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RECONSIDERING TUSK and BONE: an ANALYSIS of the FORMS, FUNCTIONS and PERCEPTIONS of ANGLO-SAXON IVORIES, C.500-1066 Three Volumes, Vol

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RECONSIDERING TUSK AND BONE: AN ANALYSIS OF THE FORMS, FUNCTIONS AND PERCEPTIONS OF ANGLO-SAXON IVORIES, c.500-1066 Three Volumes, Vol. I Lyndsey Smith, BA MA PhD University of York History of Art September 2015 Abstract It is the purpose of this thesis to reconsider the ivories of early medieval England with an in-depth analysis drawing on various disciplinary approaches. The last extensive published scholarly work on these ivories was that produced over forty years ago by John Beckwith (Ivory Carvings in Early Medieval England, 1972). Since then there has been little in the way of scholarly investigation of these objects beyond occasional studies of individual ivories in the form of articles or as entries in catalogues of museum collections – or even more rarely, as a passing mention within monographs on Anglo-Saxon art in general. While Beckwith’s publication was, by comparison, comprehensive in its coverage, there were, nevertheless, some ivories that were not included – in some cases because they have come to light since 1972. Generally speaking, however, the scholarly trend has been to consider the ivories of Anglo-Saxon England only in relation to continental workshops (namely, Carolingian, Merovingian or Italian centres of production), and most discussions of them has been from a formalist art historical point of view, concentrating on style rather than materiality or iconography. Such approaches fail to acknowledge the full potential of the ivories. To remedy this situation, this thesis will situate the publication and collection of Anglo-Saxon ivories between 1850-2015 as a means of explaining the nature of the scholarship as it exists today. This will be followed by chapters that first, examine the materiality, archaeology, economic footprint and social/cultural perception of ivory in early medieval England; second, re-assess the (potentially Anglo-Saxon) style of the ivory carvings; and third, that considers the iconographic significances of the carvings in order to situate them within the ecclesiastical milieux from which they emerged. In closing, these approaches will be brought together to examine the perceptions of value invested in the ivories – through their embellishments (precious metals and stones) and the iconography of the material of ivory in Anglo-Saxon England and the wider medieval world. 2 CONTENTS Volume I Abstract 02 List of Contents 03 List of Tables and Graphs 06 List of Illustrations 07 Acknowledgements 31 Declaration 32 Chapter 1: Introducing the Ivories of Anglo-Saxon England 33 1.1: Aims and Objectives 33 1.2: The Argument 33 1.3: The Supporting Evidence 39 Chapter 2: Anglo-Saxon Ivories in Print and on Display: Historiography, Collection, Exhibition and Apathy 41 2.1: Introduction 41 2.2: Publishing Anglo-Saxon Art 42 2.2a: Patterns and Developments, c.1850-2015 43 2.2b: The Classical and the ‘Barbaric’: Art History and 47 Anglo-Saxon Art 2.3: Collection and Display: the Private and Public Collection of 62 Anglo-Saxon Ivories, from Auction House to Museum Gallery 2.4: From Collection to Publishing: The Institutional and Scholarly 74 Responses to Anglo-Saxon Ivories 2.5: Conclusions 78 Chapter 3: Perceptions of Ivory in Anglo-Saxon England: A 80 Question of Medium and Economics 3.1: Introduction 80 3.2: Trading in Ivory: An Overview 83 3.3: The Material of Ivory 88 3.3a: Elephant Ivory in Anglo-Saxon England 91 3.3b: Whalebone ‘Ivory’ in Anglo-Saxon England 100 3.3c: Walrus Ivory in Anglo-Saxon England 106 3 3.3d: Summary 113 3.4: Articulating the Value of Ivory in Anglo-Saxon England 114 3.4a: Ivory. Luxury and the Articulation of Value 115 3.4b: Ivory. Legend and Encounter 122 3.5: Conclusions: The Legacy of Anglo-Saxon Ivory 132 Chapter 4: Anglo-Saxon Ivories and the Question of Style: the 134 Argument of Creative Response and Artistic “Firsts” 4.1: Introduction 134 4.2: The Uncontested Ivories and Anglo-Saxon Styles 136 4.2a: The Eighth and Early Ninth Centuries 137 4.2b: The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries 142 4.2c: Summary 149 4.3: The Contested Ivories 150 4.3a: Continental ‘Influences’ and the Scholarly Response 150 4.3b: Reassessing Anglo-Saxon Stylistic Traditions 161 4.3b(i): The Late Eighth to Early Ninth Century 162 4.3b(ii): The Mid Ninth to Tenth Century 166 4.3b(iii): The Late Tenth to Mid Eleventh Century 173 4.4: Conclusions 174 Chapter 5: Anglo-Saxon Ivories and the Question of Iconography: 176 Subject, Substance, Form & Function 5.1: Introduction 176 5.2: The Iconography of the Early Ivories: Influence, Appropriation 179 and the Narrative 5.2a: The Eighth and Early Ninth Centuries 179 5.2b: The Mid Ninth and Tenth Centuries 197 5.2c: Summary 208 5.3: The Late Tenth and Eleventh Centuries: Christ, the Virgin 209 and the Holy Other 5.3a: Christ in Majesty 211 5.3a(i): Christ Enthroned 211 4 5.3a(ii): The Agnus Dei 214 5.3b: The Virgin: Mother, Intercessor, Queen 218 5.3c: The Crucifixion of Christ 222 5.3d: The Holy ‘Other’: Celestial Beings, Saints, Angels 225 Apostles and Mortals 5.4: Conclusions 228 Chapter 6: Conclusions: the Substance of Anglo-Saxon Ivory 230 6.1: Introduction 230 6.2: The Divine and the Secular 231 6.3: Embellishing Ivory 235 6.4: The Value of the Ivory Crucifixion 240 6.5: Summary 243 6.6: Conclusions 244 Volume II Appendix I: Preliminary Catalogue of Elephant, 248 Whalebone and Walrus Ivory on Pre-Norman Conquest Sites in England Appendix II: Elephant, Whalebone and Walrus Ivory: The Archaeology 257 Appendix III: The Literary Evidence for the Articulation of 262 Ivory Value and an Inventory of Manuscripts Catalogue of Anglo-Saxon Ivories 268 Abbreviations 371 Bibliography 372 Volume III Illustrations 437 5 List of Tables and Graphs Table I. Extant Anglo-Saxon Carved Elephant 94 Ivories: Date and Size Table II: Extant Anglo-Saxon Carved 101 Whalebone Ivories Table III: Excavated Carved Walrus Ivories 108 Table IV: Anglo-Saxon Walrus ivory sizes 111 Table V: Timeline of Ivory in Anglo-Saxon 133 England Graph I: Subject Matter of Anglo-Saxon 211 Ivories c.975-1066 Graph II: The Holy ‘Other’ depicted in the ivories of Anglo-Saxon England 227 c.550-1066 Table VI: Carved Anglo-Saxon Ivories and their 237 Surviving Embellishments 6 List of Illustrations: Chapter 2 2.1 A. Maximian’s throne, ivory on a wood core, c. 545-46. Ravenna, Archepiscopal Museum. B. Maximian’s throne, Nativity panel, ivory relief. C. Maximian’s throne, Annunciation panel, ivory relief. 2.2 A. Franks Casket (cat. 2), whalebone ivory, c.700. London, British Museum: 1867, 1-20.1. B. Franks Casket (cat. 2). Detail of front panel with runic inscription. C. Franks Casket (cat. 2). Detail of helmets and soldierly gear. D. Franks Casket (cat. 2). Detail of corner zoomorphs. 2.3 A. Figure of a Martyr, ivory, second half of the eleventh century. Liverpool, Walker Art Gallery: M8232. B. Presentation at the temple, whalebone, mid-twelfth century. Liverpool, Walker Art Gallery: M8016. 2.4 The Nativity (cat. 16), walrus ivory, tenth century. Liverpool, Walker Art Gallery: M8060. 2.5 Openwork ivory comb, c.1100. London, British Museum: 1856,0623.29. 2.6 A. Zoomorphic Pen Case (cat. 57), walrus ivory, mid-eleventh century. London, British Museum: 1870,0811.1. B. Lewis Chessmen, walrus ivory, c.1150-70. London, British Museum: 1831,1101.136. 2.7 A. Seal-die of Godwin & Godgytha (cat. 51), walrus ivory, mid-eleventh century. London, British Museum: 1881,0404.1. B. Seal-die of Godwin and Godgytha (cat. 51). Detail of figures on handle. 2.8 A. Knife handle, antler, eleventh century. London, British Museum: 1890,0209.1. B. A pair of cattle, ivory, eleventh century. London, British Museum: 1885,1010.4. 2.9 Alcester Tau-Cross (cat. 21), walrus ivory, late tenth century. London, British Museum: 1903,0323.1. 2.10 Virgin and Child Crosier fragment (cat. 55), walrus ivory, mid-eleventh century. London, British Museum: 1868,0805.27. 7 2.11 Adoration of the Magi, whalebone, c.1120. London, V&A Museum: 142-1866. 2.12 Genoels-Elderen diptych (cat. 5), elephant ivory, last quarter of the eighth century. Musees Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels: 1474. 2.13 A. Gandersheim Casket (cat. 6), whalebone, late eighth century. Herzog Anton-Ulrich Museum, Braunschweig: MA58. B. Gandersheim Casket (cat. 6), detail of zoomorphic interlace and “dissolving bi- peds”. Source: Stephens, 1863: 267-76. 8 List of Illustrations: Chapter 3 3.1 A. Anatomical view of African elephant tusk. B. Schreger lines in elephant tusks. 3.2 Skeletal composition profiles for several species showing the per cent composition (lipid, yellow; protein, green; water, blue; ash, grey) of different skeletal elements. (a) fin whale, B. physalus; (b) sei whale, B. borealis; (c), humpback whale, M. novaeangliae; (d) grey whale, E. robustus; (e) sperm whale, P. macrocephalus; (f) striped dolphin, S. coeruleoalba. (g) Diagram of a sperm whale skeleton illustrating the approximate sample locations. CA, cartilage; LJ, lower jaw; UJ, upper jaw; CS, central skull; RS, rear skull; RB, rib; SC, scapula; ST, sternum. Source: Higgs, et al. 2011, fig. 1. 3.3 A. Cross-section of a Walrus Tusk. Shown are the cementum (C), primary dentine (PD), and secondary dentin (SD) or pulp. Source: Espinoza & Mann, 1999: 15, fig. 13. B. Fossilised walrus tusk. Source: Lopaki Fossilised Ivory Dealer C. Walrus baculum, or oosik. Source: Boone Trading - Fossilised Oosik 3.4 Map 3.1: Distribution of Elephant Ivory in Anglo-Saxon Archaeology. Source: Lyndsey Smith, 2015. 3.5 A. Elephant ivory ring, late-fifth to early seventh century.
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