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Home , Astron (spacecraft), Iosif Shklovsky, Prognoz 9, Sputnik 3

Russian Space Probes Scientific Discoveries and Future Missions

Brian Harvey with Olga Zakutnyaya

Russian Space Probes

Scientific Discoveries and Future Missions Brian Harvey, FBIS Dr Olga Zakutnyaya 2 Rathdown Crescent Space Research Institute Terenure Russian Academy of Sciences Dublin 6W Profsoyuznaya 84/32 Ireland GSP-7 117997 Russia

SPRINGER±PRAXIS BOOKS IN SPACE EXPLORATION SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: John Mason, M.B.E., B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.

ISBN 978-1-4419-8149-3 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-8150-9 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-8150-9 SpringerNew York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011921111

# Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2011 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project copy editor: Christine Cressy Typesetting: BookEns, Royston, Herts., UK

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science + Business Media (www.springer.com) Contents

Introduction by the authors ...... ix Acknowledgments ...... xi Glossary ...... xiii Terminological and translation notes ...... xv Reference notes ...... xvii List of tables ...... xix List of illustrations ...... xxiii List of figures ...... xxvii

1 Early space science ...... 1 Space science by balloon...... 3 Scientific flights into the atmosphere: the Akademik series...... 14 Scientific test flights with animals ...... 20 The idea of a scientific Earth satellite ...... 23 Scientific objectives of the first Earth satellites ...... 25 Key people ...... 25 Instead, Prosteishy ...... 27 PS2...... 29 Object D: the first large scientific satellite in orbit...... 33 Early space science: what was learned? ...... 37 References ...... 39

2 Deepening our understanding ...... 43 Following Sputnik: the MS series ...... 43 Cosmos 5 and Starfish: introducing Yuri Galperin ...... 48 Following Sputnik: Elektron ...... 55 Elektron feast ...... 58 Introducing the Cosmos program ...... 64 Dnepropetrovsky Sputnik (DS)...... 66 DS-U series ...... 76 Molecular oscillator in orbit ...... 79 vi Contents

The great hunt for anti-matter 80 First astronomy and heliophysical missions 84 New geomagnetic map 85 Supplementary science 86 Nauka modules 91 Application satellites with scientific instruments 98 The third radiation belt 100 Intercosmos 102 Intercosmos missions 105 Intercosmos ionospheric missions 107 Intercosmos charged particle missions 109 Ionosfernaya Stantsiya and the Galperin missions 113 : elusive cosmic rays 119 Specialized scientific missions: Energiya and Efir 127 Solar observatories: 129 Relikt and Intershock 135 Early Soviet space science: what was learned? 139 References 140 Russian-language references 151

3 Revealing the Moon 153 First Cosmic Ship: discovery of the solar 153 Second Cosmic Ship: the lunar environment 157 Mapping the far side of the Moon 158 Soft-landing on the Moon 165 Orbiting the Moon 169 Mapping the Moon in detail: Luna and Zond 173 Recovering lunar samples 181 Luna 20: into the lunar highlands 186 Luna 24: the long view 187 Roving the Moon 191 Lunokhod 2: along the rim of Le Monnier 196 Revealing the Moon: what was learned? 201 References 203 Russian-language references 209

4 Unveiling Venus 211 First Venus probes 211 At last, signals from Venus 215 Descent into the clouds 221 At last, the surface of Venus 222 Photographing the surface 227 Strange atmosphere 233 Chemical laboratory on the surface 237 Mapping the surface of Venus 241 Contents vii

Balloons into the atmosphere ...... 250 Finally, to Halley ...... 255 Unveiling Venus: what was learned? ...... 258 References ...... 260

5 The path to ...... 263 First Mars mission: Mars 1...... 265 The orbital science missions of Mars 2 and 3 ...... 270 Descent through Mars's atmosphere ...... 277 Orbital science: observations from Mars 5 ...... 281 Meeting with ...... 286 Science from Phobos...... 290 Phobos postscript ...... 294 The path to Mars: what was learned? ...... 295 References ...... 297

6 Orbiting space stations ...... 301 Beginnings of space biology: Korabl Sputnik ...... 301 Space biology by cosmonauts ...... 308 Hitting the first walls of space biology: Cosmos 110 ...... 313 Space biology's lunar journey: the flight of the tortoises ...... 315 as a platform for space science ...... 318 Weightlessness: a warning ...... 321 Salyut orbiting station ...... 324 Salyut science ...... 327 Solo Soyuz science ...... 330 Salyut 3 science...... 331 Salyut 4 science...... 332 Salyut 5 science: materials processing plant on orbit ...... 336 Salyut 6 science...... 339 Salyut 7 science...... 347 science ...... 352 International Space Station (ISS) science...... 360 Orbiting space stations: what was learned? ...... 365 References ...... 368

7 Later Soviet space science: the observatories...... 375 Astronomical science: , Kvant, , and ...... 375 Great observatories: Astron ...... 376 Great observatories: Kvant ...... 380 Granat and the great annihilator ...... 383 The last great observatory: Gamma ...... 389 Integral: the great attractor...... 391 Intercosmos: introducing the second phase ...... 393 The Ellipse and Magik missions ...... 393 viii Contents

The Ionozond missions ...... 397 The Priroda and Bulgaria 1300 missions ...... 402 The Aktivny and APEX missions ...... 405 The Oval mission ...... 409 Aureole 3 ...... 412 The search for fireballs: Prognoz M (Interball) ...... 414 Interball: the magnetosphere remodeled ...... 420 Atmospheric science from sounding rockets: Vertikal ...... 424 Smaller sounding rocket programs ...... 427 Solar science: Koronas ...... 432 Small specialized satellites: Pion and Kompass ...... 437 Biological science: ...... 440 Materials science: ...... 449 Later Soviet space science: what was learned? ...... 453 References ...... 455 Russian-language references ...... 464

8 Perspectives, past and future ...... 467 Decline of science during the transition...... 467 Spektr observatories ...... 468 Lunar ``Polygons''...... 471 Phobos sample return ...... 472 Space science in the federal space plan, 2006±2015 ...... 476 Historical overview ...... 478 The Keldysh ascendancy ...... 480 The emergence of IKI...... 482 Key institutes and personalities in the space science program ...... 486 Soviet and Russian space science in a global context...... 489 Concluding remarks ...... 492 References ...... 492 Russian-language references ...... 494

Annexe: Summary of Soviet and Russian space science missions...... 495 Bibliography...... 503 Index ...... 507 Introduction by the authors

Russia launched the first Earth satellite in 1957 and the first scientific laboratory into Earth orbit the following year - . Most accounts of Russian and Soviet space achievements have, understandably, focused on manned spaceflight, the cosmonauts, the rockets, the politics, and the engineering achievements of the Russian and Soviet space programs. There has not yet been an examination of what Russian space science has actually achieved in building our knowledge of the space environment and the solar system. This is a largely untold story. During the days of the , the scientific outcomes of Soviet space missions were not well known and reached only eminent scientists at international gatherings of their peers. In the English-language-speaking world, media coverage of Russian scientific discoveries was limited, some was even dismissive (and, in the Cold War period, suspicious), and the lacked the channels like National Geographic Magazine to communicate its message. Their leading scientists were little known. As we will see, these discoveries were substantial. This book attempts to build a comprehensive picture of the record and story of Russian space science, before, during, and after the Soviet period. It focuses not just on the higher-profile missions to Mars, Venus, and the Moon, but on a broad range of missions from to the ionosphere, from solar studies to the plasmasphere. The questions we attempt to answer are: What scientific missions were undertaken? How? Why? What instruments were used? What was learned? What discoveries were made? Where were the greatest gains in our knowledge? How important was science within the Soviet and Russian space program? Who were the key personalities? What were the principal decisions and priorities? Defining what is and what is not "space science" is not as straightforward as it may first appear, especially in the area of space-based applications looking back towards Earth. Here, we have generally excluded the use of space-based instruments to map the Earth and its ground features, as well as other applications of spaceflight, such as communications and navigation. This book includes space-based research to improve our knowledge of the relationship between our atmosphere, water, and land, as well as space biology and the analysis of substances in microgravity in Earth orbit. This book covers not only unmanned robotic probes, but scientific work x Introduction by the authors undertaken on board orbital space stations, such as Salyut, , Mir, and the International Space Station. Although the Soviet Union and Russia have engaged in many international collaborative missions, especially around the space station Mir, the focus here will be on Soviet/Russian space science, rather than on international equipment carried on Russian satellites and space stations. Where international equipment was used as an part of Russian space science projects, it is, of course, very much included.

Brian Harvey Dublin, Ireland

Olga Zakutnyaya Moscow, Russia 2010 Acknowledgments

Many people helped to make this book possible by providing access to information, documentation, and papers as well as permission to use photographs, diagrams, and illustrations. We especially wish to thank, in Britain, the late Rex Hall; Suszann Parry, Mary McGivern, and Ben Jones for access to the library of the British Interplanetary Society; in Swindon, Doug Stimson of the Library of the Science Museum; Andrew Ball (Open University); in Belgium, Bart Hendrickx, especially for the information he provided on the Elektron, MS, and DS missions; in the Netherlands, Bert Vis; in Denmark, 0jvind Hesselager; in Paris, Dr Aaron Janovsky, for providing access to the papers of COSPAR; COSPAR; in Moscow, the Director of the Institute for Space Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Dr Lev Zelenyi; and his colleagues there, Yuri Zaitsev, Dr Alexander Zakharov, Dr Oleg Vaisberg, and Dr Tatiana Mularchik; Dr Sergei Pulinets; Dr Natasha Khisina; Dr Viktor Khalipov; Dr Vladimir Temnyi; Dr Oleg Bartunov of the Sternberg Astronomical Institute of Moscow University; in the Czech Republic, Dr Jaroslav Syykora, Dr Pavel Triska, Eva Vlckova, and Ivana Kolmasova; and in Canada, Joel Powell.

Glossary

AIS Automatic Interplanetary Station ARAKS Artificial Radiation and Aurora between Kerguelen and the Soviet Union ARCAD ARC Aurorale et Densite AU Astronomical Unit (distance of the Earth from the = 1 AU) AUOS Avtomaticheskaya Universalnaya Orbitalnaya Stantsiya (Auto­ matic Universal Orbital Station) Aureole AURora and EOLus CNES Centre National des Etudes Spatiales (French space agency) KORONAS Comprehensive Orbital Near Earth Observations of the Active Sun COSPAR Committee on Space Research DS Dnepropetrovsky Sputnik GAISh State Astronomical Institute in memory of P.K. Sternberg of GEOKHI Vernadsky Institute for Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences IGY International Geophysical Year IKI Institute for Space Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow IZMIRAN Pushkov Institute of Terrestrial Magnetism, Ionosphere and Radio Wave Propagation of the Russian Academy of Sciences KNA Konteyner Nauchnoy Apparatury, or Scientific Equipment Con­ tainer KOMPASS Complex Orbital Magneto Plasma Autonomous Small Satellite KREEP Potassium, Rare Earth Elements and Phosphorus (type of Moon rock) KS Korabl Sputnik LMC Large Magellanic Cloud MKA Maly Kosmicheski Apparat (Small Space Apparatus) MS Maly Sputnik (Small Satellite) xiv Glossary

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (United States) NIIYaF Skobeltsyn Institue for Nuclear Physics, Moscow State Uni­ versity OKB Oputno Konstruktorskoe Byuro (Experimental Design Bureau) OSOAVIAKHIM Society for the Promotion of Defence, Air Travel and Chemistry RIFMA Rontgen Isotopic Fluorescent Method of Analysis PrOP PRibori Otsenki Prokhodimosti (Penetrometer to test the terrain) SIGNE Solar International Gamma Ray and Neutron Experiment Terminological and translation notes

The term "weightlessness" is used to describe the gravity environment in which people (or other life forms) find themselves during the course of space journeys. Although "microgravity" is more correct, the term "weightlessness" is generally well understood. Politically, the term "Russia" is used as shorthand for "the Russian federation" in the period from January 1992. In the case of "Germany", the term "Germany" will be used, for convenience, to refer to both the Federal Republic of Germany before 1991 (often then known as "West" Germany) and to the reunited country after 1991. The state known as "East" Germany for 1949-1989 will be called by its formal title, the GDR (German Democratic Republic). For temperatures, two units of measurement will be used: Celsius and Kelvin. Celsius, which runs from 0° (the freezing point of water) to 100° (boiling) is the popularly understood and is cited as °C. Where measurements are much larger, many scientists use Kelvin (K), which begins at absolute zero, which is -273°C. Accordingly, both are used and indicated appropriately and readers should add or subtract 273 to make the necessary conversion. It was a normal habit of the first of a series of Russian spacecraft to have a simple name, without a number. was launched in Vostok, not Vostok 1. Thus, we have the first Moon rover Lunokhod, not Lunokhod 1. There were exceptions of course, when more than one were launched together (e.g. Elektron 1 and 2) or when they were clearly going to be part of a long series (e.g. Cosmos 1) or when they were retrospectively renamed (e.g. 1). There is a difference in academic degrees between Russia and Europe. In Russia, the first stage is Candidate of Science, equivalent to Ph.D. The second stage is Doctor of Science, which does not have a direct equivalent. Russian names are transliterated into English in what is called the simplified form (British Standard). Every effort has been made to ensure that the reproduction of photographs and illustrations is of the highest quality. Readers are asked to make allowances for the fact that in the case of some historic photographs, especially from the early Soviet period, original negatives were not always available and reproduced versions may have aged over time.

Reference notes

The general sources for the research are reported and discussed in more detail in the bibliographical note at the end. In the case of more specific chapter references, rather than disrupt the flow of the narrative by numerous references after each individual point, the scientific results of each mission are given a composite set of references. Where there are multiple authors (three or more), the first named is normally given.

Tables

1.2 The ionosphere 17 1.3 Akademik and subsequent scientific launchings 19 1.4 Sounding rocket flights with animals 23 1.5 Scientific objectives, object D, as set in 1956 25 1.6 Sputnik 3 instruments 34

2.2 Instrumentation on Elektron satellites, 1964 58

2.4 Aims of the Cosmos program, announced 16th March 1962 68

2.6 DS series, first round, science missions 69 2.7 DS-U satellites in the Cosmos program - outline 77 2.8 DS-U series - detailed breakdown 78 2.9 Scientific instruments flown on military and other Cosmos missions... 88 2.10 Nauka modules with scientific payloads, 1968-1979 97 2.11 Applications satellites with scientific instruments 99 2.12 Cosmos missions to detect third radiation belt 102 2.13 Early Intercosmos DS-U series 104 2.14 Intercosmos series 113 2.15 Cosmos 381 Ionosfernaya Stantsiya instruments 115 2.16 Ionospheric satellites 119 2.17 Proton series aims 121

2.19 Proton series 126

2.21 Prognoz missions and instruments 132 2.22 Orbiting solar observatories (Prognoz program) 139 3.1 First and Second Cosmic Ship instruments 154 3.2 Automatic Interplanetary Station instruments 160 xx Tables

3.3 Zond 3 scientific instruments 163

3.4 First Moon-probe discoveries 164

3.6 Luna soft-lander instruments 167

3.8 Luna 10 instruments 170

3.10 Luna 11 and 12 instruments 173 3.11 The lunar orbiting missions, with orbiting parameters 181 3.12 The circumlunar missions, with distance from Moon 181 3.13 Soil density measurements, later Lunas 185 3.14 Sample return missions 191 3.16 Lunokhod 2 instruments 196 3.17 The lunar rovers 201 4.1 First Venus probe instruments 212

4.8 Descents into Venus's atmosphere (launch dates) 222

4.13 Venera 9 and 10 instruments 229 4.14 Venera 9 lander science 230 4.15 Venera 10 lander science 230 4.16 Venera 9 and 10 orbiter science 233 4.17 Venera 11 and 12 instruments 234

4.19 Venera 13 and 14 landing sites chemistry 240 4.20 Venera 13 and 14 discoveries 241 4.21 and 16 instruments 242 4.22 Venera 15 and 16 achievements and discoveries 250 4.23 VEGA experiments 251

4.25 Venus atmospheric science from the VEGAs 255

4.27 Venus: cloud layers 259 5.1 Mars 1 instruments 266

5.3 Mars 2 and 3 instruments 269 Tables xxi

5.4 Mars 2 and 3 science 5.5 Mars 73 experiments 278

5.7 Mars 5 discoveries: composition of Mars rock 283

5.10 : composition of Mars rock 292 5.11 Phobos 2 science 294 6.1 Orbited Korabl Sputnik biological missions, with names of dogs 307 6.2 Korabl Sputnik mission outcomes 308 6.3 Scientific outcomes, early manned missions (Vostok and Voskhod). . . 312 6.4 Cosmos 110 22-day mission: Veterok and Ugolyok, results 314 6.5 The early manned and biological missions 315 6.6 Zond 5-8 missions and instrumentation 318 6.7 Early Soyuz missions science 324 6.8 Early Soyuz science outcomes 324 6.9 Salyut space stations, with launch and de-orbit dates 325 6.10 Bios ground experiment durations 327

6.12 Soyuz 13 science experiments 331 6.13 Solo Soyuz science missions 331 6.14 Salyut 3 experiments 332

6.16 Salyut 5 experiments 338

6.19 Pion K science (Cosmos 1686) 351 6.20 Mir - extension of duration records 353

6.22 Selection of Russian science experiments, International Space Station. 366 7.1 Granat astrophysical instruments 383 7.2 Periods of X-ray studied by Granat 388 7.3 The great observatories 391 7.4 Periods of operation of the great observatories 391 7.5 AUOS series 394 7.6 Magion 1 instruments 395

7.8 Intercosmos 22 Bulgaria 1300 instruments 403 7.9 Intercosmos 24 Aktivny instruments 405 7.10 Magion 2 instruments 407

7.12 Magion 3 instruments 409 7.13 Cosmos 900 instruments 411

7.15 Intercosmos - second phase (AUOS) 414 xxii Tables

7.16 Prognoz 11 (M 1) (Interball 1, tail probe) instruments 416 7.17 Prognoz 12 (M 2) (Interball 2, auroral probe) instruments 417 7.18 Magion 4 instruments 417 7.19 Prognoz M program/Interball 423 7.20 Summary of Magion missions 423

7.22 Focus of Vertikal: missions 426 7.23 Meteorological rocket campaigns 431 7.24 Electron guns, beams, and plasma blob experiments (Feyerwerk) 431

7.26 Koronas F instruments 434 7.27 Koronas Foton instruments 437 7.28 Koronas series summary 437

7.30 Specialized small satellites, 2000-2009 439 7.31 ESA Bion 8 and 9 experiments 445

7.33 Space biology: Bion missions summary 448 7.34 Space biology: Bion payloads 448 7.35 Space biology: participating countries, apart from USSR/Russia 448 7.36 Standard Foton instruments 449 7.37 Foton materials science missions 453 8.1 Phobos Sample Return instruments 473 8.2 Main lines of development and highlights of Soviet and Russian space science 479 8.3 Post-war presidents of the Soviet Academy of Sciences 481 8.4 Key dates and key decisions in early Soviet space science 482 8.5 Later Soviet space science: key decisions from early IKI period 485 8.6 MSU principal investigators, selected missions 489 Illustrations

Pulkovo observatory ...... 2 Vladimir Vernadsky...... 3 Book by Nikolai Rynin ...... 4 Sergei Vernov ...... 5 USSR 1 balloon completed ...... 6 USSR 1 balloon crew ...... 6 USSR 1 balloon take-off ...... 7 USSR 1 balloon landed ...... 8 OSOAVIAKHIM preparations ...... 10 OSOAVIAKHIM take-off ...... 11 Pavel Fedoseenko ...... 12 Andrei Vasenko...... 12 Illya Usyskin ...... 12 Balloon memorial stamps ...... 13 Anatoli Blagonravov ...... 15 R-2A rocket ...... 16 slits on Akademik rockets ...... 17 Space dog Kozyavka ...... 22 Mstislav Keldysh, , and Igor Kurchatov ...... 26 The first Sputnik ...... 28 ...... 31 Contemporary view of the ionosphere ...... 38 Cosmos 2 ...... 45 Cosmos 3 ...... 47 Yuri Galperin ...... 53 Iosif Shklovsky ...... 53 Yuri Galperin and Iosif Shklovsky ...... 53 Making observations ...... 54 Elektron 1 ...... 56 Elektron 2 ...... 56 DS design ...... 67 xxivxxiv IllustrationsIllustrations

Cosmos 149 Kosmicheski Strela ...... 74 DS-U design ...... 77 Nikolai Basov ...... 80 Cosmos 97 Molekularni ...... 81 Boris Konstantinov ...... 82 Nauka module...... module 9292 KNA system ...... 92 Loading KNAs ...... 93 NaumNaum GrigorovGrigorov ...... 101101 IntercosmosIntercosmos 11 launchlaunch ...... 105105 IntercosmosIntercosmos 11 instrumentationinstrumentation ...... 106106 Intercosmos 7 ...... 106 Intercosmos 2 ...... 108 Intercosmos 10 ...... 111 CosmosCosmos 381381 Ionosfernaya ...... 114114 Proton ...... 120 Intercosmos 6 ...... 128 Oleg Vaisberg ...... 130 Preparing Prognoz for launch ...... 131 Relikt experimentexperiment ...... 136136 ...... 136 KonstantinKonstantin GringauzGringauz ...... 155155 YuriYuri LipskyLipsky ...... 159159 Zond 3 ...... 164 Luna 9 close-up of Moon soil ...... 168 LunaLuna 1313 penetrometerpenetrometer atat wor workk ...... 169169 LunaLuna 1010 inin lunarlunar orbitorbit ...... 170170 Craters from Zond 6 ...... 177 ZondZond 7 crossescrosses boundaryboundary ofof lunarlunar nightnight andand dayday ...... 178178 ZondZond 8 sweepssweeps aroundaround thethe edgeedge ofof thethe MoonMoon ...... 178178 LunaLuna 1919 ...... 179179 LunaLuna 1616 ...... 183183 Details of the drilling system ...... 183 SamplesSamples fromfrom LunaLuna 1616...... 184184 LunaLuna 2424 onon thethe lunarlunar surfacesurface ...... 190190 Luna 24 samples ...... 190 Lunokhod and its laser ...... 192 Lunokhod and its wheel system ...... 193 Lunokhod'sLunokhod an finald its restingwheel syste placem...... 195193 LunokhodLunokhod's 2 final in Le restin Monnierg plac baye ...... 197195 Lunokhod 2 looking down into the rille ...... 198 LunokhodLunokhod 2's2 lookin finalg stop dow...... n into the rille 198198 VeneraLunokho 2MVd 2'sand final 3MV stop series...... 213198 VeneraVenera 42M descentV and cabin3MV serie...... s 217213 Illustrations xxv

Venera 8 landing site ...... 225 Venera 9±14 series ...... 228 Venus's magnetic field ...... 231 Venera 14 image of surface ...... 239 Venera 15 map of Ishtar Laksmi ...... 245 Venera images of ridges and irregular terrain...... 246 Core of comet Halley from VEGA ...... 257 Gavril Tikhov at Pulkovo observatory ...... 263 Gavril Tikhov in the 1950s ...... 264 Mars1 ...... 265 Mars 3 soft-lander ...... 270 Mars 3 image of Mars ...... 272 Vasili Moroz ...... 276 Plains with craters and linear features ...... 282 Crater impacts...... 282 Ridges and depression ...... 282 Larger crater with dark flat floor...... 282 Mars UVL spacecraftPhobos...... 288 Phobos globe...... 293 Oleg Gazenko ...... 304 Konstantin Feoktistov ...... 311 Spacesuit for the Cosmos 110 dogs ...... 314 Zond 5 turtles ...... 316 Soyuz 7 crew, with Vladislav Volkov ...... 320 Vulkan welding unit ...... 321 Soyuz 9 crew recovery ...... 322 Iosif Gitelson...... 326 Biosphere in Krasnoyarsk ...... 326 Lower-body gravity suit...... 329 Salyut 4's telescope ...... 333 Splav furnace...... 337 Zona furnace ...... 337 Yuri Romanenko running on Salyut 6...... 340 Growing wheat in orbit ...... 342 Salyut 6 observations of the atmosphere ...... 344 Salyut external sample fixtures...... 345 Malakhit experiment on Salyut 7 ...... 348 Svetlana Savitskaya operating the Tavria experiment ...... 349 Dr Valeri Poliakov ...... 353 Dr Jaroslav Sykora ...... 354 Peas gone to seed in greenhouse ...... 358 Plants that grew unusually long stems ...... 358 Water droplets attached to plants ...... 359 Matroshka inside the station with Sergei Krikalev ...... 363 Matroshka outside the station ...... 364 xxvi Illustrations

Dusty plasma experiment...... 365 Astron ...... 377 Granat ...... 384 Granat image of galactic center ...... 386 Granat image of radio source in the center of our galaxy ...... 387 Gamma ...... 390 Integral sky map ...... 392 Intercosmos 17 Ellipse preparations ...... 395 Intercosmos 18 Magik with Magion...... 396 Preparing Magion ...... 396 Magion ...... 397 Intercosmos 19 Ionozond rollout ...... 399 Intercosmos 19 Polish scientists ...... 399 Intercosmos 22 Bulgaria 1300 ...... 404 Intercosmos 24 Aktivny ...... 406 Intercosmos 25 APEX ...... 408 Olga Kohrosheva...... 410 Interball final mission concept ...... 415 Pavel Triska ...... 415 Interball data printout from Elektron instrument, 1995 ...... 418 Model of Earth's magnetosphere ...... 420 Vertikal ...... 425 Vertikal container ...... 425 Vertikal 8 launch crew...... 425 ARAKS launch site in Kerguelen ...... 429 ARAKS rocket in preparation...... 429 ARAKS launch site, a penguin colony...... 430 KOMPASS...... 439 Bioncabin...... 442 Biopan experiment ...... 443 Cells affected by radiation ...... 450 Details inside the Bion/Foton cabin...... 451 FotonM-3...... 452 Dr Lev Zelenyi, Director of IKI ...... 468 Spektr design...... 469 Alexander Zakharov ...... 472 Possible landing sites for Phobos Sample Return ...... 474 IKI during its early years...... 484 Roald Sagdeev at international meeting ...... 486 Figures

1.1 Chart of OSOVIAKHIM flight ...... 13 1.2 Measurement of electrons by three 1958 sounding rockets ...... 18 1.3 Measurement of temperature by sounding rocket, June 1963 ...... 18 1.4 Air density measurements taken by Sputnik 3...... 36 2.1 Printout of Cosmos 2 measurements of ion concentrations, April 1962 ...... 46 2.2 Cosmos 12 analyzer ...... 49 2.3 Cosmos 12, 15 passes over the Southern Ocean ...... 49 2.4 Cosmos 12, 15 measurement points of anomaly ...... 50 2.5 Cosmos 15 map of South Atlantic magnetic anomaly ...... 50 2.6 Map of the Starfish blast, based on Cosmos 5 ...... 52 2.7 Elektron trajectories ...... 57 2.8 New map of the magnetosphere ...... 59 2.9 New map of the distribution of electrons ...... 60 2.10 Map of a magnetic storm ...... 60 2.11 Elektron map of soft protons ...... 61 2.12 Elektron map of the sporadic zone ...... 61 2.13 Elektron detection of showers in January 1964 ...... 64 2.14 Cosmos 11 data on ion concentrations by altitude ...... 70 2.15 New map of radiation belts, which used data from Cosmos 17 ...... 71 2.16 A magnetogram from Cosmos 49 ...... 72 2.17 The part of Earth covered by Cosmos 26 and 49 mapping ...... 73 2.18 Cosmos 49 magnetic map of Africa ...... 73 2.19 Air density measurements of the early Cosmos satellites ...... 76 2.20 Cosmos 135 measurements of gamma-ray impacts ...... 83 2.21 Cosmos 321 new world geomagnetic map ...... 86 2.22 Cosmos 321 map of the auroral oval ...... 87 2.23 Cosmos 92 airglow measurements...... 89 2.24 Cosmos 65 map of Earth's ozone ...... 90 2.25 Cosmos 208 measurements of X-rays coming from constellations ..... 93 2.26 Cosmos 243 measurement of water vapor levels over the oceans ...... 94 xxviii Figures

2.27 Cosmos 243 measurement of water vapor lines over the Indian Ocean 95 2.28 Cosmos 243 measurement of temperature of Australian landmass 96 2.29 Cosmos 384 map of Antarctic icefields 96 2.30 Ion concentration measured by Intercosmos 2 108 2.31 Soviet model of the magnetosphere, early 1970s 109 2.32 The cyclotron whistlers detected by Intercosmos 5 110 2.33 Soviet map of the magnetosphere by Cosmos 348 117 2.34 The multiple layers of the ionization calorimeter 122 2.35 The electron spectrometer 123 2.36 The SEZ 13, with its walls to trap cosmic rays 124 2.37 Proton 2 average rates of particles 124 2.38 Proton 2 particle intensities 125 2.39 Proton 4 primary cosmic rays 126 3.1 New map of Earth's radiation belt, based on passage of First

3.2 Passage of the Second Cosmic Ship (Luna 2) through the radiation

3.3 The Moon map compiled by the Automatic Interplanetary Station. . . 161 3.4 Zond 3 trajectory, showing period of photography of western limb

3.6 Turning the photographs into maps, Zond 3 166

3.8 Luna 6 contributed to a picture of the strength of cosmic rays over 1959-1965 168 3.9 Luna 10 magnetometer measurements 170 3.10 Luna 10 map of the lunar magnetic field 171 3.11 Luna 11 detection of long-range radio bursts, 8th September 1966 ... 174 3.12 Zond 5 map of Africa 176

3.14 Geological chart of Lunokhod 2's journey 200 4.1 Radiation measured by Venera 4 en route 216 4.2 The original profile of the Venera 4 descent 218 4.3 Comparison of Venera 4 and Mariner 5 data 219 4.4 Profile of bow shock from Venera 4 219 4.5 Profile of Venus magnetic field after Venera 4 220 4.6 Profile of wind during Venera 7 descent 223 4.7 Wind profile of Veneras 4, 7, and 8 223 4.8 Light levels during the Venera 8 descent 226

4.10 Surface map of Venus from Venera 9 and 10 radar imaging 232 4.11 Flare record by Venera 12, 3rd December 1978 235 4.12 Telemetry readout of chemical composition, Veneras 13 and 14 240 4.13 Map of the northern latitudes of Venus from Veneras 15 and 16 243 Figures xxix

4.14 Analysis of northern latitudes, Veneras 15 and 16...... 244 4.15 Large-scale geological features ...... 246 4.16 Tessera Fortuna ...... 247 4.17 Parquet...... 247 4.18 Ravina Sedna ...... 248 4.19 Balloon release points, VEGAs 1 and 2 ...... 253 4.20 Journey of VEGA 1 and 2 balloons ...... 253 4.21 VEGA 1 balloon speeds ...... 254 4.22 VEGA 1 and 2 balloons: pressure, temperatures recorded...... 254 5.1 Earth's environment, as mapped from the outward trajectory of Mars 1 ...... 266 5.2 Mars 2 and 3 instrument readout of water in the atmosphere ...... 272 5.3 First Soviet map of Martian magnetic field...... 275 5.4 Mars 2 and 3 instruments registering disturbed ions ...... 276 5.5 Mars 6 data for pressure, temperature and altitude...... 280 5.6 The Mars 5 map of water vapor ...... 284 5.7 Map of the Martian shock wave and magnetic field following Mars 5 ...... 285 6.1 Air density map 1960±1963 compiled by Korabl Sputnik ...... 302 6.2 Korabl Sputnik 2 map of the South Atlantic magnetic anomaly ..... 306 6.3 Radiation intensity, compiled by Korabl Sputnik 3...... 307 6.4 Radiation map, compiled by Korabl Sputnik 3...... 307 6.5 Konstantin Feoktistov's observations ...... 311 6.6 Pulse rates of the Voskhod 2 crew ...... 312 6.7 Radiation meter count readouts from Zond 5...... 317 6.8 Measurement of airglow from Soyuz 5 ...... 319 6.9 Mir map of electron densities ...... 356 7.1 Astron detection of gamma burst ...... 379 7.2 The nuclear plume from Three Mile Island...... 400 7.3 Electrical activity before the Kermadec Earthquake (Intercosmos 19) . 402 7.4 Cosmos 900 passing through storm...... 411 7.5 Cosmos 900 plasma blobs...... 412