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Ichnology, Depositional Dynamics and Sequence Stratigraphy Of ICHNOLOGY, DEPOSITIONAL DYNAMICS AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE PLIO-PLEISTOCENE ORINOCO DELTA: MAYARO AND MORNE L’ENFER FORMATIONS, SOUTHERN TRINIDAD A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) In the Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada By SUDIPTA DASGUPTA Copyright Sudipta Dasgupta, November, 2015. All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis as the partial fulfillment of requirements for a Ph.D. degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I understand and confirm that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be allowed by the Dr. Luis A. Buatois who supervised my thesis work or, in his absence, by the Head, Department of Geological Sciences, or the Dean of the Colleges of Graduate Studies and Research (CGSR), in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for any direct or indirect financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission or, in my absence, without written permission from my immediate heir. It is also implicit that appropriate recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. DISCLAIMER References in this thesis to any specific commercial product(s), process(es), or service(s) by trade name(s), trademark(s), manufacturer(s), private company(ies), or otherwise, does not constitute or imply its(or their) endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by me or the University of Saskatchewan. Requests for permission to copy or to make other uses of materials in this thesis in whole or part should be addressed to: Head OR Dean Department of Geological Sciences College of Graduate Studies and Research University of Saskatchewan University of Saskatchewan 114 Science Place 107 Administration Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5E2 Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5A2 Canada Canada i ABSTRACT During the Late Pliocene and early Pleistocene, when the paleo-Orinoco delta system transited over the Amacuro Shelf and reached the paleo-shelf-break along the southeastern shoreline of Trinidad. At this time onwards, the shelf-edge delta clinoforms developed further eastward. These deltaic clastic wedges serve as the unique analog in the geological record for an accommodation-driven inner-shelf and shelf-edge delta, developed at an oblique foreland tectonic setting situated at a tropical-equatorial paleogeographic setting. These deposits were influenced by strong Atlantic longshore current, tropical storms, and phytodetrital pulses, and with an exceptionally high sediment accumulation rates. These four aspects make the clastic wedges unique candidates for sedimentological, ichnological, and stratigraphic investigation. The primary objectives of this thesis are to: (a) collect, analyze, and integrate outcrop data on lithofacies, trace fossils, and discontinuity surfaces into a comprehensive depositional and ichnological model for the first growth-fault-guided shelf-marginal pulse of the paleo-Orinoco delta, as recorded in the Mayaro Formation outcrops in southeast Trinidad; and (b) deduce the dominant sedimentary processes during the across shelf transit and their impacts on the benthic infauna as preserved in the Morne L’Enfer Formation outcrops of southwest Trinidad, which are possibly slightly older than the Mayaro Formation. The basal interval of the Morne L’Enfer Formation has specifically been investigated for this purpose, where the deltaic clastic wedges are preserved directly above shelf deposits. The entire Mayaro Formation megasequence is categorized into deposits belonging to twelve different subenvironments based on lithofacies associations and ichnological characteristics. Ichnological evidence indicates that the shelf-edge deltas are one of the most extreme marine environments for benthic metazoans to colonize. However, the combinations and ranking of stress factors affecting the colonizing fauna are diverse and distinct in every individual subenvironment indicating the relative dominances of river-influence, waves, and/or sediment- gravity-flows vis-à-vis slope instability. Due to variations in stress factors, the megasequence also displays dual ichnologic and sedimentologic properties of both the shelf-edge delta lobe(s) and the outer shelf delta lobe(s). A minor transient tidal influence can only be observed in the ii architectural elements, e.g. elongated interbar embayment and interlobe prodeltaic depocentres, which control topography and enhance tidal effect. Discovery of an unusual monospecific Glossifungites Ichnofacies along an incision surface in the midst of the Mayaro Formation succession enabled a substantial overhaul of the earlier understanding of the formation in terms of its depositional model and stacking pattern. The surface has been re-identified as a canyon/gully cut at the shelf-edge, which possibly acted as a conduit for (a) the mass movements and for (b) the coarse clastic (mostly silt to medium- grained sand) sediment transfer to deep marine settings. The monospecific nature of the Glossifungites Ichnofacies suite indicates that the incision surface was under substantial ecological stresses for the colonizing infauna. The stresses might have arisen from slope instability of the steep canyon/gully walls, mass movements above the incision surface, elevated water turbulence, and lowered salinity from river influx. Five different facies tracts have been identified within the canyon/gully-fill, which crosscuts the shelf-edge delta-front. The facies tracts are dominated by different types of sediment-gravity flow deposits, which are systematically stacked and are almost devoid of trace fossils due to rapid sedimentation rates and slope instability. They are also strikingly different from the surrounding deltaic facies. A high- frequency sequence stratigraphic model involving the influence of growth-fault tectonics on the relative sea-level curve has been invoked to explain the incision of the canyon/gully and its sequential filling processes. On the other hand, the transition from the open shelf to inner-shelf deltaic condition as displayed by the basal members of the Morne L’Enfer Formation is strongly dominated by evidences of river influence with the transient background action of fair-weather waves and storm waves. A peculiar pattern of disappearance of trace fossils produced by irregular sea- urchins highlight that the river influence was quite strong not only at the sediment-water interface but also in the water-column, which affected invertebrate larvae. The initial progradation of the clastic wedge on the shelf was dominated by hyperpycnal flows and waves in contrast to tidal domination in the younger members of the formation. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I deeply apologize to every individual member of my family for making this apparently ‘absurd’ decision of leaving a stable well-remunerating career in the oil-and-gas industry and coming to Canada in order to sail on an unfathomed and unchartered academic water. I fully accept the accountability for making that decision, which caused an immense distress for all of them; and I intend here to refrain from pointing a finger towards any bureaucratic institution. I deeply acknowledge the initiatives and ingenuities of Carlos Zavala, especially for introducing me to Luis Buatois and Gabriela Mángano, to both of whom I will remain immeasurably indebted. Repsol E&P T&T Limited provided continuous support for the fieldwork in Trinidad, for which I deeply thank Livan Blanco Valiente, Rafael Vela, Yrma Vallez, Anderson Arjoon, Jivanti Ramdular, Jose Luis Huedo Cuesta, and their entire subsurface group. Field assistance by Marlon Bruce and Balázs Törő was vital for the success of this study and I cannot fully express my gratitude in any word. I thank Ron Steel, Jasper Knight, Franz Fürsich, Andrea Fildani, James MacEachern, Shahin Dashtgard, Korhan Ayranci, and seven anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments, suggestions, and critical observations on the manuscripts. I acknowledge the diligent review of the project and my thesis by Stephen Hubbard, Brian Pratt, Alec Aitken, James Merriam, Samuel Butler, and Matt Lindsay. Logistic and additional assistance in the field from Dinelle Medina, Ann Marie Singh, Michael, Ragoo and health and safety department of Repsol are highly appreciated. Additional financial support was provided by an NSERC Discovery Grant to Luis Buatois. The Graduate Teaching Fellowship, the Devolved Scholarship from the Department of Geological Sciences, the AAPG Foundation Merrill W. Haas Memorial Grant, the Saskatchewan Innovation and Opportunity Award from the Provincial Government of Saskatchewan and University of Saskatchewan, the Dr. Rui Feng Graduate Studies Award, and the travel grants from the University of Saskatchewan, the Geological Society of America, and the International Ichnological Association to me have proven to be crucial for this study. I will remain deeply thankful to Ven Kolla, Liviu Giosan, Octavian Catuneanu, Dennis Meloche, Andreas Wetzel, Tony Ekdale, Renata Netto, Koji Seike, Juan Jose Ponce, Noelia Carmona, Silvio Casadio, Robin Renaut, Irene Espejo, Patricio Desjardins, Luis Quiroz,
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