Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 36e44

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Quaternary International

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Early hominid dispersals: A technological hypothesis for “out of Africa”

Eudald Carbonell a, Robert Sala Ramos a,*, Xosé Pedro Rodríguez a, Marina Mosquera a, Andreu Ollé a, Josep María Vergès a, Bienvenido Martínez-Navarro a,b, José María Bermúdez de Castro c a Institut Català de Paleoecologia Humana i Evolució Social (IPHES). Àrea de Prehistòria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili. Avgda. Catalunya, 35. 43002 Tarragona, b ICREA. Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Spain c Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre Evolución Humana (CENIEH), Burgos, Spain article info abstract

Article history: Homo is the only genus that responds to environmental pressures by adopting such strategies as non- Available online 25 February 2010 standardized behaviour, a general diet, and technology. Considering that basic idea, this paper intro- duces the general hypothesis that the Pliocene and Early Homo dispersals within and out of Africa were consequences of that human characteristic behaviour. In particular, they were driven by a process starting with the emergence of technology, followed in a second phase by its socialization. From this point, social reorganization within communities (changing behaviours and social, cultural and economic strategies) occurred, driving demographic growth, and frequently geographic expansion. Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction et al., 2002), and H. antecessor may have an Eurasian origin (Carbonell et al., 2005). Therefore, the extent to which technology The end of the twentieth century witnessed increasing interest influenced hominin dispersals is the purpose of this paper. in and debate about the circumstances that led Plio-Pleistocene and Some issues can be taken into consideration as starting points: 1. Early Pleistocene hominids to disperse out of Africa (Dean and There was not a single out-of-Africa hominin dispersal event; 2. Delson, 1995; Carbonell et al., 1996, 1999a, 2008a; Arribas Based on current knowledge, the only hominin genus that left Africa and Palmqvist, 1999; Turner, 1999; Aguirre and Carbonell, 2001; during the Plio-Pleistocene was Homo; 3. Other hominin genera Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, 2001; Mithen and Reed, 2002). The coexisting with Homo evolved and went extinct in Africa, particu- debate has focused on resolving when, how and where the earliest larly Australopithecus and Paranthropus. The latter may have started waves of hominid dispersal occurred, with special emphasis on the to adopt a generalist feeding strategy, combining scavenging, particular mechanisms that conditioned and determined these hunting and gathering (Sillen, 1992; Lee-Thorp et al., 1994, 2000). dispersals and the ways in which early Homo arrived and settled Even though they may have also invented technology, Homo was the Eurasia (Rolland, 1992; Carbonell et al., 1996, 2008a; Dennell and only hominin genus that was successful in dispersing out of Africa Roebroeks, 1996; Martínez-Navarro et al., 1997; Oms et al., 2000; due to its systematic application of a set of adaptive strategies Roebroeks, 2001). (Carbonell et al., 2008a): systematic adoption of technology as As the debate continues, it shows how little is known about a mean for resources supply, a generalist diet (as has been proposed certain key aspects of human evolution. In particular, some of the by Anton et al., 2002, and Anton and Swisher, 2004) and a non- hypotheses proposed during the last decade have to be amended standardized behaviour. Technology meant that humans were able due to the change in the knowledge about the chronology of the to diversify their behaviour, and so they disposed of a wide range of dispersals. Elsewhere, it was proposed that the technological shift responses to better adapt to new and heterogeneous situations. In to Mode 2 in Africa could have pushed some Mode 1 population sum, technology appears as the more powerful adaptation for within Africa to move into Eurasia (Carbonell et al., 1999a). This humans. hypothesis was based both in a younger chronology for the Despite this role, hypotheses based on technological develop- record and in the consideration that Homo antecessor was certainly ment to explain human dispersals and evolution have not been an African species. Today, the date for Dmanisi exceeds that of the thoroughly developed. The significance of the different stages first evidence for Mode 2 in Africa (Asfaw et al., 1992; de Lumley within each Mode on dispersals should be considered, not only the shift to Mode 2. It is also appropriate to review the chronology of * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 9779730; fax: þ34 977558386. different dispersal events and to show the possible relation to E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Sala Ramos). technological phases. This approach, termed the “The Out of Africa

1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.02.015 E. Carbonell et al. / Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 36e44 37

Technological Hypothesis”, emphasises the role played by tech- et al., 2008b). Its age has been established in 1.2 Ma by means of nology in human expansions (Carbonell et al., 1999a, 2008a). paleomagnetism, biostratigraphy and cosmogenic nuclides. To date, the Atapuerca complex is unique in offering a set of sites and levels 2. Current data for the earliest Homo dispersals out of Africa, with different ages in the second half of the Early Pleistocene, with and into Western Eurasia both cultural and biological information on human evolution in Western Eurasia. According to current empirical data, the earliest known tools are Although Mode 2 technology was already developed in Africa at modified stones recovered from archaeological sites in Central East the time of the human occupation of Europe, all the Early Pleisto- Africa, and date at a maximum of 2.6 Ma (Kibunjia, 1994; Semaw cene European sites display Mode 1 lithic assemblages. In general, et al., 1997, 2003; Delagnes and Roche, 2005). These lithic records the European Mode 1 technology is characterized by the wide- are abundant and diversified, suggesting that technology was not spread use of knapping methods to produce simple flakes. These newborn, but already generalized by this time (Panger et al., 2002). methods were sometimes organized and systematic, but the Technology may have emerged previously, and this period may production processes were basic, and lacked different stages of represent the time of its first complete socialization (Carbonell knapping (i.e., preparation of the cores): they lacked process et al., 2009). It is within this hypothetical framework of general- complexity. This Mode 1 technology also produces few small ized tool production and use that early Homo dispersals within retouched flakes and some heavy-duty pebble tools, both mini- Africa and beyond can be understood (Carbonell et al., 2007). mally shaped (Fig. 3). Although these are the general traits for Mode The oldest Homo fossils known out of Africa come from the site 1, the differences between the oldest one in Eurasia, that of Dmanisi of Dmanisi () dated to 1.81 Ma (Gabunia and Vekua, 1995; and that of Gran Dolina-TD6 from Atapuerca cannot be neglected. Gabunia et al., 2001; de Lumley et al., 2002). They have been Dmanisi is claimed to have similar archaic technological features to classified as Homo georgicus (Gabunia et al., 2002), and their the African sites between 2.6 and 2.0 Ma (de Lumley et al., 2005). primitive features and variability suggest that these hominins are Gran Dolina-TD6 shows some small shaped tools, as well as, for the extremely close to the Homo speciation threshold. The Dmanisi first time in Europe, an incipient production of bigger flakes to be archaeological record in addition to human fossils is composed by knapped as cores but never shaped into tools (Fig. 4)(Carbonell a large lithic assemblage displaying Mode 1 features close to that et al., 1999b; Rodríguez, 2004). The dominant exploitation strate- shown by the African sites more than 2.0 Ma (de Lumley et al., gies are those common in Mode 1, and include mainly the 2005; Mgeladze, 2008). orthogonal technique but also centripetal and unipolar longitudinal The current known Western Eurasian Early Pleistocene sites are knapping. significantly younger than Dmanisi, and they offer different quali- ties of chronological and archaeological (Fig. 1) and palae- 3. Technological hypothesis for the first out of Africa event ontological data. Pirro Nord () is claimed to be around 1.4 Ma on biochronological markers (Arzarello et al., 2009). Also in Italy, In the authors' view, the dispersals of Homo were triggered by Monte Poggiolo has an age of 0.9 Ma based on both by paleomag- ethological and cultural mechanisms that differed significantly netism and ESR (Peretto et al., 1998; Falguères, 2003). The last from those of other mammal species, particularly as far as their Italian site to be mentioned is Ceprano, where a human calvarium social behaviour was concerned (Rolland, 1992; Tchernov, 1992; has been previously ascribed by stratigraphical correlation to a time Turner, 1992; deMenocal and Bloemendal, 1995; Roebroeks, span between 0.8 and 0.9 Ma (Ascenzi et al., 1996; Manzi et al., 2001). A crucial factor that determined the earliest dispersals of 2001). However, a Middle Pleistocene age has been proposed for Homo was their capacity to socialize operational intelligence: their this site (Muttoni et al., 2009). capacity to make tools and to diffuse this tool-making behaviour In there are two main Early Pleistocene sites: Pont- within the Homo species. Technology started to play its crucial role de-Lavaud and Vallonnet. The latter has been dated by means of in the social structures of these early Homo communities. Gener- biostratigraphy, paleomagnetism and ESR to the Jaramillo magnetic alizing tool production and use generated a phenomenon called subchron, between 0.99 and 1.07 Ma (de Lumley, 1988; Yokoyama “social reorganization”. This concept is used here to describe the et al., 1988; de Lumley et al., 2009). To date, Pont-de-Lavaud is social, cultural and subsistence behavioural changes derived from the oldest site in France, with an age between 1.0 and 1.2 Ma the adoption of new technical skills by a population. determined by ESR (Despriée et al., 2006, 2009). It is also the The following list summarizes the chain of processes proposed northernmost Early Pleistocene site in Western Europe. to lead to the earliest Homo dispersals out of Africa (Fig. 5). It In Southern Spain, the archaeological remains of Fuente Nueva 3 corresponds to the first technological rise and development but it and Barranco León 5 sites in the region of Orce have been dated at also offers a hypothetical framework to understand the rise and 1.2e1.3 Ma on the basis of paleomagnetic and biochronological data growing of any new evolutionary phase: (Oms et al., 2000; Toro-Moyano et al., 2009). Finally, in Northern Spain two of the karstic sites of Atapuerca display Early Pleistocene 1. Proposal for the emergence of tool production and consequent levels: levels TD3-4 to TD7 in the Gran Dolina and TE7 to TE16 rise of operational intelligence at the end of the Pliocene, around in Sima del Elefante cave. The archaeological assemblages from 3 Ma, even though the current earliest record is dated at 2.6 Ma. TD3-4 and TD5 have been interpreted as products of short human 2. Generalization and socialization of tool production among occupations. In contrast the overlying level TD6 represents an Homo rudolfensis and Homo habilis communities around intense occupation, with features of a base camp (Carbonell et al., 2.3e2.4 Ma. Once the use of technology has been generalized in 1995, 1999b), including human remains of H. antecessor a community, new opportunities emerge and improvements are (Bermúdez de Castro, 1997; Carbonell et al., 2005). TD6 has been easier to adopt. Therefore, socializing tool production may have dated through biostratigraphy, paleomagnetism and ESR giving an led to faster responses to subsistence needs and other age of 0.8e0.9 Ma (Parés and Pérez-González, 1999; Falguères et al., challenges. 1999; Berger et al., 2008). Among the Early Pleistocene levels of 3. Adoption of new behaviours and reorganization of adaptive Sima del Elefante, TE9 stands out because of the association of lithic strategies (i.e., social reorganization). Socializing tool produc- artefacts (Fig. 2), anthropically broken and cutmarked bones, and tion may have forced a reorganization of the social structure of hominin fossils preliminary assigned to H. antecessor (Carbonell the community by creating a cultural background that gave 38 E. Carbonell et al. / Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 36e44

Fig. 1. Mode 1 lithic industry from Early Pleistocene European sites. 1e2. Cores on pebbles, from Pont de Lavaud (Despriée et al., 2009). 3. Flake on quartz with denticulate retouch, from Pont de Lavaud (Despriée et al., 2009). 4. Prismatic core on flint, with bipolar knapping, from Barranco León (Toro-Moyano et al., 2009). 5. Orthogonal core on , Fuente Nueva 3 (Toro-Moyano et al., 2009). 6e7. Flint flakes, Fuente Nueva 3 (Toro-Moyano et al., 2009). 8, Chopper on flint, Monte Poggiolo (Peretto et al., 1998); 9, Core on flint, Monte Poggiolo (Peretto et al., 1998); 10, Limestone chopper Vallonnet (de Lumley et al., 2009).

support to new ideas. New ideas and improvements must be taking into account the caution regarding its dating, it appears that tested before they are adopted. Complexity increased, so an the Mode 2 dispersal event exemplified by ‘Ubeidiya was restricted emerging form of social specialization may have developed, to the Near East and did not expand beyond. In addition its tech- creating an incipient form of new social structure. nological characteristics, proposed as archaic Acheulean (Bar-Yosef 4. Demographic growth and evolutionary success of Homo as and Goren-Inbar, 1993; Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, 2001)are a consequence of having improved its adaptive capabilities. closer to the oldest African Mode 2 entities than to the Eurasian 5. Occupation of new spaces. The dispersals began as a result of ones. Neither in Asia nor in Europe has such an archaic Mode 2 ever demographic growth. Geographic features and barriers (e.g., the been described. Rift Valley) played a significant role in the routing of the The attested expansion of Mode 2 through Eurasia seems to be dispersals. not older than 0.8 Ma, as it appears at sites at both corners of the continent. In , a classical Mode 2 site at Bose with handaxes, cleavers and picks, 0,8 Ma old, has been described (Hou et al., 4. Why did mode 2 never reach Europe before 0.8 Ma? 2000). Slightly younger is the European Mode 2 record: to date, no European Mode 2 site is older than 0.6 Ma, Notarchirico in Italy The proposed technological hypothesis has to enlighten the first (Piperno, 1999) and Arago in France (de Lumley and Barsky, 2004; human dispersal into Eurasia but it is also compelled to explain why Falguères et al., 2004) being the oldest. Mode 2 populations took so long time to reach Europe (Fig. 6). The These Eurasian sites show technological features that are first Asian Mode 2 record is the well known assemblage of ‘Ubei- clearly different from those present at ‘Ubeidiya. Interestingly, diya with a date around 1.4 Ma (Bar-Yosef and Goren-Inbar, 1993). another Near Eastern site has both an age and technological Although the site of Isampur in has been claimed to be 1.2 Ma characteristics that are closer to the Mode 2 systematic expansion: (Paddayya et al., 2002), there are some controversies concerning Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, 0.8 Ma (Goren-Inbar, 1992; Goren-Inbar dating (Acharyya, 2003; Paddayya, 2003; Chauhan, 2009). This site et al., 2000). is interesting for the quarrying behaviour demonstrated by its Mode 2 has been characterized by the production of large tools, record (Petraglia et al., 1999), but especially because it may exem- mostly on flakes, that usually show bilateral symmetry, such as plify the continuity of population since ‘Ubeidiya. Conversely, handaxes, cleavers and picks. At this stage, trihedral-tip shapes E. Carbonell et al. / Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 36e44 39

Fig. 2. Atapuerca Sima del Elefante-TE9. a and b, Flakes on Cretaceous flint; c, Flake on Neogene flint. become part of the technique, and they share the above mentioned ‘Ubeidiya is in contrast with the well developed technique on large concept of symmetry. Despite these general features, some tools, already standardised, clearly present at other localities such temporal trends can be detected in its evolution. The presence of as Gesher Benot Ya'aqov. The former set of traits seems to be absent crude handaxes along with spheroids and choppers in sites as from Eurasian sites.

Fig. 3. Atapuerca Gran Dolina-TD6. a, Orthogonal core on Neogene flint; b, Heavy-duty tool on limestone. 40 E. Carbonell et al. / Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 36e44

Fig. 4. Atapuerca Gran Dolina-TD6. Large flake on Neogene flint used as core.

What could be the explanation for the dispersal delay of to be already developed at the referred sites. Therefore, it a technology considered more efficient than the former Mode 1, probably emerged before this date. and already present in the Near East ca. 1.4 Ma at ‘Ubeidiya? The 2. Socialization of Mode 2, which expanded across the African ‘Ubeidiya faunal complex offers Eurasian species, demonstrating continent until reaching the Levantine Corridor, around 1.4 Ma. that hominin introduction in new ecological conditions was actu- The socialization of Mode 2 may have been delayed because of ally effective. A possible explanation is that a good adaptation of some degree of territorial competition posed by Mode 1 pop- Eurasian Mode 1 populations since Dmanisi time posed a barrier to ulations, who did not adopt the new skills and behaviours, and the expansion of a new wave of human populations, likely without acted as a barrier for Mode 2 expansion at this early stage. the technical and social maturity needed to succeed in such 3. New economic and social reorganization within the Homo a confrontation. species after the Mode 2 socialization process, leading to demographic growth. 4. Competition within genus Homo in Africa would have forced 5. A technological hypothesis for the second large-scale the Mode 1 communities that did not adopt Mode 2 technology dispersal to leave the continent (Carbonell et al., 1999a). Alternatively, the oldest Mode 1 communities of Eurasia, being relatively isolated Following the same chain of processes exposed for the Mode 1 from the African Mode 2 innovations, may have expanded across emergence, socialization and expansion, a similar series of stages the continent from 1.8 Ma to around 1 Ma (Carbonell et al., are suggested concerning Mode 2: 2008a). Both hypotheses would explain why Mode 1 still appears in Eurasia at around 1 Ma, when Mode 2 was already 1. Emergence of Mode 2 technology, maybe around 1.8 Ma or developed in Africa (Carbonell and Rodríguez, 2006). The first even slightly earlier. According to current data, the lithic tools of hypothesis assumes an African origin for the communities that Kokiselei (West Turkana, ) (Roche et al., 2003), Konso occupied Europe ca. 1.4 Ma assisted by Mode 1 industries, while Gardula () (Asfaw et al., 1992), and Rietputs Formation the latter assumes that these groups were Eurasian. (Vaal River, ) (Gibbon et al., 2009) are the earliest 5. Demographic growth derived from a systematic introduction traces of Mode 2, with an age of 1.7e1.6 Ma. If the same evolu- and generalization of Mode 2 technology. The high efficiency tionary model proposed for Mode 1 is applied, Mode 2 appears and advantages of this technology led again to dispersals out of E. Carbonell et al. / Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 36e44 41

Fig. 5. First large-scale Homo dispersal inside and out of Africa. There are depicted the first archaeological complexes in Africa along with the main Early Pleistocene Mode 1 sites both in Africa and Eurasia discussed in the text. The main attention has been put on the European archaeological record, related to the more recent Mode 1 large-scale dispersal event.

Africa, this time by Mode 2 communities. Within this context, has been recently revisited and reanalysed (Ciochon, 2009) analysis a more evolved species with a brain of around 1000 cm3 was has been directed towards the recognition of primate fossils as responsible for both the second large-scale dispersal event, and humans, not to the anthropic origin of the recovered tools. These the Mode 2 occupation of Eurasian landscapes. This wide maintain their actual human nature. All these sites retain the very dispersal is documented by synchronous evidence from the sites archaic traits from the African Mode 1 previous to 2.0 Ma and came, of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (Levantine Corridor) (Goren-Inbar et al., clearly, from a very ancient dispersion flow. 2000; Saragusti and Goren-Inbar, 2001; Sharon, 2007), Bose It has been stressed that during the Early Pleistocene, several (China) (Hou et al., 2000) and later at the earliest European species of mammals, such as Hippopotamus antiquus, Megantereon Mode 2 sites of Notarchirico (Italy) (Piperno, 1999) and Caune de whitei and Theropithecus oswaldi, dispersed out of Africa under the l'Arago (France) (de Lumley and Barsky, 2004). influence of climatic and ecological pressures sometimes along with humans (Martínez-Navarro, 2004; Rook et al., 2004). This Acheulean (Mode 2) sequence resembles the Oldowan one However, these dispersals did match the complexity of those of (Mode 1), and it shows the importance of conceptualizing humans neither in age nor in space. a continuous process of social reorganization within our genus; one Certainly, climate change and its associated shifts in plant and that operates through new acquisitions and their socialization, the animal communities represent factors of environmental pressure. consequent social reorganization of groups, and the final outcome The adaptive response of hominins to such changes was to acquire of demographic growth leading to massive dispersals. and socialize extrasomatic behaviour, that is to say, they system- atically developed technology. Then, human adaptation is not 6. Discussion direct but mediated. This process triggered behavioural changes among these hominin groups because their operational intelligence The existence of a connection between ecological changes and increased; that is, they increased their capacity to obtain energy behavioural and cognitive evolution of hominins has been dis- from the environment by diversifying the strategies for life and cussed previously (Vrba et al., 1995; Macho and Leakey, 2009). The food acquisition. In turn, this development led to immediate ecological framework (deMenocal, 2004) indicates main climate demographic growth within the genus Homo, which would have shifts at 2.8, 1.7 and 1.0 Ma. Current data about the chronology of been much more competitive and have exerted more pressure in human dispersals into Eurasia do not match the date of these the environment than any other genus. climatic shifts. The first human dispersal may occurred shortly after This may have been the way in which Mode 1 technology 2.3e2.4 Ma, as supported by the evidence coming from archaeo- (Oldowan technology) contributed to the communities that first logical sites such as Dmanisi (Georgia) (Gabunia and Vekua, 1995; expanded across the African continent, as has been documented de Lumley et al., 2002), Riwat () (Dennell et al., 1998), from South African sites such as and Kromdraai Longgupo (Wanpo et al., 1995) and Renzidong (China) (Dong, (Kuman, 1994; Kuman et al., 1997) to North African sites, such as 2006), all around 2.0 Ma or slightly younger. Although Longgupo Ain Hanech () (Sahnouni and Heinzelin, 1998; Sahnouni 42 E. Carbonell et al. / Quaternary International 223-224 (2010) 36e44

Fig. 6. Second large-scale Homo dispersal event leading to the Mode 2 expansion into Eurasia. There have been shown the three earliest Mode 2 African records along with the sites demonstrating the dispersal of this technology to Eurasia. The sites clearly related to the phase of resocialisation leading to the Mode 2 systematic dispersal into Eurasia have been highlighted.

et al., 2002), and at the same time across the Eurasian continent. A first expansion of Mode 2 around 1.5 Ma leave the record of This shows a complex net of human dispersals favoured by the ‘Ubeidiya (Bar-Yosef and Goren-Inbar, 1993) and its pressure over newborn technical and social skills. the Mode 1 populations in the Near East could be the origin for the The evidence from Dmanisi (Georgia) (Gabunia and Vekua, later expansion of Mode 1 and H. antecessor to Western Europe 1995; Gabunia et al., 2002) together with the Homo erectus (Carbonell et al., 2008b). The first Mode 2 expansion into Near East remains from Java () (Swisher et al., 1994) and Yuanmou seems to have been not strong enough to reach other Eurasian (China) (Zhu et al., 2008) are the oldest examples of the first regions. dispersal waves, which are products of the reorganization of social Finally, the late expansion of Mode 2 throughout Eurasia, behaviour among our earliest Homo ancestors. In this respect, the beyond the Near East, has to correspond to a moment of important specimen D3444/D3900 from Dmanisi (Georgia) suggests that social reorganization and demographic growth inside Mode 2 some degree of social complexity may have existed within the early populations both in Near East and Africa. This relationship is Homo communities: this specimen is the mandible of a toothless proposed because its age, around 0.8e1.0 Ma, and because of the individual displaying strong alveolar absorption. This individual characteristics of current early Acheulean in Eurasia: Bose (Hou likely needed some care by other individuals to survive, pointing to et al., 2000), Notarchirico (Piperno, 1999) and Arago (de Lumley altruistic social cooperation (Lordkipanidze et al., 2005). This and Barsky, 2004). All these sites present a technological record behaviour coincides with the earliest large-scale Homo dispersals. It that corresponds to a very advanced phase of Mode 2 evolution, may be part of the social reorganization processes derived from the different from the primitive one of ‘Ubeidiya (Bar-Yosef and Goren- socialization of technology. Evidence for the care of old individuals Inbar, 1993) but close to that of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (Goren-Inbar is an indicator of a sense of social coherence that may have enabled et al., 2000), whose age also has been established at 0.8 Ma. The dispersals to occur. technology of this site has been related to other African sites of the Possibly, several and continuous dispersals out of Africa have same age (Goren-Inbar, 1992; Saragusti and Goren-Inbar, 2001), occurred, not necessarily large-scale waves of migration. However, a hypothesis that is coherent with a new phase of socialization and the stronger flows were related to the emergence and socialization demographic growth all over Africa and Near East. of new behavioural acquisitions by Homo populations. Therefore, it is proposed that large-scale dispersal events took place twice: 7. Conclusion firstly, after the social reorganization of Mode 1 (Oldowan tech- nology), and secondly after the social reorganization of Mode 2 The dispersals of Homo may be understood as the result of our technology (Acheulean technology). In this hypothesis, the former uniqueness within the hominin family. The capacity of tool took place slightly after the first technology occurrence in East production lies at the centre of this uniqueness, strongly influ- Africa, before 2.0 Ma and produced the human expansion through encing our social behaviour. and outside Africa leaving the archaeological records in South and The factors that trigger these dispersals must be sought in the North Africa and Asia. For the latter, two main flows are proposed. different kinds of pressures that the environment imposes on E. 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