalresearch Personal healthexperiences Personal healthstatus Other______Other______Other______Donatingmoney Debatingontheforum Chattingwithothermembers Ratingand/orranking oftreatments/services Commentingonprofiles Asking foradvice Searching fornewcontacts Readingstatisticalinformation Readingcommentsonprofiles Browsing profiles Updatingmy profile 6. 5.

What do you think are drawbacks of joining the community (please rank on a scale of 1 to 5 (please 5 to 1 of scale a on rank (please community the joining drawbacksof are think you do What from scale a on rank (please community the joining from benefits you experience 5 top the are What         answer) rank onascaleof1to5–beingthemostimportant               answer) 1 to5–beingthemostimportant    Other______Other______Other______Intimidation/harassment Unwanted contacts Spam/inappropriatecomments Riskofprivacy; openaccesstomy personalinformation Peer pressure Impactofjoiningthecommunityonmedicalconditionislimited Dominationofsmallnumberpeers/opinions Reliabilityofinformationislimited Other______Other______Other______Having fun Makingnewfriends Personal advice fromcommunitymembers Supportandencouragement Complementstheinformationfrommy general practitioner/physician Helpsmechoose theright treatment Meetingpeoplewithsimilarexperiences Greaterunderstandingofthemedicalconditionafamilymemberorfriend Greaterunderstandingofmy medicalcondition Medicalfactsaboutmy medicalcondition Valuable tips 119 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 120 ANNEX 3 – Sample Questionnaire 7. 8.

What do you consider to be the most important impacts of the online community online the of impacts important most the be to consider you do What What are the top 5 values you associate with the community (please rank on a scale from 1 to 5 – 1 – 5 to 1 from scale a on rank (please community the with associate you values 5 top the are What    answer)? being themostimportant                    answer) 1to5–beingthemostimportant from   Equality Informality Communitysense Professionalism Openness Other______Other______Other______Ihave lesscontactwithofflinehealthprofessionals Ihave lesscontactwithsomeofmy offlinefriends Ihave lesscontactwithmy doctor Myoutlookongovernmental healthpolicy haschanged Myopiniononmy doctorhaschanged Myviewsonmy medicalconditionhave changed Ihave madenewfriends Improvement ofmy lifecircumstances Mytreatmenthasbecomemoreeffective Irelymoreonself-treatment Irelymoreonself-diagnosis Ichanged healthinsurance Ichanged healthcareinstitutions Ichanged doctors Ichanged treatments Ichanged medications (rank on a scale a on (rank

                         Other______Other______Other______Cohesiveness Tolerance Integrity Empowerment Formality Sharing Righteousness Reciprocity Engagement Conviction Recognition Security Empathy Acceptation Respect Solidarity Dedication Confidentiality Diversity Self-support Law compliance Expertise 121 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 122 ANNEX 3 – Sample Questionnaire 10. 9. email is: 11. survey results. Your email will be removed from our database as soon as we have sent the notice. notice. the sent have we as soon as database our from removed be will email Your results. survey www.tno.n

What wouldyou like toseeimproved inanext version website? ofthecommunity – 3 to 1 from scale a on rank (please most youuse do website community the of functionality Which Which further comments wouldyouWhich further like tomake? Yes, I would like to receive a message about the publishing of the survey results. My results. survey the of publishing BOX>the

User profiles

Support Political communities Professional communities Crime-watch communities communities

Endometriosis-uk, Doctors.net.uk, n=901 ECGpedia, n=22 ePractice, n=71 Flu Wiki, n=103 WikiCrimes, n=215 Platewire, n=38 Petities, n=86 n=42 Age 52.4% 25-40, 42.0% 25-40 42.9% 18-25 58.5% 25-40 53.5% 40-55 45.2% 25-40 42.9% 25-40 41.6% > 55 33.3% 40-55, 32.3% 40-55 42.9% 25-40 24.6% 40-55 32.3% >55 34.8% 18-25 42.9% 40-55 35.1% 40-55 11.9% 18-25, 23.3% >55 9.5% 40-55 9.2% > 55 13.1% 25-40 15.7% 40-55 11.4% > 55 18.2% 25-40 2.4% > 55 2.4% 18-25 4.8% > 55 6.2% 18-25 1% <18 2.4% < 18 2.9% 18-25 5.2% 18-25 1.5% <18 1.9% > 55 Gender 97.6% female 53.7% male 66.7% male 67.2% male 64.4% female 89.0% male 76.3% male 65.4% male

Education 45.2% Bachelor’s 76.1% medical training 27.3% professional 57.1% Master’s degree 30.4% Bachelor’s 47.6% Bachelor’s 39.5% some college 37.8% Bachelor’s degree, 24.6% medical trainee/ degree 17.1% Doctoral degree degree degree 21.1% Bachelor’s degree 14.3% vocational / student 27.3% Bachelor’s 15.7% Bachelor’s 23.5% some college 36.7% high school degree 20.7% Master’s degree technical school degree degree 21.6% Master’s degree 10.5% Master’s degree 15.8% vocational / 25.6% vocational/ 14.3% high school 18.2% Master’s degree 5.7% some college 10.8% Doctoral degree 3.3% grammar school technical school technical school 11.9% some college 18.2% high school 8.8% professional 7.1% Master’s degree degree Employment 21% healthcare 81.8% healthcare 50% healthcare 29.9% government 20.4% healthcare 34.4% ICT sector 20% retired 52% other 15.3% Finance and 11.4% retired 35% medical students 23.9% other 16.1% retired 23.4% other 17.1% ICT sector 23% retired Insurance 6.8% other 5% Education 13.4% consultancy 10.8% government 19.3% student 8.6% Finance and 9% ICT sector 9.1% retired 5% Information, 11.9% research 8.6% education 12.% government Insurance 6% government 9.1% Arts & services and data 11.9% Scientific or 7.5% ICT sector 7.3% administration 8.6% Retail Entertainment 5% Scientific or Technical Services 36.6% other 3.6% military 5.7% student 9.1% Government Technical services 9.0% Education 40% other 36.4% other Internet 69% 3-10 y 50.2% > 10 y 55% > 10 y 69.1% > 10 y 64.7% > y 53.5% >10 y 51.4% >10 y 63.5% > 10 y Experience 23.8% >10 y 47.9% 3-10 y 45% 3-10 y 26.5% 3-10 y 33.3% 3-10 y 42.3% 1-3 y 40.5% 3-10 y 32.9% 3-10 y 7.1% 1-3 y 1.9% 1-3 y 4.4% 1-3 y 2% 1-3 y 4.2% 1-3 y 5.4% 1-3 y 2.4% 1-3 y 2.7% < 1 y Time spent 33.3% 0-1 h/w 29.7% 0-1 h/w 57.9% 0-1 h/w 59.1% 0-1 h/w 31.1% 0-1 h/w 53% < 10 m/w 45.7% 0-1 h/w 40.3% monthly 25.6% 4-10 h/w 23.4 1-2 h/w 15.8% 1-2 h/w 212.1% 1-2 h/w 18.4% 4-10 h/w 42,3% 10-30 m/w 22.9% 1-2- h/w 38.7% weekly 15% 2-4 h/w 21.8% 4-10 h/w 10.5% 2-4 h/w 10.6% 2-4 h/w 16.5% 1-2 h/w 4.7% > 30 m/w 11.4% 4-10 h/w 35.5% yearly 10.3% 10-20 h/w 20.2% 2-4 h/w 15.8% 4-10 h/w 10.6 > 20 h/w 16.5% 2-4 h/w 8.6% > 20 h/w 7.7% > 20 h/w 3.7% 10-20 h/w 6.1% 4-10 h/w 12.6% 10-20 h/w 5.5% 2-4 h/w 7.7% 1-2 h/w 1.2% > 20 h/w 1.5% 10-20 h/w 4.9% > 20 h/w 5.7% 10-20 h/w Benefits

Support Political communities Professional communities Crime-watch communities communities Endometriosis-uk, Doctors.net.uk, RANKING n=42 n=901 ECGpedia, n=22 ePractice, n=71 Flu Wiki, n=103 WikiCrimes, n=215 Platewire, n=38 Petities, n=86 #1 Greater Having an email Acquiring knowledge Acquiring knowledge Acquiring knowledge Access to information Sharing experiences Being able to affect understanding of my account 24.6% 34.3% 24.5% 33.7% about crime areas 25.4% politics 23.7% medical condition 22.9% 20.6% #2 Meeting people with Medical news 16.2% Acquiring skills Inspiration 17.5% Access to specialist Access to information Discussing violation Being heard by others similar experiences 17.9% knowledge 15.4% about how to avoid related topics 13.9% 15.5% 17.6% crime 12.8%

#3 Support and Continuing Complementing Complementing Acquiring skills Knowing the Fun 12.3% Mobilising people encouragement Professional my (professional) my professional 13.2% problems in my around a specific 12.7% Development 15.2% expertise 15% experience 11% neighbourhood issue 13.7% 11.7% #4 Medical facts about Learning from clinical Access to specialist Enriching my Inspiration 12.1% Raise political/media Valuable information Collecting more in- my medical condition guidelines and best knowledge 10% experience 10.4% attention 10.9% to judge traffic depth information on 12.4% practice 10.8% occurrences and risks a political issue 9.7% 12.3% #5 Valuable tips 11.8% Information searching Enriching my Cross-cultural Enriching my Share the philosophy Increased Sharpening my 8.4% experience 8.6% experience 8.7% knowledge 7.6% of WikiCrimes understanding opinion 7.9% website 8.6% of traffic policy/ regulation 10.1% Other 24.9% Other 24.7% Other 14.3% Other 27.9% Other 18% Other 33.1% Other 25.9% Other 29.6% 125 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 126 ANNEX 4 – Survey Tables

Drawbacks

Support Political communities Professional communities Crime-watch communities communities Endometriosis-uk, Doctors.net.uk, ECGpedia, n=22 ePractice, n=71 Flu Wiki, n=103 WikiCrimes, n=215 Platewire, n=38 Petities n=86 RANKING n=42 n=901 Domination of a The impact of the The impact of the Domination of few Reliability of Impact of reporting Risk of privacy Political impact is #1 few peers /opinions website on my work community on my peers /opinions information is limited violations is limited infringements 20.5% limited 22.4% 17.3% is limited 17.9% work is limited 26.2% 17.2% 21.1% 22.6% The access to Domination of small Quality of online Reliability of Reliability of Risk of privacy Internet is a limitation Domination of few #2 number of peers services is limited information is limited information is limited Risk of privacy 14.1% infringements 16.6% for people in some peers/opinions 20.9% 20.5% 17.9% 17.3% 15.4% regions 19% Reliability of the Quality of online Impact of reporting Reliability of Domination of few Spam / inappropriate Spam / inappropriate Risk of privacy #3 information is limited provided services is crimes is limited information is limited peers / opinions comments 15.5% comments 14.3% infringements 13.7% 19.1% limited 15.9% 18.2% 19.3% 12.6% Impact of joining The obligation to the community on The impact of the Reliability of Reliability of Domination of few Spam / inappropriate register in the system Intimidation / #4 dealing with medical community of my information is limited information is limited peers/opinions 12.2% comments 10.9% to have access to harassment 11.8% condition is limited work is limited 13.4% 8.9% 10.7% data 9.9% 8.0% Quality of the online The impact of the Spam / inappropriate Intimidation / Risk of privacy Risk of privacy Spam / inappropriate #5 services is limited website on my work Peer pressure 10.4% comments 7.4% harassment 8.9% infringements 9.3% infringements 6.7% comments 7.2% 9.5% is limited 10.1% Other 24.5% Other 27.7% Other 32.1% Other 19.2% Other 32.6% Other 25% Other 18.2% Other 10.1% Impacts

Support Political communities Professional communities Crime-watch communities communities Endometriosis-uk, Doctors.net.uk, RANKING n=42 n=901 ECGpedia, n=22 ePractice, n=71 Flu Wiki, n=103 WikiCrimes, n=215 Platewire, n=38 Petities, n=86 I/my organisation Due to the website The discussion on the My views on my The quality of the I am more capable of I apply ne w The information on introduced new the violations receive website has put an #1 medical condition service I provide has solving professional approaches to my the website is used to policies/strategies more political/media issue on a political have changed 16.2% improved 18.3% problems 28.4% work 16.2% avoid crime 21.9% 15.7% attention 26.3% agenda 27.2% I am more Due to the website, The interests of The quality of the I have made new knowledgeable about crimes receive more pedestrians/cyclists/ I feel more engaged #2 service I provide has I save time 13.3% I save time 13.7% friends 13.9% the latest clinical political/media drivers are being in politics 14% improved 27.3% research 16.5% attention 18.9% mobilised 19.1% The information The information My treatment has The efficiency of the I apply new on the website is on the website is Politicians have acted It saves me time I make better use of #3 become more service I provide has approaches to my used by the police used by the police upon community 14.5% my network 11.3% effective 11.3% improved 20.5% work 10.6% to detect offenders to detect offenders initiatives 12.7% 16.7% 17.3% Government policy It has improved the The information on The information on I apply new I/my organisation has changed as a result I rely more on self standard of clinical I cooperate more with the website is used the website is used #4 approaches to my applied new methods of community treatment 10.9% care that I provide external players 11% by the police to arrest by the police to arrest work 9.1% 10.1% debates/initiatives 8.4% offenders 13.3% offenders 4.7% 7.5% The information on The information on I am more aware of The quality of the The quality of the Others altered their I rely more on self the website has the website has #5 new pharmaceutical I save time 4.5% service I provide has service I provide has political view points diagnosis 9.3% resulted in regulation resulted in policy products 8.1% improves 9.4% improved 7.7% more than once 7.1% amendments 13.3% amendments 4.3% I/my organisation I am more capable of I/my organisation Others feel more I changed I make better use of #6 introduced new solving professional implemented new engaged in politics medications 6% my network 7.9% products 3.4% problems 8.7% processes 6.4% 6.0% I/my organisation I am more politically I apply new The efficiency of the The efficiency of the My life circumstances introduced new active outside this #7 approaches to my service I provide has service I provide has improved 5.8% policies/strategies community website work 5.5% improved 8.7% improved 6.4% 3.4% 6.0% 127 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 128 ANNEX 4 – Survey Tables

#7 Empowerment 6.8% Sharing 4.8% Dedication 4.7% Informality 5.6% Empowerment 6.1% Professionalism 8.7% Empathy 6.6% Righteousness 5%

#8 Expertise 5.2% Confidentiality 4.7% Self-support 4.7% Engagement 3.3% Diversity 5% Informality 6.9% Professionalism 4.3% Informality 4.2%

#9 Respect 5% Security 4.2% Empowerment 4.7% Recognition 2.6% Informality 3.5% Solidarity 6.9% Confidentiality 4.3% Expertise 3.8%

#10 Informality 4.8% Diversity 4.1% Security 0.9% Equality 2% Integrity 3.5% Confidentiality 4.5% Empowerment 4.3% Other 22.3% Other 23.6% Other 0.9% Other 15.7% Other 17.1% Other 3.4% Other 23.4% Other 31.5% 129 Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services 130 European Commission

EUR 24080 EN — Joint Research Centre — Institute for Prospective Technological Studies

Title: Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services

Authors: Noor Huijboom, Tijs van den Broek, Valerie Frissen, Linda Kool, Bas Kotterink, Morten Meyerhoff Nielsen and Jeremy Millard

Editors: Yves Punie, Gianluca Misuraca and David Osimo

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 2009

EUR — Scientific and Technical Research series — ISSN 1018-5593 ISBN 978-92-79-14059-4 DOI 10.2791/31908

Abstract

This report presents the findings of the study on “Public Services 2.0: The Impact of Social Computing on Public Services” conducted by TNO and DTI on behalf of IPTS from 2008 to 2009.

The report gives an overview of the main trends of Social Computing, in the wider context of an evolving public sector, and in relation to relevant government trends and normative policy visions on future public services within and across EU Member States. It then provides an exhaustive literature review of research and practice in the area of Social Computing and identifies its key impact areas in the public sector.

The report goes on to discuss four case studies of Social Computing-enabled communities in different areas: education (Connexions), health (Doctors.net.uk), inclusion (PatientsLikeMe) and governance (Wikileaks). This is followed by the findings of a scenario-building exercise in which two alternative scenarios were developed and related future opportunities and risks discussed. Additionally, the report presents the results of a cross-case analysis and an ad-hoc online survey which identifies the level of usage, the general characteristics and the key drivers of Social Computing for public services. The report concludes with a summary of research challenges and policy-relevant recommendations.

Evidence from the study indicates that Social Computing technologies, applications and values have already been adopted in many areas of government activity. Social Computing affects several aspects of public service, related to both the front office (citizen-government relations) and the back office activities of public administrations. Social Computing is leading to new forms of ICT-enabled participation, capable 131 of enhancing users’ social awareness and involvement. Social Computing is also transforming relationships and ways of working within and between public sector organisations and opens the way to innovative service delivery mechanisms. The mission of the Joint Research Centre is to provide customer-driven scientific and technical support for the conception, development, implementation and monitoring of European Union policies. As a service of the European Commission, the Joint Research Centre functions as a reference centre of science and technology for the Union. Close to the policy-making process, it serves the common interest of the Member States, while being independent of special interests, whether private or national.

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