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Pleasures of the Table

Food in American History, Part 6— (Part 1) Reconstruction and Growth Into the 20th Century (1865-1910)

Louis E. Grivetti, PhD Jan L. Corlett, PhD Bertram M. Gordon, PhD Cassius T. Lockett, PhD

Beef dishes prepared from chopped, ground, hacked, or This sixth installment of in American History series minced beef have been used since antiquity and are diffi- considers 1865 through 1910, covering America’s cult to trace. The earliest use of the word dates reconstruction and growth after the Civil War, with beef as to the end of the Middle Ages in reference to citizens from that German city, whereas the earliest mention of the central food theme. Part 1 follows the rise of the beef appears in England—not —where hamburger as an icon in American culture. a colony of Hamburger merchants lived in London during the 18th century and their name became attached to the type of beef they prepared. The earliest known use of the eef is the core, the essence, of American food histo- term Hamburg dates to approximately 1800.5 ry, yet it was not native to the Americas (Tables 1 Salted may have existed in Hamburg, Ger- Band 2). Explorers and immigrants brought cattle to many, but it was not hamburger in the culinary sense used the New World. Subsequently, oxen pulled covered wag- today. Uncritical sources have proposed that hamburg ons westward, cows produced milk for pioneer families, steak was served aboard the Hamburg-Amerika shipping and cowboys and cowgirls punched herds along the line, which brought German immigrants to America in Chisholm Trail. The story of beef is American history, the 1850s. This dish, so the story goes, was popular and the story of beef is one of human challenge, perse- aboard the ship, because salted smoked beef could keep verance, and hard work. There is a widely held percep- tion that steak and potatoes define American food pat- terns. From to , from classic beef to upscale flavored beef , Americans have chewed The term on beef and for nearly 400 years. originally meant salted beef. The Hamburger and How It Came to Be well on long sea voyages. Furthermore, the hard salted One beef item, the hamburger, is commonly associated beef was minced and extended, using breadcrumbs and with American culture. Imagine, if you will, the - , and then shaped into and cooked, and burger in all its various forms, grind textures, added recipes for such beef patties were duplicated in America ingredients, offered on a bun, and served with once the immigrants arrived.6 numerous sauces and . Although hamburger Others have written that the first hamburger—specifi- “came of age” in America, tracing its origins is an exer- cally hamburger steak—was served in 1834 at Delmonico’s cise in geography and history. From the port of Hamburg, , , for $.10. However, this oft- Germany, to thousands of stops along the American inter- quoted origin is not based on the original Delmonico state highway system, the hamburger has a long history. menu but rather a facsimile,7 and it can be demonstrated Although several authors have examined superficially the through careful scholarship that the published facsimile history of this food,1-4 the real story appeared at a well- could not be correct, because the printer of the purported attended symposium on food and culture held in 1980 at original menu was not in business in 1834! The first certi- Mills College, Oakland, Calif. fiable use of the word hamburger in America appeared in

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Table 1. Event Chronology: 1865-1910

1866 First cattle drive along Chisholm Trail from Texas to Abilene, Kan; first development of commercial infant formula by Henri Nestlé; first US patent for a tin can with a key opener 1867 First commercial sale of frankfurters in a roll or bun, Coney Island, NY; first development of canned dev- iled ham by William Underwood; first patent for baby food issued to Justus von Liebig; first patent on barbed wire filed by Lucian Smith; commercial margarine developed in France; sugar beets introduced to Territory by Brigham Young; Alaska purchased from Russia for $7,200,000; baked Alaska created by Chef Charles Ranhofer, Delmonico’s Restaurant, New York City. 1868 Charles Fleischmann develops commercial yeast, Cincinnati, Ohio; first Tabasco sauce formulated by Edmund McIlhenny, Avery Island, La; Claus Spreckels of San Francisco revolutionizes sugar-refining method; first regularly scheduled railroad dining car developed by George Pullman; refrigerated railroad car patented by William Davis. 1869 Bottled introduced to America by Francis Manning-Needham; completion of transcontinental rail- road, Promontory Point, Utah Territory; completion of the Suez Canal (Egypt); first railroad shipment of fresh sent from Chicago arrives in Boston. 1870 Cattle drives common on the Chisholm Trail; invention of the rotary egg beater; Phylloxera disease reaches California vine-growing areas; folding paper bag invented by Margaret Knight, Springfield, Mass; wheeled can opener patented by William W. Lyman. 1871 Iced tea served at the Fifth Avenue Hotel in New York; planted commercially by R. B. Ord in California; Great Chicago fire; commercial tangerine cultivation pioneered in Florida by George L. Dancy; Dodge City, Kan, built on the Santa Fe Trail to serve buffalo hunters. 1872 American vine roots used to revive European wine industry, devastated by Phylloxera; Louis Pasteur dis- covers food fermentation caused by microorganisms; commercial doughnut cutter invented by John F. Blondell; flat-bottomed paper bag patented by Luther Childs Crowell; vacuum food processing patents issued to Amanda Theodosia Jones. 1873 Barbed wire demonstrated by Henry Rose at De Kalb, Ill, county fair; Angus bulls introduced to America at Victoria, Kan; first introduction of Infant Milk Food by Nestlé to the ; thermos bottle invented by James Dewar in Scotland; George Baldwin Selden experiments with internal combustion engine and develops a lightweight road vehicle. 1874 First cattle drive from Montana to Utah Territory; ice-cream soda invented at the Semi-centennial Celebration of Philadelphia’s Franklin Institute by Robert N. Green; margarine introduced to the United States; first grain elevator constructed by Frank Peavey at Sioux City, Iowa. 1875 Rootbeer developed by Charles Elmer Hires in Philadelphia, Pa; apples grown for the first time in Yakima Valley, Wash; navel oranges produced for first time in Riverside, Calif, by Jonathan and Eliza Tibbets; combines first used on American wheat farms; orange crate developed by E. ; Bing cherry developed by Chinese-American orchardman in Oregon; first American agricultural experiment station established at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn; slaughter used as a technique to extermi- nate the Comanche who rely on the animal as their primary food source; President Grant vetoes bill to protect bison from extinction. 1876 American Centennial celebration; Fred Harvey opens restaurant at the Santa Fe railroad depot, Topeka, Kan; Heinz introduced at the Philadelphia Centennial Fair; William Thompson develops seedless grapes at Marysville, Calif; development of Phylloxera-resistant root-stock by Charles A. Whitmore; Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone. 1877 Centrifugal cream separator invented by Carl Gustaf Patrik de Laval in Sweden; granula (later named granola) developed at Battle Creek, Mich, by John Harvey Kellogg. (continues)

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Table 1. Event Chronology: 1865-1910 (Continued)

1878 Roasted coffee first packed in sealed cans; first commercial bottle stopper patented by Charles G. Hutchinson; first cannery developed in Alaska; first commercial milking machine developed by A. Durant and L. O. Colvin; word enzyme coined by Wilhelm Kuhne in Germany; first ice-cooled cold storage facility opened in Chicago. 1879 First milk bottle developed in Brooklyn, NY; buffalo exterminated in Texas, range land opened to ranching; discovery of saccharin by Ira Remsen and Constantine Fahlberg; trading in wheat futures begins on the Chicago Board of Trade. 1880 Introduction of commercial white vinegar, apple cider vinegar, and apple butter by F. and J. Heinz, Pittsburgh, Pa; introduction of Philadelphia cream ; cattle drives along the Chisholm Trail reach peak; English muffins introduced in New York by Samuel Bath Thomas; largest mill in the world constructed by Pillsbury at Minneapolis, Minn. 1881 First production of commercial fruit-flavored gumdrops in England; vaccine to prevent anthrax in sheep and hogs developed by Louis Pasteur; first US pure food laws passed by New York, New Jersey, Michigan, and Illinois; loganberry developed by James Harvey Logan at Santa Cruz, Calif; margarine first produced in United States in New York; refrigerated rail car perfected by Gustavus F. Swift in Chicago. 1882 Electric streetlights first appear in New York City. 1883 First -wiener retail shop opened by Oscar Mayer in Chicago; walnut orchards pioneered by Harriet W. R. Strong in southern California; first malted milk developed by William Horlick at Racine, Wisc. 1884 Chinese account for half of California’s agricultural labor force. 1885 Commercial developed by Joy Morton; Missouri, Kansas, and Texas Railroad ends need for long cat- tle drives; hamburger attributed to Charles Nagreen at Seymour, Wisc; Daniel Elmer Salmon studies illness-producing food, identifies the bacteria, and names it Salmonella. 1886 Hires Rootbeer introduced in bottles; Dr. Pepper developed by Robert S. Lazenby, Waco, Tex; Coca-Cola named by Frank M. Robinson, first sold by John Styth Pemberton at Jacob’s Pharmacy, Atlanta, Ga; Congress regulates manufacture and sale of margarine; first commercial aluminum process discovered by Charles Martin Hall and Paul Louis Toussain Heroult. 1887 First chemical isolation of fructose, galactose, and glucose; Log Cabin syrup introduced by P. J. Trowle at St. Paul, Minn. 1888 (ie, hamburger steak) named for Dr James H. Salisbury; Fred Harvey introduces dining cars on westbound Santa Fe train. 1889 Eiffel Tower built in Paris by Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel; Oklahoma Territory lands opened for homestead- ers by President Harrison. 1890 Start of range wars between cattle men and sheepherders; economic depression and collapse of farm- ing in Kansas; first aluminum saucepans produced by Henry Avery in Cleveland, Ohio; peanut butter invented. 1891 Introduction of first commercial electric oven in St. Paul, Minn. 1892 First school-feeding program introduced at Boston, Mass; development of homogenized milk by Paul Marix in France; first successful American gasoline tractor produced by John Froelich at Waterloo, Iowa; first cannery opened in . 1893 Postum (initially called Carmela Coffee), developed by Charles William Post at Battle Creek, Mich; Columbian Exposition opens at Chicago, and Aunt Jemima Pancake Mix promoted; electric fea- tured at the Columbian Exposition; Shredded Wheat developed by Henry Drushel Perky in Nebraska; Cream of Wheat introduced by Thomson S. Amidon at Grand Forks, ND. (continues)

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Table 1. Event Chronology: 1865-1910 (Continued)

1895 First pizzeria in United States attributed to Gennaro Lombardi in New York City; corkscrew invented by Samuel Henshell; po’boy sandwich created by Mme Bégué in New Orleans; word applied to food for the first time by W. O. Atwater. 1896 Tootsie Rolls, the first candy to be wrapped in paper, introduced by Leo Hirschfield in New York; Cracker Jack, molasses-covered popcorn candy, introduced by F. W. and L. F. Rueckheim in Chicago; George Washington Carver becomes Director of the Department of Agriculture, Tuskegee Institute, Ala; publica- tion of Fannie Farmer’s Boston Cooking School Cookbook by Fannie Merritt Farmer, Director of the School, is first cookbook to use precise standardized measurements. 1897 First published recipe for brownies appears in the Sears, Roebuck Catalog; Grape-Nuts introduced as a health food by C. W. Post; Jell-O introduced by Pearl B. Wait at LeRoy, NY. 1898 Spanish-American War “embalmed beef scandal”; Shredded Wheat promoted by Henry D. Perky as the perfect food; Pepsi-Cola introduced by Caleb Brandham at New Bern, NC. 1899 Coca-Cola bottled for the first time by Benjamin F. Thomas and Joseph B. Whitehead in Chattanooga, Tenn; Carnation evaporated milk supplied to Klondike-bound gold seekers; David Wesson deodorizes cottonseed oil, invents Wesson Oil. 1900 First production of homogenized milk exhibited in Paris; first Hershey chocolate bar; honeydew melons introduced to the United States; water from Colorado River first used to irrigate Imperial Valley, Calif; first appearance of steam tractors on wheat fields in the Pacific Northwest. 1901 First soluble instant coffee invented by Satori Kato in Chicago, Ill; hydrogenation process extends shelf life of -containing ; first published observation of the correlation between obesity and heart dis- ease; commercial production begins in Florida. 1902 20th Century Limited rail service features a $1.50 dinner; Animal Crackers introduced. 1903 Flour-bleaching process perfected by James Alsop in Jackson, Mo; Sanka Coffee imported to America from Germany by Ludwig Roselius. 1904 Puffed rice introduced as a popcorn-like at the St. Louis Exposition; banana split created by David Strickler in Latrobe, Pa; railroads reach lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas; thermos bottle invented by Reinhold Burger; ice-cream “cone” possibly introduced at the St. Louis Exposition by Syrian immigrant pastry maker, Ernest A. Hamwi; word hormone introduced into the scientific literature by William Maddock Bayliss and Ernest Henry Starling. 1905 Iodine compounds identified as useful in treating goiter; Upton Sinclair publishes The Jungle, exposing meatpacking conditions in the United States. 1906 Pure Food and Drug Bill introduced in the US Senate; Post Toasties corn flakes perfected by C. W. Post; A-1 Sauce introduced to the United States; San Francisco earthquake and fire; Valencia oranges grown for first time in California. 1907 S. S. Lusitania launched by Cunard Line and serves haute cuisine; Hershey Kisses introduced; first canned tunafish packed at San Pedro, Calif. 1908 Cultivation of rice begins in California; Cellophane invented by Jacques-Edwin Brandenburger; Thomas Sullivan pioneers use of tea bags; introduction of the Model T Ford with (sells for $850.50); Kikunae Ikeda isolates monosodium glutamate; first commercially successful electric toaster introduced. 1909 Frozen strawberries marketed for first time in Pacific Northwest; drip coffeemaker invented by Melitta Bentz in Germany; Tillamook Cheese Cooperative founded on the Oregon coast; James Lewis Kraft develops his cheese company in Chicago, Ill. 1910 First glass-lined milk container car (Boston and Main railroad).

Sources: Carruth, G. The Encyclopedia of American Facts and Dates. 10th ed. New York: Harper Collins; 1997; Trager, J. The Food Chronology. New York: Henry Holt and Company; 1995.

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cookbooks dated in the 1840s, for example Cooley’s Cyclo- as evidenced by menus from Louis’ Grill, San Francisco, pedia, published in 1846, where Hamburg beef was identi- Calif, where hamburgers were served under a general list- fied as a salt beef product that took several weeks to pre- ing of “.” The Cincinnati, Ohio, White Castle pare.8 There is also a menu from a Boston restaurant, dated franchise, and Doc Jackson’s Porkburger, Dallas, Tex, also 1874, that listed “filet de boeuf a la Hambourgeoise,” a sold hamburgers in 1921. blend of French and German terms that perhaps alluded to By the mid-1920s, hamburgers served on buns were the older salted beef style of food. widely available across the United States and were recog- Hamburger in the modern sense also must be linked nized by most consumers. By 1925, familiarity with the with invention of the mechanical meat grinder that found hamburger was so widespread that it was featured in a widespread use in America during the 1860s. It is logical play, The Hamburger King, by Marian Spencer Smith, that that development of the hamburger, in the sense of opened off-Broadway in New York City. The play told the ground or minced beef, occurred during the late 1860s or story of an elderly immigrant hamburger street vendor early 1870s, and dated menus have been critical sources who emerged as an urban folk hero after befriending of information for hamburger origins. A menu critical to teenagers in Manhattan.13 hamburger history was printed in the mid 1870s by the Hamburger variants emerged in the late 1920s and Lookout House restaurant, Jackson Heights district, early 1930s, and the first may have been Cincinnati, Ohio, and listed “Hamburger beef steak cooked to order.” This “Hamburger beef steak” may have been , because it corresponded with the development of the mechanical meat grinder and may be By the mid-1920s, hamburgers the earliest reference to hamburger in the modern sense were widely served in the because it predates by at least 10 years the commonly United States. held tradition that Charles Nagreen invented the ham- burger sandwich at the 1885 Outgamie County Fair, Sey- mour, Wisc. In this 1885 tradition, probably apocryphal, Mr Nagreen is reported to have placed butter-fried served in 1929 at Stren’s Rite Spot, Los Angeles, Calif.14 ground-beef patties between 2 slices of and sold The Gun Club Cook Book, published in 1930, equated them to eager customers.9 Regardless of whoever was hamburgers with “Salisbury Steak” and recalled that the responsible, the “Hamburg-Hamburger” shifted in prepa- name of the German city, Hamburg, had been dropped for ration and context during the last third of the 19th cen- patriotic reasons during .15 The cumulative tury and ultimately became a hot open-face sandwich, index for Sunset Magazine between 1929 and 1933 listed one that competed with hot , hot , and 5 specific varieties of hamburger: (1) hamburger...la sandwiches. The 20th-century hamburger Brown Derby, (2) hamburger biscuits and cream , ultimately emerged from this cluster of hot sandwiches. (3) hamburger corn loaf, (4) hamburger pie, and (5) The remainder of the hamburger story is one of varia- Hamburger with sauce. tion and increased popularity. “Hamburger steak [plain]” The hamburger as a symbolic food, having emerged in and “Hamburger steak [with onions]” appeared on the the 1925 The Hamburger King, reached a national audi- Luchow’s Tyrolean Alps restaurant menu at the 1904 ence during the 1930s with appearance of the syndicated World’s Fair in Saint Louis, Mo,10 and the Twentieth Cen- cartoon strip, “Thimble Theater,” and depictions of ham- tury Cook Book, published in 1914, included a recipe for burgers, complete with bun, are represented in the day- “Hamburg Steak ... l’Italienne,” where Hamburg steak was dreams of , one of the strip’s chief characters. In simmered with tomatoes and spaghetti or macaroni was 1937, the Readers Guide Cumulative Index offered its first added.11 There is also a cookbook published in 1916 by listing for hamburger, whereas the abbreviated term, the Saint Paul’s Community Church, Oakland, Calif, that burger, first appeared in 1941. included a recipe for Rice Hamburg Balls, where ground Hamburger popularity continued to grow during the was the key ingredient.12 1940s, especially in the postwar era, fueled by the family The White Castle restaurant chain was founded in 1916 automobile and need to feed family members when tour- in Wichita, Kan. By the early 1920s, White Castle sold ing. In 1946, the California Cook Book by Genevieve hamburgers in response to radio advertising and the rising Callahan included a recipe for “hamburgundies,” where popularity of automobile touring. Despite this connection, hamburgers were marinated in Burgundy wine,16 and the the first link between hamburger and a soft wheat bun may first cookbook to take a hamburger theme or focus have been 1917 at Drexel’s Pure Food Restaurant and appeared in 1950.17 , Chicago, Ill. The years 1920-1921 were important Hamburgers became distinctive elements on restau- for hamburger distribution throughout the United States, rant menus in the late 1960s and early 1970s and were

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Table 2. Food Facts: Beef-Related and Reconstruction-Expansion Era (1865-1910) Food Fact Alaska butter During the Alaska or Klondike gold rush, miners prepared a butter substitute by boiling caribou horns in water kettles and skimming the fat from the surface. Albany beef Nineteenth-century slang term for caught in the Hudson River near Albany, NY. Belly-wash Cowboy cattle-drive slang term for weak coffee. Brunch The concept of a Sunday brunch—a mid-morning meal between breakfast and lunch—originat- ed in New Orleans during the late 19th century. Chop suey Invented in America by Chinese cooks working on the railroad. The name chop suey means “odds and ends” and first appears in print in 1888. Chow slang word for food derived from . Chuck wagon cooks Traditionally called a range of slang terms, among them: bean master, belly cheater, biscuit roller, boiler, dough-belly, dough-boxer, dough-puncher, flunky, grease burner, grub spoiler, gut burglar, hash burner, hash slinger, kitchen mechanic, lizard, scorcher, pot rustler, sheffi, sizzler, sourdough, stew builder, stomach robber, and swamper. Egg foo yung Dish invented in America, not China, consisting of mixed with vegetables. Electric First displayed at the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair or Columbian Exposition. Term filet stems only from the early 20th century and was first used by O. Henry, in his 1906 story, The Four Million. Fudge Candy invented in the last decades of the 19th century. A classic recipe, the so-called Vassar fudge, prepared from chocolate, cream, sugar, and butter. Iced tea Whereas some say that iced tea was created at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, iced tea appears on menus of the Fifth Avenue Hotel, NY, dated to 1871. Term may be associated with basterma, a Middle-Eastern method of curing meat. English term pastrami, for dried rubbed with pepper and spices then smoked and steamed, dates only to 1936. Peanut Probably domesticated in Brazil. Peanuts spread from South America to Central America where they were first seen by early European explorers and taken to Europe. Peanuts were carried by Spanish and Portuguese to their African colonies, where the nuts were grown as food for slaves. Promontory Point, When the Civil War ended, the United States possessed 35,000 miles of steam railroads, of Utah Territory which only 3,000 were west of the Mississippi. By 1890, there were 200,000 miles of rail— more than in Europe—and 72,500 of these miles were west of the Mississippi River. On May 10, 1869, workmen laying track for the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific met at Promontory Point, Utah, and the nation was spanned with the nailing of the golden spike. This event her- alded the transcontinental exchange of foods throughout America. Salisbury steak of ground beef blended with seasonings and usually broiled, named after Dr J. H. Salisbury who advocated eating beef 3 times per day for health benefits. Skillet dish prepared from ground beef, onions, green peppers, and and served on hamburger rolls dates to the 1960s. Vichyssoise Cold soup created by Chef Louis Diat at the Ritz Carlton Hotel, New York City, in 1910.

Sources: The American Heritage Cookbook and Illustrated History of American Eating & Drinking. American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc.; 1964. Coe SE. America’s First Cuisines. Austin, Tex: University of Texas Press; 1994. Jones E. American Food: The Gastronomic Story. 2nd ed. New York: Random House; 1981. Leonard JN. American Cooking: New England. Foods of the World. New York: Time-Life Books; 1970. Leonard JN. American Cooking; the Great West. Foods of the World. New York: Time-Life Books; 1971. Mariani JF. The Dictionary of American Food and Drink. New York: Ticknor and Fields; 1983. Root W, de Rochemont R. Eating in America: A History. New York: William Morrow and Company; 1976. Sauer CO. Agricultural Origins and Dispersals. The Domestication of Animals and Foodstuffs. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press; 1969. Voorhees D. Why Does Popcorn Pop? New York: Citadel Press; 1995.

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first highlighted as separate menu components at the rial Board of French Historical Studies and the International Editorial Advisory Figaro restaurant, Los Angeles, Calif, where, in addition Board of Modern and Contemporary France. In addition to writing extensively to standard offerings of hamburgers and , on France in World War II, he has written on the intersections of food and specialty burgers also were also identified: the California tourism and has studied the history of popular foods, such as hamburgers and burger (with and tomato), the Oriental burger pizza. Dr Gordon is Professor of History and Acting Provost & Dean of Faculty at Mills College, Oakland, Calif. (with salt‚ red peppers, onions, and sweet-and-sour Cassius T. Lockett, PhD, received his PhD in nutrition science from the Uni- sauce), the Canadian burger (with melted cheddar and versity of California, Davis, in 1999. He has conducted research on edible wild crisp ), the Mexican burger (with hot chili and plants used during drought in West Africa and the nutritional consequences of onions), and the New York burger (topped with ham).18 human food-related behavior. Currently, Dr Locket is an Epidemic Intelligence The hamburger as , not overly high in social Officer, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. He is attached to the Epi- status, spread globally during the 1980s and 1990s, as demiology Services Division, Bureau of Epidemiology, Michigan Department commercial outlets were established throughout Africa, of Community Health. Asia, Australia, Europe, and the Americas. Even today, Corresponding author: Louis E. Grivetti, PhD, Department of Nutrition, Univer- the icon has remained. Many Americans, regardless of sity of California, 1 Peter J. Shields Dr, Davis, CA 95616 (e-mail: age, education, ethnic origin, geographic location, or [email protected]). socioeconomic status, have their specific favorite style and type of hamburger. Local and regional newspapers REFERENCES offer readers the opportunity to identify their favorite 1. Waldo M. The Hamburger Cookbook. New York: Collier hamburger “palace.” One local winner, where some of the Books; 1962. authors of this series have dined frequently, has been 2. Dyer C. Hamburgers Plain and Fancy. New York: Grosset Murder Burger in Davis, Calif, with the well-known and Dunlap; 1968. advertising tag line: sogoodtodiefor. 3. Hazelton NS. Hamburger! New York: Simon and Schuster; 1970. Now that the origins and food-related development 4. De Gouy LP. Creative Hamburger Cookery: 182 Unusual associated with the beef hamburger have been reviewed, Recipes for Casseroles, Meat Loaves, and Hamburger. New the role of beef in other times during American history York: Dover Publications; 1974. will be examined in the next installment. 5. Stewart K. Joy of Eating. A Cook’s Tour of History, Illustrated, with a Cook’s Section of the Great Recipes of Every Era. Acknowledgments Owings Mills, Md: Stemmer House; 1977:117. The authors thank Hidden Valley Ranch, Inc., for its 6. Fitzgibbon T. The Food of the Western World. An Encyclopedia of Food from North America and Europe. New generous grant that made this series possible. They also York: Quadrangle; 1976:195. thank the following individuals who assisted with 7. Pillsbury R. From Boarding House to Bistro. The American research and advice at different stages of the project: Restaurant Then and Now. Boston: Unwin Hyman; 1990:25. Axel Borg, Katie Denning, Sarah Fee, Ron Fisher, Alli- 8. Cooley AJ. Cooley’s Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts and son Joe, Barbara Koch, Sandra Lamprecht, Paul Larson, Collaterial Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, David Lundquist, Carolyn Nguyen, Kieu Nguyen, and Trades, Including Medicine, Pharmacy, and Domestic Opritsa Popa, Hans Rocke, Tejinder Sibia, and John Economy, Designed as a Comprehensive Supplement to the Skarstad. Pharmacopoia and General Book of Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, Amateur, and Heads of Families. New York: D. Appleton and Company; 1846:165. —NEXT INSTALLMENT— 9. Chastenet de Gery R. Hamburger history. Texas Monthly, Food in American History: Part 7. Beef (Part 2) May 14, 1998. Available at: http://www.texasmonthly.com/ food/fork/fork.mmay.98.html. Accessed August 25, 2000. 10. Menu: Lüchow’s Feast, World’s Fair Restaurant, Tyrolean Louis E. Grivetti, PhD, received his PhD in geography from the University of Alps, dated 1904. University of California, Los Angeles, California, Davis, in 1976. He and his students conduct research on human Special Collections. dietary patterns, using historic and contemporary perspectives, especially in 11. Twentieth Century Cook Book. An Up-to-Date and Skillful African, Asian, and Mediterranean societies, and American ethnic popula- Preparation on the Art of Cooking, and Modern Candy tions. Currently, Dr Grivetti is Professor of Nutrition, Department of Nutrition, Making Simplified. Also the Process of Drying Fruits and University of California, Davis. Vegetables, and Butchering Time Recipes. Chicago, Ill: Jan L. Corlett, PhD, received her PhD in Geography from the University of Geographical Publishing Company; 1921. California at Davis in 1999. She has conducted research among Hmong 12. St. Paul’s Parish House Cook Book. Oakland, Calif; St. Paul’s refugees living in California and has studied the roles of ethnic gardens in Parish; 1916:14. maintaining Hmong cultural traditions. Currently, Dr Corlett is a program eval- 13. Smith MS. The Hamburger King. A Play in One Act. In The uator at the University of California, Davis. Drama. 1925:125-127, 136. Bertram M. Gordon, PhD, received his PhD in History from Rutgers University 14. Henerson E. The tale of the cheeseburger. San Gabriel in 1969. He specializes in 20th-century French history and serves on the Edito- Valley Tribune, June 23, 1999. Available at: http://www.

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Beef in American History Pleasures of the Table

toranoko.com/culturefreak/tale.html. Accessed August 25, 16. Callahan G. The California Cook Book, for Indoor and 2000. Outdoor Eating. New York: M. Barrows and Company; 15. Browne C. The Gun Club Cook Book. A Culinary Code for 1946. Appreciative Epicures, Being a Discussion of the Methods and 17. Schwartz EK, Kooperman R. The Hamburger Cook Book. Procedures of Cooking, Together with Observations on Kitchen New York: Abelard Press; 1950. Usages, and Including Many Receipts from Many Lands. New 18. Menu: Figaro Restaurant, Los Angeles, dated 1970. York: Charles Scribner’s Sons; 1930. University of California, Los Angeles Special Collections.

Update on Antioxidants ments deserve a look as a way to improve the overall The National Cancer Institute has recently issued a health of the nation’s elderly. The premise of the fact sheet on cancer prevention and antioxidants. study was that a significant number of older adults Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells fail to get the amounts and types of food necessary from the damage caused by unstable molecules known to meet their essential energy and nutrient needs. It as free radicals. The damage caused by free radicals was claimed that the cost of providing multivitamin may lead to cancer, and antioxidants, which interact supplements to elderly Americans over 5 years with and stabilize free radicals, may prevent some of would be approximately $2.3 billion, but the Lewin this damage. Beta-carotene, lycopene, and vitamins C, group estimated that cost offsets associated with E, and A, as well as many other substances, are antiox- avoidable hospitalizations for heart attacks might be idants. Fruits and vegetable are rich in antioxidants. as high as $2.4 billion. Although there is a good deal of evidence from chemi- cal, cell culture, and animal studies suggesting that Can Hawthorn Help People With Heart antioxidants slow or prevent cancer development, Failure? results from recent studies in people in clinical trials When researchers reviewed the data from 8 clinical are not consistent. During the 1990s, 5 large clinical trails of hawthorn in people with early-stage heart fail- trials reached different conclusions. Currently, there ure, they found that the hawthorn helped subjects are 3 large clinical trials investigating the question. experience less shortness of breath and fatigue while For more information, see www.clinicaltrials.gov. increasing activity levels than did placebo. Briefly, the 3 trials are the Women’s Health Study Hawthorn, which is derived from the fruits, flowers, (WHS), which examines the effects of vitamin E in and leaves of the medium-sized tree, Crataegus lae- primary prevention of cancer among American female vigata, has been used for years as a treatment for health professionals who are age 45 years and older; various heart and circulatory disorders. Anecdotal the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial evidence of side effects is low, and few side effects of (SELECT), which is trying to determine if taking sele- the herb were noted in the study, a promising result nium and/or vitamin E supplements can prevent because many heart failure drugs have significant prostate cancer in men age 50 and older; and the undesirable consequences. It may work on 2 fronts: Physicians’ Health Study II (PHSII), which follows up it strengthens the heart’s contractions and dilates an earlier study on the effects of vitamins E and C and blood vessels (reducing peripheral resistance and multivitamins on prostate cancer and total cancer inci- lowering blood pressure) and possibly inhibits dence. The results of all of these studies will appear in abnormal heart rhythms. Because the studies were the next several years. (Source: National Institutes of all short-term, there is no evidence suggesting that Health: National Cancer Institute.) hawthorn is effective as a long-term therapy. In any case, further research is needed, and for those with Multivitamins for Elders? heart failure, hawthorn should not be used without a According to a recently released report by the Lewin doctor’s direction. (Consumer Reports on Health, Group and Wyeth Consumer Health, vitamin supple- October 2003, and The Honest Herbal)

Nutrition Today, Volume 39 • Number 1 • January/February 25