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Download date: 24. Sep. 2021 Contents acknowledgements vii list of figures ix preface xiii

1. introduction 1 1.1 Archaeological research of landscape and land use in southeast Italy 1 1.2 Aims and research questions 3 1.3 Research method 5 1.4 Structure of the thesis 7

2. case study 1: l’ amastuola 9 2.1 Introduction: the site and its surroundings 9 2.2 History of research 10 2.3 The archaeological research 11 2.3.1 Diachronic overview 11 2.3.2 Specific contexts 12 2.4 The archaeobotanical research 15 2.4.1 Sampling methods and data 15 2.4.2 Charcoal 16 2.4.3 Seeds and fruits 18 2.5 The archaeobotanical research: interpretations 18 2.5.1 The use of wood 19 2.5.2 Food preparation and diet 20 2.5.3 Grape and olive cultivation 23 2.5.4 The use of plants in ritual activities 24 2.6 Summary and conclusion 25 Tables Chapter 2 27 Figures Chapter 2 31

3. case study 2: muro tenente 55 3.1 Introduction: the site and its surroundings 55 3.2 History of research 55 3.3 The archaeological research 56 3.3.1 Diachronic overview 56 3.3.2 Specific contexts 57 3.4 The archaeobotanical research 60 3.4.1 Sampling methods and data 60 3.4.2 Charcoal 60 3.4.3 Seeds and fruits 61 3.5 The archaeobotanical research: interpretations 61 3.5.1 The use of wood 61 3.5.2 Food preparation and diet 63 3.5.3 Grape and olive cultivation 64 3.5.4 The use of plants in ritual activities 66 3.6 Summary and conclusion 67 Tables Chapter 3 69 Figures Chapter 3 72

4. meso level: landscape and land use around l ’ amastuola and muro tenente 89 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 L’Amastuola 89 4.2.1 The landscape 89 BOX 1: Mediterranean plant communities 93 4.2.2 Land use 94 BOX 2: The storage capacity of the grain silos at l’Amastuola 98 4.3 Muro Tenente 103 4.3.1 The landscape 103 4.3.2 Land use 105 BOX 3: Confronting the grape measurements from Muro Tenente (unit 89) with the statistical analysis program SPSS 108 4.4 Conclusion: Landscape and land use at l’Amastuola and Muro Tenente compared 109 Tables Chapter 4 111

5. macro level: part one 115 5.1 Introduction 115 5.2 A short introduction to archaeobotanical research in southeast Italy, and the archaeological sites 117 5.3 Research aspects 121 5.3.1 The use of wood 121 5.3.2 Food preparation and diet 123 5.3.3 Grape and olive cultivation 135 5.3.4 The use of plants in ritual activities 151 Tables Chapter 5 164

6. macro level: part two 187 6.1 Introduction 187 6.2 The Final Bronze Age (ca. 1200-1000 BC) 188 6.3 The Early Iron Age (ca. 1000-600 BC) 191 6.4 The Archaic/Classical periods (ca. 600-325 BC) 197 6.5 The Early Hellenistic Period (ca. 325-200 BC) 208 6.6 Epilogue: southeast Italy in the Late Hellenistic/ Early Roman period (200-30 BC) Nothing but sheep and olive trees? 215 Table Chapter 6 218

7. conclusions 219 7.1 Introduction, restatement of research aims and –method 219 7.2 Long-term developments in landscape and land use 219 7.3 Long-term developments in the scale and organization of agricultural production: expansion, rationalization, specialization 221 7.4 The effect of Greek colonization 224 7.5 Future research 225 7.6 Recommendations 226 references 229 nederlandse samenvatting 249 appendix 1 archaeobotanical sample processing 253 A 1.1 Methodology: general introduction 253 A 1.2 Archaeobotanical sampling at l’Amastuola, Muro Tenente and Li Castelli 254 appendix 2 archaeobotanical analyses from l’ amastuola, complete results 255 A 2.1 Results: seeds and fruits 255 A 2.2 Results: charcoal 258 appendix 3 archaeobotanical analyses from muro tenente, complete results 265 A 3.1 Results: seeds and fruits 265 A 3.2 Results: charcoal 268 appendix 4 archaeobotanical analyses from li castelli di san pancrazio salentino, complete results 271 A 4.1 Introduction to the site 271 A 4.2 Results: seeds and fruits 273 A 4.3 Results: charcoal 274 appendix 5 grape measurements muro tenente and l’ amastuola 277 A 5.1 Morphometric analysis methods to distinguish between cultivated and wild grapes (Vitis vinifera var. vinifera vs. Vitis vinifera var. sylvestris). 277 A 5.2 Results: Muro Tenente 278 A 5.3 Results: l’Amastuola 281 appendix 6 ancient written text fragments 283 List of figures preface The research area of this study. Map by Bert Brouwenstijn. chapter 2 2.1 Aerial view of the l’Amastuola hilltop. Photo: Società Kikau. 2.2a L’Amastuola, south terrace: location of the excavation trenches. Map by Jaap Fokkema. 2.2b L’Amastuola, south terrace: location of the excavation trenches. Map by Bert Brouwenstijn. 2.3 L’Amastuola, trench 6: digital reconstruction of the cultic structure by Bert Brouwenstijn. 2.4 L’Amastuola, trench 4: burnt loam showing wood impressions. Burgers and Crielaard 2007, 89 (Fig. 16). 2.5a L’Amastuola, trench 1: location of the archaeological finds. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.5b L’Amastuola, trench 1: location of the archaeobotanical samples. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.6a L’Amastuola, trench 2: location of the archaeological finds. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.6b L’Amastuola, trench 2: location of the archaeobotanical samples. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.7a L’Amastuola, trench 3: location of the archaeological finds. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.7b L’Amastuola, trench 3: location of the archaeobotanical samples. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.8a L’Amastuola, trench 4: location of the archaeological finds. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.8b L’Amastuola, trench 4: location of the archaeobotanical samples. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.9a L’Amastuola, trench 5: location of the archaeological finds. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.9b L’Amastuola, trench 5: location of the archaeobotanical samples. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.10a L’Amastuola, trench 6. location of the archaeological finds. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.10b L’Amastuola, trench 6: location of the archaeobotanical samples. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.11 L’Amastuola, trench 6: black semicircular area (units 501 and 510). Burgers and Crielaard 2011, 69 (Fig. 3-32). 2.12 L’Amastuola, trench 5: possible silos for grain storage. Burgers and Crielaard 2011, 65 (Fig. 3-28). 2.13 L’Amastuola, results of the charcoal analysis: frequency of wood taxa (i.e. the number of stratigraphical units in which it was found). 2.14 L’Amastuola, results of the charcoal analysis: total number of fragments of wood taxa. 2.15 L’Amastuola, results of the analysis of seeds and fruits: frequencies. 2.16 L’Amastuola, results of the analysis of seeds and fruits: total number of fragments. 2.17 L’Amastuola, results of the charcoal analysis: wood taxa from hearths and fireplaces (fuel?) 2.18 L’Amastuola, south terrace: location of the samples from hearths and fireplaces (units 265, 274, 112, 148, 166, 170, 32, 33, 332, 335, 346, 373, 537, 542). Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 2.19 L’Amastuola, trench 6: bronze fish hook. Photo by Jan Paul Crielaard. 2.20 L’Amastuola, trench 4: stone mortar from building δ. Burgers and Crielaard 2011, 150 (Fig. 8-14). 2.21 L’Amastuola, trench 2: terracotta mortar from the colluvium layer. Burgers and Crielaard 2007, 102 (Fig. 39e). 2.22 L’Amastuola, all trenches: grinding stones. Burgers and Crielaard 2011, 151-152 (Figs. 8-15 and 8.16). 2.23 Decorations on Daunian stelai showing cereal parching with mortars and pestles. Nava 1980, fig. CCLVII (775B) and CCCLXXXI (1157AB). Cf. Burgers and Crielaard 2011, 153 (Fig. 8-17b). 2.24a L’Amastuola, south of the hill: stone mortar. Photo by Jan Paul Crielaard (cf. Burgers and Crielaard 2011, 153 (Fig. 8-17a).

 2.24b San Pancrazio Salentino, Apulia: stone mortar of unknown origin. 2.25 L’Amastuola, trench 6: cooking pot with rounded base and relatively narrow neck. Burgers and Crielaard 2007, 102 (Fig. 39a). 2.26 L’Amastuola, trench 3, unit 107: storage jar. Photo by Jan Paul Crielaard. 2.27 L’Amastuola, trench 6: fragmented olive stones from cooking pot. 2.28a L’Amastuola, trench 6: carbonized garlic cloves (Allium sativum). Photo by Mark van Waijjen. 2.28b SEM image showing epidermal surface. Photo by Lucy Kubiak-Martens. 2.28c SEM image showing epidermal surface. Photo by Lucy Kubiak-Martens. 2.28d SEM image showing attachment scar. Photo by Lucy Kubiak-Martens. chapter 3 3.1 Aerial view of Muro Tenente, showing the outlines of the Early Hellenistic fortification wall (cf. Fig. 3.2). Burgers and Napolitano 2010, 8. 3.2 Muro Tenente, location of the excavation trenches and soundings. Map by Jaap Fokkema. 3.3 Muro Tenente, inner face of the southern section of the fortification wall. Burgers and Napolitano 2010, 43. 3.4 Muro Tenente, northern excavation trench (A). Burgers and Yntema 1999, 114 (Fig. 3), with additions by Jaap Fokkema. 3.5 Muro Tenente, central excavation trench (C). Burgers and Napolitano 2010, 4, with additions by Jaap Fok- kema. 3.6 Muro Tenente, southern excavation trench (E). Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 3.7 Muro Tenente, archaeobotanical samples from the northern excavation trench (A). Drawing by Jaap Fok- kema. 3.8 Muro Tenente, archaeobotanical sample from test trench B. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 3.9 Muro Tenente, archaeobotanical samples from the central excavation trench (C). Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 3.10 Muro Tenente, archaeobotanical samples from the southern excavation trench (E). Drawing by Jaap Fok- kema. 3.11 Muro Tenente, ashy layer in the southern excavation trench (E), units 20009 and 20011. Photo by Lucia Di Noi. 3.12 Muro Tenente, results of the charcoal analysis: frequency of wood taxa (i.e. the number of stratigraphical units in which it was found). 3.13 Muro Tenente, results of the charcoal analysis: total number of fragments of wood taxa. 3.14 Muro Tenente, results of the analysis of seeds and fruits: frequencies. 3.15 Muro Tenente, results of the analysis of seeds and fruits: total number of fragments. 3.16 Muro Tenente, results of the charcoal analysis: wood taxa from hearths and fireplaces (fuel?). 3.17a Muro Tenente, charcoal fragment from unit 455. 3.17b Muro Tenente, charcoal fragment from unit 455, 100x magnification. 3.18 Muro Tenente, results of the analysis of seeds and fruits from unit 20011. 3.19 Muro Tenente, results of the charcoal analysis from unit 20011. 3.20 Muro Tenente, location of archaeobotanical samples that contained chaff remains. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 3.21 Muro Tenente, carbonized grape (Vitis vinifera) remains from unit 89. Photo edited by Bert Brouwenstijn. 3.22 Muro Tenente, central excavation trench (C) with the location of graves 22, 25, 27 and 30. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. 3.23 Muro Tenente, northern excavation trench (A) with the location of grave 45. Drawing by Jaap Fokkema. chapter 4 4.1 Decorations on Daunian stelai (ca. 650-580 BC) showing deer hunting. Nava 1980, Tav. CCCXXVII (986B); Tav. CCCXXVIII (987Bd); LXXIII (248Bd). 4.2 Pruned olive wood in San Pancrazio Salentino and Mesagne, province of Brindisi, winter 2010.

 4.3 Reconstruction of a granary from Old-Smyrna by R.V. Nicholls. Mazarakis Ainian 1997, fig. 411. 4.4 Clay models of granaries from the Temple of Artemis at Ano Mazaraki, Greece. Mazarakis Ainian 1997, 120. 4.5 L’Amastuola, artist’s impression of the grain silos (?) in trench 5. Drawing by Bert Brouwenstijn. 4.6 Muro Tenente, density per square of amphorae sherds picked up during the field surveys. Burgers 1998, 256. 4.7 Muro Tenente, density per square of loomweights picked up during the field surveys. Burgers 1998, 252. 4.8 Muro Tenente, morphological measurements of the grape pips from unit 89 compared to the index of Stum- mer 1911. Drawing edited by Bert Brouwenstijn. 4.9 Muro Tenente, morphological measurements of the grape pips from unit 89 compared to the formulae by Mangafa and Kotsakis 1996. Drawing edited by Bert Brouwenstijn. chapter 5 5.1 Locations of the archaeological sites in southeast Italy that are discussed in Chapters 5 and 6. Map by Bert Brouwenstijn. 5.2a Archaeozoological remains from Early Iron Age contexts in southeast Italy. 5.2b Archaeozoological remains from Archaic/Classical contexts in southeast Italy. 5.2c Archaeozoological remains from Early Hellenistic contexts in southeast Italy. 5.2d Archaeozoological remains from Late Hellenistic contexts in southeast Italy. 5.3 Characters in a phlyax (theatre) depiction stealing cakes. Decoration on Apulian red-figure pottery, ca. 400- 325 BC. Hekman Digital Archive, library.calvin.edu. 5.4 Silver diobols of the Serdaioi (Lucania?) depicting grapes and olives, late 6th/early 5th century BC. www. flickr.com 5.5 Bronze, lead and clay funerary crown in the shape of grapes and grape leafs from the southern necropolis at Herakleia, 3rd century BC. Vandermersch 1994, 39. 5.6 Grape leaves on a Lucanian oinochoe, ca. 380-360 BC. Dentzer 1982; Vandermersch 1994, 40. 5.7 Terracotta horse carrying baskets of fruit, from Policoro, Museo della Siritide, 2nd half 4th century BC. Forti and Stazio 1983, fig. 672. 5.8 Gnathia-style askos (small pouring vessel) in the form of a mule carrying two transport amphorae, ca. 280- 240 BC. Museo Archeologico di Bari. 5.9a Terracotta ‘San Giovanni’ Apples from the Mannella Sanctuary at Lokroi Epizephyrioi. Meirano 2008, 142, Fig. 6. 5.9b Modern San Giovanni apples. www.unitus.it. 5.10 Terracotta ‘Limoncella’ apples from the Mannella Sanctuary at Lokroi Epizephyrioi. Meirano 2008, 142, Fig. 7. 5.11 Terracotta apple from Olympia. Furtwängler 1890, no. 1183, pl. LXVIII . 5.12 Terracotta fruit (apple?) from Lindos, 525-400 BC. Blinkenberg 1931, no. 2441. 5.13 Terracotta pomegranate from the Prytaneion in Olympia. Bol 1978, 668, 130, pl. 61. 5.14 Terracotta votive objects, Museo Nazionale di Taranto. Forti and Stazio 1983, fig. 728, 703. 5.15 Terracotta pomegranates and garlic bulbs (?) from a grave in Oria (tomb 1973-3), middle of the 2nd century BC. Yntema 2009, Fig. 9, 155. 5.16 The pomegranate in tomb paintings. Pontrandolfo, Rouveret and Cipriani 1992, 56, Fig. 55; 34, Fig. 28; 72, Fig. 71. 5.16a Paestum, necropolis of Andriulo: Braggart soldier (tomb 53, east wall). 5.16b Paestum, necropolis of Vannullo: Return of the warrior (tomb 4, west wall). 5.16c Taranto, necropolis of Spinazzo, left wall of a tomb: Cortege of horses, late 4th century BC. 5.17 Lead garlic bulb from Isthmia, Greece (Sanctuary of Poseidon), 4th century BC. Raubitschek 1998, 11 (nr. 40). 5.18 Lead ‘knob of uncertain use’ (garlic bulb?) from the sanctuary of Hera Limenia at Perachora. Payne and Dunbabin 1940, 186, pl. 85:12.

 5.19 Bronze ‘poppy’ (garlic bulb?) with votive inscription (meaning unknown), 3rd-2nd century BC. Mitten and Doeringer 1967, nr. 152 (146). 5.20 Terracotta object (garlic bulb?) from Olympia. From Furtwängler 1890, 186, no. 1261. 5.21 Clay models of garlic bulbs (?) from Egypt. Flinders Petrie 1920, pl. 46, no. 23-24. 5.22 Clay models of garlic bulbs (?) from the Predynastic cemetery at El Mahasna, Egypt. Ayrton and Loat 1911, plate 17. chapter 6 6.1 Metapontion, silver stater representing a hexaploid (six-rowed) head of barley, 6th century BC. Carter 2006, 26, Fig. 1.15.

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