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Africa, Colonization, and the Evolution of a Bl University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 11-4-2015 To "Plant Our Trees on American Soil, and Repose Beneath their Shade": Africa, Colonization, and the Evolution of a Black Identity Narrative in the United States, 1808-1861 Edward Jason Vickers University of South Florida, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the African American Studies Commons, and the History Commons Scholar Commons Citation Vickers, Edward Jason, "To "Plant Our Trees on American Soil, and Repose Beneath their Shade": Africa, Colonization, and the Evolution of a Black Identity Narrative in the United States, 1808-1861" (2015). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/6045 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. To “Plant Our Trees on American Soil, and Repose Beneath their Shade”: Africa, Colonization, and the Evolution of a Black Identity Narrative in the United States, 1808-1861 by Edward Jason Vickers A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: John M. Belohlavek, Ph.D. Brian Connolly, Ph.D. Stephen Prince, Ph.D. Johnhenry Gonzalez, Ph.D. Date of Approval: October 30, 2015 Keywords: Civil Rights, Slavery, Politics, Nationalism Copyright © 2015, Edward Jason Vickers Dedication This work is dedicated to all of the people who have inspired and contributed to my personal and professional development. For my mother, who continues to teach me the meaning of unconditional love, and my father, for his patience, and never-ending support. For Tammy, the love of my life. And to the memory of my dear friend, Danny P. Hernandez. I would also like to thank my many historical guides and mentors, for nourishing my obsession with the past, and for their willingness to read everything, good and bad, that I have produced over the years! In this regard, I am especially indebted to John Belohlavek, for both his professional guidance and friendship. But I would also like to acknowledge, finally, Al Tillson, Joe Decker, Connie Rynder, Christina Greene, Kirsten Fischer, Elsa Barkley Brown, Ira Berlin, James Gilbert, Richard Latner, Randy Sparks, Brian Connolly, Stephen Prince, and Johnhenry Gonzalez, for all of their assistance and encouragement, from my undergraduate years up to the present. Table of Contents Abstract ii Chapter One – Introduction: Africa, the American Colonization Society, and Black Identity in the Antebellum Era 1 Chapter Two – The Challenge of Colonization: Africa vs. America in the Making of a Black Identity in the North, 1808-1829 18 Chapter Three – Claiming America/Rejecting Africa: Black Identity in the Encounter with Antebellum Reform, 1830-1839 63 Chapter Four – Africa and Black Identity in the Age of Manifest Destiny, 1840-1849 105 Chapter Five – The Crisis of the 1850s: Africa, America, and the Meaning of Home 148 Chapter Six – Conclusion: Black Identity and the American Civil War 206 References 214 i Abstract This work explores the role that ideas about Africa played in the development of a specifically American identity among free blacks in the United States, from the early nineteenth century to the Civil War. Previous studies of the writings of free blacks in the Revolutionary period, and of the American Colonization Society (ACS), which was devoted to removing them back to an African homeland, have suggested that black discussions of Africa virtually disappeared after 1816, when the colonization movement began. However, as this work illustrates, the letters, books, newspapers, and organizational records produced by free blacks in the antebellum era tell a different story. The narrative of the ancestral homeland free blacks created in the late eighteenth century, when the Atlantic slave trade still supplied slaves to the United States, was one that emphasized the connections between Africa and its scattered descendants throughout the Americas. After the establishment of the ACS in 1816 free blacks’ dialogue related to the land of their ancestors did not disappear, but it did change dramatically. As this study reveals, the overarching impact of colonization, racial pseudo-science, and racism generally in the antebellum period, made Africa a subject that free black leaders and writers could not avoid. They had to talk about it. Paradoxically, they found that they needed to validate Africa, even as they rejected it. Free black Americans found themselves faced with the tasks, ultimately, of legitimizing their African origins, even as they spurned the idea of Africa as home. ii Chapter One Introduction: Africa, the American Colonization Society, and Black Identity in the Antebellum Era This study began with the goal of exploring representations of Africa in the writings of free black Americans, from the late-eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. Like many other scholars before me, I recognized in the works of black authors from the 1780s up to around the time of the War of 1812, a voluminous discourse centering upon Africa. That discussion underwent a major disruption, beginning in 1816, with the emergence of the American Colonization Society, or ACS, an organization devoted to the removal of free blacks to Africa. Throughout the North, blacks stopped referring to themselves as Africans, instead asserting an American identity that rejected the idea of Africa as their homeland. Precisely what happened to the rich narrative of African identity previous generations of black writers had established, after 1816? A survey of the secondary literature revealed that historians disagreed on precisely how to answer the question. Scholars that have explored the pan-African dimensions of early black writing in the Atlantic world, the workings of the ACS, the various histories authored by free black northerners in the antebellum period, as well as the subject of black nationalism, have all offered different interpretations of just how, and when, a narrative of black identity evolved in the United States. This work traces ideas about Africa in the writings of free blacks in the North primarily between 1808 and 1861. Africa stands out as a topic in the literary productions of black authors 1 that draws the above-mentioned historiographical subjects together. Looking at the letters, books, newspapers, and organizational records produced by free blacks, reveals that Africa represented a site, or space in the narrative black writers produced about themselves, where the ancestral homeland functioned as far more than a place to be redeemed by returning black Christians in the late eighteenth century. Africa did not disappear in the narrative of black identity formation after 1820, but rather took on a different role. Overwhelmingly, free blacks of the era did not view the continent as a desirable spot to emigrate to, or to build a black republic. Most free blacks rejected passionately any contemporary identification with Africa. Indeed, the discourse of Africa free blacks produced was important not so much to the formation of a pan- Africanist consciousness among a small minority, but the much more expansive narrative of a majority, who laid claim to an American identity largely by rejecting the idea that they were Africans. Free black writers of the antebellum era employed stories about the greatness of an ancient Africa to establish the equality of blacks on the scale of humanity with whites. They coupled this equality with a rejection of the idea that in any contemporary sense they themselves were Africans, in an effort to define themselves as black American citizens of the United States. Another way of thinking about the discourse of Africa free blacks created in the decades leading up to emancipation, is to grapple with the reality that when they claimed an American identity they were doing far more than opposing colonization, claiming citizenship rights, and rejecting emigration to Africa. Over and over again free blacks returned to a simple, indisputable fact, which they argued established them as American citizens. For most of them, the United States was the land of their birth, and this, they insisted, more than anything else, made America what Africa could never be – home. 2 Between the period of the American Revolution and the Civil War, black writers produced a rich and complicated narrative about Africa. The foundations of this narrative of African identity, as a number of scholars have shown, were developed in the late-eighteenth and early- nineteenth century, by black authors in both the United States and Great Britain, such as Phyllis Wheatley, Olaudah Equiano, Prince Hall, and Paul Cuffe. The establishment of Sierra Leone in the early 1790s, a British colony of free blacks on the western coast of Africa, and the ongoing horrors of the slave trade itself, focused the attentions of black writers squarely on their ancestral homeland. The result was an emerging pan-African consciousness among blacks throughout the Atlantic world, a form of early nationalistic thought that linked them together not just as descendants of Africa, but as victims of a common oppression. Of course, no such thing as an “African” nation
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