Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53

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Journal of Environmental Psychology

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Review Place attachment and natural hazard risk: Research review and agenda

Marino Bonaiuto a, b, *, Susana Alves c, Stefano De Dominicis a, b, Irene Petruccelli d a Dipartimento di Psicologia dei Processi di Sviluppo e Socializzazione, Sapienza Universita di Roma, Rome, Italy b CIRPA e Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca in Psicologia Ambientale, Rome, Italy c Architecture Department, Okan Universitesi,} Istanbul, Turkey d Facolta di Scienze dell'Uomo e della Societa, Universita Kore di Enna, Enna, Italy article info abstract

Article history: Little is known about how place attachment affects natural hazard risk perception and coping. A sys- Received 4 August 2015 tematic search of social science databases revealed 31 works (1996e2016) that directly address place Received in revised form attachment in relation to natural hazard risk or natural environmental risks (seismic, volcanic, etc.). 28 July 2016 Across different contexts, the research shows: (a) both positive and negative relations between place Accepted 31 July 2016 attachment and natural environmental risk perception; (b) both positive and negative relations between Available online 1 August 2016 place attachment and risk coping; and (c) mediating and moderating relations. In particular, results show that: (a) strongly attached individuals perceive natural environmental risks but underestimate their Keywords: Place attachment potential effects; (b) strongly attached individuals are unwilling to relocate when facing natural envi- Sense of place ronmental risks and are more likely to return to risky areas after a natural environmental disaster; (c) Natural environment place attachment acts both as a mediating and moderating variable between risk perception and coping. Natural hazard Place attachment should play a more significant role in natural hazard risk management. Risk perception © 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Risk coping

Contents

1. Introduction ...... 34 1.1. Psychological factors and environmental risk ...... 34 1.2. Place attachment, natural environmental risk perception and coping ...... 35 1.3. Criteria for selection of studies ...... 36 2. Place attachment in environmental risk research ...... 36 2.1. Different definitions and measurements of place attachment ...... 36 3. Place attachment and risk perception ...... 38 3.1. Positive relationships between place attachment and environmental risk perception ...... 38 3.2. Negative relationships between place attachment and environmental risk perception ...... 42 4. Place attachment and risk coping ...... 44 4.1. Positive relationships between place attachment and environmental risk coping ...... 44 4.2. Negative relationships between place attachment and environmental risk coping ...... 44 4.3. Moderation and mediation effects between place attachment and environmental risk perception and between place attachment and risk coping 45 4.4. Lack of relationships between place attachment and environmental risk perception or environmental risk coping ...... 46 5. Discussion ...... 46 5.1. Place attachment and natural environmental risk perception ...... 46 5.2. Place attachment and natural environmental risk coping ...... 47 5.3. Mediation and moderation effects ...... 48 5.4. Understanding conflicting results ...... 48

* Corresponding author. Dipartimento di Psicologia dei Processi di Sviluppo e Socializzazione, Sapienza University of Rome, Via dei Marsi 78, 00185, Roma, Italy. E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Bonaiuto). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.07.007 0272-4944/© 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd. 34 M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53

6. Conclusions and implications for future research ...... 49 Acknowledgements ...... 50 References ...... 50

1. Introduction relationship between place attachment and risk perception and coping, is still missing. Although there are studies addressing other Current ecological concerns and the increasing number of “subjective” factors related to risk perception (Weinstein, 1984), people affected by natural environmental disasters require a better research on risk perception and formal risk assessment has aimed understanding of how people perceive and cope with disaster risk. for rigorous control and estimation, while it has neglected impor- Environmental risks, particularly linked to natural disasters, have a tant psychological factors, such as people's attachment to places. long history quite inseparable from that of humans. The focus of This lacuna exists despite the importance of place attachment as a this paper is on natural environmental risks, their perception and fundamental social psychological variable affecting person- coping, and their relationship to place attachment. Other important environment transactions. kinds of environmental risks are considered elsewhere (Acuna-~ Rivera, Brown, & Uzzell, 2014; Pitner, Yu, & Brown, 2012). 1.1. Psychological factors and environmental risk The presence and memory of natural disasters and environ- mental risks mark humankind's relationship to the environments. Risk is the “probability of a particular adverse event occurring Universally, natural environmental risks have figured prominently during a stated period of time” (Breakwell, 2007, p. 2). Thus risk is in mythological accounts where humans explained their relation- measured in terms of an event's likelihood of occurring and its ship with the environment by using recurrent themes found in severity and potential consequences. Adverse events or “hazards” legends, folktales and oral traditions (see MythGeology, e.g., Masse are terms that refer to anything that can cause harm to humans. It is & Masse, 2007; Piccardi & Masse, 2007; Vitaliano, 2007; or more important to differentiate between risk assessment and risk generally Kerenyi, 1951, 1958). The memory of places via the con- perception. Risk assessment refers to formal assessments con- struction of myth and other cultural processes such as in history is ducted by experts, while risk perception is associated with atti- therefore situated in people-place transactions, which necessarily tudes about risks and hazards used by lay people. Risk assessment encompass contexts of natural environmental risks. and perception do not necessarily overlap, as experts' and layper- Psychological ties with places are fundamental to understand- sons' evaluations of environmental quality, do not match across a ing person-environment transactions. They are conceptualized by range of issues (e.g., Bonnes & Bonaiuto, 1995). environmental psychologists with constructs such as place Risk coping refers to the behaviours and actions that people attachment, sense of place, and place identity (Stedman, 2002). adopt when facing a risky situation. It is essential to understand Place attachment can be broadly defined as an emotional and how people make decisions as they attempt to cope with risk. Re- cognitive experience linking people to places. Place attachment searchers agree that decision making about risks is characterised by includes individually-based factors and cultural beliefs and prac- systematic biases, such as the availability and representativeness of tices (Low & Altman, 1992). However, the scientific attention information, anchoring, optimism, hindsight, and prospect devoted to natural environmental risk initially privileged a de- (Breakwell, 2007). contextualized cognitive consideration of the subject. For One of these biases, optimism bias, refers to individuals’ beliefs example, early research on risk perception and assessment has that negative events are less likely to happen to them (Weinstein, been based on the “psychometric paradigm of risk” (see Slovic, 1984). Optimism bias is related to sense of control, and in hazard- 2000) and on other quantitative methodologies (e.g., Slovic, ous situations, when people perceive lack of control, they may Fischhoff, & Lichtenstein, 1979). Favouring the analysis of aggre- become more pessimistic about their abilities to cope with the risk gated data, this approach neglected the analysis of individual dif- (van der Velde, HooyKaas, & van der Joop, 1992). Furthermore, ferences. Critics of this “psychometric paradigm of risk” devised pessimism may be more likely when people have had prior direct studies to incorporate individual factors into risk assessmentdsuch experience with severe hazardous outcome, such as earthquakes as anxiety (Metha & Simpson-Housley, 1994a, 1994b), self-efficacy (Helweg-Larsen, 1999). and locus of control (Kallmen, 2000), venturesomeness (Twigger- Among diverse types of bias, optimism bias has assumed a Ross & Breakwell, 1999)deven though the evidence to date sug- relevant role for environmental psychologists studying risky situ- gested that individual differences did not account for substantial ations, including natural environmental risk. Risk perception is in variance in risk perception (Breakwell, 2007). fact linked to two main factors: optimism bias and psychological Additional efforts to include person-environment factors are distance (Gifford et al., 2009). People often believe that environ- studies within the cultural theory framework (e.g., Douglas, 1986). mental risks “will not happen to them” and thus may have inac- Cultural theory proposes that people have cultural biases (attitudes curate perceptions of how environmental risks will affect them and and beliefs shared by a group) to which they refer in order to judge their communities. local hazards, risky situations, and lifestyles. Initially, this theory Research suggests that people tend to rate environmental appears to include affective links to places as well as contextually problems as more severe at the global than at the local level, a relevant factors, however a deeper analysis shows that it does not. result that is found in multiple cultural contexts (Schultz et al., This framework simply places people in distinct groups of cultural 2014). Uzzell (2000) also examined whether people considered bias, such as hierarchists, egalitarians, fatalists, and individualists. environmental problems to be more serious at a global or local Cultural theory has been criticized for its limited scope in defining level. He found that people were able to conceptualize and un- and measuring cultural bias and its inability to accommodate cul- derstand environmental problems (e.g., water pollution, global tural change (Sjoberg, 1997). warming, noise pollution and deforestation) at a global level and Beyond these attempts, systematic scientific attention to the perceived and evaluated environmental problems to be more M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 35 serious the farther away they were from them. Based on this rather to address the links between place attachment, natural assumption of invulnerability, people may tend to be too optimistic environmental risk perception and coping. Place attachment refers about local conditions related to climate change, which may lead to to the affective bonds people hold towards places; this attachment inaction (Gifford, 2011). often comprises a part of their individual and collective identities Uzzell has termed this type of perception as “environmental (Lewicka, 2008; Low & Altman, 1992). Indeed, Fried (1963) hyperopia” to convey the idea that direct experience with envi- observed that when forced relocation separated people from their ronmental risks does not compensate for psychological biases. The usual living place they experienced grief, similar to a situation notion of hyperopia, when applied to environmental risk, proposes where people lose an important social relationship. that people have a “vision defect” in the sense that they are able to Several concepts have been used in the literature for this af- see distant problems well, but have difficulty focusing on problems fective link, including place identity, place dependence, sense of that are closer. A similar concept, psychological distance, refers to place, and rootedness (Stedman, 2002). Despite different concep- the perception of environmental risks as more likely to affect tualizations, most researchers agree that place attachment involves distant geographical areas or to happen in a distant future (Locke & physical, socio-cultural, symbolic, and psychological aspects (Relph, Latham, 1990). 1976). There are multiple environmental issues for which place Optimistic bias and psychological distance may be adaptive in attachment has proven to be relevant, such as residential mobility that they safeguard identity and reduce negative emotions, such as (Gustafson, 2014; Manzo, 2005), perceived residential quality anxiety and fear. However, optimistic bias and psychological dis- (Bonaiuto & Alves, 2012), or residential satisfaction (Bonaiuto, tance may also act as barriers that prevent addressing and miti- Fornara, Ariccio, Ganucci Cancellieri, & Rahimi, 2015); perceptions gating environmental risks and disasters (see Few, Brown, & of technology implementation, such as a tidal energy projects Tompkins, 2007 for an example in the UK context). (Devine-Wright, 2011); pro-environmental behaviours (Carrus, Other researchers have also suggested that a spatial optimistic Scopelliti, Fornara, Bonnes, & Bonaiuto, 2014); contexts of stigma bias in environmental risk perceptions could be a function of place and displacement (Manzo & Devine-Wright, 2014); and collective attachment and/or local identity (e.g. Bonaiuto, Breakwell, & Cano, attachment and participatory design (Hester Jr., 2014; Manzo & 1996; Gifford et al., 2009). That is, a reverse place attachment-risk Perkins, 2006). perception relationship may be the basis of the optimism bias in A personeprocesseplace framework of place attachment environmental risk perception, and possibly in its coping and (Scannell & Gifford, 2010; 2014) stresses the functions of place decision-making. Therefore, when looking back at the history of attachment to be survival and security, goal support and self- disasters in order to understand people's perceptions and adapt- regulation, continuity, and sense of belongingness. The frame- ability, it seems plausible that the perception of environmental risk work draws parallels between the theories of place attachment and is closely linked to attachment to place. Risk perception and coping of interpersonal attachment. The psychological processes delin- would thus be specific to a particular cultural milieu and physical eated by Bowlby (1982) to characterise attachment in social re- setting (Weber & Hsee, 1999). lationships (proximity, safe haven, secure base, and separation However, despite the apparent importance of locale and distress) can also be applied to place attachment to better explain attachment to place in environmental risk perception and coping, how to manage situations and emotions related to attachment and place attachment has been given little systematic attention within separation with respect to place. the risk literature. Prior research (Bonaiuto et al., 1996; Gifford Scannell and Gifford (2010) proposed that place attachment is et al., 2009) suggests that people who are attached to their locale characterised by three interrelated dimensions, namely person are likely to underestimate its potential vulnerability to risk. This (individually or collectively determined use and meanings), psy- relationship needs to be conceptually framed and empirically chological processes (affective, cognitive, and behavioural compo- illustrated, especially with respect to the use or rejection of coping nents), and place (the symbolic aspects, whether social behaviours in the face of potential risks. Recently, for example, environment and social meanings, and the physical environment, researchers have focused on the “community context” to under- whether natural or built). Scannell and Gifford's tripartite frame- stand how community place attachment relates to social capital, work is important for understanding place attachment in general, place development and disruption (Mihaylov & Perkins, 2014). as well as place attachment influence on place related behaviour More generally other contributions (Cutter et al., 2008) have shown (such as, in their specific case, pro-environmental behaviours). It is that possible important leveraging factors for improving percep- also possible that this framework could aid understanding person- tions of disaster resilience at the local or community level are: environment transactions within risky situations and the coping sustainable development policies (disaster prevention, mitigation, strategies used when attachment and separation issues are at stake. preparedness, vulnerability reduction), local capacity interventions Within psychological literature on coping with risks, many (Institutions and mechanisms), and risk reduction strategies (pri- models address psychological preparedness, prevention and coping mary and secondary prevention programmes). behaviour either at individual or social group levels (see Hallman & Recognizing such an increasing interest in these topics over the Wandersman, 1992). Different frameworks emphasize different last couple of decades, the present work aims to establish the types of coping styles. For example, the environmental stress current state of knowledge by reviewing empirical studies across perspective (Evans & Stecker, 2004; Stokols, 1978) considers envi- diverse cultural contexts while focusing on different kinds of nat- ronmental and human ecological factors and includes multiple ural environmental risks: they all address the relationship of place levels of analysis (individual and community level; Winkel, Saegert, attachment with natural environmental risk perception and/or & Evans, 2009). One study showed that assigning responsibility for coping. environmental problems had important implications for coping (Hallman & Wandersman, 1992). They found that residents located 1.2. Place attachment, natural environmental risk perception and near a hazardous waste landfill who blamed the operator of the coping landfill for the problems reported less psychological distress. In contrast, residents who adopted wishful thinking and problem- Comprehensive literature reviews of place attachment and its focused styles of coping reported higher psychological distress. development in environmental psychology have been provided The authors concluded that responsibility attribution has impor- (e.g., Giuliani, 2003; Lewicka, 2011). The main objective here is tant implications for coping. In terms of collective coping strategies, 36 M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 people may turn to their social and institutional networks as well as 1. First, the reviewed studies are presented according to the the creation of grass-roots organisations (Edelstein & Wandersman, different types of natural environmental risks considered. Their 1987). perception or coping is related to place attachment, examining In another example, when dealing with the human dimension of whether it is a positive or negative relationship or if there is just environmental risk in climate change, Reser and Swim (2011) a lack of relationship. proposed that adaptation encompasses intra-individual parame- 2. Next, moderation and mediation are explored. Moderation oc- ters and processes, such as affective responses to places; as well as curs when a third variable modifies a relationship; mediation extra-individual social and situational processes, like proximity and occurs when a third variable links a cause and an effect. exposure, social comparison, and collective efficacy. The model 3. Finally, studies showing no relations among variables are explains how cognitive, affective, and motivational processes may presented. affect mitigation and adaptation to climate change. In this model, the authors tried to integrate climate systems with human systems, The overarching aim is to highlight empirically based relation- via cognitions, affect, motivations and other related psychological ships that emerge from the data in order to describe current processes (Swim et al., 2011). knowledge on the topic and to inspire future research directions The above examples, in different ways, encompass emotionally and priorities. related factors to understand natural environmental risk percep- tion and/or coping. Additional analyses have focused on the nega- 1.3. Criteria for selection of studies tive psychological consequences of environmental disasters such as environmental post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD) In order to undertake a systematic literature review, empirical (Thordardottira et al., 2015) and the distress inhabitants experience publications were considered in environment-behaviour studies as a consequence of negative environmental changes, such as those (EBS), landscape perception and planning, and environmental captured by the concept of “solastalgia” (i.e., the distress produced studies. The general criteria are consistent with similar overviews by environmental changes affecting one's own beloved place, recently published on other topics within environmental sciences especially the loss of solace once provided by the environment; see (e.g., Capstick, Whitmarsh, Poortinga, Pidgeon, & Upham, 2015; Albrecht, 2005, 2010, 2012; Albrecht et al., 2007). Although this Taylor, Dessai, Bruine de Bruin, 2014). The review included work has been useful, a clear and systematic articulation of the selected databases (PsycInfo, ScienceDirect, PsycARTICLES, JSTOR, relationships among place attachment, natural environmental risk and SCOPUS) for the identification of papers from 2016 backwards, perception, and coping is not presently provided. using a variety of strategies, including keywords and subject In particular, prior work has not adequately incorporated headings. This search encompassed the EBS literature, such as the emotionally focused coping strategies, particularly those involving Handbook of Environmental Psychology and PION journals (i.e., the person-place affective bonds of place attachment (Reser & Environment & Planning A, B & D). The oldest relevant item was Swim, 2011). Some exceptions operationalized this person-place published in 1996; all articles are reported in Tables 1e6. The search relation in terms of “vested interest” showing it could be relevant strategy included only articles that addressed place attachment or in strengthening the link between attitude-behaviour in a natural one of its theoretically related variables (e.g., sense of place). Arti- environment risk coping scenario (De Dominicis et al., 2014). In cles examining only natural environmental risk perception and brief, on the one side, there are the psychological models that coping, without any reference to place attachment or related var- explain stress, adaptation and coping responses with little atten- iables and constructs, were not included. Priority was given to peer- tion to emotionally based responses such as attachment to place. reviewed research articles but due to the paucity of research On the other hand, there are current models and contributions in addressing place attachment and environmental risk and percep- environmental psychology which show that place attachment is an tion, PhD dissertations were not a priori excluded from the search. integral part of person-environment transactions. Other scientific sources (non-published or less available within the However, these two literature are not well integrated; relations international databases) were excluded from this literature review among place attachment, environmental risk perception, and due to pragmatic reasons related to costs, time, and other resources environmental coping responses are at present not systematically related to the work. linked. It should be stressed that natural environmental risk is a global issue (climate change epitomizes this) and it offers oppor- 2. Place attachment in environmental risk research tunities for trans-disciplinary integration (Swim et al., 2011). In order for this to happen, the role of place attachment has to be This section presents a critical overview of the reviewed studies acknowledged since place attachment and the experiential nature (Table 1) focusing on place attachment relationships with natural of place can be central to people's reaction to places in general environmental risk perception and coping. The articles are orga- (Giuliani, 2003) and it may also be relevant for reactions to envi- nized according to the kind of relationship found in the results ronmental risks. Coupling place attachment with environmental (positive, negative, or none) and the kind of effectdcorrelation or risk is psychologically intriguing, because it means considering moderation or mediationdrevealed in the findings. The literature people-place transactions when a peculiar situation happens: data are presented according to each kind of specific environmental namely, that of experiencing risk and the associated experiences of risk, and then within each of them, they are presented across threat, danger, and uncertainty in relation to one's own place: an several columns: cultural context; environmental risk type; how environment the inhabitant would consider as familiar and secure. place attachment is operationalized and measured; the research This literature review then asks: what happens when one's own design; and finally if place attachment is related to risk perception place becomes a source of threatening events? Does place attach- and/or if it is related to coping strategies. ment serve as a barrier or as a motivating factor in perceiving and/ or in reacting to environmental risks located in one's own familiar 2.1. Different definitions and measurements of place attachment and secure place? In order to address those general questions, the following aims Most of the studies reviewed here examined place attachment are pursued. as an antecedent variable to investigate how it affects different kinds of risk perception and coping behaviour. From this review Table 1 Reviewed studies and their description in terms of place attachment related to hydro-geological risk.

Hydro-geological and weather related risk Study Cultural context Environmental risk type Place attachment de finition and Research design Main results with relationship type measurement and direction De Dominicis et al. (2015) . Journal Two Italian cities exposed to low Hydro geological risk. PA is measured as neighbourhood The study examined the Risk perception was related to of Environmental Psychology. and high flood risk (Rome and Vibo attachment using the 7-point moderation effect of place coping action, however this Valentia). Likert-type items from Fornara attachment in the relation relation is weaker for people with et al. (2010) . between flood risk perception and greater place attachment. coping and preventive behaviours. If PA is high and risk is high, then action is likely to be lower. Silver and Grek-Martin (2015) Rural community in Ontario, Tornado. Attachment to the physical The study examined how Sense of place was positively Canada. features of the place through an residents' sense of place and place related to disaster recover and interview procedure. attachments in fluenced both willingness to contribute to the short- and long-term recovery recovery process by engaging in a from the tornado disaster. tree-planting program.

Zhang et al. (2014) . Journal of Great Jiuzhai tourism area, China. Mudslide and landside. PA is measured by five questions. The purpose of the study was to Place attachment positively affects 33 (2016) 48 Psychology Environmental of Journal / al. et Bonaiuto M. Environmental Psychology. They inquired resident's place investigate whether residents' both awareness of consequences dependence, place identity and awareness of disaster's related to the risk and place- place affection (e.g. “this area is the consequences, values and place protective and pro-environmental best place for what I like to do ”; “I attachment affected their place- behaviours. regard this place as a part of me ”; “I protective and pro-environmental If PA is high then there is a greater am very attached to this place ”). behaviours (based on value belief- likelihood of pro environmental norm theory and theory of place behaviours. attachment). Boon (2014) . Natural Hazards. Ingham, a rural town in Seasonal flooding. PA is operationalized as Sense of The study investigated resilience A sense of place was a strong Queensland, Australia. place, de fined as social (community and individual level) predictor of resilience and was connectedness and love of the using socio-economic and negatively linked to a desire to community, and measured with demographic data to examine relocate resilience. A stronger some items developed by Chang whether people remaining in the sense of place was also linked to (2010). disaster-impacted community less negative health experiences in were likely to be resilient to the family and friends. disaster. If PA is high, then resilience is high while relocation intention is low and health experiences are less negative. Bonaiuto et al. (2011) . Proceedings Risk areas in Italy (Rome and Vibo Fluvial/pluvial and coastal/pluvial PA is measured at the The study investigated the Only for those living in low risk of the International Symposium Valentia). contexts. neighbourhood level using the relationship between areas, high place attachment was UFRIM. Urban Flood Risk 7-point Likert-type items from neighbourhood attachment and related with higher risk

Management - Approaches to Fornara et al. (2010) . several environmental risk perception, flood concern, collect e Enhance Resilience of features e flood risk perception, items intention and behaviour 53 Communities concern, attitude, intention and measures. coping behaviours. In low risk areas, if PA is high and perceived risk is low, then collect items intention and collect items behaviour are higher. Kick et al (2011) . Disasters Different cities in the U.S in Flood (de fined in general terms). PA is operationalized as The study examined the repetitive The importance of place makes it California, Louisiana, Georgia, and attachment to home and flood loss victims experience and harder for place-attached flood North Carolina. community, measured by asking asked whether strongly attached victims to accept mitigation offers respondents how attached they flood victims had more dif ficulty that cause them to relocate. were to their property. reaching a mitigation decision If PA is high, then acceptance of favourable to relocation than less mitigation offers are low. attached ones. (continued on next page ) 37 38 M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53

(see Table 1), we may highlight that place attachment is not a unified concept; it has been operationalized and measured in a

ood number of ways with different methods and tools (see Table 1 fl fourth column). One striking result is the very small number of uence fl studies examining place attachment as an outcome variable ood fl (Groulx, Lewis, Lemieux, & Dawson, 2014; Lavigne et al., 2008; Ruiz & Hernandez, 2014; Tanner, 2012, pp. 1e52; Willox et al., 2012), while the vast majority of them considered it as either a predictor or intervening factor. In terms of research design, most studies were correlational, while a few were field quasi-experimental ones fi and direction Results revealed that genealogical and economic attachment correlated positively with preparedness whereas religious attachment did not in preparedness behaviour. If PA is high, then preparedness is high. Returning residents believe that New Orleans and the Ninthpossess Ward a unique many characteristics that, when taken together, cannot be replicated elsewhere. Sense of place isimportant an motivator for returning residents. If PA is high, thento people return will to tend risky areas. (see Table 1 fth column), but one study combined interview data with Geographical Information System (GIS) coded maps to illus- trate place attachment in terms of spatial patterns (Donovan, Suryanto, & Utami, 2012). A few used interview data collected af- ter disaster (Chamlee-Wright & Storr, 2009) and the use of a phenomenological approach (e.g., Burley, Jenkins, Laska, & Davis, oods. fl 2007). Some authors focused on the importance of different concep- tualizations and operationalization of place attachment and related constructs (for place attachment examination in relation to its definitions and measurement, see for example Giuliani, 2003; Research design Main results with relationship type The study investigated whether place attachment affected preparedness for The study explores the senseplace of that residents in theWard Ninth neighbourhood in New Orleans expressed about their pre- and post-Hurricane Katrina experiences. Lewicka, 2011; Manzo & Devine-Wright, 2014). In the present re- view, all the different place attachment definitions and measure- ments are included in order to extensively map out and evaluate c place

fi the state of the art on this subject. nition and fi 3. Place attachment and risk perception

The impact of place attachment on risk perception is addressed in the following section by looking at the character of the associ- ation: positive, negative, and lack of relationship between these two variables. Again, the category of risk perception is used here in measurement PA is measured by a speci attachment scale developed for the Oriya context. It includes three mentioned aspects: economic, genealogical, and religious. PA is operationalized as senseplace, of investigated via interview: data were collected after disaster. a very broad sense encompassing different ways of conceptualizing and measuring how inhabitants recognize a certain environmental risk, whether in terms of knowledge, awareness, assessment, concern, and/or evaluation.

3.1. Positive relationships between place attachment and environmental risk perception

Some studies found a positive relation among place attachment and risk perception, without regard to zone of residence. For oods in Orissa's river basins and fl deltas. Hurricane: pre- and post- hurricane Katrina experiences. example, in the context of volcanic eruption risk in Iceland, Bird, Gísladottir, and Dominey-Howes (2011) found place attachment, risk perception and risk knowledge to be positively correlated for both urban and rural residents. The same pattern of results was found in the U.S. context, in a sample of Louisiana residents living in areas suffering from coastal land loss and prospect of hurricanes (Burley et al., 2007): awareness and perception of a hurricane disaster were associated with a heightened sense of place attachment. The finding that place attachment is associated to greater awareness was also found in relation to other hydro-geological Region of Orissa, India. Storms, heavy rainfall, and severe Low- and moderate-income neighbourhood in New Orleans. risks (such as landslide, mudslide) and earthquakes. Zhang, . Zhang, Zhang, and Cheng (2014) examined the awareness of di- saster's consequences, values, and place attachment among Chi- nese residents living in Great Jiuzhai tourism area. These residents

Damodar were found to be resource-dependent and highly attached to their & place showing a positive awareness of disaster consequences. ) Disaster consequences, in this case, were related to people's risk perception. Journal of Environmental . With respect to drought risk (Stain et al., 2011), the same posi- continued ( tive association is found between place attachment and environ- (2010) Psychology. Journal of Urban Affairs. mental risk perception: exposure to prolonged drought in Australia Hydro-geological and weather related risk Study Cultural context Environmental risk type Place attachment de Mishra, Mazumdar, Chamlee-Wright and Storr (2009)

Table 1 was correlated with sense of place (sense of personal connection M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 39

Table 2 Reviewed studies and their description in terms of place attachment related to multiple risks.

Multiple risks

Study Cultural context Environmental risk type Place attachment Research design Main results with definition and relationship type and measurement direction

Groulx et al. (2014). Churchill, Manitoba, Climate change PA is operationalized as The study examined the Place attachment was Landscape and Urban Canada. perceptions (i.e., beliefs natural and civic influence of place neither related to concern Planning. about future climate risks, attachment. attachment on for climate change nor experiences with local perceptions of climate with perception of climate climate impacts, and change at the local scale. change related risks. concern for these However, in this specific impacts). context this could be linked to deficiency with climate messaging. No relationship between PA and climate change risk perception. Bernardo (2013). Estudios City of Evora, Portugal. Dimensions of risk PA is measured by the The study explored the Place attachment de Psicologia. perception (i.e., place attachment scale impact of place contributed to amplifying earthquakes, pollution, (based on Hernandez attachment on risk the perception of high desertification, et al., 2007). perception. probable risks (usually criminality, social conflict, less dangerous) and unemployment, global attenuating the warming, terrorism, war perception of low and currency probable risks (usually devaluation). more dangerous). For risks perceived to be less likely, place attachment reduced risk perception, whilst in highly probable risks, attachment to place increased risk perception. If PA is high, then the perception of low probable/high impact risks is low. Willox et al. (2012). Social Rigolet Inuit community Climatic and Environmental Distress The study examined the Qualitative results Science and Medicine. in Nunatsiavut, Canada. environmental change Survey (Higginbotham impact of climate change showed that the impact of (i.e., weather, snow and et al., 2006) was used to on place attachment. climate change on land ice quality, water sources, measure impacts of (weather patterns, snow wildlife, and vegetation). changes in the quantity and quality, environment on sense of hunting, etc.) was place and PA. Place considered, (by local attachment was used as a residents), as a possible dependent variable. factor negatively affecting their place attachment. However, despite the negative perceptions and feelings expressed, there was a negative correlation between place attachment and willingness to relocate. If PA is high, then relocation willingness is low. Manning, (2005). Master's Coastal community in Tropical storms and PA emerged from The study investigated Citizens reported that Thesis. Louisiana State Southeastern Louisiana. hurricanes, erosion, oil qualitative data analysis why do these already geographical University. and gas activities. (focus groups and vulnerable people have displacement is a greater interviews). such a strong attachment ‘risk’ than living in an area to a place that burdened with continual compromises them even environmental and social further. threats. If PA is high, then relocation likelihood is low.

with the surrounding land and environment). Even though the Groulx et al. (2014) found a positive correlation between partici- comparison between high vs. low levels of attachment was not pant's connections to place and their perceptions of climate change. presented in the results, the study shows that those with a stronger The results showed that participants' overall natural attachment sense of place reported more worry about the drought and were and sense of place identity, as well as their sense of civic attach- therefore aware of it. ment, correlated with self-reported experiences about the changes In a study of ice pack diminishment in Churchill (Canada), related to ice conditions in the bay (i.e., climate change impacts in Table 3 40 Reviewed studies and their description in terms of place attachment related to pollution related risk (oil spill, air quality, nuclear power, lyme di sease).

Pollution related risk (oil spill, air quality, nuclear power, lyme disease) Study Cultural context Environmental risk type Place attachment de finition and Research design Main results with relationship type measurement and direction Gallina and Williams (2014) . Immigrant and Canadian-born Air quality. PA is operationalized as sense of The study examined individual A higher sense of place (among International Journal of Social women in Northeast Canada place, measured through perceptions of air quality amongst Canadian-born women) was Science Studies . Hamilton. household-based telephone Canadian-born and immigrant associated with higher levels of survey. women in Northeast Hamilton, concern about air quality issues in Ontario, Canada. their neighbourhood. If PA is high, then concern about air quality is high. Venables et al. (2012) . Journal of Communities within 8 miles to the Nuclear power. PA is operationalized as sense of The relationship between public High risk perception decreased Environmental Psychology . nuclear power stations at Bradwell, place. perceptions of risk, sense of place, with proximity to the risk source; Oldbury, and Hinkley Point, UK. and residential proximity to an while sense of place increased with established nuclear power station proximity to the risk source. No

were examined. association was observed between 33 (2016) 48 Psychology Environmental of Journal / al. et Bonaiuto M. Power Station-related sense of place and proximity. Sense of place mediated the relationship between proximity to the risk source and perceived risk. If proximity to the risk source is high, then PA is high, then risk perception is low. Marcu et al. (2011) . Health & Place Sites included Richmond Park (a Risk of Lyme disease. PA is operationalized as The study focused on people's Place attachment was related to peri-urban park), New Forest attachment to the countryside. reasoning about environmental lower Lyme disease risk (example of ‘accessible risk in relation to unfamiliar risks perception, yet positively related countryside ’), and Exmoor in encountered in the countryside, a with values and social practices England, UK. place typically perceived as risk- attached to the countryside. free. If PA is high, then risk perception is low. Kaltenborn (1998) . Applied Archipelago of Svalbard in the Oil spill. PA is operationalized as sense-of- The study explores the concept of The strong sense-of-place group is Geography . Norwegian high Arctic. place, measured by an exploratory sense of place among residents of less likely than the other two instrument developed by Shamai the Svalbard (Spitsbergen) groups to choose other locations in (1991). archipelago in the Norwegian high Svalbard for recreational activities. Arctic. There are no signi ficant differences in how a large oil spill would affect the overall recreational use of the

three sense-of-place groups. e However, people expressing a 53 stronger sense of place show stronger interest or willingness to contribute to solutions to environmental problems. If PA is high, then relocation of recreational activities in risky area is low, yet willingness to solve environmental issues (i.e., pro- environmental behaviours) is high. Bonaiuto et al. (1996) . Journal of Seaside resorts in the UK: polluted Pollution (de fined in terms of the PA is measured with proxy The study examined the in fluence Participants who were more Community & Applied Social and unpolluted beaches. EU criteria). variables, such as place identity of local and national identity in the attached to their town or their Psychology . and national identity. perception of beach pollution in nation tended to perceive their the UK. local and national beaches as less polluted. If PA is high, then perceived pollution is low at local and national levels. Table 4 Reviewed studies and their description in terms of place attachment related to volcanic and earthquake risk.

Volcanic and earthquake risk Study Cultural context Environmental risk type Place attachment de finition and Research design Main results with relationship type measurement and direction Ruiz and Hern andez (2014) . Island of El Hierro in the Canary Risk of falling rocks, submarine PA is measured by the short-scales The study examined whether place The results showed decreased Journal of Environmental Islands, Spain. tremors, and risk of toxic gases of place attachment (5 items) and attachment was affected by a place attachment for residents Psychology . released by the volcano. place identity (3 items), validated volcanic episode. closer to the new volcano, while in Ruiz, Hern andez, and Hidalgo the level of place attachment (2011). PA was used as a remained unchanged for the dependent variable. residents of the other areas. If proximity to the risk is high, then PA is low. Donovan et al. (2012) . Mt. Merapi in Central Java, Pyroclastic flows (i.e., fragments of PA is operationalized as local The study investigated how Cultural intensity (e.g., attachment Environmental Hazards . Indonesia. volcanic origin) and lahars (i.e., a culture and attachment to the different sub-cultures may impact to the volcano's symbolic power, landslide of wet volcanic debris). volcano and its region. local communities' actions related the practice of hazard focused

to the Mt. Merapi volcanic activity. ceremonies, believes in spirit- 33 (2016) 48 Psychology Environmental of Journal / al. et Bonaiuto M. related stories, and trust in spiritual leaders) was associated with low hazard awareness and high evacuation failure. If PA is high, then evacuation from risky areas is low. Tanner (2012) . Research Kaiapoi, a North Canterbury, New Earthquake risk. PA is measured through data from The study explored how the Red zone residents experienced Dissertation. University of Zealand. interviews. PA was used as a Canterbury earthquakes impacted significant changes in attachment Canterbury, New Zealand . dependent variable. residents' connections and feelings because of damage and relocation, about their homes and community while green zone residents (both for green zone and red zone maintained strong connection to residents). their homes. If high hazard impact is experienced, then PA decreases. Bird et al. (2011) . Bulletin of Hazard zones of Alftaver, Hazards from Katla and PA is operationalized as both The study investigated residents' For both urban and rural citizens, Volcanology. Meðalland, S olheimar and Vík in Eyjafjallaj okull€ volcanos e family- and economically-based knowledge and perception of place attachment was positively Iceland. eruption, tsunami, lightning and agricultural ties, which arose as volcano hazards and emergency related to risk perception. tephra hazards. key themes in the survey analysis. response procedures. However, for rural residents, high attachment is associated with lower coping behaviours. If PA is high, then risk perception is high but acceptance of evacuation

plans is low. e Lavigne et al. (2008) . Journal of Four volcanoes in Central Java, Pyroclastic flows hazards. PA is measured as a form of This study explored the role of Attachment to the volcanic 53 Volcanology and Geothermal namely Sumbing, Sindoro, Dieng, cultural beliefs, assessed in three three factors in shaping people's environment e both in economic Research. and Merapi (Java, Indonesia). different case studies. PA was used behaviour in the face of volcanic and cultural terms (e.g., eruptions as a dependent variable. hazards: risk perception, cultural seen as warnings from God) e beliefs and socio-economic influences people to live in hazard- constraints. prone areas, to be reticent to evacuate and/or in a hurry to come back home after having being moved by the local authorities. If PA is high, then relocation likelihood is low. Armas¸ (2006) . Risk Analysis. Residents in Bucharest, Romania. Earthquake risk. PA is measured as feelings and The study examines the attitudes A strong affective bond offers a affective bond towards the and perceptions of people living feeling of safety and leads to residential area. with the risk of an earthquake neglect and even total denial of the hazard in Bucharest. hazard. If PA is high, then hazard denial is high. 41 42 M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53

Table 5 Reviewed studies and their description in terms of place attachment related to water resources-related risks (hydro-power, wetland loss, drought).

Water resources-related risks (hydro-power, wetland loss, drought)

Study Cultural context Environmental risk type Place attachment Research design Main results with definition and relationship type and measurement direction

Pirta et al. (2014). Peasants (re-settlers and Induced displacement PA is operationalized as The study investigated the Results showed that Psychological Studies. non-displaced peasants) (Dam building). memories related to the effects of a hydro-power people still had a strong in Himachal Pradesh, loss of home measured by project (the construction attachment to their places India. in-depth interviews. of the Bhakra Dam) on in western Himalaya even experiences of though they had been displacement, attachment displaced nearly 50 years and loss. ago due to the Bhakra Nangal Project. It was found that greater overall retrieval of the memories of loss of home among the displaced individuals (by scripts of low and high anger), re-activated place attachment, resulting in exploration of, and fulfilment of, returning to the proximity of the native habitat. If PA is high, then the possibility of returning to the native place is high. Stain et al. (2011). Social New South Wales, Drought. PA is operationalized as This research examined A greater sense of place Science & Medicine. Australia. sense of place, measured what were the factors was associated with an as individuals' connection associated with drought increase in people's with local environment impact and whether a drought related worry and and landscape greater sense of place in their perceived drought (Higginbotham et al., would increase levels of impact. 2006). drought concern and its IF PA is high then drought perceived impact. related worry and perceived impact are high. Burley et al. (2007). Louisiana's coastal Coastal wetland loss. PA was measured by This qualitative study Attachment to places Organisation & communities, U.S.. interviews, which investigates how increases for those who Environment. captured residents' community residents perceive threat for a narratives of place perceive environmental particular environment. attachment. Place change. If environmental threat in attachment used as a high, then an awareness dependent variable. and PA are high.

Churchill). different places with different levels of risk occurrence (high/low) A positive correlation between place attachment and environ- while Bernardo (2013) compared different kinds of risks (multiple mental risk perception was also found in the context of air pollution risks) in one location (Portugal) by categorizing them into different in Ontario (Canada). Gallina and Williams (2014) showed that a levels (greater and lesser probability of occurrence). In both studies, high sense of place was associated with higher levels of concern higher place-attached inhabitants perceived higher risk in the case with air quality issues. Compared to immigrant women, Canadian- of frequent occurrence, and apparently less dangerous risk. When born women held a stronger sense of place and were also more risk the risk was less frequent but apparently more dangerous, this awaredperceiving the health risks of air pollution for their positive relationship was no longer significant. neighbourhood. In sum, eight studies have been found which presented a posi- Other studies show similar, though more articulated, patterns of tive relation between place attachment and environmental risk results. For example, Bonaiuto, De Dominicis, Fornara, Ganucci perception. Cancellieri, and Mosco (2011) examined the relationship between neighbourhood attachment and residents’ perceptions of flood risk. 3.2. Negative relationships between place attachment and They found that people scoring high in place attachment also re- environmental risk perception ported higher perceived risk of flooding, but only for those living in low magnitude risk areas (vs. areas where the risks have high Other studies showed an opposite relationship between place magnitude, even if they are not frequent). attachment and environmental risk perception: in these cases, However, in the Portuguese context, Bernardo (2013) found that higher place attachment led to lower risk perception and aware- place attachment contributed to amplifying the perception of ness. For example, the city of Bucharest was chosen as the study highly probable risks (multiple risks, such as pollution, desertifi- area to examine perceived seismic risk exposure in Romania cation, and global warming) and attenuating the perception of less (Armas¸ , 2006). Interviewed respondents’ attachment to their resi- probable risks (e.g., war, earthquake and terrorism). That is, for dential area correlated with a feeling of safety, which led them to highly probable risks (less dangerous but more frequent), attach- ignore and even deny the seismic risk by stating that they did not ment to place increased risk perception. think their household would be affected or that, if affected, the Bonaiuto et al. (2011) compared the same risk (flood) in two damage would be minimal. M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 43

Table 6 Reviewed studies and their description in terms of place attachment related to wildfire risk.

Wildfire risk

Study Cultural context Environmental risk type Place attachment Research design Main results with definition and relationship type and measurement direction

Nawrotzki et al. (2014). Residents in Boulder and Residential loss and PA is measured as The study examined There were no differences Society & Natural Larimer counties, damage related to homeownership and whether migrants (people between wildfire migrants Resources: An Colorado, two months previous wildfires. length of residence (in who intend to leave the and non-migrants in International Journal after the devastating years). community) differed from terms of place attachment. Fourmile Canyon fire. non-migrants (those who Also, fire migrants intend to stay) in terms of intended to relocate wildfire concern. within a short distance from the risk area. No relationship between PA and intention to relocate. Bihari and Ryan (2012). Six fire-prone People's perceptions of PA is assessed by asking The study examined if past Results showed that place Landscape and Urban communities across the fire risk and preparedness respondents to describe experience with wildfires, attachment significantly Planning USA (Montana, Colorado, (e.g., clearing vegetation, their association and ties place attachment, length predicts social capital, New Mexico, California, thinning brush and trees). to surrounding natural of residence and affiliation which in turn is a strong Florida and New Jersey). areas in terms of their with local organizations predictor of risk fondness for natural positively affected preparedness. People with amenities. residents' perception of greater place attachment social capital in their were more involved in community, and if higher local associations and levels of social capital consequently more aware increased wildfire of the wildfire risk. preparedness. Social capital mediates the positive relationship between PA and wildfire risk preparedness. Cox & Perry. (2011). Ethnographic study of two Wildfire risk. PA is measured by a multi- The study examined the A sense of disorientation, American Journal of rural communities in sited ethnographic salience of place, identity, distress, bewilderment, Psychology. British Columbia, Canada approach. and social capital to the and grief, affected people (Louis Creek and Barriere). disaster recovery process (those affected and those and community disaster not affected by material resilience. losses) evacuated and forced to flee their homes. Re-greening and re- planting were used to generate a sense of place and bring things to “normal” after the fires. If PA is high, then distress is high after wildfire. Paton, Bürgelt & Prior Residents in Hobart at the Bushfire risk and PA is measured in terms of This qualitative study PA is positively related (2008). The Australian commencement of the preparedness (no specific sense of place (attachment examined processes that with bushfire risk Journal of Emergency 2004/2005 bushfires mention of type of to home and property) influence people's preparedness. However, Management. season. damages). and sense of community. preparedness actions in negative outcome case of bushfire hazards. expectancy beliefs (i.e., people believe that bushfires are too catastrophic or uncontrollable for personal actions to make any difference) were associated with “not preparing” for environmental risk. If PA is high, then preparedness is high; yet, if negative outcome expectancy is high, then preparedness is low. Collins (2008). The Wildfire Risks in Arizona's Wildfire damages PA is operationalized as The study examined the Longer term, full-time, Professional Geographer. White Mountains, U.S. included burning of part of the broader place factors affecting hazard and resource-dependent timber and property dependency concept (the mitigation and if place residents (economically damages. degree to which one's dependency was and socially) implemented economic and social life associated with higher more mitigation measures was rooted in a particular levels of wildfire hazard than shorter term, part- location), measured by a mitigation. time, and resource- survey administrated to independent residents. households. If PA is high, then mitigation is high. 44 M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53

A negative relation was also found in the context of volcano risk longer term, full-time, and resource-dependent residents to in Indonesia. Donovan et al. (2012) found that attachment to the implement more mitigation measures than shorter-term, part- volcanic area, which was measured as cultural intensity (e.g., time, and resource-independent residents. The household mitiga- attachment to the volcano's symbolic power, the practice of hazard tion measure was the sum of home structure, defensible space, focused ceremonies, beliefs in spirit-related stories, and trust in landscape, and fire suppression hazard adjustments that were spiritual leaders), was associated with low hazard perception. This implemented during the time that households occupied their home study showed the relevance of volcanic culture at Mt. Merapi in sites. order to understand residents' place attachment and their experi- Silver and Grek-Martin (2015) examined the F3 tornado in a ence of risk. The authors used GIS coded maps to show the different rural community in Ontario, Canada in 2011. This is a tornado spatial patterns and the sub-divisions of cultural intensity. They scoring a level 4 in severity on the 6-point Fujita Tornado Damage found that residents in the most remote regions (as compared to Scale and indicates “Severe damage: Roofs and some walls torn off residents in other locations) had a stronger animistic belief system well-constructed houses; trains overturned; most trees in forest as well as a high disbelief that hazards could impact their region uprooted; heavy cars lifted off the ground and thrown”; Marshall, (thus a negative relation between high attachment and risk 2001). The goal was to learn how residents' sense of place and perception). place attachments influenced both short- and long-term disaster Working in a very different context from that of Indonesia, a recovery. The findings indicated predominantly positive impacts of study in the UK context (Bonaiuto et al., 1996) focused on beach sense of place on coping. The tornado seemed to strengthen sense pollution threat and obtained a negative relationship such that of community and the willingness to contribute to the recovery higher local identity led to lower risk perception of local beach process. For example, highly attached community members pollutants, at least within contexts where local identity was salient. worked on a tree-planting project to re-green the town. In this section, four studies taking place in various cultural This section therefore shows a total of four studies revealing a contextsdthat of Romania, Indonesia, UK and in relation to positive relationship between place attachment and risk coping. different kinds of risksdshowed a negative relationship between place attachment and environmental risk perception. 4.2. Negative relationships between place attachment and environmental risk coping 4. Place attachment and risk coping There are several studies that found a strong negative rela- This section addresses how place attachment affects risk coping tionship between place attachment and environmental risk coping, strategies to assess if the literature to date shows a positive, mostly in the sense that displacement from the risky area was negative or lack of relationship between these two variables. The negatively associated with place attachment. Pirta, Chandel, and term “risk coping” is used in a very broad way, encompassing Pirta (2014) found that peasants in the western Himalayaseewho different ways of conceiving and measuring how inhabitants face were displaced nearly 50 years ago due to the Bhakra Nangal an environmental risk and the adaptation strategies they use. Projecteeoften return to their native habitat, even if they are aware Adaptation could include proactive action and coping by remaining that these areas are at risk (i.e., located in dangerous zones where in the risky area, or different types of action, such as being displaced water level often fluctuates). This pattern was also observed in a elsewhere. The existence of individual vs. collective activities and study that investigated New Orleans residents pre- and post- strategies involving distancing one's self from the risk (instead of hurricane Katrina (Chamlee-Wright & Storr, 2009). This study responding with panic and outrage) has also been noted in these found that residents in post-hurricane Katrina considered their studies. attachment to the place and the uniqueness of the setting as rea- sons to return to post-hurricane New Orleans. Place attachment 4.1. Positive relationships between place attachment and was therefore an important factor motivating people to return to environmental risk coping post-disaster environments, even though these environments might still be subject to high environmental risk. The study by Zhang et al. (2014) (See also section 3.1) on place In the context of flooding risk, a study in India (Mishra, attachment among Chinese residents living in Great Jiuzhai tourism Mazumdar, & Suar, 2010) found that reverence to nature and area showed that residents' awareness of flooding consequences, belief in fate (considered as religious attachment) led rural Hindus values and place attachment were positively related to place- to take little action in coping with floods, even though the research protective and pro-environmental behaviours (e.g., protection and also indicated that people having genealogical and economic place re/construction of touristic sites, recycling, etc.). The study did not attachment prepared for floods. The same pattern of results was address intention to relocate in case of a disaster, but showed that found in highly attached flood victims from diverse states in the strong place attachment was related to strong acceptance? of re- U.S. (Kick, Fraser, Fulkerson, McKinney & De Vries, 2011) and also sponsibility and personal norms to protect the environment, from Australia (Boon, 2014). For example, Boon (2014) tested before including work involved in the reconstruction of the touristic sites. and after flood disaster perceptions in rural Australia and found The active coping style of highly attached individuals as that residents were unwilling to relocate even though they had demonstrated in behaviour patterns such as engaging in the solu- repeated experiences with floods. Flooding research has also tion of environmental risks, was also supported in an area prone to shown that the more strongly attached flood victims are to their oil spills in the archipelago of Svalbard in the Norwegian high Arctic ‘place’ (attachment to the home and attachment to the commu- (Kaltenborn, 1998). It was found that residents with a strong sense nity), the more difficult it is for them to accept relocation. Other of place were more active than moderate- and less-attached resi- research found that attached people have been unwilling to relo- dents. they reported being (?) more engaged and willing to clean up cate also in contexts of oil spill risks (Kaltenborn, 1998). the beaches and collect litter. The results found in relation to flooding have also been observed In relation to wildfire in Arizona's White Mountains, Collins in the context of volcanic risks in southern Iceland. Bird et al. (2011) (2008) investigated whether place dependency (length of resi- (See also section 3.1) found that lower acceptance of evacuation dence) was associated with higher levels of wildfire hazard miti- plans was related to attachment to place and livelihood connec- gation. The author found that place dependency was a catalyst for tions; this was true for rural residents. Urban residents reported a M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 45 willingness to accept mitigation measures. Rural residents with relation between place attachment and environmental risk coping. accurate knowledge of the risk in areas of volcanic activity dis- They also showed that if people believe that bushfires are too played a great sense of community and attachment to place but catastrophic or uncontrollable for personal actions to make any lower coping behaviours. The results also indicated that family- difference (i.e., negative outcome expectancy beliefs), people would based agricultural ties influenced decision of whether or not to not prepare for them, showing that in this case, outcome expec- abandon their livestock and property, and consequently influenced tancy had a direct influence on both intentions and actions their decision to evacuate in case of an eruption. A significant regardless of their place attachment. pattern in the data is that highly place attached residents did not In sum, this section shows ten studies which depicted a negative perceive evacuation plans as appropriate and would rely on their relationship between place attachment and risk coping intentions. own evaluations to decide on a course of action. Predictors of evacuation failure are also related to attachment to 4.3. Moderation and mediation effects between place attachment place in the form of “cultural intensity” (e.g., attachment to the and environmental risk perception and between place attachment volcano's symbolic power, the practice of hazard focused cere- and risk coping monies, beliefs in spirit-related stories, and trust in spiritual leaders). Place-specific cultural intensity was associated with high Only a few studies targeted a different kind of relation among evacuation failure in Mt Merapi, Indonesia (Donovan et al., 2012). place attachment and risk perception and/or copingdthat of This result was also confirmed by Lavigne et al. (2008), who found moderation and mediation (e.g., Winkel et al., 2009). In brief, a that Indonesian people living on the slopes or near active volcanoes moderation effect occurs when a third variable modifies a causal were reticent to evacuate and would have been willing to return to effect: A moderator may increase the relationship strength be- the hazardous area after having being moved by the local author- tween place attachment with risk perception or coping, or decrease ities. Lavigne et al. (2008) concluded that attachment to place in the the strength of such a relationship, or it may change its direction form of cultural beliefs influenced these Javanese communities to (i.e., positive or negative) (Baron & Kenny, 1986). A mediation effect remain or to return to hazard-prone areas. Thus, as found in these occurs when a third variable links a cause and an effect (e.g., if we three studies addressing volcanic risks, the development of volca- want to test a causal relation among place attachment and risk nic sub-cultures may act as a motivator for highly attached resi- perception or coping). Mediators usually refer to psychological dents to reject evacuation plans and to remain in their risky areas. processes and individual traits, such as emotions, beliefs, and be- Kaltenborn (1998; see section 4.1) studied the relation between haviours (Baron & Kenny, 1986). attachment and willingness to relocate in case of an oil spill among Very few studies had been provided about possible mediation people pursuing recreational activities in the Norwegian high mechanisms. For example, Bihari and Ryan (2012) studied how Arctic. Despite a positive association between place attachment and higher social capital (defined as the “economic and non-economic some coping behaviours, Kaltenborn also reported that highly- benefits that individuals, groups and communities get through attached residents with a strong sense of place were less likely the structure of their relationships”; Agrawal & Monroe, 2006, p. than moderate- and low-attached residents to relocate in case of an 163) can act as a mediator in the relationship between place-related oil spill. This study is a good example of how ambivalent people are variables (e.g., place attachment, past experience with risk, length/ in their coping strategies and behaviour: within the same group type of residence) and environmental wildfire risk preparedness. and place of residence, coping behaviours can be either positively They measured social capital as community cohesion (close knit, (taking care of the environment) or negatively (relocating) related community groups and activities, local leadership, local sponsors, to place attachment. . volunteering activities, community social support and aid, A negative relationship also exists between place attachment involvement in government and civic groups). They found that and environmental risk coping in the context of multiple risks. social capital mediated the relationship between place attachment Manning (2005) explored the risk perceptions of a small- and wildfire preparedness. Thus, place attachment is related to unincorporated coastal community in South-eastern Louisiana. involvement in local organizations, which in turn is related to This community had experienced social and environmental change greater awareness of wildfire risk, thus showing the underlying due to events including tropical storms, hurricanes, erosion, sub- mediation process played by social capital on preparedness. sidence, oil and gas activities, development, and the impact of Venables, Pidgeon, Parkhill, Henwood, and Simmons (2012) global seafood markets. Manning clearly stated that geographical examined communities who had been living within eight miles displacement was seen as a greater risk than living in an area with of nuclear power stations at Bradwell (U.K.) for a prolonged period continual environmental and social threats. of time. They investigated the relationship between sense of place Willox et al. (2012) undertook a qualitative case study to and support for the new nuclear power station. The results showed examine the connections among climate change, a changing sense that stronger sense of place mediated the relationship between of place, and health in the Inuit community of Rigolet, Canada. proximity to the power station and the amount of perceived nu- Climatic change and consequent environmental disruption of clear disaster risks: the closer the proximity to the nuclear power hunting, fishing, foraging, trapping, and traveling were reported to station, the stronger the sense of place which in turn decreases the impact mental and emotional health. Moreover, individuals re- perceived related risks. ported that climate change could impact their place attachment. In the context of flooding in Italy, Bonaiuto et al. (2011) defined However, despite the negative perceptions and feelings expressed, risk coping as intention and action towards preventive behaviours. Rigolet's residents showed strong place attachment especially to They found that people scoring high in place attachment showed their home environment and land, and indicated no desire to move higher preventive intentions and behaviours in advance of a flood away. (e.g., collecting useful items to face an impending flood such as Coping by leaving the risky area in case of disaster has been house key, documents, medicines, water, food, etc.), but only shown in Paton, Bürgelt & Prior's study (2008) on bushfire pre- among those living in low risk areas (see also, De Dominicis et al., paredness in Australia, who found that low-attached individuals 2014). (i.e., people with a low sense of belongingness and sense of com- To better understand if place attachment could itself be a munity) had a stronger intention to leave if fire occurred (as negative moderator between risk perception and action, but only compared to high-attached individuals), thus indicating a negative under condition of high objective risk levels, a further Italian study 46 M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 was undertaken by De Dominicis, Fornara, Ganucci Cancellieri, 5. Discussion Twigger-Ross, and Bonaiuto (2015) in the context of both high and low objective flood risk. Testing the moderating roles of both In this article, three aims have been pursued, namely: 1) review place attachment and objective risk level over the risk perception- of a positive or negative relation among place attachment and action link, results show that only in higher objective risk contexts, natural environmental risk perception and coping; 2) review of risk perception was more positively correlated with risk preventive moderation or mediation patterns; 3) review of the lack of such a behaviours for lower levels of neighbourhood attachment. While relation. Results show some recurrent patterns which are of a for higher levels of neighbourhood attachment, risk perception had complex nature. a weaker positive relation to risk preventive behaviour. Therefore, here place attachment negatively moderates the risk-perception 5.1. Place attachment and natural environmental risk perception and risk-coping relationship, but only in a context of high objec- tive flooding risk. This moderation effect disappears in a low There are two most frequently observed patterns: (1) a positive objective risk context. Therefore, place attachment seems to relationship between place attachment and environmental risk impede the basic adaptive link among risk perception and risk perception; that is, in general and across cultures, highly attached coping, but only within chronically objective high-risk contexts. individuals (vs. less attached ones) who are exposed to different In sum, this section showed that when place attachment is types of natural environmental risks have stronger awareness considered as a mediator or moderator, it can be a barrier to an regarding the objective natural environmental risk to which a place adaptive perception and action of natural occurring risks. As a is subject; (2) a negative relationship between place attachment mediator, place attachment explains the process by which prox- and natural environmental risk coping; that is, in many cases, imity to a risk source prevents risk perception; as a moderator place highly attached inhabitants (vs. less attached ones) are less prone to attachment weakens the relationship between risk perception and engage in coping behaviours, especially if coping involves difficult coping, but only under objective risk stress. Even fewer analyses and demanding behaviours, such as relocation from the risky area. focused on place attachment's effects in mediation: apparently, Thus a consistent pattern in the literature addressing place place attachment can have positive effects on preparedness, and attachment and natural environmental risk is that of inconsistency this is mediated by social capital. between perception and action in strongly attached persons. Focusing on the positive relationship between place attachment and risk perception, the present review highlights that natural environmental risk perception has been operationalized and 4.4. Lack of relationships between place attachment and measured in different ways, for example, in terms of perception, environmental risk perception or environmental risk coping knowledge, concern, and awareness. Despite the different oper- ationalization and measurements, however, the results overall Only two studies report a lack of relationship between place point to a positive relationship between place attachment and risk attachment and either risk perception or coping. Groulx et al. perception. Another important pattern in the results refers to the (2014) found that place attachment was related to experiences confirmation of this positive relationship, even when the risk's level with global climate impacts (i.e., sensitivity to changes in the ice of occurrence, and/or its severity, changes. For example, Bonaiuto conditions in Churchill, Manitoba, Canada), yet it was related et al. (2011) examined different settings subject to different levels neither with concern for local climate change (measured as concern of flood risk (i.e., low flood risk area vs. high flood risk area); while for community's tourism industry, shipping industry, access to Bernardo (2013) examined multiple risks in the same setting, but food, community's cultural traditions and opportunities for social with variation in their occurrence levels (i.e., low probability risks relations), nor with an increased perception of climate change risks. vs. high probability risks). Yet, both studies reached the same In another study, place attachment (as homeownership and length conclusion: regardless of risk area or risk type, highly (vs. less) of residence) had no effect on intention to move after a wildfire in attached individuals strongly perceive natural environmental Colorado (Nawrotzki, Brenkert-Smith, Hunter, & Champ, 2014). risk(s) to which they are exposed. However, it is important to remember that place attachment is In addition, though less frequently, other studies pointed to a only in part a function of proxy variables such as homeownership negative relationship between place attachment and risk percep- and length of residence (Shklovski, Burke, Kiesler, & Kraut, 2010) tion. This negative relationship was found regardless of the level of and therefore the results from studies using place-attachment familiarity of the individuals with the risks. In other words, for both predictors or proxies (for example the study by Collins, 2008) familiar environmental risksdsuch as beach pollution (e.g., should be interpreted with caution. Specifically, some of place at- Bonaiuto et al.,1996)dand non-familiar environmental risksdsuch tachment's proxies, such as, homeownership and length of resi- as Lyme disease (e.g., Marcu, Uzzell, & Barnett, 2011)da negative dence, could be indicators of economic resources invested in the relationship was found. Thus, regardless of individuals' familiarity place, rather than a pure psychological bond with the place. with a risk, high- (vs. low-) attachment individuals frequently Therefore, the effects of pure psychological bonds with places showed less concern for the risk and, thus, underestimated it. Re- remain to be fully understood. eeee. In fact, from a theoretical searchers sought to understand this negative relationship in depth perspective, it is important to highlight that these proxy variables by using qualitative methods, and found that place attachment is of place attachment could represent this variable either realisti- linked closely to place identity and to what has been defined as callyeee.g., when individuals are strongly attached to their houses cultural intensity, which involves a strong sense of attachment in threatened contexts (Anton & Lawrence, 2014)eeor deceptive- related to the symbolic value of the place (Donovan et al., 2012). lyeee.g., among non-natives of a given place where place attach- Indeed, in the context of seismic and volcanic risk (Armas, 2006; ment tends to develop faster than place identity and thus could be Donovan et al., 2012), high- (vs. low-) attachment residents un- more linked to non-psychological bonds to the place (Hernandez, derestimate or deny the probability that these events will affect Hidalgo, Salazar-Laplace, & Hess, 2007). their communities. This negative relationship between place Finally, it should also be noted that the extremely low frequency attachment and risk perception (despite risk familiarity) takes us of studies reporting a lack of relationship could simply suffer from back to Relph's (1976) concept of insideness, which suggests that if publication bias. one feels inside a place, one feels safe rather than threatened, M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 47 enclosed rather than exposed, at ease rather than stressed. Close of the relational risk and, at the same time, in maintaining the parallels can be drawn between cultural intensity and inside- interpersonal attachment (Stith, Smith, Penn, Ward, & Tritt, 2004). nessdthe higher an individual's cultural intensity towards a place, In the relational dynamic, the two partners (the perpetrator and the the stronger will be her or his identity with that place. victim) alternate both risky and attached styles in their social in- teractions, and these dynamics are based on a history of acceptance 5.2. Place attachment and natural environmental risk coping of, and habituation to, the risk (Dixon & Graham-Kevan, 2011; Dutton, 1995). A different point of discussion emerges when considering the Another pattern in the data is the link between proximity to the relationship between place attachment and environmental risk risky area and unwillingness to relocate. Results show that place coping. Only a few studies showed a positive relationship between attachment negatively relates to risk coping behaviours, such as these two variables. In those cases, coping behaviours involved relocation, especially for inhabitants located closer to the risk (as preventive and pro-active behaviours, such as: using mitigation determined by GIS data, Donovan et al., 2012): the farther away measures for wildfire prevention (e.g., changing the home structure from the summit of the volcano, the more likely Indonesian resi- and the landscape around the home; Collins, 2008), and acting pro- dents were to comply with evacuation plans. The authors proposed environmentally and sustainably (e.g., cleaning up beaches and that it could be that seeing the hazards increases risk perception: reconstructing post-disaster areas; Bonaiuto et al., 1996) and tree- People living in the higher slopes may have been unable to see planting (Silver & Grek-Martin, 2015). In these cases, the positive clearly, as these areas are more vegetated But, in general, this kind relationship between place attachment and risk coping behaviours of relation and pattern could be linked to the environmental hy- occurs when one stays in the risky place and takes action to peropia bias proposed by Uzzell (2000; Garcìa-Mira, Real, & Romay, improve or protect it. 2005) which states that in relation to environmental problems, Another pattern of behaviour expressed by attached individuals people misperceive the environmental risk and show little signs of in relation to their place is observed when relocation and returning concern and willingness to cope with them, even when they are at actions and mobility are under scrutiny. Several studies in relation their doorstep. The spatial bias or spatial optimism in relation to to flooding in India, U.S., and Australia showed that highly attached local versus global environmental problems may also explain this people were unwilling to relocate, even when they had previous pattern in the results (Gifford et al., 2009). experience with floods. Unfortunately, when a place is threatened The spatial bias effect posits that affective variables (e.g., place by a hazard, relocation often is required to cope with that risk attachment) may lead to distortion that allows one to defend one's (Hunter, 2005). In the study in India (Mishra et al., 2010), unwill- own identity (i.e., place identity), that is, to help people maintain a ingness to relocate was related to religious attachment to the place, positive and consistent identity. In fact, a considerable amount of thus showing one of the possible psychological reasons for that research (e.g., Dunlap, Gallup, & Gallup, 1993; Gifford et al., 2009; pattern of results. A possible interpretation could refer to the idea Uzzell, 2000) has shown that a specific spatial bias, based on un- that when one is confident that an attachment figure (i.e., God) will realistic optimism, may occur on the perception of natural envi- be accessible whenever one wishes, one may experience less fear of ronmental risks: individuals tend to perceive natural risk (Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2008). environmental risks as more serious elsewhere rather than locally. Recurrent results also show that the more individuals are This spatial bias may arise, for example, by the local vs. global attached to a place, the more they are willing to return to post- (Gifford et al., 2009) or the here vs. there (Hatfield & Job, 2001) disaster environments. Studies demonstrated that when in- comparison, functioning as a barrier preventing individuals from habitants had been forced to relocate due to flooding in India (Pirta coping with local natural environment issues (Schultz et al., 2014). et al., 2014) and to hurricane Katrina in the U.S. (Chamlee-Wright & Yet, this bias may also occur at a deeper level (De Dominicis et al., Storr, 2009), they showed a desire, willingness to return, and actual 2015), because individuals strive to maintain a positive place return to post-disaster areas. identity (Brown & Perkins, 1992; Hugh-Jones & Madill, 2009; This is a solid, robust empirical pattern that holds true across Twigger-Ross & Uzzell, 1996) and they tend to erroneously process different natural environmental risks. For example, in relation to correct information due to affective biases leading to incorrect volcanic risk, studies in Iceland and Indonesia show that highly behavioural outcomes (Radcliffe & Klein, 2002). Thus, it is plausible attached individuals are reluctant to evacuate, unwilling to comply that people showing strong place attachment tend to avoid coping with evacuation plans, and willing to return to risk areas even when with environmental risks (De Dominicis et al., 2015; Gifford et al., relocated temporarily by local authorities. These studies reveal that 2009; Radcliffe & Klein, 2002). In a similar way, the literature on high- (vs. low-) attachment individuals' lower willingness to relo- interpersonal relations attests to the link between unhealthy cate is related to their social, spiritual, and economic dependence attachment styles (e.g., avoidant, or anxious) and coping responses, on the place (i.e., agricultural and property ties). However, it should including misperception of relational cues, and difficulty in regu- be noted that in some cases, stand-alone relocation could not lating affect (Gormley, 2005; Mitchell et al., 2006; West & George, completely mean coping and/or resilience, because it does not ac- 1999). count for the social aspect related to people-places bonds (e.g., Therefore, place attachment, being strongly related to one's own O'Sullivan et al., 2012). place identity, may act as a barrier for enacting preventive behav- More generally, this phenomenon can be conceptually framed iours to cope with a natural environmental risk (De Dominicis et al., and interpreted within the broader attachment perspective: place 2015). Indeed, similar processes are used by individuals to defend of attachment may play the role that the attachment figure plays in their own identity from external threats (Giddens, 1991), for interpersonal attachmentdthus, the place to which one is attached example, as explained by the self-affirmation theory (Sherman & may be perceived as a haven of safety in times of threat and risk. Cohen, 2006). Such processes are comparable to those emerging The threat of risk may be traded in view of avoiding separation and from interpersonal attachment, as highlighted in the increasingly the stress it causes (Bowlby, 1969/1982). The tricky issue here is consistent amount of research that compares place and interper- that both threat and reassurance are coming from the same source sonal attachment (Scannell, 2013; Scannell & Gifford, 2010, 2013). (in this case, the attached place). This is similar to what occurs in And they are also comparable to the in-group bias processes Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) when the source of attachment (i.e., observed in the social identity and self-categorization framework the partner) has a great power both in maintaining the perpetration (e.g., Tajfel & Turner, 1979), as demonstrated by Bonaiuto et al. 48 M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53

(1996), who have shown that individuals display favouritism to- coping with risk, namely: a) place attachment prevents natural wards their own places, when those are compared to others' places environmental risk perception, and it thus weakens the consequent (see also Twigger-Ross, Bonaiuto, & Breakwell, 2003). Thus, at least action; or b) place attachment fosters natural environmental risk for the perception of some external threats, as well as for the perception, but it then negatively moderates (reduces) the rela- implementation of some preventive and/or coping behaviours that tionship between risk perception and coping. include a substantial modification of the relationship with the There are, however, variations in the coping behaviours found in attachment object, place attachment may act as an automatic bar- the reviewed studies. In fact, contradictory coping result patterns rier variable. can be discerned in light of the different kinds of specific coping behaviours considered by each different study. A good example of 5.3. Mediation and moderation effects the “different coping behaviours” issue as well as for the “moder- ation effect” issue, is found in Kaltenborn's (1998) study on an oil The last pattern in the reviewed literature cited above relates to spill in Norway, which showed how people can be ambivalent in the mediation and moderation effects involving place attachment. their coping strategies and behaviour. Their coping behaviour can Social capital mediated the relationship between place attachment be either positively (when taking care of their environment) or and wildfire preparedness, with highly attached individuals being negatively (when relocating their recreational activities) related to involved in local associations in preparing to cope with wildfire risk place attachment, even within one data set, i.e., in the very same (Bihari & Ryan, 2012). This shows that community attachment is group and place of residence. Risk coping behaviours can involve rooted in peoples' affective bonds to place (Manzo & Perkins, 2006; confrontational (i.e., protecting the place) and cooperative actions Mihaylov & Perkins, 2014). Therefore, place attachment may pro- (i.e., reconstructing and revitalising the place after a disaster). Thus, mote the development of local social capital, which can foster some coping strategies are geared to remain close to the risky areas, community mobilization in response to natural environmental risk. whereas other strategies are directed to out-migration strategies. When both place attachment and social capital are high, the result This point raises conceptual considerations about the types of can be choosing to stay in the community (rather than leaving), as coping style strategies people use when facing disruption related to shown in Bihari and Ryan's (2012) study, and the further place bonds. strengthening of place-related bonds. This finding points to the The reviewed studies revealed a tendency for highly attached need of better articulating the relationship between place attach- people to both deny the existence of, and not properly avoid, nat- ment and social capital. Therefore, a community perspective can ural environmental risks. Coping styles based on the coupling of enrich place attachment models (Mihaylov & Perkins, 2014). denial and lack of avoidance may pose serious long-term health Moreover in terms of a mediation effect, research showed that risks for highly attached people facing different kinds of natural place attachment significantly mediated perceptions of risk in environmental risks. This issue needs to be explored further in communities near a power station in the UK (Venables et al., 2012). future empirical research. At the same time, there is the issue of Specifically, results showed that proximity to the power plant trade-offs and the fact that people will trade moving away for positively predicted a sense of place, which in turn negatively staying close to the risky placeda place to which they are highly predicted perceived risk. Especially in communities living close to attacheddif they consider their relationship with the place as the the source of risk, higher sense of place reduced perceived risk. most important factor to hold on to. This result was clear in Thus, sense of place significantly mediated (but not moderated) Manning's (2005) study with a coastal community in South-eastern perceptions of risk in the most proximate communities. This con- Louisiana, U.S. Despite the continued experience with natural firms past work showing that assessments of environmental con- environmental risks (i.e., tropical storms and hurricanes, erosion, ditions decreased as spatial distance increased (Gifford et al., 2009). subsidence, oil and gas activities, etc.), relocation was perceived as a Following this reasoning, a recent study from De Dominicis et al. greater risk than living in the risky area to which people were (2015), stresses the idea that place attachment may act as a nega- attached. tive moderator in the environmental risk perception-risk coping Taken together, these findings suggest that threatening stimuli relationship to protect one's own place identity from external activate proximity-seeking to valued places. This pattern in the data threats. The authors found that, where the objective natural envi- allows us to draw deep parallels between the theories of place ronmental risk is high, the relationship between risk perception attachment and interpersonal attachment, together with focusing and coping behaviour is weakened by place attachment; while in on the tension between self-protection and connectedness goals contexts where the natural environmental risk is moderate, this (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002), especially when threat and safety negative moderation effect of place attachment does not occur. In occur in the same attachment source. It may be that proximity- fact, spatial-biases such as spatial optimism (e.g., Schultz et al., seeking to place is activated by threatening stimuli as it happens 2014) may occur because of an automatic response to defend and in interpersonal attachment because a place can provide a safe maintain a positive place and social identity (Bonaiuto et al., 1996). haven both to retreat to in case of threats, and to achieve emotional Place attachment, being strongly related to one's own place iden- relief. Proximity seeking is a primary attachment strategy which tity, may, therefore, act as a barrier to enacting preventive behav- leads to actual proximity seeking behaviour and to what Bowlby iours that could cope with a perceived risk in the (De Dominicis (1969/1982) called hyper-activation of the attachment system et al., 2015). Thus, place attachment may be an obstacle when the (the individual intensifies their proximity-seeking). person needs to move from perception and cognition into action. The quality of attachment interaction can vary, but, in all cases, This is consistent with the incongruent pattern of relations that has there is a working model reflecting individuals' perceptions of their previously emerged in many reviewed studies: i.e., place attach- own selves, of the other, and of the environment. In this respect, the ment often (though not always) positively relates to risk percep- interpersonal relations framework may be a useful tool to guide tion, but it negatively relates to risk coping behaviours. future research efforts in relation to place attachment and natural environmental risk perception and coping. In general, it seems that 5.4. Understanding conflicting results peoples' worldviews and cultural contexts influence how they cope with risky situations. In addition to the cultural context, ‘separa- It may be the case that the underlying psychological process is tion-distress anxiety’ (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2003) may influence one of two, whereby place attachment always undermines actively individuals to maintain proximity to a risky place to manage M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 49 distressed relationships, similar to what happens in interpersonal ties in the form of moderators and mediators is necessary to inform relationship situations. In this literature review, a model involving risk evacuation, relocation programs and coping interventions. hyper-activation (rather than deactivation) of the attachment sys- According to Bowlby (1969/1982, 1973, 1980), human beings are tem prevailed. However, at present, the lack of studies measuring born with an innate attachment behavioural system that motivates individual differences in place attachment styles makes it difficult them to seek proximity to attachment figures as a way to protect to further understanding of this issue. Failure of attachment be- themselves from threats. The goal of the system is actual protection haviours to achieve a positive adaptive result and failure to regulate (support) and the subjective sense of safety. This double-sided stress may have serious negative implications for individuals' (objective and subjective) goal has been shown here with respect health and wellbeing. This model of psychological functioning, to the literature on natural environmental risk. Future studies will therefore, proposes a paradoxical situation in which the person gets need to research the health implications and the psychopatholog- closer to the source of attachment which is also the risk source. A ical manifestations of long-term proximity-seeking to risky places related area that could be relevant to address this issue is goal of attachment. Longitudinal studies and work with migrant groups theory (Kruglanski, Chernikova, Babush, Dugas, & Schumpe, 2015; could, for example, provide a better understanding of how place Murray, Derrick, Leder, & Holmes, 2008), since it could help to attachment may still be mentally active even long after people have view this issue in terms of competing goals (in this specific case, relocated. those of self-protection and of connectedness). Because it is usually the case that people fail to obtain support and protection from risky places to which they are attached, there 6. Conclusions and implications for future research may be curiosity about the types of defensive strategies developed to cope with distressdactivating and de-activating strategies. Here The present contribution focused only on one specific class of style of attachment becomes a relevant issue that has been mostly human-relevant risks, namely natural ones, based on human- neglected within the literature on place attachment so far (with environment relationships with the natural world. Of course, in very few exceptions, such as Scannell & Gifford, 2010; Scrima, 2015; principle, place attachment also relates to other types of risks (e.g., McBain, 2010 unpublished data set). Avoidant attachment is orga- war or other non-natural risks), which also imply exposure to nized around deactivating strategies of affect regulation (deem- collective traumatic events and loss of places. Both natural and phasizing threats and trying to cope with them alone, without non-natural risks depend on human perception and require human seeking help or support from other people). Anxious attachment is decision-making and action. Therefore, because a complete and organized around hyper-activating strategies of affect regulation, comparative analysis would have been far beyond the aims, means, which involve overemphasizing threats and becoming very and constraints of the present contribution, it is left to future emotional and intrusive or insistent in attempts to gain protection research to elaborate more on this comparison and to deepen and and support from other people. Both are major insecure attachment clarify mediating and moderating effects therein. strategies that are not yet well understood in terms of attachment In conclusion, as far as the aims of this contribution are con- to places. Something similar is also recently addressed within so- cerned, researchers should refine and extend studies on place ciological and interdisciplinary literature: Flint, Kunze, Muhar, attachment by connecting them to current natural environmental Yoshida, and Penker (2013) propose that human-nature relation- risks literature, but also by exploring diverse ways of linking this ship can be of different types, even contradictory ones either across literature with scholarship outside the environmental psychology people or groups or even within a single individual. Moreover, they field, such as interpersonal attachment models or goal theory. stress the importance of the specific context to frame a specific Two main paths could be envisioned here. First, the reported relationship type (i.e., a socially grounded ecosystem services positive link between place attachment and risk perception could concept). either be evidence for a more accurate description or, alternately, To conclude, a paradox characterizes the current state of simply evidence of a stronger relationship between place attach- knowledge on place attachment, natural environmental risk ment and risk perception. Reported evidence is compatible with perception, and coping. Studies have shown that evaluating and both interpretations. In one case, it would be an accurate realistic taking action in situations of natural environmental risk is associ- perception; in the other case, it would be an unrealistic one, ated with people-place past experiences. Evacuation programs and because staying in place would magnify the risk. Also, the differ- interventions usually have focused on the visible and economic ence could be due to different intervening factors, e.g., a matter of aspects of hazards and environmental disasters. Based on this attachment style, rather than simply attachment intensity. Most of literature review, a historical framework of experiences and actions all, the crucial point here is that only good experimental research related to natural environmental risks and natural disasters is could clarify this issue, paying due attention to the operationali- envisaged, as it may help to design more culturally relevant stra- zation of both place attachment manipulation, and natural envi- tegies, evacuation plans, and relocation programs. Place attach- ronmental risk perception levels of measurement (Scannel & ments are usually taken for granted but, as this literature review Gifford, 2016). In fact, the reviewed studies checked the correla- shows, they have great implications for health and wellbeing. Place tion between degrees of place attachment and levels of environ- attachment bonds do not always have a positive valence in the mental risk perception. Future studies should invest in ways to individual-environment relation as emotions associated with manipulate place attachment and measure corresponding variation meaningful places may sometimes be negative (Manzo, 2005). The on risk perception levels to differentiate between a heightened concept of “solastalgia”, with all its relations to place attachment versus a realistic perception. and place identity, may have important implications for human Second, by incorporating place attachment and interpersonal health, although these implications have not been systematically attachment frameworks, researchers may find ways to explain addressed by environmental psychology researchers. mediation and moderation effects in the relationships among place Higher-order categories, such as symbolic ties coupled with attachment, natural environmental risk perception, and coping other factors including social and economic ties (e.g., property strategies (Scannell & Gifford, 2010; see also; McBain, 2010 or; related), need further investigation. Reviewed studies presented Scrima, 2015). Also, conceptual frameworks that explicitly relate here in relation to volcanic risks (Bird et al., 2011; Donovan et al., place attachment to risk behaviour will be more likely to inform 2012; Lavigne et al., 2008), for example show the need to better environmental problem solving. A better understanding of these understand symbolic attachment to place in order to provide useful 50 M. Bonaiuto et al. / Journal of Environmental Psychology 48 (2016) 33e53 information for risk management programs. A framework to Acknowledgements accommodate the different definitions and dimensions of place attachment is also needed, such as place dependence, place iden- Authors are grateful to Mr Scott Roberts for the English language tity, sense of place, and spiritual/religious attachment within a revision on the first version of this contribution. Authors wish to historical framework which explains how people's life span is specially thank Prof. Carol Werner for her terrific support and intertwined with that of placesdin this case, those prone to natural revision on the last version of this work. environmental risks and disasters. Adult attachment researchers have argued that there is a ten- References dency for people to have an insecure attachment style in coping with threatening situations (Ein-Dor, Mikulincer, Doron, & Shaver, Acuna-Rivera,~ M., Brown, J., & Uzzell, D. (2014). Risk perception as mediator in 2010). On the basis of the recurrently observed hyper-activation perceptions of neighbourhood disorder and safety about victimization. Journal of place attachment in the literature review, it could be hypothe- of Environmental Psychology, 40, 64e75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jenvp.2014.05.002. sized that an insecure attachment style could be the prevalent also Agrawal, S., & Monroe, M. C. (2006). 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Pretty (Eds.), Nature and culture: Rebuilding lost connections (pp. 217e234). sonal attachment literature, as well as with environmental risk London: Earthscan. management literature. More basic social-psychological theories Albrecht, G. (2012). Psychoterratic conditions in a scientific and technological world. In P. H. Kahn, & P. H. Hasbach (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Science, totems, and and models, such as goal theory, are also needed to address the two the technological species (pp. 241e264). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. goals' issue, namely self-protection vs. connection. They become Albrecht, G., Sartore, G. M., Connor, L., Higginbotham, N., Freeman, S., Kelly, B., et al. competing goals once a natural environmental risk scenario affects (2007). Solastalgia: The distress caused by environmental change. Australasian one's own place. Psychiatry, 15, 95e98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10398560701701288. Anton, C. E., & Lawrence, C. (2014). 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