Exploring Sense of Place Across Cultivated Lands Through Public Participatory Mapping

Landscape Ecol

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-019-00816-9 (0123456789().,-volV)( 0123456789().,-volV)

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Exploring sense of place across cultivated lands through public participatory mapping

I. Pe´rez-Ramı´rez . M. Garcı´a-Llorente . A. Benito . A. J. Castro

Received: 8 October 2018 / Accepted: 26 March 2019 Ó Springer Nature B.V. 2019

Abstract areas, as well as to reveal the public sense of place Context Cultivated lands have undergone a shift attached to cultivated lands and perceptions about towards intensification and increased productivity, future land-use pathways. favoring provisioning services at the expense of Methods This study was conducted in an agrarian regulating and cultural services. Cultivated lands have and rural region of SE Madrid (Spain), where we did rarely been researched as a provider of cultural ecosystem service participatory mapping workshops services. with key stakeholders related to the agrarian sector: Objectives The overarching goal of this study is to farming professionals, land-use decision-makers and assess sense of place across cultivated lands. To do so, planners and other local actors. we used participatory mapping to elicit public knowl- Results We identified linkages between cultivated edge of the past and present coverage of agricultural lands and sense of place as a key cultural service. The locations most pinpointed for its sense of place overlapped with cultivated lands. The future land- I. Pe´rez-Ramı´rez Á M. Garcıá-Llorente (&) Á A. Benito Department of Applied Research and Agricultural use pathways that showed the highest agreement Extension, Madrid Institute for Rural, Agricultural and between the likelihood and interest in their promotion Food Research and Development (IMIDRA), Ctra. were the increases in green and/or protected areas and Madrid-Barcelona (N-II), KM. 38.200, orchards. Extensive crops and urban areas the land-use 28802 Alcala´ de Henares, Spain e-mail: [email protected] pathways with the highest dissonance. Conclusions The results encourage land planners M. Garcıá-Llorente and researchers to approach landscape values in Social-Ecological Systems Laboratory, Department of relation to the sense of place. We concluded that Ecology, C-201, c. Darwin, 2, Universidad Autońoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain cultivated lands present a sense of place, and this link has the possible to root society in agricultural land- A. J. Castro scape through the establishment of belongingness, Social-Ecological Research Lab, Department of stewardship and care connections. Biological Sciences, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID 83209, USA Keywords Agricultural landscape Á Cultural value Á A. J. Castro Ecosystems service Á Landscape stewardship Á ´ Centro Andaluz para la Evaluacion y Seguimiento del Participatory mapping Sense of place Cambio Global (CAESCG), Departamento de Biologıá Á Vegetal y Ecologıá, Universidad de Almerıá, La Canãda de San Urbano, 04120 Almerıá, Spain 123 Landscape Ecol

Introduction The sustainable land management of agricultural landscape must balance the delivery of multiple In the last decades, there has been an increasing ecosystem services (DeFries et al. 2004; Brown and number of studies that support an approach to the Raymond 2007; Plieninger et al. 2013, 2015; Quintas- sustainable integration of the social-ecological sys- Soriano et al. 2016), which implies a need for a full tems approach in land decision-making (Berkes and accounting of not only the economic and environ- Folke 1998). The social-ecological systems approach mental costs of productive systems but also the considers interactions between human societies and sociocultural dimension that is associated with farm- ecosystems, including processes that determine the ing practices (Garcıá-Llorente et al. 2016; Quintas- flow and availability of critically important natural and Soriano et al. 2018b). In this regard, the management anthropocentric resources (Bailey 2009; Martıń- of agricultural landscape has demanded new forms to Lo´pez et al. 2017). Agricultural landscape are com- embrace all dimensions of social perception and the plex social-ecological systems that not only ensure interpretation of landscapes from an emotional, spir- food resources but also guarantee key ecological itual and cognitive perspective (Relph 1976; Jor- processes and preserve cultural and historical values. gensen and Stedman 2006; Gonza´lez-Berna´ldez 2011; Throughout the last decades, agricultural landscape Morań et al. 2016). Since then, the literature on sense have changed drastically towards the modernization of of place has increased extensively, considering the set farming systems with the intensification of agriculture, of the core sense of place constructs (Masterson et al. the reduction of the labor force and the promotion of 2017), such as place attachment (understood as to be economic profitability (Altieri et al. 2012; Moraine the emotional bond that is established between the et al. 2017). This trend has driven the decoupling of individual or group and the environment; Altman and social-ecological situations in agricultural landscape Low 1992), place dependence (related to a utilitarian (Pretty 2011; Garcıá-Llorente et al. 2016). In Europe, connection between people and the environment, agricultural landscape are characterized by the use of including the ability of a setting to satisfy important external inputs, land concentration and difficulties in needs; Tidball and Stedman 2013) or place identity land accessibility for new farmers (Pinto-Correia (related to the construction of personal identity 1993; Franco and Borras 2015). In the case of Spain, through the physical environment; Proshansky agroecosystem have experienced a similar process, 1978). All of these concepts are mixed with real-life with the intensification of the most profitable areas and experiences (Seamon 2014), and during this study, we the abandonment of farming marginalized zones considered these core constructs as factors of a sense (Guzmań et al. 2012; Renwick et al. 2013). Less of place, thereby understanding sense of place as a profitable areas have been oriented towards a more concept that considers the subjective experience of the extensive use of the land, often for grazing and nature place, the deep emotional bonds and the meaning of conservation purposes (Pinto-Correia 1993), tourism, the place constructed by society (Relph 1976; Tuan industrial, mining, energy interests (Martıńez-Fernań- 1976). Here, we recognize that a sense of place is dez et al. 2015) or abandonment. After the ‘‘green formed through social experiences (Masterson et al. revolution’’ during the second half of the twentieth 2017); we highlight the collective dimension of the century (Naredo 2001), agricultural landscape have place and the relationships between people, identities been managed to maximize the delivery of provision- and their environments. To do so, we used participa- ing services (e.g., food production), which has resulted tory mapping to integrate different sources of knowl- in a decline in regulating and cultural ecosystem edge and generate spatially explicit outputs (Brown services (Matson et al. 1997; Castro et al. 2014, 2015; et al. 2012; Brown and Fagerholm 2015; Scholte et al. Quintas-Soriano et al. 2014). Thus, ecosystem service 2015). The use of participatory mapping has been trade-offs and disservices include negative impacts on extensive in ecosystem service literature, in particular agrobiodiversity (Swinton et al. 2007), nutrient to address cultural ecosystem services. For instance, cycling (Power 2010), pesticide poisoning, water previous studies have measure recreation and eco- pollution, greenhouse gas emissions (Tilman et al. tourism values (Martıńez-Harms and Balvanera 2012; 2002; Zhang et al. 2007; Castro et al. 2016) and Hernańdez-Morcillo et al. 2013). However, it has been cultural identity (Hinojosa et al. 2017). remarked that there is a need to acknowledge and map 123 Landscape Ecol a broader variety of cultural ecosystem service for region is composed of fluvial terraces with horticul- their later inclusion in landscape management and tural crops and cereals (mainly cornfields, wheat and governance (Chan et al. 2012; Daniel et al. 2012; barley) and zones with slight inclinations with soils of Setten et al. 2012; Plieninger et al. 2013;Lo´pez- low organic matter with olive groves and vineyards Rodrı´guez et al. 2015). Among all of the cultural interspersed with thyme, rockrose, lavender, rosemary ecosystem service types, sense of place has been or esparto (Go´mez 1987) and dry cereals, legumes and recognized as playing a critical role in shaping and other annual crops in zones with intermediate soil maintaining well-being across rural communities qualities (Bienes et al. 2001). Even though the Tajunã (SNEA 2013; Hausmann et al. 2016; Blicharska tributary river has several protection areas, which are et al. 2017). Previous research introduced spatial classified as Community Interest Sites (CIS) and Spe- mapping approach to examine the relationships cial Protection Areas for Birds (SPAB), it is currently between a ‘‘special place’’ and landscape values in a vulnerable condition due to high droughts (during (Brown 2005; Black and Liljeblad 2006; Brown and the year 2017, the reservoir volume did not exceed Raymond 2007). 400 hm3 and the river was declared to be in an The overarching goal of this study is to assess sense emergency state) and water pollution during the last of place across cultivated lands. For begin with a solid decades (Hydrographic Commission of Tajo river foundation of the biophysical changes of land cover 2016) (Castro et al. 2018). we used conventional GIS to, for one hand understand From a socioeconomic perspective, the Las Vegas improved this place and for another hand increase our agrarian and rural district involves 20 rural munici- capacity to compare and interpret the later participa- palities with a total area of 1035 km2. It has with a tory mapping. In this sense, we used a participatory population of 54,027 inhabitants that representing mapping to elicit public knowledge on the past and 0.8% of the total inhabitants of the Madrid region present coverage of agricultural areas, as well as to (6507,184 inhabitants). The area has a population reveal a public sense of place to attach to cultivated density of 52.2 inhabitants/km2, which provides its lands and perceptions about future land-use pathways. rural character. Traditionally, its economy has been With this aim, we organized the following specific based mainly on the farming sector and related agri- goals: (1) to analyze the spatial trend of agriculture by food industries. Due to its agrarian character and its mapping cultivated lands in the past and present and to suitable distance to the city of Madrid (on average, it is compare them with conventional agricultural maps; 52 km to the capital), it is possible to distribute and (2) to map geographic locations with sense of place sell products from the area (Aracove 2015). Overall, values and examine their relation with cultivated lands the region involves 27% of the total annual working and (3) to determine which land-use pathway are most units of farms in the Madrid region. During the last likely to occur and which one are most desired by the few years, a financial and global crisis has battered this general public over the next decade, and to examine region; which has reached an unemployment rate of their relationships with sense of place. 26.8% (13.8% in the Madrid region following the Spanish National Statistics Institute-INE for 2017). Study area

The research site is an agrarian district in the Methods southeastern Madrid region (Spain), which is called the Las Vegas agrarian and rural district. It is a Conventional cartography semiarid territory with an average yearly temperature of 15 °C and 365 mm rainfall (data from the Spanish In order to address the objective of understand State Meteorological Agency–AEMET) with predom- improved this place, we used the Map of Crops and inantly loamy textures in a rolling landscape of Utilizations (MCU) for the period 1970–1980 of the generally moderate slopes, with the altitude ranging Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fishing and Food, from 500 to 840 m.a.s.l. Located in the Tajo water and the map of SigPac 2015 (Geographic Information basin, its landscapes are crossed by the Tajo river and System for Agricultural Parcels) of the Spanish two of its tributaries: Jarama and Tajun˜a (Fig. 1). This National Geographic Institute. This step allowed us 123 Landscape Ecol

Fig. 1 Location of the study area in the Las Vegas rural and agrarian district (Madrid Region, Central Spain); its main rivers and sample points indicate municipalities where participatory workshops took place to face the participatory mapping workshops having a Hence, the stakeholder groups that were targeted solid base of the place, in order to better understand included farming professionals, land-use decision- and interpret the dialogues that took place in the makers and planners and other local actors. Land-use workshops. decision-makers and planners had occupations in public administration and had greater ease of partic- Sampling approach ipation in decision-making; participants included mayors, agents of employment, local councils Sampling took place from February to June 2017 involved in local development, technicians in the through five workshops that were conducted in research centers of Madrid region, and technicians different municipalities (Fig. 1) and fulfilled the from local development agencies or councilors of following requirements: (1) geographical distribution agriculture. Participants coming from the productive within the region, (2) municipalities with an agricul- sector included farmers, representatives of farming tural character representing different cultivated lands, unions or people working in the agribusiness sector. and (3) willingness of the local government to Finally, other local actors concern those whose facilitate and collaborate on dissemination and per- professional activity was not linked to the agricultural formance of the workshops. sector or to decision-making, but who were linked to The workshops were publicized for the entire the region due to their membership of cultural, population, but emphasis was placed on disseminating environmental or historical associations or hunting the workshops in a personalized way to farming collectives and landowners or those who were culti- professionals, land-use decision-makers and planners vating land for self-consumption. To involve them, we who knew the agricultural history of region. In this disseminated the participatory mapping workshop call way we incorporated in the workshops not only through fliers and personal visits at councils (e.g., experts with experience in the region but also general mainly through meetings with agents of employment public who might hold values about different place. and local development or councilors of agriculture), 123 Landscape Ecol local development agencies, agri-food companies cultivation from the past and the present were operating in the region, taverns and environmental completed. At stage 3, the sense of place locations and sociocultural associations. All of the participants were identified through participatory mapping. were inhabitants of the Las Vegas rural and agrarian Finally, at stage 4, future land-use scenarios were district. Overall, the 63 participants (22 women and 41 envisioned (see Table 2). The terms used in the men) who attended the workshops had an age range workshops were described prior to the workshop as between 26 and 78 years, and 38.9% were farming follows: cultivated land includes arable crops, such as professionals, 30.9% were decision-makers or land- cereals and legumes, while vegetables, fruit trees, scape planners and 31.6% were other local actors olive groves, vineyards, and grazing land were (Table 1). During the workshops, participants were excluded from this category. We referred to the term split into small groups of three to five people. On sense of place as a place with which a person or groups average, participants held a high level of knowledge forms a strong bond because the place is special and/or about the region (76.4% of them identified themselves represents traditions (Brown and Raymond 2007). with a high level of knowledge) and about the farming In each workshop, we opened the session by areas (65.7%). In addition, they had a strong bond with presenting and welcoming all participants and agriculture by owning or leasing farming lands explaining the goals of the study. Two or three (66.9%). facilitators were present throughout each workshop to guide the process and clarify participants’ questions Participatory mapping exercise design and doubts. We invited participants to bring and and analysis present old pictures related to agrarian elements (e.g., agrarian landscapes, practices, working days, crops, At the participatory mapping workshops, we followed tillage tools) from the Las Vegas agrarian and rural three stages. First, at stage 1 of the workshop, we district. This exercise had the intention to incorporate elicited agrarian memories during the session through into the session personal experiences and memories of an open discussion about old pictures related to the participants attached to the agricultural practices agrarian practices, which were presented by partici- and landscapes (Table 2). pants. Then, at stage 2, participatory maps of land

Table 1 Description of the workshops and the participants, the number of maps performed by each group, and participant including municipalities where the workshop took place, the typologies and characterization number of participants and their distribution into subgroups, Workshop Attendance and distribution Participant typologies (%) Participants’ characterization (%) site No. No. No. Age Farming Decision Other High High Owning Participants Groups Maps range professionals makers local knowledge agricultural land or and actors of the study ties leased planners area land

Chinchoń 5 1 3 40–52 20.0 80.0 0.0 80.0 80.0 100.0 Fuentiduenã 14 3 6 44–78 42.9 14.2 42.9 100.0 50.0 57.1 de Tajo Perales de 17 3 9 26–70 50.0 12.5 37.5 75.0 87.5 62.5 Tajunã Morata de 13 2 6 56–73 20.0 10.0 70.0 50.0 44.4 30.0 Tajunã Belmonte de 13 3 9 32–69 61.5 30.8 7.7 76.9 66.7 84.6 Tajo Total 63 12 33 Mean 40–68 38.9 30.9 31.6 76.4 65.7 66.9

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Table 2 Description of the methodological process of the workshops, the materials used and photographs of the processes adcp Ecol Landscape Landscape Ecol

Then, the participants first mapped the cultivated occurrence in the subsequent 10 years from a list of lands that existed in the region in the past (Obj. 1). We eight options. The proposed options were selected defined the past lands as lands that were cultivated based on historical land-uses, including the recovery before 1970, this respond to a transition and not to an of natural vegetation, green and/or protected areas, abrupt change, we provided this date as the moment vineyards, orchards, olive groves, forests, urban areas, before the generalization of the technological package and extensive crops represented by circular diagrams. of the ‘‘green revolution’’. Afterward, participants All of the workshops were audio recorded to later mapped the current cultivated lands (Obj. 1), and then transcribe the dialogues between the participants and the participants mapped their sense of place (Obj. 2). to collect information on each map. In the case of past We used a hardcopy map of the National Topo- and present maps on agriculture, information was graphic Map to carry out the participatory mapping collected to describe the place and define its character, exercise (Table 2). The map scale was 1/48,000 and or how it has changed, which enriched the graphic included the boundaries of the study area. The use of support and allowed us to add this type of information hardcopy maps is the most feasible method to use in to the research. The same happened with the sense of workshops, as it improves participation and under- place map, where information about the mapped standing of the mapping activity (Pocewicz et al. places was collected. 2012). Participants received a set of markers (i.e., The participatory mapping exercise has been com- movable plastic disks) as was used in previous studies pared to exercises derived from conventional GIS (e.g., Garcıá-Nieto et al. 2013, 2015; Palomo et al. analyses methods. To do this, we used the Map of 2013). Markers 2 cm in diameter were chosen accord- Crops and Utilizations (MCU) for the period ing to the size and scale of the map (at the minimum 1970–1980 of the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, map scale to increase precision in placing a marker) Fishing and Food to compare cultivated lands in the and were used to mark circular polygons. Participants past to those obtained the participatory mapping, and used as many markers as they needed. After each we used the map of SigPac 2015 (Geographic Infor- mapping exercise, a vertical photo was taken with a mation System for Agricultural Parcels) of the Spanish single lens reflex digital camera. The maps were National Geographic Institute to compare cultivated georeferenced. Each of the markers was digitized and lands in the present to those obtained the participatory unified, and then the shapefiles were rasterized (5-m mapping. For those biophysical maps, we used the pixels). Polygons within the study area were consid- following landscape categories: cultivated lands, forest ered for analysis, and those outside the study area were and scrublands, water and an abiotic element. Then, we discarded. For an analysis of the spatial trend of analyzed the spatial correlation between the sense of agriculture, the areas of those polygons that overlapped place maps that overlapped with the SigPac 2015 data with another polygon at least once were considered, and cultivated lands. Finally, data collected about and areas that did not overlap were discarded. This preferred land-use pathways and their likelihood of allowed us to analyze the information that represented occurrence for the next 10 years were analyzed by at least two groups of workshop participants and to examining the dissonance and agreement of future approach a representation of the shared reality land-use scenarios and by comparing those with the (Moscovici 1988). For the sense of place analysis, we sense of place to reveal the public sense of place and wanted to embrace all of the participants’ standpoints, perceptions about future land-use pathways and, so we considered all of the marked polygons. therefore, the vulnerability of important sites. Finally, each workshop included a section to reflect the most plausible future land-use scenarios that could occur in the region (Obj. 3). Following Berg et al. Results (2016), participants were asked to express their opinion about the land-uses they would like to Mapping cultivated lands from the past promote in the region and those that they expected to the present would occur (Table 2). Thus, participants selected their three most preferred land-use pathways and the Overall, were conducted, in each of the workshops, three land-uses with the highest likelihood of several aleatory working groups of approximately 123 Landscape Ecol

Fig. 2 Participatory mapping of cultivated lands in the past (left) compared with the Map of Crops and Utilizations (MCU) for the period 1970–1980 of the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fishing and Food (right) three to five people so we got several maps from each described how, currently, the Las Vegas agrarian and exercise. The participatory mapping produced twelve rural district mostly maintains its cultivated lands maps of lands cultivated in the past that corresponded along the river floodplains (Fig. 3). The overlap with with 145 markers on average (confidence interval (CI) the current agricultural map (SigPac 2015) determined at 95% 101–189) and an area of 305 km2. Participants that 71% (197 km2) of the markers that were placed by described how, in the past, the Las Vegas agrarian and participants overlapped with cultivated lands, 22% rural district was mostly agricultural by placing (60 km2) overlapped with forest and scrublands and markers not only along the river floodplains (Fig. 2) 7% (19 km2) overlapped with unproductive areas. By but also throughout Las Vegas agrarian and rural comparing the participatory mapping of cultivated district; the highlands were covered by woody crops, lands in the past and present, we identified a reduction such as olive groves or vineyards, while orchards, of 28 km2, mainly in the northwest part of the region. cereals and fruit trees were mainly located along Participants explained that extensive crops were fertile grasslands. A comparison with the traditional predominant mainly on the floodplains of the Tajunã agricultural map (MCU 1970-1980) showed that 72% and Tajo rivers. The results identified areas where (220 km2) of the markers placed by the participatory traditional uses of cultivated lands (e.g., vineyards and mapping participants were pinpointed onto cultivated olive groves) had been converted into land-used for lands, 26% (78 km2) of the markers were pinpointed cereal production, areas with non-transition in culti- onto forest and scrublands and 2% (6 km2) of the vated lands and areas where farming has been replaced markers were pinpointed onto unproductive areas. The by other land-uses. Participants commented that participatory mapping of cultivated lands in the although cropland had been lost due to abandonment present produced a total of eleven maps that corre- or change of use (e.g. to urban use), the largest change sponded with 135 markers on average (CI at 95% they perceive is the change in traditional crops and 87–183) and a surface of 277 km2. The participants their management, such as orchards and fruit trees had

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Fig. 3 Participatory mapping of cultivated lands in the present (left) compared with the map of SigPac 2015 (Geographic Information System for Agricultural Parcels) of the Spanish National Geographic Institute largely disappeared, moving to large areas of cereals and washing or drinking areas for livestock, which and more extensive management. were also meeting points for women and men as well as fertile floodplains (Table 3). Other sense of place Sense of place locations across cultivated lands locations showed that 45 km2 of the markers corresponded to forest and scrublands, and participants The sense of place locations identified across the study described different places that included sites covering area corresponded with 23 markers on average (CI at forest roads; forestry parks, such as pine forests (Pinus 95% 14–31) and a surface of 124 km2. The sense of sp.); natural areas; highland areas with good panora- place locations overlapped with the current agricul- mic views; mountain ranges; ravines; and areas tural map (SigPac 2015) and showed that 65 km2 of associated with native forest species that had already the markers corresponded to cultivated lands (Fig. 4). disappeared, such as holm oak (Quercus ilex L.). In addition, participants described different places, Finally, the sense of place locations showed that including traditional family crops (e.g., traditional 14 km2 of the markers corresponded to unproductive growing areas both irrigated, such as orchards and fruit areas, and the participants described different places trees, as dry with traditional varieties of cereals and that included areas that are related to water and legumes, or crops that are maintained by family heritage elements, such as fresh water springs, tradition such as olive groves), centenary crops (some lagoons, salt flats and lagoons, bathing areas along ancient olive trees and vineyards), drove roads (e.g., river courses and prehistoric caves that were used until route for droving livestock on foot from one place to the twentieth century as housing. From the total area another, normally by seasonality (transhumance), that was identified by the participants as relevant to the some of which are still in use today), and areas with sense of place, 28 km2 was identified with a loss of wild species with a traditional use such as esparto cultivated land, which was located mostly in the grass (Stipa tenacissima L.) that is used for basket craft floodplain of the Tajunã river (Fig. 5). According to

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Fig. 4 Mapped sense of place locations overlapped with the map of SigPac 2015 (Geographic Information System for Agricultural Parcels) of the Spanish National Geographic Institute the current agricultural map (SigPac 2015), these areas were less likely to be increased, while vineyards (11 correspond to cultivated lands (44%), followed by responses, 8%) and olive groves (9 responses, 6%) forest and scrublands (29%), and ﬁnally, unproductive were the least expected to happen. areas (15%). The comparison of which land-use pathway was preferred and what participants believed would actu- Future land-use pathways ally occur showed high dissonance. Extensive crops and urban areas the land-use pathways with the highest Among all potential future land-use pathways, the dissonance; this was expected to increase but was not restoration of natural vegetation received the highest socially supported. The future land-use pathways with preference (32 responses, 24%), followed by green the highest agreement between the likelihood and the and/or protected areas (27 responses, 20%), vineyards interest in promotion were the increase in green and/or (20 responses, 15%) and orchards (17 responses, protected areas and orchards (Fig. 6). 13%). The expansion of olive groves and forest areas were partially supported (12 responses each, 9%), while urban areas (8 responses, 6%) and extensive Discussion crops (4 responses, 3%) were the less popular options (Fig. 6). Regarding the greatest likelihood of land-use The objective of this study was to stress the impor- occurrence, the results showed that urban areas were tance of sense of place as a cultural ecosystem service expected to increase (30 responses, 21%), followed by across cultivated lands. To do so, we ﬁrst mapped the orchards areas (23 responses, 16%) and green and/or past and present cultivated areas using a participatory protected areas (22 responses, 15%). Extensive crops mapping and compared them with conventional GIS (18 responses, 12%), natural vegetation restoration (17 sources. Then, participatory mapping participants responses, 12%) and forest areas (16 responses, 11%) pinpointed the sense of place locations and the main

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Table 3 Main elements mentioned during the sense of place mapping in the Las Vegas rural and agrarian district and its disag- gregation representing the different ecosystem categories Categories Description of key elements representing the sense of place in the Las Vegas rural and agrarian district

Cultivated lands Cultivated slopes Traditional family crops Centenary crops (some ancient olive trees and vineyards) Drove roads Areas with wild species with a traditional use, such as esparto grass (Stipa tenacissima L.), which is use for basket craft Washing or drinking areas for livestock, which were also meeting points for women and men Fertile floodplains Forest and scrublands Forest roads Forestry parks, such as pine forests (Pinus sp.) Natural areas Upper areas with good panoramic views Mountain range Ravines Areas associated with native forest species that have already disappeared, such as holm oak (Quercus ilex L.) Water Fresh water springs Salt flats and lagoons Bathing areas along river courses Fountains Abiotic elements Prehistoric caves that have been used from the Chalcolithic to the twentieth century as housing, were declared in 1931 Historic Artistic Monument and now appears as a Property of Cultural Interest Water mills Lime kilns and ancient mining areas The list of key elements found in the region appears according to the frequency of citations by participants during workshop discussions elements that were associated with them and identified provided approximately 9000 kg/day of vegeta- spaces such as traditional family crops, centenary bles and fruit for sale in the city of Madrid, cereals trips, drove roads or fresh water springs. Finally, occupied 15% of the irrigated area and were used as considering sense of place as a good representative of intercropped harvests in rotations. From the 1960s ecosystem services stewardship and response to onwards, the area used for growing cereals increased, change, we determined what the participants desired especially on irrigated land. During the same period, a and their expected changes to land-uses. cement plant and industrial complex were placed in the region, which led to a massive abandonment of Cultivated lands in the Madrid agricultural region local agricultural activity, the industrialization of crop production and a rural exodus (Lo´pez 2012). Cur- Our participatory mapping approach elaborated maps rently, the main crops in the region are cereals, olive of cultivated lands in the past and present that were groves, vineyards and pastures. Our findings are consistent with conventional cartographical informa- consistent with previous studies that showed that the tion. As Rodrı´guez et al. (1987) found, the Las Vegas agricultural areas corresponding to permanently irri- agrarian and rural district has been popularly known as gated land have increased (Rodrı´guez et al. 1987). ‘‘the orchard of Madrid’’ because, until the early In coherence with other regions, our results indi- 1960s, it was the only the fertile plain of Tajunã and cated that farming intensification occurred in areas

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Fig. 5 Sense of place locations with no overlap (black); sense of place overlapping with: present cultivated lands (green) and with past cultivated lands (red). (Color ﬁgure online)

Fig. 6 Assessment of the land-use changes that are expected to be promoted and those that are desired for the next 10 years

that are highly suitable for agriculture purposes, such Schmitz et al. 2017). The Las Vegas agrarian and rural as ﬂoodplains, and land abandonment across less district has not been dramatically subject to signiﬁcant accessible and infertile areas (Kuemmerle et al. 2016; agrarian abandon and urbanization in comparison with

123 Landscape Ecol other areas of the Community of Madrid (Mata et al. be taken into account for future research on sense of 2009). However, irrigated areas have increased at the place across cultivated lands. However, the aim of this expense of the abandonment of traditional crops study was to provide a meaningful understanding of practices, which is supported by our findings that the place and to integrate empirical place-based indicate that local communities would also support an research, local knowledge and public perceptions, increase of green and/or protected areas, together with thus creating opportunities for in-depth discussions. orchards and vineyards (Garcıá-Llorente et al. 2019). Regarding this point, we found that the participatory mapping was conducted in a collective way, and Participatory mapping methodological insights involving community members from different back- grounds was a suitable approach for rebuilding the Participatory mapping is a deliberative technique that history and transition of rural and agricultural land- facilitates the inclusion of a variety of visions since it scape through shared, contrasted, integrated and promotes the exchange of information between work- cocreated knowledge (Brown and Pullar 2012). We shop participants (Brown and Fagerholm 2015). In this consider that this approach was particularly optimal way, social subjectivities are shared and placed in a for enhancing the collective memory to map of familiar context (Moscovici 1988). As was found in cultivated lands from the past. It was also a useful Brown and Fagerholm (2015), comparing hardcopy approach for uncovering sense of place and translating and collective approaches to digital and individual it into spatially explicit information. As stated by approaches, collective participatory mapping is time Goma et al. (2001) participatory approaches are and resource consuming (e.g., scheduling workshops, particularly useful in situations where local commu- dissemination campaign, and post digitalizing pro- nities influence or hold a role in landscape manage- cess). In addition, hardcopy cartographical maps ment, such as in the case of farmers in agricultural impose a scale that could be more precise in digital landscape. In the words of Tilman et al. (2002, p. 676) exercises, for instance, the multi-point-and-attribute ‘‘Agriculturalists are the de facto managers of the data model stores the scale at which each individual most productive lands on Earth’’ this pointing out the marker was created, this effect can therefore be suitability of using participatory approaches to involve accounted for in analysis (Goodchild 2007). In our agriculturists. In this research, participation was research, the spatial scale that was selected held an achieved thanks to the substantial effort put into acceptable accuracy level, and the participants were disseminating the workshops, along with the collab- able to identify key sites in the region. The spatial oration of local governments, agricultural enterprises scale that was chosen was also operational to work and associations. Facilitators ensure the participation from a landscape approach that involves the whole Las balance between participants to avoid dominant inter- Vegas agrarian and rural district. The use of self- ventions. The participants were local people who had a administered digital maps provided the possibility to high level of knowledge of the region and its obtain mass data with which to analyze ecosystem agricultural landscape. Most of them were owners or service correlations and trade-offs (e.g., Garcıá-Nieto leaseholders of farmland, so they had direct contact et al. 2013; Brown 2016; Fagerholm et al. 2016). with agriculture, which provides veracity and support Several investigations show that people have an for the data obtained. essentially fuzzy relationship with the landscape, and therefore they cannot easily be captured using tradi- Contribution of cultivated lands to cultural tional characteristic maps (Waters and Evans 2003; services Carver et al. 2009; Huck et al. 2014). Tools that allow participants to identify areas on a map without the Based on our findings, sense of place locations were requirement of defined boundaries, such as the Map- not restricted to a single notion; instead, they acted as Me (‘Mapping Meanings’) website, which may be an umbrella spanning different types of human- used by researchers to design and execute their own agricultural landscape connections. Thus, sense of Spraycan-based surveys, allow for a more flexible, place research offers methods to evaluate the diversity broad and extensible approach with a greater variety of of meanings of places that can be associated with the analytical options for the researcher. These tools could same place and a group of individuals (Stedman 2006). 123 Landscape Ecol

The majority of sense of place locations were Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosys- pinpointed because sense of place values mostly tem Services framework (IPBES 2017), which overlapped cultivated lands, which is consistent with emphasizes the critical role that culture plays in the idea of seeing cultivated lands as suppliers of disentangling the cultural service category and recog- values beyond those that are merely productive nizes many different expressions of interactions that (Rodrı´guez-Caballero et al. 2018). In addition, other are established between people and agricultural land- sense of place locations were pinpointed on no scape (Dıáz et al. 2018; Quintas-Soriano et al. 2018a). cultivated lands (see Table 3), because they were Agrarian activity is a great tool for creating associated with recreational activities, such as forest connections between society and agricultural land- parks and drove roads for walking and cycling, natural scape through the establishment of belongingness, pastureland, river areas for bathing, or thermal water stewardship and care connections (Garcıá-Llorente area, springs or lagoons; or historical importance as et al. 2019). The spatial relationship between sense of lime kilns, old jars to store wine, caves from the place and cultivated lands through participatory map- Neolithic period, the train of the 40 days used by the ping determined that half of the locations corre- Republican side to supply Madrid during the Spanish sponded to cultivated lands, while the other half Civil War, monument to the international brigades, corresponded to forests and scrublands and unproduc- archaeological site or convent in ruins. And spiritual tive areas. Overall, we found that all of the locations attachment referred to elements of the catholic religion somehow contributed to the agricultural meanings of as churches or hermitages. Interaction with natural the place. This result emphasizes that, although there environments are mixed with direct the knowledge or has been a decline in cultivated lands, the general awareness of the environment and values towards public continues to have a collective meaning of the nature. These various dimensions of the connection place as cultivated lands due to a cognitive connection with nature do not function in isolation; they interact with agricultural landscape. Non-tangible values, such and are influenced by each other. For example, as the landscape legacy of a site (which can maintain recreational interactions with natural environments in collective imagination land uses that no longer can shape environmental knowledge and positive exist) can be tools to improve the ecological and social attitudes about place (Ives et al. 2018). Although nexus that facilitates a transition to productive and some place location pinpointed can be interpreted sustainable socio-ecological systems in agricultural individually, they all have a collective connection landscape. Several investigations have confirmed the scale, this may be because to during the workshops significance of human engagement with landscape and participants were split into small groups of three to five stewardship practices in developing some level of a people, transferring a shared vision of the sense of sense of place (Brown and Raymond 2007; Bowman place. We consider that this collective vision can be et al. 2011; Langemeyer et al. 2017). valuable as it permits for the integration of connection There is great potential for research to determine or disconnection phenomena at the scale of society, to how different types of sense of place are important to describe and address environmental and sustainability the ability to cope with change (Masterson et al. 2017). challenges in different socio-cultural contexts. Our Assessing how external changes or lack of them results are also consistent with previous studies that threaten specific sense of place can generate a deeper recognized cultural ecosystem service are coproduced understanding of people’s attitudes towards change and cocreated as result of people’s interaction with and willingness to act (Devine-Wright and Howes nature (Chan et al. 2012; Daniel et al. 2012; Fish et al. 2010). Future studies should reflect the different 2016). To date, ES have been addressed mostly by positions that people can adopt in response to changes biophysical analysis and the mainstream monetary or not in a place, in order to emphasize the social theory (Chan et al. 2012). However, our results contexts in which they occur. In addition, these suggested that cultural ecosystem service can also be contexts can reveal how social influence shapes the addressed by other types of valuation techniques that interaction between the sense of place and the recognize the role of cultivated lands in providing acceptance or rejection of change. Sense of place nonmaterial contributions. This finding has been can function as a motivation for farmers to support recently highlighted by the Intergovernmental and/or promote change when the conditions of 123 Landscape Ecol previous activities are unsustainable. We can deter- farmers: contributions to food sovereignty. Agron Sustain mine that participants have an interest in promoting Dev 32:1–13 Altman I, Low SM (eds) (1992) Place attachment. Springer, green areas and/or protected areas and orchards, which New York is consistent with the results obtained in locating sense Aracove-Grupo de Accioń Local del Sureste de la Comunidad of place through participatory mapping. On the other de Madrid. Comarca de las Vegas y Alcarria de Alcala´ hand, extensive crops and urban areas are the land-use (2015) Balance de la actividad de la Asociaciońde Desarrollo Rural Aranjuez-Comarca de las Vegas (Ara- pathways with the highest dissonance with decision cove) durante el periodo 2007-2013: evolucioń del terri- makers. We believe that these land uses, which can torio, lecciones aprendidas y perspectivas de futuro. become conflictive, are points where to work to move Red2Red Consultores towards a territorial reality co-created between deci- Bailey RG (2009) Ecosystem geography: from ecoregions to sites. Springer, New York sion-makers and society (Quintas-Soriano et al. 2016). Balvanera P, Calderoń-Contreras R, Castro AJ, Felipe-Lucia For future research, we invite that these land use MR, Geijzendorffer IR, Jacobs S, Martıń-Lo´pez B, Arbieu results are marked on the map by the participants, in U, Ifejika Speranza C, Locatelli B, Pe´rez Harguindeguy N, order to enrich the analysis and increase the informa- Mercado Ruiz IR, Spierenburg MJ, Vallet A, Lynes L, Gillson L (2017) Interconnected place-based social–eco- tion for decision making around land use (Lo´pez- logical research can inform global sustainability. Curr Opin Rodrı´guez et al. 2015). Further research is also needed Environ Sustain 29:1–7 to assess the utility of the sense of place in the context Berg C, Rogers S, Mineau M (2016) Building scenarios for of local specific land-use decisions and to assess how ecosystem services tools: developing a methodology for efficient engagement with expert stakeholders. Futures land-use changes affect the sense of place at larger 81:68–80 scales (Balvanera et al. 2017). The sense of place can Berkes F, Folke C (eds) (1998) Linking social and ecological help to understand the emerging problems, specifically systems: management practices and social mechanisms for in cultivated land, and thus allow a range of options to building resilience. Conservation Ecology 4. Cambridge University Press, New York cope with the disruptions in agriculture that we have Bienes R, Domıńguez M, Pe´rez R (2001) Mapa de degradacioń today and be able to follow a more desirable and de los suelos de la Comunidad de Madrid. Consejerıáde sustainable path through more innovative and resilient Medio Ambiente de la Comunidad de Madrid. Coleccioń transformations. de Investigacioń, vol. 4 Black A, Liljeblad A (2006) Integrating social values in vegetation models via GIS: the missing link for the Bitterroot Acknowledgements This research was supported by the National Forest. Aldo Leopold Wil-derness Institute, Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Grant Misoula, MT Number: CGL2014-53782-P). MGL was fund by a Grant from Blicharska M, Smithers RJ, Hedblom M, Hedenas H, the Spanish National Institute for Agriculture and Food Mikusinski G, Pedersen E, Sandstrom P, Svensson J (2017) Research and Technology, co-funded by the Social European Shades of grey challenge practical application of the cul- Fund (Doc-INIA CCAA); and IMIDRA research Project: tural ecosystem services concept. Ecosyst Serv 23:55–70 Assessment of Ecosystem Services provided by Bowman DMJS, Balch J, Artaxo P (2011) The human dimen- Agroecosystems (FP16-ECO, FP17 COLAB). We thanks local sion of fire regimes on Earth. J Biogeogr 38:2223–2236 administration staff who kindly provided assistance and Brown G (2005) Mapping spatial attributes in survey research disseminate the workshops. We thank V Hernandez and J for natural resource management: methods and applica- Aldana for their assistance during the workshops facilitation tions. Soc Nat Resour. https://doi.org/10.1080/ process. We acknowledge all workshop participants for kindly 08941920590881853 sharing their time, knowledge and enthusiasm during the Brown G (2016) A review of sampling effects and response bias sessions, and we also acknowledge the reviewers for their in internet participatory mapping (PPGIS/PGIS/VGI). contributions which have greatly improved the manuscript. This Trans GIS 21:39–56 research site is part of the place-based sites of the WaterSES Brown G, Fagerholm N (2015) Empirical PPGIS/PGIS mapping working group ‘‘Water scarcity and governance across Social- of ecosystem services: a review and evaluation. Ecosyst Ecological Systems’’ (www.pecswaterses.com) within the Pro- Serv 13:119–133. gramme for Ecosystem Change and Society (PECS www.pecs- Brown G, Montag JM, Lyon K (2012) Public participation GIS: science.org). a method for identifying ecosystem services. Soc Nat Resour 25:633–651 Brown G, Pullar DV (2012) An evaluation of the use of points References versus polygons in public participation geographic information systems using quasiexperimental design and Monte Carlo simulation. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 26(2):231–246 Altieri MA, Funes-Monzote FR, Petersen P (2012) Agroeco- logically efficient agricultural systems for smallholder

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