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Thesis 13 Copy Strategies for manipulation of nutritional characteristics during the preparation of Asian noodles A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Jennifer Davis B.Sc. (Food Sci and Tech) (Hons), Victoria University School of Science College of Science, Engineering and Health RMIT University March 2019 Declaration Declaration I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other academic award; the content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved research program; and, any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is acknowledged. Jennifer Davis March 2019 i Acknowledgements Acknowledgments I would like to firstly express my special appreciation to my supervisor, Associate Professor Darryl M Small. He kindly provided invaluable advice, support and encouragement throughout my research and during preparation of this thesis. I am especially grateful for his patience, thoughtfulness and practical approach as well as his guidance to overcome obstacles during the project. This project was carried out at the Melbourne Campus of University of RMIT and many people there provided help. I am grateful to the laboratory staff including Karl Lang, Nadia Zakhartchouk, for their friendship as well as enthusiastic assistance and support in using the various items of laboratory equipment. Those working in the Food Science Pilot Plant, particularly Michael Kakoullis (Laboratory Manager in Food Science and Technology) and his staff were helpful when I was working on microencapsulation by spray drying. Paul Morrison contributed greatly by showing me how to set up and use the HPLC instrumentation. His skill in troubleshooting and repairing were invaluable. Thank you also to Philip Francis (Manager of Electron Microscopy) and his staff who provided support when I was learning and operating the scanning electron microscope. I also thank my friends and also colleagues, for their warm friendship, help and consideration, particularly Niji (Horng Jye) Lee, Omar al-Widyan, Timothy Wong and Lara Cato. I am thankful to Professors Mike Adams and Andrew Halmos who helped me in the early days at RMIT University, Melbourne: they kindly provided me with access to the various facilities. I am grateful to Professor Andrew Smith who help and gave encouragement in the latter stages and when I was finalising this thesis. I gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC) in the form of a Postgraduate Research Award funded the first two years of this study. I also received assistance to attend the Australian ii Acknowledgements Cereal Chemistry Conference in Sydney during July 2005 through the award of a scholarship by the Royal Australian Chemical Institute, Cereal Chemistry Division. I would like to express my special thanks to my family members Dr Marisa Harvey, David Harvey, Jamie Davis and my young son, James Macri. They provided their moral support, help and patience to me throughout, and this encouraged me to persevere and complete this study. iii Publications Publications and presentations Parts of the research reported in this thesis have been published and the details are as follows: Conference presentation Harvey, J. and Small, D.M. (2005) Pulse incorporation and microencapsulation strategies to enhance the nutritional attributes of Asian noodles, Blanchard, C.L., Truong, H., Allen, H.M., Blakeney, A.B. and O'Brien, L. (Eds.), Cereals 2005. Proceedings of the 55th Australian Cereal Chemistry Conference and AACCI Pacific Rim Symposium. Sydney, Held from the 3rd until the 6th of July 2005, published by the Royal Australian Chemical Institute, Melbourne, ISBN: 1-876892- 12-5, pp 210-212. iv Abstract Abstract Asian noodle products are popular foods and a variety of forms have been developed over a period of many centuries. With increasing globalisation and a desire for convenience, there has been a lack of scientific knowledge concerning the nutritional value and the roles of these widely consumed foods to human health and well-being. Accordingly, the purpose of this research has been to extend existing knowledge in this area, by investigating strategies that might enhance the potential contributions of these staple foods. Within these broad aims, the role of pulse grains as ingredients has been studied along with the protein content and stability of vitamins, and ways in which the retention of some of these essential nutrients might be enhanced. Following preliminary evaluations, Chinese Hokkien style noodles was selected as the focus of this investigation. In particular, this noodle represented greater challenges in formulation and provided conditions most likely to impact directly upon the protein content and vitamin stability. There is always some nutritional loss during noodle processing and one of the processes to substitute these losses is by utilising the technique of microencapsulation to withstand harsh processing conditions. In this thesis, within the timeframe of current study, thiamin (vitamin B1) and riboflavin (vitamin B2) were selected for the process of microencapsulation, and to investigate the integrity and stability of the microcapsules used on noodle processing. Microencapsulation techniques were compared and applied to vitamin B1 and B2. A series of hydrocolloid wall materials were compared and effective microencapsulation was achieved by using spray drying. The resulting microcapsules were characterised using scanning electron microscopy and uniform particle sizes, along with good capsular integrity that was achieved through a mix of a variety of encapsulating agents with the vitamins. Among the issues investigated were the impact of pH, temperature of treatment, flow rates and other parameters of spray drying, relatively high yields of capsular material and also recoveries of the vitamins. v Abstract Simultaneously, optimum formulations through mixture of blends on pulse flours, ranging from mung bean, chickpea, yellow lentil and soybean as partial replacement of wheat flour was achieved. The resulting microcapsules were then incorporated with the final noodle mixture (dough that was achieved through repeats of mixing, sheeting and cutting). Various cooking methods were also applied here to further compare the vitamin and protein contents in the cooked noodles. The aim of the selected cooking method was to further assist in retaining these nutritive values of the product. The noodle product was then evaluated for the protein and vitamin contents from the impact of varying effects of processing, high pH and heat treatments. The final product was tested for protein content, vitamins, texture, pH and taste. The noodles were vacuum packed in batches, undisturbed, and refrigerated (< 4°C) for shelf life testing over the period of three weeks. In conclusion, the optimised conditions of formulations, processing, and vacuum packaging stored at refrigerated condition, effectively ensured excellent shelf life characteristics of the noodle product, provided optimum protein and vitamin contents and desired taste to consumers. vi Table of content page Table of contents Declaration i Acknowledgements ii Publications and presentations iv Abstract v Table of contents vii List of tables xv List of figures xvii Abbreviations xix Explanatory notes xxi Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 2 Background and literature review: Asian noodles 3 2.1 Background and history 3 2.2 Noodles and their characteristics 4 2.2.1 Effect of alkali on Asian noodles 6 2.2.2 Noodle colour and darkening issues 8 2.3 Types of noodles 8 2.3.1 Yellow alkaline noodles 10 2.3.2 Hokkien noodles 11 2.3.3 Cantonese noodles 12 2.3.4 Instant noodles 12 2.3.5 White salted noodles 13 2.4 Noodle formulation and the processing steps 13 2.4.1 Selection of ingredients 14 2.4.2 Mixing 14 2.4.3 Sheeting and combining 14 2.4.4 Rolling and cutting 15 2.5 Quality of Noodles 16 vii Table of content page 2.5.1 Quality Evaluation 16 2.6 Selection of wheat flour for noodle processing 17 2.6.1 Flour Colour 17 2.6.2 Protein Content 17 2.6.3 Starch and Quality of Asian Noodles 18 2.6.4 Types of enzyme present in the flour affect noodle production 18 2.7 Gelatinisation of starch 19 2.7.1 The effect of heat on starch 20 2.8 Types of flour and quality in noodle processing 20 2.9 Other aspects affecting noodle production 21 2.10 Summary of current knowledge 21 Chapter 3 Background and literature review: grain production 22 and utilisation 3.1 Introduction 22 3.2 The Australian grain industry 24 3.3 The classes of wheat 26 3.4 Starch 27 3.5 Wheat gluten 29 3.6 Pulse grains 30 3.7 Pulse composition 30 3.8 Consumption and uses of pulses 31 3.9 The Australian pulse industry 32 3.9.1 Lupins 32 3.9.2 Mung bean 33 3.9.3 Lentils 34 3.9.4 Chickpeas 34 3.10 Anti-nutritional and toxic factors in pulses 34 3.11 Pulse processing for consumption 35 viii Table of content page 3.12 The potential for future pulse utilisation 35 3.13 Complementary of nutritional value of wheat and pulses 36 3.14 Summary of current knowledge 36 Chapter 4 Background and literature review: Vitamin stability, 38 fortification and microencapsulation as a strategy for enhancing retention 4.1 Introduction 38 4.2 The B-group vitamins 39 4.2.1 Riboflavin – Vitamin B2 39 4.2.2 Thiamin – Vitamin B1 40 4.2.3 Deficiencies
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