CEU eTD Collection In thedegreeofMasters ofArts partial fulfillmentoftherequirementsfor Second reader:MaciejJanowski Supervisor: BalázsTrencsényi Budapest, Hungary Central European ofHistory University,Department Submitted to Contested Lieuxde Mémoire inCentral Europe: The Case of Devín and Brasov Bálint Varga 2007 by CEU eTD Collection Author. such instructionsmaynot be made without thewrittenpermission of the a partofany such copiesmade. Further copiesmadein accordance with Library. DetailsmaybeobtainedfromtheThis librarian. pagemustform instructions givenbytheAuthorandlodgedinCentralEuropean process, eitherinfullorpart,maybemadeonlyaccordancewiththe Copyright inthetext of this thesis rests with theAuthor. Copies by any CEU eTD Collection assimilation, andsoon. societies: itservesasanindicatorshowing theattitudetonation-building, The studyofthechangingnaturethesesitesgivesaninsighttolocal aims. purposes, rangingfromnation-buildingtoecclesiasticalandcommunist various last twocenturiesfor were usedextensivelythroughoutthe neighboring nations(Magyars,Germans,Slovaks/Romanians).Bothspots Bra Devín (Slovakia)andthecityof Thisexamines howthecastleof paper ü ov (Romania)havebeenincorporated intothenationalcanonsof Abstract CEU eTD Collection provided valuableassistanceduringmyresearch. Lajbensprenger, DaniloSarenac,KatalinSinkóandGáborSonkolywho Gy., Nenad Kiss,CsabaKiss Balázs Béla Borsi-Kálmán,JózsefDemmel, I would liketoexpressmygratitude Eszter Bakó-Házy,Ionu Acknowledgments 1 Ħ Biliu Ħ a, CEU eTD Collection ilorpy...... 87 ...... Bibliography 86 Appendix: Nameoflocationsinrelevant languages...... 84 Conclusion...... 58 ...... afterlife 5. MillenniuminDévényandBrassó:elevatedspirit,refusalhectic 4. DevínandBra The3. nationalityquestionand thesymbolicchallengeofmillennium19 10 2. Theoretical background...... 3 1.Introduction...... 2 ...... Table ofContents 1 ...... Acknowledgments eodr ore ...... 90 ...... Secondary sources 87 Primary sources...... 76 The afterlifeofthemillennialstatues...... 55 ...... Theplace Cenkhill:touristresortandsymbolic Bra The SlovakDevín: 43 The HungarianDévény:PortaHungarica...... 39 ...... Devín 33 The Millennium:celebrations,events,achievements...... 27 The Millennialidea...... 20 ...... The nationalityquestioninHungary 13 2.2 Monuments...... 10 2.1 Lieudemémoire...... 7 Secondary literature...... 6 Sources...... 5 ...... Terminology 4 ...... Outline ü v...... 50 ...... ov ü v lcso al ainlmmr ...... 39 ...... ov: placesofearlynationalmemory haut haut lieu o h ain...... 47 ofthenation...... Table of Contents 2 CEU eTD Collection European nationalrivalry. Central compressed historyof into a an insight which onecanget through its perception of the three involved nationsingeneraland through itsperception ofthethreeinvolved Moravian tradition. Devín, as a memory, becauseofitscastle’sancient origins connectedwiththeGreat roleintheSlovaknational significant However, Devínhasplayedthemost (German)collectivememory. borders intheHungarianandAustrian symbolizesthenation’s settlement sincethe10thcentury, therefore ThebenHungarian, Slovakia. Devínhasbeena border inGerman)now over Indeed, nationalconflictscanbeinvestigatedviasuchsymbolic mémoire Thepostmodern age. use ofsymbolsorratherplacesmemory( have playedanoutstandingrole and this hasnotchangedeven in our relations. Alikecasescouldbelistedendlessly. Whatclearisthatsymbols provoked adeeppoliticalcrisisinGerman-PolishandGerman-Czech Europe Central after1945 memorial tothoseGermansexpelledfrom to theSovietarmyindowntown Budapest. In 2005attemptsaterectinga governmental protestorsattackedanddamaged themonumentdedicated relations ofthetinyEU-country andRussia.AyearbeforeinHungaryanti- causing thedeathofoneperson and to a seriousdiplomaticcrisisinthe lieux demémoire The first In 2007 in TallinnIn removalofthestatueSovietsoldiersledtoriots 2007in ) are thus able to demonstrate conflict andcontestbetweengroups. conflict ) arethusabletodemonstrate lieu tobeexaminedisthecastleofDevín(Dévényin . Thisstudy aimstoresearchtwocontested . 1.Introduction lieu mémoire,de 3 willbeinvestigated lieux lieu de via CEU eTD Collection be followedbyintroducing theafterlifeofmillennialmonuments. will festivities of1896,which the millennial provide adetailedanalyses of same kindofresearchwill be run in the caseofBrasov.Chapter 5 will mémoire millennium willbeprovided.Following these, inChapter4Devín as ThenMagyar nationalities. description oftheHungarian thegeneral fin-de-siècle important sourcesandsecondaryliterature. most Hungarian millenniummonuments.ThenIwillintroducethe theory ofnationalmonuments,sincethefocusmyresearchwillbe the This be followedbythestudyof will Central Europewill beexamined. Theof concept (Hungarian) nation-buildingin1896,theheydayofMagyarnationalism. localreceptionstothedominant will enablemetoinvestigatethedifferent This sphereofthetwocities community (Romanians). similarmultiethnic a third Germanminorityand of the beside Hungarians,thepresence Tâmpa. Bra in this study will be the city of Bra be thecity in thisstudywill Thelocation focusedon particularly thelocal(Bratislava)population. other The actualresearchwillbegininChapter 3withthepresentation of In Chapter 2 the theoretical basis of the research willbelaiddown. of the In2 thetheoreticalbasis Chapter Outline of the Slovak and Magyar nation willberesearched.Then the the Slovakand Magyar nation of Hungary in terms of thequestion ofnationalismand non- ü ov waschosenbecauseofits similarpopulationstructure, i.e. lieu de mémoirelieu de will be investigated, and then its usability in andthenits be investigated, will 4 ü ov and a hill above the city called above thecity and ahill ov lieu de CEU eTD Collection some otherlanguages oftheregionas well.This studytriestofollowthis same differentiationcanbefoundinSlovak ( Hungarian (concerningwholeHungary) andMagyar(ethnicTheterm). two terms( 'Hungarian'. In theHungarianlanguage there isonlyone word for these Magyars attheendofcentury. neglected, sincetheactual majority ofHungarian citizenswerenot ethnic will meanacertainethnicminority. The term'minority'willberather community ofHungariancitizens,whiletheterm'nationality'( Thus, 'Hungariannation'willbe used when talking about the entire Here againflexible terminology must be used, dependingon the context. mentioned inthisstudyarelistedtheAppendix. the locations onlysolution.All is the anachronistic andahistorical,this would be fixed name useofa since confusion, but policy mightusesome Thisi.e. choiceofanamewilldependontheactualcontexttext. to findneutralnames. Throughout thisstudy,nameswillbe used flexible, are connectedtotheimageofnationalspaces.Therefore itisnotpossible by alltheinhabiting nations in their own languages,thusvarious names Multilingualspaceswerecalled geographical namesindifferentlanguages. A thirdissueis the differencebetween theterms'Magyar'and Another serious problem is the term describing ethnicminorities. the termdescribing Another seriousproblemis One confusingfeatureof Central Europe istheendless variety of Terminology magyar ). The English usage tendsto ). TheEnglish differentiate between usage 5 uhorsky vs. madarsky nemzetiség ) andin ) CEU eTD Collection at anincreasingrate. These travelersfamiliarwith guidesmade their most ofnationalmonuments were erected, travelguidesbecame important emerged exactlyin thetimewhen source istravelguides.Asmasstourism Zeitung, Kronstädter Tagblatt, Narodnie Noviny Hungarian dailies( Hungarian dailies( ( millennial seven national monuments) (Bratislava: Wigand F. K.,1898) F. Wigand (Bratislava: monuments) national seven millennial 1 ( following typesofpresswillbeused:nationalpro-governmentaldailies Thenewspapers dealtindetailwiththeeventsofmillenniumyear. of them.Anotherrelevantgroupsourcesisthepress,sinceall of theplanning andconstruction detailed descriptionofthecircumstances monuments, explainedtheideaof millennial columnsandgavea 1897. Prešporok inSlovakbefore1919, Bratislava after1919)on15. March Kálmán Thalyof Pozsony(Pressburg attheToldyin German, Association Theproblem. mostimportant source is apublic lecturedelivered by when translatingHungariantexts. pattern, althoughsometimesitisvery hard todecidewhichterm use Egyetértés,Állam Magyar PestiPesti Napló Hírlap, Kálmán Thaly, Kálmán 1 A varied array of primary sources can be usedtoinvestigateofthe A variedarrayofprimarysourcescanbe Sources In this lecture Thaly, initiatorofthemillennium Inlecture themain this Az ezredévi országos hét emlékoszlop története Preßburger Zeitung, Preßburger Tagblatt, Kronstädter Preßburger Zeitung, Nyugatmagyarország, Brassói Lapok ), national dailies supporting theopposition dailies ), national ), a national weekly ( ), anational 6 ). The). thirdimportanttypeof Vasárnapi Újság (The history of the ), localnon- ), local CEU eTD Collection Kalligram, 1995) nationaldevelopment – Hungarian policy on nationalities 1867-1918) (Bratislava: László Szarka, László Baron Dezs Baron investigated byIván Szarka. BertényiJrandLászló 4 analyzed byAndrásGer nationality policyofthethat-timeprimeministerDezs Katalin Sinkó, "Árpád kontra István"(Árpád Szent versus St.Stephen) Sinkó examinedthemillennium from an arthistorypoint of view. festivitiesand historic iconography) 3 Politics Symbolic Hungarian 2 historian AndrásGer Budapest. Generalinterpretationofthemillenniumwasprovidedby scholarship didnotpaymuchattentiontotheeventshappenedoutsideof by severalmemoirswrittenmembersoflocalintelligentsia. frombelowcanbeexamined millennium coin, namelytheperceptionof evidence oftheofficial(orsemi-official)interpretation.The othersideofthe sources,astheyprovide written documentsbelongtothemostinteresting participation, theyweredescribedandpublishedby Theseseveral authors. as well. was acceptedbythewidepublic country; theirperceptionofcertainsites Iván Bertényi ifj, "Kérlelhetetlenül. Báró Bánffy Dezs Katalin Sinkó, "Ezredévi ünnepeink és atörténeti ikonográfia" (Our thousand-year András Ger The central monument of the millennium ontheHeroes’Squarewas Theof themillennium centralmonument Although the Hungarian millennium was extensively researched, the Although theHungarianmillenniumwas Secondary literature As theeventsofmillenniumraisedwidepublicinterestand Ğ Bánffy’s policy on nationalities) on policy Bánffy’s Ğ Szlovák nemzeti fejl , Imagined history. Chapters from Nineteenth-and Twentieth Century Ğ (Boulder: Social Science Monographs, 2006) Monographs, Science Social (Boulder: inamonograph Ğ from historical point of viewandbyKatalinSinkó fromhistorical Ğ 0Ĭ dés - magyarnemzetiségi politika, 1867-1918 vészettörténeti Értesít vészettörténeti 7 Pro Minoritate 2 , whilethearthistorianKatalin Ğ nemzetiségi politikája" (Implacable. Spring (2003) Spring Ğ 4 1-2(2000) Janus Ğ Bánffywas VI/1. (Slovak 3 The CEU eTD Collection history ofSlovakswasresearchedbyImre Polányi German materialmoreindetail.The background,i.e.thesocial regional by investigating Hungarianand research aimstocompleteherresults and Hungariannations. 10 2003) Studien, und Konversatorien - Vorlesungen Wiener (Wien: Stekl Hannes and Albert several excellent studies to Devín as several excellentstudiestoDevín GabrielaKiliánovápayed extensively researched.TheSlovakanthropologist Devín), in 9 évnél hosszabb évszázad (Budapest: Akadémiai, 1987) 1905) the DévényandNyitra(NitrainSlovak)millennialsculptures. fate ofseveralmonuments erected in the present-daySlovakiaincluding Hungarian scholars,theSlovakhistorianL’ubomirLiptákinvestigated provides onlybasicinformation regarding thesesevenmemorials. weekly of SinkóusedonlythetextThalyand 8 7 6 shrine) remark totheseven monuments Ger columns, however, of the refer tothecase Katalin Sinkó, "A millenniumi emlékm (Budapest: Central European UniversityPress, 1995) investigated in this study lack a proper research yet.BothGer investigated inthisstudylackaproperresearch 5 from theperspectiveofarthistory. Gabriela Kiliánová, "Ein Grenzmythos: DieBurg Devín" (A border myth: The castle of L’ubomír Lipták, "Helycserék a piedesztálokon" (Change of place on pedestals), in 12-14 ünnepeink, Ezredévi Sinkó, Ger András Ger András Imre Polányi, Ğ (TheSlovak society and bourgeois national movement atthe turn of thecentury) , Képzelt történelem, 211 történelem, , Képzelt The Devín monument is the only one from thesevenwhichwas The Devínmonumentistheonlyone Medvetánc Heroen, Mythen, Identitäten. Die Slowakei und Österreich im Vergleich Ğ , A szlovák társadalom és polgári nemzeti mozgalom a századfordulón (1895- Modern Hungarian Societyinthe Making.The Unfinished Experience no. 2(1987) no. (Bratislava: Kalligram, 2000) 9 Herstudiesrely mainlyonSlovaksources;this Ĭ mint kultuszhely" (Themillennial monument as a 6 , whereasthebitmore detailed analyses lieu demémoire 8 5 The sevenmillennialmonuments Ğ 10 pays only a very short a very paysonly Vasárnapi Újság Vasárnapi , whiletheinvestigation of the Slovak, German oftheSlovak, 8 Ğ andSinkó 7 , ed. Beate Besides , soshe Száz CEU eTD Collection Transylvanian Saxons between1848 and1918) (Vienna-Cologne: Böhlau 1988) Verlag, 14 investigated inseveralworkswrittenbymainlyGermanhistorians. Brassó is ofthedualist social history to beunderresearched,the trace ofadeeper study. While the story of the millennial monuments seems Bra and basicdataof the millennial monument 13 Sad: Forum,1997) old), in 12 1897-1914 11 monument, neverthelesshefailedtoanalyzesourcesindetail,too. held alectureabouttheZimony (Novi SadinSerbian),ZoltánKolapis Hungarian sources,soitishardlyuseful.AjournalistofÚjvidék however,hedidnotuse about themillenniumcolumnofZemun, Serb writer,BrankoNajhold published a shortnon-professional booklet outstanding book of BratislavaintheDualisterawasprovidedbyEleonora Babejovainher Carl Göllner, ed., János Balázs and István Dobolyi, Zoltán Kolapis, "Százéves a zimonyi emlékm Babejova, Eleonora ü ov) (Bra A book presenting pictures from the old Brassó containssomephotos A bookpresentingpicturesfromtheold Besides Devín the monument in Zemun received someattention.A Besides DevínthemonumentinZemun A honfoglalás 1100 éve és a Vajdaság. Egy tudományos tanácskozás anyaga (Boulder: Eastern European Monographs, 2003) Monographs, European Eastern (Boulder: ü ov: C2design, 2004) Fin-de-siècle Pressburg. Fin-de-siècle Pressburg: conflict and & coexistance in Bratislava Die Siebenbürger Sachsen inden Jahren 1848-1918 A hajdani Brassó/Bra 9 Ĭ " (The Zemun monument is hundred years 11 13 butI was notable to find any ü ovul de odinior Ć 12 14 (The old (The (The (Novi CEU eTD Collection continuity ofthepast, concept ofmemory. François Hartogseemstobeappropriatewhendescribingthepre-Norian to emerge.Thus, thenotionof' mémoire nation wereinadeep crisis. The realenvironmentofmemory( theoldconceptofhistoryand because Thisof memoryisneeded newform between pastandpresent. break ofmemoryandtheemergingdiscontinuity new, sinceitacknowledgesthe and secretesitself.Thisconceptisentirely projects. Nora wasfollowedbyGerman,Austrian, Dutch,BritishandAmerican historicism: presentisme and experiment of time) (Paris: Seuil, 2003) Seuil, (Paris: time) of experiment and presentisme historicism: 16 Spring (1989) 17 UniversityPress, 1996-1998) 15 dealing with examination of collective memory. dealing withexaminationofcollective anthropology andotherdisciplines most widespreadapproachesofhistory, Pierre Nora, ed., Nora, Pierre François Hartog, Pierre Nora, Between Memory and History: Les Liuex de Mémoire. Nora defines Theof concept 2.1 Lieudemémoire ) ceasedtoexist;thus,anewsenseofmemoryandhistoryneeded Realms of Memory. Rethinking the French Past Régimes d'historicité: présentisme et expériences du temps lieu demémoire 17 This 'modern'conceptofhistorywasbased on the lieu demémoire 2. Theoretical background modern régime d’historicité as a point where memorycrystallizes asapoint 10 by Pierre Norabecameoneofthe byPierre 15 The Frenchenterprise (New York: Columbia York: (New ' elaboratedby Representations (Regimes of milieux de 16 of CEU eTD Collection emergence of personal memories, the increasing interestinthepast,etc.) emergence ofpersonalmemories,theincreasing phenomenon byNoraexplainedthe needfor Still, as Europeanof it. copies French versionortoanyWestern a projectsimilar totheoriginal workshops oftheregionhavestarted highly debatable.Itaccident thatnoneofthehistorical cannotbean implemented whileinvestigatingCentralEuropeanis historyandpresent, Romanian consciousness ideas aswell,basedonthesameframeworkdiscussedabove. socialist regimesencouragedthedevelopment ofthe'modernist'national of communism;however,thefall the collapseof been started,ofcourse,by not seemtohavehappened. Some change inhistoricalconsciousnesshas to becompatibleinthisregioneventoday.The entirebrakeofmemorydoes idea ofmemorycitedabovetends concept; thedescriptionof'modern' But Centraland Eastern European countriesdonot seem to fit into this broken. RegardingFranceandtheWestingeneral,Noraiscertainlyright. Nora claimsthatthiskindof relation between pastandpresenthasbeen 19 18 An apt 16 example Nora, of this struggle can be found at Lucian Boia, venerated aboveallourselves. Throughthe pastwe more theymagnifiedourgreatness. nationwide processofsecularization.The greatertheorigins, meaning andsenseof the sacred to a society engaged in a contributedtogiving that the mythologicalnarrative,butone profaneversionof an already of ''origins'', importance oftheidea existence–whencethe owe our knowing towhomandwhatwe express thiscultofcontinuity,the confident assumptionof historical intelligibilityatleastsincemoderntimes,bothaptly the twogreatthemesof anchoring. …Progressanddecadence, past, realizedasthepresentthroughsuchweldingand indeed, thepresentitself became a sort ofrecycled,up-dated Thus,original conceptof whetherthe (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2001) Press, University European Central (Budapest: 18 11 lieu demémoire lieu demémoire Historyand myth in 19 canbe (the CEU eTD Collection concerning thequestionof nature ofnationalnarratives.The workbyNorawasnot original concept, indeed,itexpendsthepossible waysofinvestigation. and Eastern European national canons.In thiscontestingnatureofCentral myopinion,however, that acertainlocationwasincorporated intotwo,threeoreven more spaces, thereforetoaconflictinnationalplacesofmemory.It isnotrare ledtoacontestofnational This1918. fluctuation ofpoliticalregimes timetotime, especiallysince intention ofnation-formationchangedfrom the Rhinesituationisdifferent:borders,statesandtherefore from Alsaceandsomemarginal temporary changesduringwars).East from river havenotchangedsignificantlyduringthelasttwocenturies(apart borderswestofftheRhine political memory). Itis veryremarkablethat that nonationof outside couldclaim territories(includingplaces of nation-building wassosuccessfulin most WesternEuropean countries execution ofstate-basednation-formations, i.e.thattheFrenchmodelof Thecollective memory. causeofthisdisinterestcanbeseenin the effective main problemof using Europe –evenifsomelimitsareneeded. that theideaof are flourishinginthisregion,too.That isthereasonwhyI am convinced Beside thedifferentsocialenvironment discussed abovetheother lieu demémoire lieux lieu de mémoire does not decrease theusabilityofNoraean doesnotdecrease lieux which belong tomorethanonenation’s which can be used wheninvestigatingCentral canbe 12 inthisregionis the contesting CEU eTD Collection monuments ''shouldnotnecessarilybe seenasathingbutrather visible andpermanentsymbol. national monuments:their aim was to transform nationalidentity into a monuments isalmostendless.However, itiseasiertodefinethegoalof of national since thevariation national monument, as treateda Thomasmonument. Nipperdeyclaimsthatnationalmonuments are what moment ofthesocialheritage,couldbeanationalidea." of modernnationalstate,everypartthememorylandscape, able tocarrytheirnationalistmeaning,as RudyKosharputsit:"In theage monuments erectedinthesecondhalfof the19thcenturywereperfectly idea itself,i.e. of the nation-state instead ofCatholicism.Thus, the only the inthisstudyis investigated Hugo’s cathedralandthemonuments concept didnotchange much duringthe centuries; thedifference between 20 Paris Hugo wroteinhis As Victor carried theideaofnation. and buildingswereerectedthroughoutEurope.Alloftheseworksart typesofnationalmonuments several nationalist feelings,largenumbersof monuments. Alongsidetheemergenceofnation-stateand Historische Zeitschrift Historische Jahrhundert" (National idea and national monument in Germany inthe 19th century), 22 21 1990 Cited by Rudy Koshar, Thomas Nipperdey, "Nationalidee undNationaldenkmal inDeutschland 19. im 18 Ibid, . (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 18 2000), Press, California of University . (Berkeley: : ''intheMiddleAgeseverybuildingwasarichlysymbolicidea.'' It is not an easy task to give a general definition of a national definitionofa general give a easy taskto Itnot an is The secondhalfofthe19thcenturywasheydaynational 2.2 Monuments 206,no.3.(1968),532-533 From Monuments to Traces. ArtifactsGerman of Memory, 1870- 22 According toReinhardAlings, national 13 21 Notre-Dame de 20 This CEU eTD Collection myths andsymbolsemergedbuttomake thesemythsoperative,several representation.New,national and cults, myths including newtypesof to develop, politicalstylewas new people itself),a to thenation(the religion: astheobjectofworshippingchanged fromGodandthemonarch This ideology workedasasecular new sovereignty ofpeopleinstead. power ofthemonarch; modernization broke thisframeworkand put the ideology wasfoundedonreligionandtheabsolute,fromGodoriginated sovereignty, thebeliefinpopularunity.The pre-Enlightenment age’s politics –basedontheideasofEnlightenmentwaspopular as evidenceofthenew,democraticand Thenational ideaofsociety. new within theframeworkofnation-building. past alive attempt ofmakethe as an national monumentcanbeseen exist, mostscholars seem to use very analogous approaches. Thus, a present. whichtransmitpasttothe describes monumentsasasignofmemory to visualize political power in the public space. to visualizepoliticalpowerinthepublic Speitkamp (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &Ruprecht, 1997), 6 24 41) 23 national symbol.'' comprehensibleanddurable a generally process, anattempttocreate introduction), in EineEinleitung" (Ruin of monuments and symbolic conflict inmodern history. An 25 1 1999), Braumüller, (Vienna: space) inpublic power political Macht im öffentlichen Raum Biljana Menkovic, Alings is cited by Koshar, 30 (original: Alings: Monument und Nation. Berlin 1996, 38, Winfried Speitkamp, "Denkmalsturz und Symbolkonflikt in der modernen Geschichte. The statuomania of the second half of the 19th century can be seen 19thcenturycanbe half ofthe Theof thesecond statuomania 25 Althoughagenerallyaccepted definition ofmonumentdoesnot Denkmalsturz.Zur Konfliktgeschichte politischer Symbolik. 23 Politische Gedenkkultur. Denkmäler – die Visualisierung politischer Visualisierung die – Denkmäler Gedenkkultur. Politische From Biljana Menkovic’s view, monuments are a means view,monumentsare Menkovic’s FromBiljana (Political memory culture. Monuments – the visulization of 14 24 WinfriedSpetikamp ed. Winfried CEU eTD Collection borderland locations,thesegeneratednational excursions,pilgrimages. erected nationalmonumentswereto be foundatmystic,romanticor newly Sincemanyofthe of pilgrimages. ancient orMiddleAgesspots represents thewholeworld. are sacredspots,astheyshowtheessenceofnationlikechurch consciousness ofpeople. Thus, nationalmonumentsanchormythsandsymbolsinthe disperse thepastwhichwerereflectedinhistoricalmonuments. on the othertheycontrol,direct, the onehandcreateanewpastwhile Nature of Religion 31 30 29 28 27 UniversityPress, 1991),1-9 Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich 26 a legitimationofthepresentbypast as well. past butas ofmemorythe means Monuments thereforeservenotonlyas via theseworks of art past canbe simplified, thematizedbut even falsified. public space.Monumentsshowhowasociety dealswithitshistory,since in the andthematizethepast mythic history narrative ofhistory:theyform visible imageofthingsholysufficedtoestablishtheirtruth.'' and canaffectthisonlybypersonalizingThe it.… merepresenceofa once attributedarealexistenceto an idea, themindswanttosee it alive concrete meanswereneeded:festivals, ceremonies, monuments. For the For concept of sacred space see Mircea Eliade, 8 Mosse, 29 Koshar, 3 Menkovic, 6 Mosse, by cited is Huizinga George L. Mosse, National monumentsdonotbelongtothehomogeneousspace:they Monuments playanoutstanding role in theformationof national (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1959) Jovanovich, Brace Harcourt York: (New The Nationalization ofthe Masses. Political Symbolism and Mass 30 31 Nationalmonuments overtooktheroleof 15 The Sacred and the Profane: The Profane: the and Sacred The 28 Nationalmonumentson 27 (Ithaca: Cornell 26 ''Having 29 CEU eTD Collection interpretation on the past and present in monuments. In the central part of monuments. Inthe central interpretation onthepastandpresentin state buildingelementsofthesociety were notabletodemonstratetheir The non- also thatcertaingroupswereexcluded fromthesemonuments. Donations tonationalgoalsbecameimportantcivic,middleclassvirtues. supported bycivicsocieties,groups,clubsandindividualsaswell. the constructionandthenmaintenance ofmonumentswasfinancially activity.Furthermore,usually of civic a form monuments canbeseenas 34 Geschichte undGeschichtsbewußstein (Monuments and their meaning to historical consiousness). Offprint from Hauser, O. (ed.) Hartmut Boockmann, Denkmäler und ihre Bedeutungfür das Geschichtsbewußstein 19thin theand France century)(Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1995), 19-20, Frankreich in 19.Jahrhundert 33 32 this agethereforedemonstratedthebourgeois interestandtaste. The monuments erectedin course promotedtheruleofmiddleclasses. society. Beingaliberal, modernist and bourgeois age,the19th century of demonstrates andjustifieshierarchy,order andruleofacertaingroup of the which maynotbesharedbypart community. oneinterpretationofthepast, tend tobeantidemocratic:theyofferonly lacking,politicalmonuments community. Asthisconsensusisfrequently political monumentpresupposesconsensusamongthemembersof age thenewpoliticalorder:namely, nation, runbythebourgeoisie.A earthly representative,themonarch,sodidmonumentsofmodern monuments oftheMiddleAgesrepresented thepowerofGodandhis order whichthemakerof the monument wants(believes)tobe. As the Boockmann,237, Koshar, 34-35, 42 Charlotte Tacke, 1 Menkovic, The 'occupation' of national monuments by the middle class meant by themiddle class Theof nationalmonuments 'occupation' A monument always demonstrates the current order – or at least the at least order–or the current A monumentalwaysdemonstrates Denkmal im sozialen Raum. Nationale SymboleinDeutschland und (Monument in social space. National symbols in Germany (Göttingen – Zürich: 1981),238 (Göttingen 16 32 Thus, amonument 33 Thus, 34 CEU eTD Collection pilgrimage' tothesemonuments. able toperform the'national meant thatonlywell-offpeoplewere Thismonuments wereaccessibleonlybyindividualtransport. obviously alongtime manyofthese important locationsrelativelylate,for less coveredtheeconomically of publictransport access. Sincethenet representation', arrangedbytherulingstrataofsociety. national monumentsaswell, just not by theirownwill, but as a 'proxy Nevertheless, non-stateconstitungelements mighthaveappearedon high. be quite of exclusioncould the level on theHungarianmillennium, one willseeinthedetailedstudy reality neverexisting,unifiednation.As increased, sonationalmonuments tended toexpressan ideal but in the ethnic minoritiessignificantly 'suspicious' Germany, theamountof 36 35 Germans (Poles),Catholics,socialistworkersandwomen. value) fromtheprocess of nation-building (includingmonuments):non- Germany significantgroupsofpeoplewereexcluded(ornotgiventhesame Even in andethnicminorities. Western counterparts,intermsofnational Europe societiestendedtobeextremely complex anddifferentthan their Ibid, 34 Ibid, 24 Koshar, the with theimpulseofliberalmovement in Germanytospeakfor capable ofshapingnationalmemory, a presumption consistent This smallpublicwas reflectedthepresumptionthatarelatively of theeducatedmiddlestrata. As manymonumentswerebuilt outside of citiestheywere hard to Volk asawhole but infactto cater to the outlookandvalues 36 17 35 East of CEU eTD Collection through a Popular Magazine. a Popular through 37 the veryearly20thcenturywhendataclimbedhigher. important monumentswereattractinga quite lownumberofpeopleupto dealing withGermannationalmemory indicatesthateventhe most nation-building projectasthepicturewould showatfirstglance.Research Kirsten Belgum, Displaying the Nation: A View ofNineteenth-Century Monuments However, eventhemiddleclasswasnotasenthusiasticin Central European History 18 no. 4. (1993), 458 4. no. (1993), 37 CEU eTD Collection project. millennium isneededtoachieveadeeperunderstandingoftheresearch nationalities sharply rejecteditandsomeweresplitintotwocamps. ways: somegroupschose and manifested assimilationoption,others communities reactedindifferent the various identity. Aswewillseelater, building nation:eitherassimilation or keeping theirnational, cultural choose betweentwopossiblewaysregarding theirattitudetothestate- confess theiridentity.Non-Magyarpeople(oratleasttheelite)hadto communities, sincethenationalandlocal celebrationsforcedeveryoneto The millennialfestivitiesexplicitlychallengedthenon-Magyar symbolic levelofnationalconflictculminated intheyearofmillennium. 1913 one can find some materialcan findsome1913 oneabout the day. issuealmostevery daily published approximately 2 or 3articles concerningquestion the ofnon-Magyars, in increased. Oneneeds only to read thepress: while onan averageweek in 1896 an average 38 intensity oftheproblemincreasedyearby yearuptoWWI. The intoacrisiswhoseintensity problems ofdualistHungary.Itdeveloped Even without comprehensiveresearch it is clear that the level of controversy steadily Although thispaperdoesnotseektoinvestigatethequestionof The nationalityquestionemergedasone ofthemostimportant 3. The nationality question symbolicand the challenge per se , a short introduction to this problem and to the tothisproblemand , ashortintroduction of the millennium 19 38 However,the CEU eTD Collection The clearly. followingTable1showsthese changes periphery toAmericaandlowerfertility rates amongcertainnationalities. development intheperipheries,higher numberofimmigrationfromthe this decreasewasassimilationtoMagyars, lowerlevelofeconomic majority, whiletheratioofallotherethnic groupsdeclined.The reasonfor beginning ofthecentury,in 1910 Magyars amountedtoanabsolute third atthe wasofaboutone Magyars took place.Whereastheratioof Magyars), noneofthemwhichexceededtheoverallratio40%. (Romanians,Germans,Serbs, groups populated byfourmajorethnic Temesköz (Banat)region(nowdividedbetween SerbiaandRomania)was 19th century) (Budapest: Osiris, 2003),82-83 39 entirely Slovak,whileinother8countiestheyoutnumberedMagyars. Western UpperHungary(todayWestandmiddleSlovakia)inhabitantswere of thepopulationdeclaredthemselvesRomanian,in Transylvania 60% wereinabsolutemajority: territories). Inperipheries non-Magyars the without Croatiaandthemilitaryfrontier Kingdom ofHungary(43% In 1850Magyarsconstitutedonly37%of theentirepopulation Europe thediversityofconfessions,too). intermsofethnicity(whichmeans András Gergely ed, During theentire19thcentury a slow,but continuousMagyarization Hungary used to be one of the most heterogeneous countriesin Hungary usedtobeoneofthemost The nationalityquestioninHungary Magyarország története a 19. században a 19. története Magyarország 20 (History of Hungary in the 39 The CEU eTD Collection than the other ethnic groups. Geographical location (MagyarsandGermans Geographical than theotherethnic groups. be better-off Germans tendedto and that Magyars separately, itisclear thewealthofnationalities Although theauthoritiesdidnotmeasure (History ofHungaryinthe19thcentury), 415. Taken from:AndrásGergelyed, 71 Germans Table 2.Levelofliteracyin1910(inpercentage) to belessculturallyarticulate,asthefollowingdatashow: Thus, nationsbelongingtoOrthodoxandGreekCatholicchurchestended development ofcertainethnicgroupsdepended significantlyonthechurch. culture wasdecreasingduringtheageofdualism.However,cultural effective andrapidinurbanenvironment. in 1910, as theprocessin 1880to77% ofassimilation wasthemost 64% composition oftownspeople.TheratioMagyarsintownsincreasedfrom byinvestigatingtheethnic One arrivesatanevenmorestrikingnumber 6/2. 1149. Magyarország története.Ed, PéterHanák.Budapest:Akadémiai,1987.Vol változásai" (Changesindemographyandsocial In:structure). ésatársadalmiszerkezet népesedés TakenLászló Katus,"A from Serbs Croatians Ruthenians Romanians Slovaks Germans Magyars Table(without CroatiaandRijeka) 1.RatioofnationalitiesinHungary Due tothemodernschoolingsystem,differenceintermsof 67 Magyars 58 Slovaks Croatians no data 3.9 19.3 15.0 11.6 41.5 1850 with Serbs) 5.1 (together 47 Magyarország történetea 19. században 21 no data 2.6 17.5 11.9 13.6 46.7 1880 Serbs) 4.6 (togetherwith 40 Serbs Romanians 28 3 2.5 16.1 10.7 10.4 54.5 1910 1.1 22 Rusins CEU eTD Collection administration. guaranteed everyonetherightofusing their mothertonguein thelocal andculture.Thelaw order tomaintainanddeveloptheir languages right ofnationalitiesto maintain acertain levelofculturalautonomy, in the thelawacknowledged nation. However, this political was amemberof there existedonlyonenation:theHungarian.Every citizenofthecountry 40 by theLawof Nationalities of 1868. the chanceofemergenceapotentialnon-Magyarpoliticalelite. entirely Magyar.The passivityofnon-Magyarpartiesfurtherdiminished Thisbehavior. meantthatthepolitical class ofdualistHungary was almost they hadtoassimilatetheoldelitein terms oflanguage,mentalityand politicians ofnon-nobleorigin managed to embarkon a politicalcareer, noble familieshadthechancetopartake inpoliticallife.Even ifsome the mostlydescendantsof participate inpolitics, right to of tax,hadthe nobility. Althoughafter1848everymale citizen, whopaidacertainamount minimal. In theold(pre-1848)Hungarypoliticshadbeenrunby attaining politicalinfluencewere certain chancetodevelop,there leading nationsofHungaryineconomic,socialandculturalterms. countryside) andJewishassimilation made MagyarsandGermansthe in towns,Magyarnoblemanthe among townspeople,Germanmerchants lived ontheplains),socialstatus(high ratioofGermansandMagyars http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3¶m=5366 (accessed 18May 2007) The status of nationalities during the age ofdualismwas regulated Thethe age statusofnationalitiesduring Even non-Magyarshada ifintheeconomicandculturalspheres 22 40 Accordingtothelaw, in Hungary CEU eTD Collection contributed to the non-Magyar nation-building processes significantly. Thecontributed tothenon-Magyarnation-building processessignificantly. thus they allowedtowork, were these centralculturalassociations the MaticaSlovenská,whichwas prohibited bythegovernmentin 1875, (Rusin).Withtheexceptionof Astra (Romanian)andSt.BasilAssociation (Serb), (Slovak),MaticaSrpska Matica Slovenská major societieswerethe Thesethings toschooling,press,publishingofliteratureintheirlanguages. contributing amongother which triedtodeveloptheirnationalculture, Thus,cultures. allnationalitiesestablished theirculturalassociations ofcultivating theirnational groups, theyhadtofindalternativeways during thedualist (Budapest:era) AkadémiaiKiadó, 1952-1985),Vol. II.383. korában a dualizmus Magyarországon ed., Kemény, G. Gábor 1895. August in Bánffy 41 aside. idea offederalism wasbrushed means ofmodernization,thereforeany was convincedaboutthenecessityofcentralizationasonemain secession oftheentireHungarianperiphery.The liberalHungarianelite thefirststeptowards government, astheysawinthisdemand legal bodies(corporations).This aspiration wasrejectedbytheHungarian be acceptedasseparatenations( aimofthenon-Magyarswasto the promisesof1868.Themostimportant nationalities wouldhavebeenstillsatisfied withacoursewhichhonored the law, tendedtoignore when thegovernment by thelaw;later, oftherightsguaranteed act theywerehighlysuspiciousofthegenuiness official policyatanincreasingrate.Atthetimeofpromulgation1868 See for instance the reaction on the congress of nationalities by prime minister Dezs 41 Since governmental politics was not an option fornon-Magyarethnic an option Since governmentalpoliticswasnot The nationalities tended to reject co-operation withthegovernment’s Thetended torejectco-operation nationalities (Documents of the nationality question in Hungary nemzet 23 ), i.e. toestablishnationality-based ), Iratok a nemzetiségi kérdés történetéhez Ğ CEU eTD Collection 175 43 19-20. században Saxons atthebeginnig ofthe20thcentury), in elején" (The economic conquer of Transylvania. The concept futureon Transylvanian of sphere. asan importantpublic general elections,theseassociationsfunctioned by providingparticipationforthosewhodidnothavetherighttovoteat thenational elitesandmasses: served ascommunicationchannelsbetween National Party (Slovenská Národná Strana), founded in 1871. TheNational Party(SlovenskáNárodnáStrana), foundedin 1871. Saxon in 1881.Slovaknationalaspiration were representedbytheSlovak established in1869andmerged with the Romanian movementsofHungary (Transylvanian) (PartidulNa RomanianNationalParty streams: radicalsandliberals,which formed theirownparties. The Liberal Partysteadilylostfromits influence andin1887splitintotwo had thebestorganizedpolitical movement. However,theSerbNational articulate theinterests of the non-Magyar population.Traditionally, Serbs 42 element ofSaxonnation-building. the Romanians,thesefinancialsocietiesemergedasmostimportant culturalassociationsas comprehensive have such Germans, whodidnot publications, aswellchurchactivities. In thecaseofTransylvanian economic associationsandbanks which aimedtofinance schools, an importantrolewasplayedby education, too.Inaddition totheabove, provided besideecclesiasticalserviceselementaryandhighschool Orthodox, RomanianGreekCatholic and Lutheranchurcheswhich cultureweretheautonomous national major conduitsofmaintainingthe Attila Hunyadi. "Economic nationalism in Transylvania," Gábor Egry, " In the political sphere, ethnically based partieswere formedto Inpolitical sphere,ethnicallybased the 43 Erdély gazdasági meghódítása , ed. Gábor Egry and István Feitl (Budapest: Napvilág, 2005), 415 2005), Napvilág, (Budapest: Feitl István and Egry Gábor , ed. 42 24 Socialandeconomiccooperatives –Az erdélyi szászok jöv A Kárpát-medence népeinek együttélésea Regio (English version) 2004, Ħ ional Român)was Ğ képea 20. század CEU eTD Collection 44 support theHungariangovernment. treated differentlyfromtheabovementionedmovements,sinceittendedto People’s Party(SächsischeVolkspartei),establishedin1876,hastobe Independence Party. Realizing these unfortunate conditions,theSlovak Independenceunfortunate Party.Realizingthese oftensupportedtheopposition Liberal Party,whilepurelyMagyarareas successful thatnon-Magyarterritories tendedtovoteforthegoverning non-Magyar candidates.Indeed, manipulationwasso government almost entirelyMagyars,usedvarious trickstopreventgoodresultsby be poorerthanMagyars.Furthermore, county administration,runby disproportionately small,sincenationalities(exceptforGermans)tendedto franchise, thenumberofnon-Magyars withvotingrightswas theproperty qualificationsofthe their generalpoliticalenvironment.Dueto almost theentiredualistage. political eliteofthenationalitieschose themeansofpassivityduring the liberalgovernment.Thereexit fromthistrap,therefore the wasno stream, however,couldnotattainresults,either,astheyenter The'feudal institutions',suchasnationality-basedcorporations. radical progressive Hungarianpoliticianswerenotinclinedtosetupanykindof any additionalnationality-basedrights,sinceliberal,modernist, politicians inthe first decades of the dualist regime),they could not achieve way. If theywereloyaltotheliberalgovernment (likeGermanandSerb Österreichischen Akadamie der Wissenschaften, 1980), III/1 388 III/1 1980), Wissenschaften, der Akadamie Österreichischen Habsburgermonarchie Friedrich Gottas, "Die Deutsche in Ungarn" (The Germans in Hungary), in The tacticsofnationalitypartieswerenaturally thedisadvantagesof However, thenationality-basedpartieswerenotabletofindtheir , ed. Peter Urbanitsch and Adam Wandruszka (Vienna: Verlag der Verlag (Vienna: AdamWandruszka and Urbanitsch Peter , ed. 44 25 Die CEU eTD Collection early 1890’s was without doubt the early 1890’swaswithout 2 Serband16RomanianpoliticianswereelectedtotheParliament. during thepoliticalcrisisof 1905 and1906: atthe1906elections 7 Slovak, elections fromtheearly1900’s.The firstresultofthischangewasachieved their policyandpartakeatthe nationality partiesdecidedtochange passivity didnotbringresults, condition. Realizingthatthepolicyof impotent movement wasinan Hungarian millenniumSlovaknational the a result,at formedyet.As was not politics oftheHlasistmovement national movementfounditselfonthe down-grade, butthenew,mass- movement weresentencedtoimprisonment. the the Budapestgovernment), (he sentitto education systems.AlthoughFrancisJoseph chosenottoreceivethepaper establish wholeculturalautonomyof non-Magyar churchesandthe representations tonon-Magyarnations(thusfederalizeHungary)and the Emperor toseverTransylvania Hungary,togiveequalpolitical from intellectuals sentapetition directly toFrancis Joseph,inwhichthey asked of the Hungarian public.Alawsuitwasinstituted againstthemaincontributors 46 45 among Slovaks. possible politicalinfluenceandweakenedthepositionofpartyeven outraged manySlovakcontemporaries, since itdeprivedSlovaksofany National Partyboycottedelectionsup to 1896.This tactic,however, Nationalbewegungauf die diplomatischen Beziehungen zwischen Österreich-Ungarn und Gerald Volkmer, Gerald Szarka, 80-86 The most significant event concerning nationality movements inthe Theconcerning nationality mostsignificantevent Memorandum 45 Die Siebenbürgische Frage 1878-1890. Der Einflussrumänischen der By the end of the 19th centurytheold-schoolSlovak 19th Bytheendof and two years later 14 membersofthe andtwoyearslater Memorandum 26 46 Memorandum -trial. In1892,Romanian Memorandum outraged the outraged - CEU eTD Collection 49 actions. such in to partake priests their discourage to government the with cooperated 384-390. remarkable It is thatRomanian both the Greek Catholic and Orthodox churches 48 theaccepted nationality by conferenceBudapest, in Kemény, 1895) II.379-381. movements wouldharmHungarysignificantly. Magyar movements;hewasconvinced that anyallowancetothe nationality settlement ofMagyartribesinHungary emerged inthe1880’s. Baron Dezs against theparticipantsofcongress. the recommendationsofconference, indeed,legalactionwastaken 47 diplomatic relations Austria-Hungary of andRomania) Böhlau, (Cologne: 2004), 231-239. Rumänien minister fornationalityissues. level ofeducationalandchurchautonomytheappointmenta according tolanguagebarriers,introductionofuniversalsuffrage,higher conference proposedtochangeborders of countiesandelectoraldistricts Theintegrity ofthecountrywhilemaintainingitsethnicheterogeneity. állameszme ideaofstate'( conference rejectedthe'Magyarnational Romanian andSerbianrepresentativesheld acongressofnationalities. The nationalities tookplacein 1895 inBudapest, wherearound800 Slovak, Bertényi, 73-82 Governmental documents concerning these legalactions canbefound in Kemény, II. Az 1895. évi budapesti nemzetiségi kongresszus elfogadott határozati javaslata The yearanniversaryofthe firstideasofcelebratingthe1000th The Millennialidea The most important, co-coordinated, political actionofthe Theimportant, co-coordinated, most (The Transylvanian question. Influence ofRomanian national movement on the ) but at the same time declared theirinterestinpreservingthe the sametimedeclared ) butat Ğ Bánffy implemented the toughest policiesagainstthe non- Bánffyimplementedthetoughest 47 The refusedtonegotiateabout government 27 48 The that-timeprime minister, 49 magyar nemzeti (Proposal CEU eTD Collection 1895. Yet,thepoliticiansstartedtheir job toolateasideaskeptsurfacing in feastswouldbeheld the millennium the date,thus the year895as makers sopoliticiansdecidedthedate of themillennium.They identified conquest mayhavetakenplace.This didnot satisfy thedecision- result the during which a12year only identify they could for thispurpose;but distinguished scholarsoftheHungarianAcademyScienceswassetup settlement oftheinCarpathian Basin. Aspecialcommitteeof difficult questionofassigning an actual historical dateto the arrival and up toautumn1896,whenmostofthefestivitieswerealreadyover. conflicts remained inshadow the elevatedspiritofcelebrations,party Nevertheless, dueto the aggressive policy oftheBánffy-government and to the governmenttoendangercountrybyitsanticlericalpolicy. existing hope thatHungarywouldgainindependenceinthesecondmillenniaofits 52 Kossuth. 51 50 opposition: editorialoftheIndependence Partydaily the liberalgovernment.Thisinterpretationwasofcourseattackedby So themillenniumhad to becelebrated, propagating theachievements of Ger Magyar Állam Magyar Egyetértés same timepresentingthestatusquoasinevitable. of continuity,permanentandunshakablestability,whileatthe the ideologydepicting construct anintegratednationalandhistorical governmentto the Hungarian was anhistoricopportunityfor it occasionforrevelry: an not just Thecelebration was Millennial Ğ , Modern Hungarian Society, 204 Society, Hungarian , Modern During theearlypreparationsgovernmenthadtotacklea 51 de facto , while the emerging, conservative Catholic People’sParty accused , whiletheemerging,conservative , 1 January 1896. The article was written by Ferenc Kossuth, son of Lajos , 1January 1896 imperfect state as imperfect de jurede 28 a whole, inspiringasense a Egyetértés 50 statedthe 52 CEU eTD Collection 54 53 goes beyondthenation. originofhispower,which legitimation ofStephenindicatestheheavenly Hungary). Furthermore,theroyal and imperial(meaningthemulti-ethnic typified adherencetotheWest,universal-Catholic values,heterogeneous entity. leader whoresistedWesternattempts to incorporate Hungaryintoalarger Moreover, Árpádcanbeseen asa symbol ofnationalindependence, a Árpád-concept representsamonolingual,ethnicallyhomogeneousnation. which arerootedin East.holding ontothe Thethe old Magyartraditions will ofnationcreatesthe king. Hispaganism isafurthersymbol-sign of the tribaltype oflordship,i.e. legitimates theirrule.Árpádrepresentsthe population oftheCarpathianBasin,therefore the"rightofsword" symbolized thedominationof ethnic Magyars whodefeatedthe indigenous Árpád andStephenpersonifythe following division:thecultof Árpád political dividelinewithinHungariansociety.AccordingtoKatalinSinkó, delayed byandbestagedfinallyin1896. themillenniumshowhadtobe was thattheorganizersranoutoftimeand Theon Hungaryshouldcelebrateher1000yearsofexistence. consequence be celebrated. of invadingMagyartribeswasto Hungary, butin1896onlyÁrpád,leader celebrate? Traditionally St.Stephenwasconsideredtobethe founder of the verysubject-matterof celebrations: whatexactlyshouldHungary Sinkó, 4-6 Thaly, The othertraditionfounditssymbolinSt.Stephen.Thus, Stephen Besides theuncleardateofsettlement,anotherseriousissuewas Ezredévi 54 2 Hence,thesetwofigures representedadeepcultural- 29 53 CEU eTD Collection former, for non-Magyars the idea of millennium washardtoaccept.To former, fornon-Magyarstheideaofmillennium "second Árpád." between thesetwoandFrancisJoseph, callingthereigningmonarch a Stephen atthesametime,further representations stressed thelink Other picturesshowedÁrpádand omitting StephenoranyHabsburgruler. István Bocskay,GáborBethlen,FerencRákócziorLajosKossuth,but anti-Habsburg (mainlyTransylvanian) ofthecountry,suchas leaders millennium. Someillustrations represented Árpádandthe Protestant or revolution of1848tobeelevatedthestatusnationalday. dayofthe anti-Habsburg Independence15 March, Partysuggested Thereforethe dayofanysaintcouldnotbecelebrated by Protestants. the of thenation( August, dayofStephen,sincethefigureholykingexpressedidea national dayofHungarysignificant.TheLiberalPartyproposed20th 55 Stephen. preferred ÁrpádtoStephen,whilethegoverningLiberalPartystoodby with thecultof Stephen. Sinkóargues thattheIndependence party Hungarian, pro-Habsburg,ratheraristocratic streamcanbeconnected identified withthefigure of Árpád,while theCatholic,mainly Western Habsburg tradition,carriedbymainly middle-strata nobility,canbe 57 56 Sinkó, Ibid 49andappendix Ibid 18-19 f. 48 Ibid, The two streams clashed and confused eachotherduringthe confused Thestreams clashedand two Since the "rivalry" between Árpád and Stephen waswonratherbythe Stephen Since the"rivalry"betweenÁrpádand Thus, theEasternHungarian(Transylvanian),Protestant,anti- Árpád kontra 55 In thissenseisthedebate in Parliamentaboutthe official, nemzet-eszme 57 , 50-51 ). The rejectedthisconcept because opposition ). 30 56 CEU eTD Collection been anationaldisasterforSlovaks: movement exceptional, rather typical. Nipperdey, 530 Nipperdey, typical. rather exceptional, The exclusioncentury twentieth the to sixteenth the of non-stateDynasticPropaganda", Karin Friedrichin ed, constituting60 metophorically.groups or theMagyar politic and opposition59 Slav population, is, by no means is of course subject to serious doubt. The terms are used celebrating thelatter? 58 the occupationofCarpathianBasin. on theotherhand,attributedmoreimportancetofigureofÁrpádand Independenceparty leaders, in Puszteszer. according tothelegendat896 and manifestedinthefirst,'constitutional', assemblywhichwasheld Magyar tribes broughtbythe stressed, liberalism character ofHungarywas existence ofthestate,which belonged to allitscitizens.Thus, theliberal tostresstheanniversaryof resolve theconflict,governmenttried could beestablishedbetweendescendants ink seemstobelogical:what into themillennium.Thisexclusion,however, non-Magyars toincorporatethe no attempt Millennial Exhibition,there was millennial idea.Withthemeagerexceptionofethnographicparts not really enthusiasticaboutthe that thenon-Magyarpopulationwas Itsurprise anyone absolutely imponderableforthenationalities. cannot figure ofÁrpád and the entire aforementioned connotationaround him was Tom Barcsay, "The 1896 Millennial Festivities in Hungary: An Exercise The in Patriotic extent and to which the Magyars and Slovaks were descendants of the 9th century Sinkó, and church,buttheLutheran bishop ordered celebrationon10 Christianculture Moravian Empire]flourishing andruinedthe here[totheGreat A millenniumagoAsiannomadsarrived While St. Stephen was to some extent acceptable tonon-Magyars,the acceptable While St.Stephenwastosomeextent Ezredévi NárodnieNoviny 2 60 Thus, thenewspaperofSlovaknational stressed that the settlement led by Árpádhad the settlementled that stressed (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellon Press, 2000), 193 2000), Press, Mellon Edwin The (Lewiston: 31 Festive Culture in Germany and Europe from 58 59 ofSvatoplukandÁrpád,when CEU eTD Collection (Munich: Oldenbourg Verlag, 2003), 406 2003), Verlag, Oldenbourg (Munich: Romanians and Transylvanian Saxons thein conflict with the Hungarian idea of state) Staatsidee 1867-1914 Rumänen undSiebenbürger Sachsen inderAuseinandersetzungmit ungarischender 63 millennial schoolfestivals,churchcelebrations, officialreceptionsattown millennium waspassivity:scarceparticipation byminoritygroupsatthe 62 German orSlovakvillages. revel inHungariansongsandpatrioticspeeches, deliveredinmanypurely Interior: providedanoccasionto themillennium reported totheMinistryof governor ofSzepes(inGermanZips, in SlovakSpiš)Countyproudly Indeed, asthevice- acceptance ofthemillennialideaandfestivities. in ahouse, did take place happened but thegeneral pattern was silent flag, refusaltoparticipateinfestivities,failurelightthedecorationlights Hungarian such asburning the the millennium.Someindividualevents celebrate atthemillennium. territory independentfromMagyars,thereforetherewasnothingto ancestors hadnot come with Árpád, but conquered and ruled their 61 Magyar GermansofKronstadt The newspaper oftheanti- be celebratedinsteadoftheMagyarsettlement. Slovak historyinsteadofHungarian and the GreatMoravianEmpire shall childrenshallbetaughtfor Furthermore, thearticleclaimedthatSlovak Joachim von Puttkammer, von Joachim The article of Pesti Hírlap Pesti Magyar raceinthisyear. Empirewith the together fall anddestructionofGreatMoravian us thatwecelebratethe janissaries. …Nooneshalldemandof educate SlovakchildrenwhodonotspeakHungarianintoMagyar May inchurchesandschools. This isthewayhowtheywant to However, the non-Magyar nations did not protestseriouslyagainst did not However, thenon-Magyarnations , 18 September 1896 , 18September Narodnie Noviny (Everyday schooling and national integration inHungary. Slovaks, Schulalltag undnationale Integrationin Ungarn. Slowaken, on 8 April1896iscited byPolányi,116 on 62 63 61 The main form ofthe Theresistance against main Kronstädter Zeitung 32 emphasizedthattheir CEU eTD Collection 64 Thalya historiancontributed to as achievements aretypical ofthisstream: aforementioned independist,Protestant, ethnic-nationalistschool.His Thaly representativesofthe isoneofthemostcharacteristic century. the 19th secondhalfof in the exponents ofHungariannationalism Thaly,from Kálmán ahistorianandpolitician,oneofthebestknown particular locationsinHungary. The ofthesesculptures idea originated representing theconqueringMagyartribes, whichwereerectedatseven construction ofsevenstatues Magyar-centered projectinvolvedthe ofHungary.Amorepointedly nationalities bear anyspecialmeaningforthe installed inHeroes’Squareattheend of Andrássy Avenue,yet,itdidnot were erectedthroughoutHungary.Thecentralsculpturegroupwas railway underAndrássyAvenue,etc.) numerous millennialmonuments the building oftheunderground Exhibitionthe BudapestCityPark, in number ofstagedeventsandinaugurations (suchastheNational during theHungarianMillennium celebrations. In thecourseofafair cooperate more. most conspicuously,while the Serbs, Germans andSlovaksseemed able to uneven pattern:istendentious:Romanianstendedtoignoretheseevents halls orcountywas typical. However, thelevelofpassivity shows an Puttkammer, 408-411 What linksthelocationsexaminedinthisstudyistheirroleplayed The Millennium:celebrations,events,achievements 64 33 CEU eTD Collection Carpathian Basin there and travelers arriving bytrainfromLemberg(Lviv) Carpathian Basinthere andtravelersarriving now inUkraine),becauseMagyartribes aresaidtohaveenteredthe the seventhonewaserectedinanarea with clearSlovakmajority. monuments wereplacedinsidepurely Magyar-populatedareas,whereas entering thecountryandtolocal non-Magyarpopulation;two country werechosentorepresentHungarybothtowardsforeigners writing) (Budapest: Akadémiai, 1961) 65 of theHungarianstate( hadtosymbolizetheidea exact placeswasmoredifficult.Themonuments to representthesevenglorious Magyartribes ledbyÁrpád.Choosing the no matterfordispute,asithad Themonuments was once. number ofthe initiative toerectthe seven statues was acceptedbythe government at Independencehis Thalyof theopposition Party, wasrepresentative national feeling.Although high hillscansignificantlyenhancecontribute argued thatsuchmonumentsconstructedinelevatedlocationsas in Niederwald,theWalhallaRegensburg andtheSupergainTurin.Thaly such asthosehadbeenbuiltinWesternEurope: theGermaniamonument short oflongterm expectations. He wished toerecta lasting monument Protestantism andfamousforitsanti-Habsburgtraditions. thecapitalofHungarian IndependentMP forDebrecen, Party Thalyserved asan enthusiasm fortheRákócziperiod.Fordecades, from Rákóczi’sage,moreover,heforged somepoemstoinstillthe documentedmilitary-folksongs the Rákóczi-cult,hehimselfdiscoveredand Ágnes R. Várkonyi, The first column was received by the town ofMunkács(Mukacheve, Theby thetown firstcolumnwasreceived Thaly fearedthattheplansformillennialcelebrationsmayfall Thaly Kálmán és történetírása magyar állameszme 34 ), therefore four gateways tothe ), thereforefour (Kálmán Thaly and his history- 65 CEU eTD Collection 68 67 66 The main was perfectlyvisiblefromtheBucharest-Brassó railwayline. column the CenkHillmillennial Hungarian predominanceaswell,since motherland. RomaniansenteringformWallachia wouldfacethissymbolof domination andtoheartenSzeklers that theywerenotforgotten bythe andRomaniansHungarian German) todemonstratethelocalSaxons in (Tâmpain Romanian,Zinne Cenk Hill Kronstadt inGerman),onthe homeland astheyhadbeenbefore Thaly.– argued local Rusinpopulation:theyshouldbeasfaithfultotheHungarian enter thecountry.Thealso servedasamessagetothe Munkács column catch sightofthiscolumnasonethe firstvisibleimpressionsasthey conquered byMagyars.Assuch,itsymbolizedtheMagyarhegemony,too. Furthermore, Dévénywassaidto be the headquarterofSvatopluk, on theDanubeandthusmarkedHungarian-Austrianborder. German) toshow the idea of Hungary to travelers enteringHungary by boat – asThaly wrote. Hungary andtotheSerbsofSerbia:'onlySavariver,butnotfurther!' TheCastle. Zimonycolumn was amessagetoSerbsandCroatswithin great HungarianwarlordJános Hunyadi issaidto have died in Zimony the monumentcouldbeseenfromSerbiancapitalitselfandthat in German,nowpartofBelgrade).The forthatlocationwere reasons Ibid Ibid 11 Thaly, The fourthmonumentwasplacedinBrassó(Bra The thirdcolumnwaserectedinDévény(DevínThebenSlovak, in The secondcolumnwassetupinZimony (ZemuninSerbian,Semlin 67 35 66 ü ov inRomanian, 68 CEU eTD Collection and nation. 1000yearoldHungarianstate Stephen). Bothrepresentedtheideaof the abbey inHungary foundedby and Pannonhalma(thefirstimportant one inPusztaszer(believedtobe the spot ofthefirstHungarianassembly) historical role,andwasnotevennearanyofgatewaystothecountry. Apart fromthisunprovenlegend,Zobor Hillitselfdidnotplay any Zobor waskilledbytheMagyarson hill whichwasnamedafterhim. toAnonymus theSlavchieftain historical importancetothehill:according other words, in most cases these millennial statues can be seen as statuescanbeseen these millennial other words,inmostcases in thehistoryof settlement ofthe Magyars intheCarpathianBasin. In 69 old Hungarianchronicle, Slovaks thesuperiorityofHungarian stateandnation.Thaly citedan Thaly decidedtoputamonumentonthathillonlyshowthe local townofNyitra(Nitra,Slovakia). as well:itwasunveiledonZoborHillatthe Romanians, butnotforMagyars. citizens andservedasamajorculturalcenterof TransylvanianSaxons and citywasdominatedbyGerman played majorhistoricalroles,indeed:the importance forHungarianhistory.NeitherCenkHillnorBrassóitself nationalities inhabitingTransylvaniaand notBrassó’s historical all three was thepresenceof chosen reason whythislocationwas Ibid Two monumentswereplacedonpurelyMagyar-inhabitedterritory: As we can see, most of the chosen locations played a significant role locations played asignificant the chosen most of As wecansee, The Slovaks living in Upper Hungary deserved theirownmonument Hungary deserved Theliving inUpper Slovaks 69 Gesta Gesta Hungarorum 36 by Anonymus toallocate byAnonymus CEU eTD Collection 71 Akadémia M Magyarországon. M supported them. same design,theonlydifferencestobe foundbetweenthecolumnsthat identical forms:thestandingfiguresof the warriorofÁrpádwere Thetime. DévényandBrassómonumentswerebuiltalmostidentical in historicist sculptorofhis were mouldedbyGyulaJankovits,awell-known figures standingonthecolumns of the turned outtobequitelow.Most se in thein historicist sculpture), In: Zádor Anna (ed.) 70 architect ofthetimeworkingfor the government. was grantedthetaskofdesigningcolumns.Berczikanaverage tender. Instead, anarchitect,calledGyula Berczik,acivil service counselor Theresia, etc.) Mathias Corvinus,Maria historic figureswererepresented(Stephen, mainlyÁrpád,butallkindof appeared aslegitimizingforceofthepresent: Hungarian millennialfestivitiesfollowed these patterns.Heroesofthepast avoiding conflictsofthepresentandshowingidealpast. legitimize present,therefore the historicist artisa means of propaganda, found inhistory,especiallyheroesofThis thepast. pastisusedto soughtidealswhichwere historicism. Historicism style oftheage,thatis settlement. invented Nagy, Ildikó. A m A Ildikó. Nagy, Vasárnapi Újság Vasárnapi butmoreawell-trained craftsman,thus theartisticvalueof monuments Because of lack of time the seven monuments were not put out to werenotput seven monuments time the Because oflack inthegoverningartistic Themillennial monumentswerebuilt seven lieu demémoire Ĭ vészettörténetiKutató Intézet, 1993), 111 , 20 September 1896, 20September Ĭ Ĭ fajok hierarchiája a historizmus szobrászatában (Hierarchy of genres of (Hierarchy szobrászatában historizmus a hierarchiája fajok vészettörténeti tanulmányok , aiming to create anationalmytharoundthe create , aimingto 37 . (Budapest: Magyar Tudományos 71 Hewasnotanartist A historizmus m Ĭ 70 vészete The per CEU eTD Collection weakness oftheHungariancivilsociety. arranged bythegovernment.This isaclearmarkof difference the were theinitiatorsandsponsors,inHungarywholeactionwas mostly localassociations,studentsandrepresentativesofthecivilsociety significant:whileinGermany counterpart, thedifference,however,is wasshapedbyitsGerman Themillennial monuments legitimation. idea of traditional modelonallkindofpolitical actions,includingsymbolic contemporary European patterns.ForHungarians, Germanyservedas a The erection of the millennial monuments entirelyfitsinto Themillennial monuments erectionofthe 38 CEU eTD Collection 72 of Slovakia. 1945, whenitreturnedtoCzechoslovakia.Since1993Devínhasbeenpart of theGermanThirdReichuntil Devín toGermany,sobecamepart border pointbetweenAustria and Czechoslovakia.The MunichTreaty gave reshaping thebordersin Central Europe in1918-1920,Devín became a 10thcenturyupto1918.After served asaborderpointtoAustriafromthe Hungary. AstheMoravariver was theHungarian-Austrian border,Dévény Dévény somesignificancewas its special locationbetweenAustria and Pressburg atthejunctionof Danube and Morava (March)rivers. What gave Great Moraviansdid notproducemuchwrittenmaterial,the archeological withGreatMoravians.Although started relevant historyofDevín,however, The usedbyearlyChristians. place was that inthe4thcenturyAD Romans, whoestablishedafortressthere. Archeologicalevidence proves followed by who werelater Celts, spot were identifiable settlersofthe has beencontinuouslyhabitedbyman since theNeolithicAge.The first the romanticnationalismmovementsin19thand20thcentury.Devín reflected by which wasthenlater Middle Ages played significantroleinthe Kiliánová, The villageDevínhasbeenanunimportant settlementnextto Devín Although beinganunimportantvillage inmoderntimes,Devín 4. Devín and Bra Lieux de mémoire 72 , 155 ü ov: places of early national memory 39 CEU eTD Collection was painted between 1758 and 1761. It is to see in the Kunsthistoriches Museum, Vienna. Museum, Kunsthistoriches the in see to is It and 1761. 1758 between painted was Morava river 73 The maindestructionofthefortress,however,happenedin1809 when further bythePálffys.It fellintodecayalreadyduringthe18th century. federation thecastlelostitsmilitarysignificance andwasnot developed the castlebelongedtoPálffycounts. DuetotheHungarian-Habsburg consolidation ofHungary it was reconquered byHungary again. Since 1650 Czech armiesduringthehectic13th and 14thcenturies.Afterthe by siegebyAustrianandtaken then under in the13thcenturywhichwas other UpperHungarianregions. The tobeseen castle nowadays was built Thebuilding attempts. castleandthevillagesharedaveragefaith of the irrelevant, sincethisperiodof time was notusedbyany later nation- historic tracesoftheirnationalidentityandfounditinDevín. influenced 19thcenturySlovaknation-builders, whosoughtfortheir cultural andchurchcentrethentheharshdeclineofspot ofDevínasbothimperial, Thewill presenthowtheflowering SlovakDevín includingDevín.Subchapter conquer theterritoryofpresent-daySlovakia, the GreatMoravianEmpire fellapartandMagyartribescouldeasily Methodius visitedDevín,probably many times. Atthe end of 9th century thechurchfathersCyriland that written evidence,itishighlypossibly probably duringthereignofRastislav(846-870).Despitelack Empire.Theheyday ofDevínwas important centersoftheGreatMoravian most fortresswasoneofthe excavations clearlyshowedthattheDevín Abeautiful example ofthe partly ruined castle is the picture The history of Devín between the 10th and 18thcenturies istotally Thethe 10thand historyofDevínbetween bythe Italian baroque master BernardoBellotto (1720 –1780). Thepicture 40 The ruins ofTheben at 73 CEU eTD Collection 76 75 szemmel German local 1850-1920), press, in city in of thepopulation Israelites11.1%well, since constituted 74 several GermanandHungariannewspaperswerepublished. the century end of andatthe 11 times civic associationsincreasedby character ofthecity:duringsecondhalf19thcenturynumber concerning thecitylifeclearlydemonstratesdemocratic-bourgeois emerged asoneofthemaincentersembourgeoisement inHungary.Data bourgeois citiesofHungary.The middle-classofthecityhad long rootsand Dévény village. memory wasobviouslyusedfirstofallbyPressburgians,notpeasants the socialenvironmentofPressburgshallbeexamined.Dévényasplace providing apicturesque,romanticlandscapetoDanubetravelers. French troopsdestroyedthecastle.Since then Devínhasremainedruined, did not vary significantly (13.4%). did notvarysignificantly Germans, Magyars and only43.2%while ratioofSlovakpopulation 41% was rapid:thelastcensusorganized by Hungaryin1910found almost equaltonumberof increased to15.7%, Slovaks. Magyarizationofthecity Germans stillamountedto majority by 65.6%, but the ratio of Magyars Slovaks Jews, 10%Germans, 13%and Magyars. only6% of inhabitants ofPressburgwere According tothe1850census,70% Babejová, 56 Babejová, 25 Babejová, MáriaRózsa, "Pozsony a német nyelv At the end of the 19th century, Pressburg wasoneofthemain At theendof19thcentury,Pressburg Before turningourattentiontoDévényasa Pressburg hadbeeninhabitedbyGermanssincetheMiddleAges. , ed. Gábor Czoch (Bratislava: Kalligram, 2005) Kalligram, (Bratislava: Czoch Gábor , ed. Fejezetek Pozsony történetéb 76 Ĭ Pressburg had a long Jewish history as Jewish history Pressburghadalong helyi sajtóban (1850-1920)" (Bratislava in the 41 lieu demémoire Ğ l magyar ésszlovák 74 75 , however, In 1880 CEU eTD Collection commitment, whichwasacknowledged bytheHungarianpublic: for Preßburger Zeitung TheMagyars. carrier ofthePressburgGermanbourgeoismentality, main next generationwassoeasilywillingto start theassimilationprocessinto supported theHungarianfreedomfight.Thus, itisnotsurprisingthatthe during therevolutionof1848,when German citizenswholeheartedly member ofthetraditional(feudal)nation.This identitywasexpressed strong commitment to Hungary as well, feeling themselves as well, strong commitmenttoHungary goods. Vienna openedthewayofimportingWesternmaterialandintellectual Preßburger Zeitung politicaldailyofHungary, several ways,forinstancethefirstsuccessful German middle-classhadastronglocalidentity,whichwascultivatedby andculture.Pressburgian factories) economy (modern both intermsof 79 78 Wissenschaften, 1980),III/2886 Urbanitsch and Adam Wandruszka (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akdamie der in 1880to51.4%in 1910. from 13.7% (Yiddish) toHungarian.Thus, ratioofJews speakingMagyarincreased their religioushabitstheyusuallychangedlanguagefromGerman 77 1900. Gottas, 386 57 Babejova, Woldieter Bihl, "Die Juden" (The Jews) in 77 Besides ofthelocalpatriotism,Pressburgian German Pressburg traditionallyservedasa main Germanbourgeoiscentre, Jews were the main engine of assimilation, sincebymodernizing of assimilation, main engine Jewswerethe , was published here since1764. was publishedhere , , declared several times itsHungarianidentityand , declaredseveraltimes 42 78 Die Habsburgermonarchie 79 The closenessof Hungarus Bürgers , ed. Peter hada , i.e. , CEU eTD Collection and thevillageitselfwasunimportant,since themiddleof18thcentury them wereemployed. districts intheoutskirtsofcity, closed tofactorieswherearoundhalfof 'honest Magyar-mindeddaily.' 81 80 social-democrat dailyforworkers. the firstSlovaknewspaper was launched only in1906 and indeed,it was a middle-class assuchdidnotexistinPrešporok; itisnotanaccidentthat indeed, majorityofSlovakslivinginPrešporokwerepeasants.Slovak Theycity. constitutedonlyonesixth-seventh ofthecity’s population and proud aspartakerinthereformageandrevolution. influenced PressburgcitizensaswellandGermansbecame many Hungariannoblementothecity.The achievementsofthereformists 1825), thecenterofHungarianpoliticallifewasPozsonywhichattracted its meetingsthere.Thus, theReformAge(beginningin especiallysince lived inPressburg,thecityhadaHungarian character,asParliamenthold instance, theinfluential 1992), 313 Groups in1850-1940 Europe, Identity in Comparative Urban Europe. Studies Governments on and Non-Dominant Ethnic Monika Glettler, "TheSlovaks in Budapestand Bratislava, 1850-1914," in Rózsa,424-425 Although Dévény lost its military significance bythe16thcentury Although Dévénylostitsmilitarysignificance The HungarianDévény:PortaHungarica Slovaks ofPressburgdid not play an important roleinthe life of the Although beforethemiddleof19th century hardlyanyMagyars , ed. , ed. Max Engman (Hants: Dartmouth Publishing Company, Vasárnapi Újság Vasárnapi 80 81 Slovakslivedmainlyintheworker’s 43 called Preßburger Zeitung Ethnic an CEU eTD Collection by somanydescribers". castle ofDévényasaspot"found describing UpperHungarymentionsthe the romanticlegendsconnectedtoit. Asearlyas1831atravelguide castle and thehistoryof location, travel guidestellingitsremarkable all wasmentionedbyalmost the Hungarianmiddle-classpublic.Dévény Thus, Dévény becameknownby travelers facedthevisiblecastleofDévény. Vienna (orfurthertoWesternEurope) tendedtotaketheDanuberoute,all fulfill theirjob(merchants,high-positionedclerks,etc.) Empire to had tomovewithinthe afford themselvestotravel,ontheother middle class,i.e.noblemen and bourgeoisie whoontheone hand could was ofcoursetheemerging Thelocations. main targetofthesebooks significantly: theyprovidedcultural,social, historicinformationonthe Landeskunde-type accounts,thesetravelguidesinfluencedthepublic totraveling.Besidethe regions andallkindofmaterialsconnected in 1830.This causedaboomoftravel guides,descriptionsof certain engineboatsontheDanube increased, especiallywhenintroducingsteam Pressburg undTyrnauin die Bergstädte Schemnitz, Kremnitz undNeusohl,dain undvon Krickel, Joseph Adalbert haben." befunden Beschreiber 82 called was character;thus,it a remarkable gives Dévény change ofthelandscape at thesametimemarks the beginningof the LittleCarpathians.The sharp which endsrightatDévény Lower Austria TheField (Dürnkrut)in Morava Dévény becameknownastheborderpoint betweenHungaryandAustria. "In geringer Ferne sah man die mächtigen Ruinen von Theben, welche schon so viele As due to the steam engine boats people goingfrom Hungaryto As duetothesteamengineboatspeople Since thebeginningof19thcenturyopportunitiestraveling Porta Hungarica , orHungarianGate. 82 AGermandescriptionoftheDanubeintroduces 44 Wanderung von Wien über CEU eTD Collection 84 (Wroclaw: Verlag vonEduard Trewendt, 1846), 198-199. Danubeof Ulm, Linz, Wien, [Buda]Pest, Gala Constantinopel för Donaureisende von Ulm, Linz, Wien, Pesth, Galatz über das shwarze Meer nach Magyar tribe-leaderduringthesiegeofcastle. spot andtellsawell-knownlegendontheloveofMoravianprincess describing theroutebetweenViennaandBudapestcallsDévényabeautiful 83 15 1831), Ehr Adolph, M. (Vienna: Vah) Banska Štavnica, Kremnica, Banskadie Turoßunddas Waagthal Bystrica and from there to Turoc and to the valley of habitation, too.In Ipolyi’s viewthefirstprovensettlersofDevínwere Rastislav wasin Moravia near to Velehrad. Herefuted the Roman the ideaofSlavicorigin of thecastle. Iponyi claimedthatthefortress of landscape aswell.Whatismost interesting inhiswritingthathe rejected mentioningitsbeautiful location, of the mostly theborderfunction Ipolyi, ofcourse,payeddeepattentiontoDevín.The authoremphasized weekly bourgeois inthemostinfluential of articles Arnold Ipolyipublished aseries the historyofcastleitself. and itprovidesalongdescriptionontheoriginofword'Devín' blond Danube thebeautifuland love the people surrounding claimsthatall in the9thcentury. Dévény asabeautiful,sometimesimportantspot,inhabitedbyMoravians n .d.), 8-9, 36-37 8-9, .d.), n Budapest 85 80-82 1884), C. Stampel, von Verlag Commissions- (Vienna-Bratislava: surrounding) and Bratislava through guide (Illustrated Alexander F. Haksch, A. J.Gross-Hoffinger, A. A. Imendörffer, W. Gerlai and J. Sziklay, Thehistorian andethnologist thenwell-knownwriter,amateur Vasárnapi Újság (To and through Hungary. From Vienna to Budapest) (Zürich: Orell Füssli &Co., Füssli Orell (Zürich: Budapest) to Vienna From Hungary. through and (To (The Danube from source to the Black Sea. A handbook to travellers on the 83 Die Donau vomUrsprung bis indas schwarzeMeer. EinHandbuch AdetailedGermantravel guideonPressburgandits Illustrirter (sic) Führer durch Pressburg undseine Umgebungen (Wanderings from Vienna through Trnava to the hill towns in1859-1860describing theLower Carpathians. 84 AnotherguidebookpublishedinZürich 45 Ħ throught theBlackSea to Constantinople) Nach Wien Ungarn. unddurch Von nach 85 CEU eTD Collection from heaven." most beautifulruinofcastlealongtheDanube,…asiffelldowndirectly heldDévény "probablythe famous DanishwriterHansChristianAndersen communicate withlocals(probablySlovak)peasantinGerman. get anyinformationonthehistoryof place,either,ashecouldnot Demidov visitedandclimbedtheruinsof the castle,too.Hewasunableto princeAnatolNikolayevich TheRussian Moravian historyoftheplace. nobles; thus,itwouldmeanthatPaget’sfriendswerenotawareofthe Magyar populationoften.PagetreceivedinformationfromlocalHungarian mention anySlavicorigins,althoughheprovidesinformationonnon- romantic myth concerning Dévény as well. romantic mythconcerningDévényas beautiful castleverymuchandrecordedinhistraveldescriptionsome Hungary in1835,madea trip fromPozsony toDévény.Heliked the omit tovisitit,either.TheEnglish JohnPaget,whilevisiting traveler usually rejected. the SlavicoriginofDevínwasmentionedbynon-Slovakauthors,it adults) (Budapest: Polar, 2005), 135-136 88 and Economical 87 form. book the use to decided I is irrelevant, articles the of date theexact Since This book is a collection of the original(Bratislava: Madách-Posonium, 2004), 94-99 articles but it does not contain date of publication. 86 Hungarians inthe13thcentury. 89 Europe. Western in life his of most spent he Florence; in died on later Russian. This might meanthe that he himself didexcerptsla Russienot méridionale et la speakCrimée parla Hongrie, la Valachie Russian. et la Moldavie. DemidovThe original was born work and of Demidov inoldHungary)travelers (Budapest: 1988),Gondolat, 196-198 concerningwas published in Paris in 1854 under the title Devín, Demidov did not try to communicate with locals in Lajos Tardy, (ed). JohnPaget, Arnold Ipolyi, Arnold Hans Christian Andersen. Dévény became so well-known that even foreigntravelersdidnot even Dévény becamesowell-knownthat Hungary and Transylvania; with Remarks on their Condition, Social, Political Social, Condition, their on Remarks with Transylvania; and Hungary (New York: Arno Press – The New York Times, 1971), I. 17-21 I. 1971), Times, York New – The Press Arno York: (New 89 Fehér-hegységi útiképek Orosz és ukrán utazók a régi Magyarországon Mesék és történetek feln 86 This canbeseenastypical:if concept (Travel pictures from the White Mountains) 46 Ğ 87 tteknek However, he did not even However,hedid (Fairy tales and stories for (Russian and Ukrainian According to Voyage dans Voyage 88 The CEU eTD Collection 1965), I. 7 I. 1965), én. vagyok fia Magóg 91 consequence, thecultofCyrilandMethodius wasofficiallyacknowledged, Inreformation, theHungarianCatholic church soughtforownsaints. more importanceinthe18thcentury.Duetoattemptsofcounter- discovery oftheGreatMoraviantradition, beginninginthe17thbut getting ofCyriland Methodiusandthe Devín beganbytheemergenceofcult Slovak nationalmemory.Roleof case, itgainedhighsignificanceinthe consciousness, andatotallyunimportant oneintheAustrian (German) Dévény/ withnewsongsoftimes?" poetry:"MayIbreakinat when callingformodernizationofHungarian HungarianpoetEndrefound inthefirstimportantworkoffamous Ady can be of thisborder-perception example but stillvalid the West.Alater, to Vienna.Atthesame time, Dévény was seen asthesymbol of gateway to the way boatpassedbyiton location werewell-known,astravelerstaking 90 Hungarica not playasignificantrole.It wasseenasan emblematicborderpoint( Original: 'Szabad-e betörnöm Dévénynél / Új id Kilianova, Whereas DevínplayedamarginalroleintheHungarianself- To summarize,intheHungariannational consciousnessDévénydid The SlovakDevín: ) towards Austria, but nothing more. Austria, butnothing ) towards Lieux de mémoire EndreAdy, , 155 haut lieu Összes versei Összes ofthenation 47 91 (Oeuvre) (Budapest: Szépirodalmi Kiadó, Ğ knek új dalaival?' Endre Ady: 90 However,itsnameand Góg és Porta CEU eTD Collection Kraus. (Bratislava: Slovensky Tatran, 2001), 179 2001), Tatran, Slovensky (Bratislava: Kraus. 94 93 92 when connected toRastislav,theGreatMoravian past. of Slovaks(Danube,K III thefuturenationalsymbols brotherhood). InDevín appearsamong Part nation' (althoughKollárwroteinCzech, emphasizingthePanslav poetryand'risetheSlovak Slovak national as thefirstattempttocreate (The daughterofgoddessSlava)written in 1832.Kollár’spoem can be seen Thus,awakeners. Devínwasincorporated intoJánKollár’s king ofourSlovaks". between 1777-1786)DevínasthecapitalofSvatopluk,"themostfamous ecclesiae Pannoninae mentions inhiswork Salagius (Istvánin Hungarian) Szalágyi as earlytheend of 18thcentury an enlightened clericalhistorian,Stefan significance, ofcourse,was the castlewhich guardedtheDanube. Hence, Moravian kingsandthusprobablyCyrilMethodius,too.Proofofthat to beanoldandimportantsettlementin theMiddleAges,hostingGreat within thewholeHabsburgEmpire. ofworshippingthesesaints and since177714Marchbecametheday "Ne, to D Kilianova, Kiliánová, arranged onL’udovitStúrinstigation"a triptotheruinsof on Sunday,April24,1836(St. George’s day)Slovakstudents The firsteventconcerningSlovaknation-buildinghappenedin1836, mindofRomanticnation- grabbed the Theview ofDevín picturesque Even withoutarchaeologicalexcavationsitwasclearthatDevínused ď vín Lieux de mémoire Ein Grenzmythos Ā umí skalnatý / nešt’astného sídlo Rostislava!" Ján Kollár, 93 (On the state of PannonianChurch,published (Onthestateof Ģ 56 156 ivan peak, Lomnic hill, etc.) and it is clearly it is hill,etc.) and peak, Lomnic ivan 92 48 94 Dielo Slávy dcera De statu , ed. Cyril CEU eTD Collection 95 and 1890’swerenot takenplace in Devín butratherinBanskáBystrica main festivalsofthe Cyril andMethodius anniversaries betweenthe 1860’s nationalfeelings.However, the Slovak became animportantwaytoexpress and Methodius the cultofCyril sixties, by Magyars.Beginningwiththe increasing rate,representingSlavicbrotherhood andrepression of Slovaks connotationat an anti-Hungarian Great Moraviantraditiongained compressed, all-embracingcradleofSlovaknationalhistory. basis ofSlovaknation-buildingidea.Thus, Devínemergedasa The invented)traditionsgave the Devín. combinationofthesetwo(rather in to settle kingswerebelieved Great Moravian other hand,theglorious there andtostarttheirbaptizingworkamongSlavsfromthecastle.On meanings: ontheonehand,Cyrilland Methodius werethoughttolive Devín wasseenasaholyplace,both in nationalandecclesiastical holy mass,whilere-baptismdoes not need tobeexplainedany more. Thus, a festivity thereplayedtheroleof the resembles onpilgrimagetoashrine, walk ceremonies: thenational performance clearlycopiedChristian remained ofminorimportanceintheHungariancontext.Stúr’s By thisact,DevínbecameamajorSlovak Kilianova, kind ofnationalbaptism. continued withawardingthenamesbyL’udovitStúr,itwasa add totheirChristiannamesnew Slavic names. Eager approval Stúr proposedthattheparticipantschoosea"mottooflife"and After anotherhymnanddeclamationof selected poems,L’udovit followed byStúr’sspeechonthehistorical importanceofDevín. sang asong,whichwas and festivecharacter.Atfirstparticipants Devín hadaceremonial old castleofthefathers."That climbof Alongside thestrengtheningof Hungarian-Magyar nationalism,the Lieux de mémoire , 157 95 49 lieu demémoire , whereas CEU eTD Collection 2005), 160 workers, andlaterHungarianstateemployees, middle-classcitizens and century Romanianpeasantsand Transylvania. However,sincethe17th right togovernitselfandbecamean independent, feudal'nation' within Transylvania.Transylvania TheSaxon community ofSouthern hadthe and laterfrom theprincesof privileges fromtheHungariankings important Saxons)whogained (called here been inhabitedbyGermans in theSoutheasterncornerofTransylvania. Sincethe13thcenturyithad Kronstadt (inGerman)hasbeen an important, well-offtradingsettlement Pozsony történetéb (Bratislava, as the center of theSlovak political life in theReform Age), in: 97 movement, overshadowingthemuchlargerPrešporok. Tur Thus,decided tobebasedonthecentralSlovakdialect. fromthe1860’s, literarylanguage,whichwas Slovak of the was duetothedevelopment ofSlovaknationalmovement Sv. Martin/Turócszentmárton)as thecenter the emergenceofmiddleUpperHungary(especially Turthe town 96 in termsofthe whole Hungary" Devín canbeseenin connection with the decline ofBratislava’s importance Gabriela Kiliánová,anexpertofSlovak nation-building, "theoblivionof (Besztercebánya), Nitra(Nyitra)andVelehrad (inMoravia).Accordingthe ZsoltVesztróczy, "Pozsony, minta reformkori szlovák politikai központja"élet Kilianova, Ā iansky Sv. Martin became the leading centerofSlovaknational iansky Sv.Martinbecamethe Bra The city of Brassó (in Hungarian) or Bra TheHungarian) or cityofBrassó(in ü ov Lieu demémoire Ğ l magyar és szlovák szemmel 159 96 tothe benefit ofBudapest. In addition, 50 , ed. Gábor Czoch (Bratislava: Kalligram, (Bratislava: Czoch Gábor , ed. ü ov (inRomanian)or 97 Fejezetek Ā iansky CEU eTD Collection ed. Árpád E. Varga Központi (Budapest: Statisztikai HivatalLevéltára, 2003), 418 98 preferred theHabsburgs tothePestgovernment. Constitution,German beginning WarofIndependencewas unacceptableforSaxons,who the autumn1848theyclearly turned against therevolution.Besides, became united,Germans started to feel their autonomyendangered and by Transylvania But asHungaryand benefitors werecitiesandbourgeoisie. economicprogress,whose since thedissolutionoffeudalismencouraged German andRomanianpopulationofKronstadt supportedthechanges, important onein1848.Just after thestart oftherevolutionmajority of Thisnoblemen. delicatesituationledtoseveralconflictsandsothemost Transylvanianthe administration,whichwasdominatedbyHungarian government ofViennaand had tobalancebetweenthecentralHabsburg Thispolices. meant thatGermans Germans tendedtosupporttheViennese Transylvanianusually acknowledgedtheautonomyofSaxons,thus 13th centuryandconfirmedseveraltimesThe later. Habsburggovernment Transylvania wastokeeptheirrightofhome-rule,guaranteedfirstinthe always fromSaxonsandlanguageofadministrationwasGerman,too. their political,socialandeconomicleading role:mayorofthecityemerged their weekpositionin term of numbers, Germanswereable to preserve 10441people)andRomanians(31,7%, 9758people). (34,0%, three moreorlessequalgroups:Germans 9478people),Magyars (30,8%, the Brassóitselfwasdividedinto According toa1890censuspopulationof by theturnof20thcenturySaxons foundthemselvesinminority. workers begantomoveinto the Saxonterritories (calledKönigsboden)and Nyárády, R. Károly. Most importantpoliticalgoal of the German communityofSouth Erdély népesedéstörténete 51 (Demographich history of Transylvania), 98 Despiteof CEU eTD Collection German partyandcollaboratingwith theotherminorityparties. generation ofpoliticiansstepped on the stagebyfounding the "Green" new Germanpoliticalelite,a the older Opposing theloyalpolicyof Transylvanian Germansintotwopartsjust atthebeginningof the 1890’s. Transylvania. separate German nationof did notgiveupthedemandon which acknowledgedtheideaofHungarianstate( accepted Transylvanian Saxons) (Munich: Langen Müller, 1998), 160-161 1998), Müller, Langen (Munich: Saxons) Transylvanian governing LiberalParty.In 1890the autonomy ceasedtoexist,the liberal German citizenssupportedthe German systemandthus replaced bycounty was soondissolvedand dualism. AlthoughtheSaxonUniversity(theautonomousbodyofSaxons) 102 101 100 authorities. May1849Roth –was sentenced– as atraitor In death to by andexecuted theHungarian története (Transylvania duringrevolution the and War ofIndependence, 1848-1849) In 99 of theHungarianParliamentwhereHabsburgsweredeposited. April meeting the 14 took partat Kronstadt delegates of to thefall.Liberal liberals andradicalssupportedthe revolution andWarofIndependence up forces oftheEmperor. However,someKronstadtian GermanandRomanian leader ofKronstadt. LudwigRoth,aninfluential Stephan led Saxonpoliticians,accordingto national feeling,loyalty to the Emperor –thesewere the major ideas which Ambrus Miskolczy,a forradalomban Erdély szabadságharcban és (1848-1849) Konrad Gündisch, 785-788 I. Kemény, III. 1414,1420. Ibid After 1867,Germanbourgeoisietended to accepttheachievementsof , ed. Béla Köpeczi, ed. (Budapest: Akadémiai, 1986),III.1398-1399 Das sächsisches Volksprogramm 101 However,theincreasingMagyarizationdivided Siebenbürgen und die siebenbürger Sachsen 99 MajorityofTransylvanian Germansfavoredthus the 52 Sachsentag (The Saxonpeople’sprogram) magyar állameszme (SaxonParliament) (Transylvania and the 100 102 Erdély ) but As CEU eTD Collection 1830’s and1840’s;duringthistimethe leadingtax-payersofthecitywere TheGreek businessmen. heydayoftheRomaniancommercewas century, theytooktheleadingroleofLevantinetradefromSaxonand Sincethe first halfofthe19th of theHabsburgMonarchyandBalkans. (Orthodox) merchantsaccumulatedhighfortunesbylinkingthecommerce Romanian bourgeoisieofBra administration oftheBra by themillenniumandtwopartiesgavedifferentanswers. As laterwillbepresented,theGermancommunitywashighlychallenged Meschendörfer, 106-107 lassen." begraben Stadtprediger grünen keinem von Welt die Schuster Schuhe machen, ein Scwarzer hielt nur schwarte Angestellte grünen und einem hättevon sich um nur sich ließ und Bäcker grünen dem bei nur kaufte Grüner …Ein Eckart sächsischen der Volkes. …Der Feind mußtemit allen Mitteln vernichtet wurden. deuteteman entweder als Kastraten, Krippenhengst, Volksverräter aber als getreuen Narr,Bruderkrieg inder ganzen sächsischen Geschichte. „Grüner” hießHerostrat, bei den einen: Phantast, Familezu Familie, in allen Vereinen undKörperschaften, begannes unheilvollste der Politik vielzu lau betrieben wurde. …Es begann diewüsteste Agitation von Haus zu Haus, bei103 den anderen: Retter in der zwölften Stunde. Einen „Schwarzen” Stadt im Osten writerputinhisnovel Alfred Meschendörfer,aKronstadtianGerman "Die „grüne” Bewegung hatte begonnen. Ein Paar junge Leute fanden, daß unsere buried byaGreenpriest. would havebeennever Black hadonlyemployeesand the Greenshoemaker;a Green bakeryandletmakeshoesonlyat have beenannihilatedbyallmeans.…A Green boughtonlyatthe Themust … enemy Saxon nation. people, ortruefriendofthe were labeledeithercastrate,stallionof cradle,traitorofthe fool, herostraticbutbytheotherssavior in thelasthour.Blacks the entirehistoryofSaxonpeople. Greens werecalleddreamer, associations andcorporations,themost fatal civilwarbeganin agitation beganfromhousetohouse, familytofamily,inall that ourpoliticsbecamehalfhearted. The… mostdesolate youngpeoplefounded Thestarted. Coupleof greenmovement Although Romanianstendednottotakeleadingroleinthe : ü ov, contrary to other Transylvanian other towns, the to ov, contrary 103 ü ov washighlydeveloped.Romanian 53 Die CEU eTD Collection there werepermanentquarrelsaboutthe exactmeansofthisopposition. towns aswell– was united in the declining ofMagyarization, although progress andembourgeoisement. contemporaries asthe leading core of Romanian modernization,national decadence, theRomanianbourgeoisie of Bra influenced theeventsofmillennium,too. nation-building remainedand and cultivation ofRomanianculture the traditionofself-conscious decline, bourgeoisie. Inspite ofthis Romanian the alreadydeclined 1873) tosave constructed toolate(in However, railwayconnection to Kolozsvár (Cluj)and Budapest was Transylvania with Hungary. to theconstructionoftrainlinesconnecting tobeaseriousdisadvantageup peripherical locationofthecityturnedout Themodern capitalismdeclineoftraditionaltransittradebegan. modern Romanianpress.However,inthe1850’sbyemergenceof century) (Miercuera Ciuc: Pro Print,2004),133 19th the of 2nd half the in ofTransylvania Romanians among embourgeoisment of process 105 merchant bourgeoisie, 1780-1860) (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1987),43-174 szerepe (1780-1860) in Bra building livedandworked Romanian daily culture: ithostedaRomanianpublishing house,highschoolandthefirst 104 Thus,culture. Bra Thecapital. wealthoftheBra Romanians andtheypossessedthehighest partofthecity’scommercial Barna Ábrahám, Barna Ambrus Miskolczy, Gazeta Transylvaniei Az erdélyi románság polgárosodása a 19. század második felében (The East-West transit role of the Bra the roleof transit East-West (The A brassói román levantei keresked ü ov served traditionally asthecenterofOrthodox ov servedtraditionally ü ov bourgeoisie enabledthesupportofhigh ov bourgeoisie 105 ü ov, such asGeorgeBari ov, such The population–asinother Romanian 54 . Major figuresofRomanian . nation- 104 Ğ ü polgárság kelet-nyugati közvetít ov was still seen by the Despiteoftheeconomic ü ovian Romanian Levantine Romanian ovian Ħ , founder ofthe , (The Ğ CEU eTD Collection Adolf Albrecht, 1890),16-17 Kronstadt 109 108 107 the beautifulpanorama, Zinne toenjoy anexcursionto visitors tomake guide from1890advised for Kronstadtbourgeoisieandbelongedtothehighlightsofcity.Atravel location inthelocalperception.Thehas beenapopularresting-place hill bear anation-wideimportanceincollective memory,itwasasignificant same year. 1910, whileGermansconstitutedonly Romanians in the 28,7%26,2%, the articleturnedouttoberight:ratioofMagyarsroseup43,4%in their headtheswordofDamocles of the Hungarian state. TheGermans. cityisledby Saxons, says thearticle,butthey feel above as iftheywere strangers in the city, because theylet everything to newspaper article,Romaniansbehaveasiftheywerenon-existent,Magyars in numbers,KronstadtwasconsideredtobeaSaxoncity.According 106 assimilate. The Romanianswereseenastheless willing non-Magyar ethnicity to Edward Mysz, Nyárády, 418 Pesti Hírlap Pesti Pesti Hírlap Pesti Although CenkHill(ZinneinGerman,Tâmpa inRomanian)didnot The Cenkhill:touristresortandsymbolicplace Although bytheendofcentury German community wastheweakest (Tour advisor for excursions in the hills surrounding Bra surrounding hills the in excursions for advisor (Tour 106 108 , 16 October 1896 , 16October , 18 October 1896 , 18October Touren-Weiser für Ausflüge in die Berge und Gebirge der Umgebung von 109 whileanotheroneclaimsthat"no leaves 55 ü ov) (Bra ov) 107 The authorof ü ov: Verlag von Verlag ov: CEU eTD Collection 116 and present) (Bra present) and 115 114 87-88, 160-161 travel descriptions of Gedeon Tanárky andSámuel Fenichel) (Budapest: Lucidus, 2006), Gedeon és Fenichel Sámuel útleírásai 113 ErdélyrésziKárpát-Egyesület, 1895), 22 112 49 1874), Heinrich, Sohn & Gott Johann 111 Carl 1886),47 Graeser, (Thecity Bra Filtsch, 110 landscape before. hadnever seen suchbeautiful from theviewaswell,claimingthathe aiming togetfromNagyenyed(Aiud)Bucharest. Fenichelwasastonished archeologist andbotanistSámuelFenichelstoppedatBrassóin1888while Kronstadt withoutclimbingtheZinneHill." known as Kapellenberg (Chapel Hill) as known asKapellenberg(ChapelHill) well. Thefounded byJohannDraudt,aCatholicsenatorofthe city. hillbecame which wasreplaced byachapel, Up to1712acrossstoodontheZinne so much. the city,asheenjoyedpanorama first,andhardlycouldreturnto Brassó in1840,climbedtheCenkhillat Theguides. youngHungarian lawyer Tanárky,Gedeon whenarrivingto tourism, in1872a stone terrace was built toattractmore visitors began afterthefallof Hungarian freedom fightin1848-1849,whena heavily damagedby a thunderbolt in 1737. small restaurantservedthetiredtourists. a topofthehill.OnZinne later convenientpavementwasbuildtothe Filtsch, 48-49 Filtsch, Friedrich Phillipi, 183-184 Ibid, ÁrpádLosonczy Tóthand Sámuel Izsák, ed, Lajos Méhely, "Kein Reisender verlässt Kronstadt, ohne die Zinne erstiegen zu haben." Josef W. Führer fürKronstadt und Umgebung Visitors tothecitytendedfollowenthusiasticadviceoftravel The hillwasextensivelyusedforpurposes beyondtourismaswell. Die Stadt Kronstadt und deren Umgebung. Ein Führer Einheimischefür undFremde ü ov and its surrounding. A guide for locals and strangers) (Vienna: Verlag von ü Brassóvármegyei turista-kalauz ov, 1874), 8 1874), ov, 114 Aus Kronstadt’sVergangenheit und Gegenwart (Hungarian travellers in the Danube region. The (Guide to Bra 56 (Tourist guide for Bra 112 Magyar utazók a Duna-tájon. Tanárky Duna-tájon. a utazók Magyar 116 110 The politicalusageof the hill 115 Into promotemodern order The chapel,however, was ü ov and surrounding) (Bra 113 Anothertraveler,the (From Bra ü ov county) (Cluj: ü ov’s past 111 and ü ov: CEU eTD Collection 118 117 hated monument. in 1860buthedidnotgoclosetothe Thalythis statue himself saw course, outragedbythismonument.Kálmán Saxons tendedtoopposetheHungarianfreedomfight. army overHungarywassponsoredbythecity Transylvaniancouncil, since the rebellion).This monument celebrating thevictoryofRussian-Austrian Russia unita – Rebelliodevicta rebellious dragon.The inscription ofthemonumentsaid:' withalionwhichdefeatedthe pyramid wassetupontheZinne,decorated citizens didnotfixitanymore. 1861 athunderboltdestroyedthestatue andtheKronstadtGerman Thaly, 39 Thaly, Gündisch,133-136 ' (The united AustriaandRussiabetdown ' (The united 57 117 Magyarswere,of 118 However,in Austria cum CEU eTD Collection 119 was willingtodefenditsindependencein caseofanAustrianaggression. Jela statue wasnotdesignedasaprovocative andaggressiveone(unlikethe was finishedinDévényandHungarians didnotwant Theto gofurther. thatconquerofthecountry represented country", whiletheletdownsword theycameintoan"independent that entering HungaryfromViennabyboat sword inhisletdownrighthand.Thecoatsofarmshadtoremindtravelers his lefthandonashieldbearingtheHungariancoatsofarmsandhaving theageofÁrpád stood,leaning erected, onwhichaMagyarwarriorfrom ruins. FollowingtheintentionsofThaly, a21meterhighcolumnwas The stoodinthecourtof castle Hungary andAustria. monument itself reported bythenewspapersindetails. were elections overshadowedthehappeningsaswell.Still,bothfestivities as highattention the previous unveiling ceremonies.The forthcoming festivities belongedtothe last ones in the country,sothey did not receive locations happenedonthesameday, that is18October1896.These Theat both unveiling ceremony places toerectmillenniummonuments. MPs, bishops,generals ofthecommon army, mayorofPozsonyandall Thaly, 19-21 ĀLþ Dévény waschosentomanifesttheexistenceofborderbetween As alreadymentioned,bothDévény and Brassówerechosenas The ones:localpoliticians, unveilingceremonywasliketheprevious 5. Millennium inDévény and in Brassó: elevatedspirit, sculpture in Zagreb, argued Thaly) butasareminderthatHungary sculptureinZagreb,argued refusal and hectic afterlife 58 119 CEU eTD Collection 123 122 Hírlap Pesti elfoglalt." örökre melyet az országra, tekint nyugodtan 121 120 Nyugatmagyarországi Híradó non-Magyars. greatnationalmissionamong Dévény andBrassómonumentsasofhaving daily ofthe opposition reported on the event inahigh spirit too, calling the daily conquered forever." thecountrywhichhasbeen in theother,lookscalmlythroughout down hisswordinonehand,holdingthe shield ofHungariancoatsarms Hírlap reception inPozsony. speech atthecolumn in Dévény, which wasfollowedby an elegant mass, ministerofroyalcourtBaronSamuJósikadeliveredthemain important menofthecityweretakingpart.AfteraceremonialCatholic Hungarian ofworkingalwaysinfavor Hungary. of Themonument shouldremind every states astoHungary herself. signal tobothofthe and state.Thereforeneighboring the statuewasa jealousy andenvywhileprovingthevictorious ideaofHungariannation their their endeavorsconcerning the failureof the neighborsofHungary was amemorialto the power of theHungarian state.The statueexplained Theceremony. unknownauthorofthearticleclaimedthat the monument "A honfoglaló h K Egyetértés Napló Pesti Ğ váry, 151-155 reported that "the hero of settlement ( reportedthat"theheroofsettlement liberal and moderate modern, the daily, national Theleading Pesti Napló , 17 October 1896 , 17October , 19 October 1896 , 19October , 18 October 1896 , 18October 123 Ğ The editorialofthelocalHungarian daily s kardját leeresztve a másik kezében a magyar címeres pajzsot tartva delivered a long article on the day of the unveiling onthedayof deliveredalongarticle 121 120 The liberal-nationalist,semi-official governmental hoped that the Dévénymonumentwouldbe hopedthat 59 honfoglalás 122 Egyetértés ), whileletting , theleading Pesti CEU eTD Collection newspaper oftheGermanbourgeoisie, 126 rather offeredtheirservicestoHungarians. Sincethentheyhavebeen but they TheMagyars letthemtogo, Dévény, theMoravianssurrendered. he fellinlovewithher.Afterseeingthat Magyars wouldwinthebattleover the bodyofdaughterbutfoundher dead, andbecameverysad,since castle. AccordingtoZsigárdy’sstory, the Magyar chieftainwaslooking for suicide withhisdaughterwhenseeing that theMagyarswouldtake story inventedprobablybyhimselfabouttheMoraviankingwhocommitted romantic fairytale,nota 'realistic' political speech.Zsigárdywastelling a former habitantsofthecastle.Buthisspeechremindsonerathera speaker, alocallawyerofminorimportance,GyulaZsigárdy,mentionedthe wereratherneglected,onlyone castle and thepre-Hungarianhistoryof castle wasamessageonlyto Austria. During theunveilingfeastSlovaks by theSlovakinhabitantsofarea.ThestatueatruinsDevín accounted thepatrioticspeechesdelivered inDévény. report ontheunveiling to themillennialfestivities.Theceremony detailed Pressburg partlyhostedthecelebrationsandthuscitycouldcontribute 125 124 the Christian-Social the participantswerereportedby ( of thesettlement an altartotheheroes too. Preßburger TagblattPreßburger Preßburger Zeitung Híradó Nyugatmagyarországi 126 Interestingly, theHungarianperceptionofDevínwasnotinfluenced , 19 October 1896 , 19October , 19 October 1896 , 19October , 18October1896 60 Preßburger ZeitungPreßburger honfoglalás Preßburger Tagblatt ). 125 124 The speechesof , was proud that , was The traditional , CEU eTD Collection 130 129 128 devínského this perception of the Dévény monument, too. Thethis perceptionoftheDévénymonument, too.PressburgGermans current politicalsituation.It seemsto be that thelocal Germans accepted their 'own'monumentattheZoborHill near toNyitraremindthemofthe sign toAustria,butnothingmore.The ofUpperHungaryreceived Slovaks aforesaid ideaofArnoldIpolyi ofMoravianrootsthecastle. ontherefusal to dowiththegloriousSlavpast. had nothing DevíninHungary Moravia, therefore identical withVelehradin Moravian fortress Devínwas issue, however,itclaimedthattheGreat Nyugatmagyarországi Híradó nor thelocalSlovaksintotheirreports.The localHungariandaily minor rankofthespeakerhimself,isnowhardtodecide. this uninterestwascausedby the rather low levelofthe speech or by the Julius Zsigárdy, Interestingly, Zsigárdy published his speech not only in Hungarian, but in Slovak, too: published byLászlóK events ofthemillennial detailed collection German newspapers,northe 127 Híradó Egyetértés prehistory ofthecastle.The speech ofZsigárdywaspublishedonlyby the ceremonytotheSlavsor only referencemadeduringtheunveiling to Magyars. living there,beingfaithful the Devín millennium monument) (Galanta: Els (Galanta: monument) millennium Devín the leleplezésénél mondott Gyula Zsigárdy, Nyugatmagyarországi Híradó Nyugatmagyarországi Nyugatmagyarországi Híradó, Nyugatmagyarországi Egyetértés The contemporariesasaclear Dévénymonumentwasseenbythe the place, Slavhistoryof the National newspapersincludedneither . 129 (Trnava: Tla (Trnava: Either dailiesandthelocal theleadingnationalgovernmental 128 , 19 October 1896 , 19October andthelocalHungarian daily, Re Ā , ktorú držal Julius Zsigárdy pri odhaleni tisicro odhaleni pri Zsigárdy Julius držal ktorú , (Speech delivered by Gyula Zsigárdy at the unveiling ceremony of Beszéd, melyet Zsigárdy Gyula a dévényi millenáris szobor Ā ou Žigmunda Wintera, 1896) Wintera, Žigmunda ou Ğ váry mentioneditintheirreportsonthefestivity.If , 18Ocotber 1896 19 October 1896 19October wastheonly mediumwhichdid not omitthe 61 130 127 This conceptcorrespondsto the Ğ Galánthai Könyvnyomda, 1896) Könyvnyomda, Galánthai This romanticfairytalewasthe Nyugatmagyarországi Ā neho pomnika neho CEU eTD Collection name of the city that the monument would besaved,sinceitsymbolized name ofthecitythatmonumentwould KarlJacobipromisedinthe not wanttopartakeintheceremony. Mayor was worryingabout thosewhodid the territoryofHungarybeganthere.He own will.AccordingtoMüller, the Cenk monument showedforeignersthat in German,arguingthat Germans participated attheceremony by their patriotic speeches.Hewastalking reservations andwentbeyondallother the millennialconferenceoneducation,atthismomentheforgotabouthis the HungariangovernmentwhencriticizingMagyarizingdecisionsof Hungarian, SibiuinRomanian).AlthoughMüllerhadsomeconflictwith Hermannstadt (Nagyszebenin of Müller, GermanLutheranbishop 132 Interior Dezs delivered byMagyars(countygovernor Mihály Maurer,Ministerof the professors tookpartattheunveiling festival. Besidesomespeeches Magyar andGermanpoliticians, generals ofthearmy and university same timemanifestingtheHungarianabilityofself-defense. ofarmstoRomaniansandatthe Dévény one,showingtheHungariancoats Austrian onestood. memorialwheretheformer chose exactlythesameplaceformillennial Thaly ofthecountry.Kálmán corner monument wasunveiledattheother 131 refusal. of clear way, butthereisnosign welcomed themillenniuminamodest Thaly, 39 Thaly, Preßburger Zeitung Leading Hungarianpoliticians,representatives ofSzeklers,local On thesameday,thatis18October 1896 theBrassómillennial 131 Ğ Perczel)themostpatrioticaddresswasprovidedby Friderich 1January1896,18October 1896 132 The was ofthesamedesignas Cenkmonument 62 CEU eTD Collection Brassói Lapok Brassói dics hirdetsz, megdönthetetlenül s rendületlenül és élnisziveinkben fog ésbiztosítanifogja avagy ha lerombolnának villáma, sujtó ég aharagos haledönt vagy sziklatalapzatodat, morzsolja óta évezredek förtelmes merénynyel apagyilkos kezek …: az az eszme, a mit te állam erejét dics és oszlop! Állj rendületlenül, uralkodjál egyönyör igaz testvéri szeretettel borul le a hazafiság szent oltára el oltára szent a hazafiság le borul szeretettel testvéri igaz ország, ha minden népe: nyelv- ésvalláskülönbség nélkül egy szivvel (sic), egy lélekkel, lángoszlop vezessen minket az ígéretnek még el nem ért134 földjére, melylyé akkor váland ez 133 several high-spiriteventsinthetown(illumination,concerts,etc.) 'our belovedcountry'.Thespeecheswerefollowedbyareceptionand the enthusiasmfeltbyMagyars: peculiarities: accept themillennialideabutatsametimenottogiveuptheir "Legyen ez emlékm K Ğ Ğ nemzetünkszámára azáldotthazát egyönyör és váry, 146-151 millennia. blessed homelandandthisbeautifullandforthenext our heartsfirmlyandwillassurefor our gloriousnationthe andwilllivein representing, isirrefutable the ideawhichyouare you in adisgustingway: falls youoriffather-killerhandsattack innumerable millenniaorif thunderbolt ofthefurious heaven even iftimewillweatheryou,which ruins yourstonebottomfor the powerandgloryofmillenniumoldHungarianstate.And dignified column.Steadilystand,rulethisbeautifulland,preach Youaresuchanaltar, themselves attheholyaltarofpatriotism. one heart,withspirit,truebrotherlovewillprostrate people, withoutregardondifferencesof language orreligion,with promise, whichthiscountrywillbechanged intowhenallits biblical pillaroffireshall it leadus to the yetunreachedlandof Let thismonumentbeourhope,thecolumn ofourtrust.Likethe people, unless we want to sign our death sentence. However,this our death people, unlesswewanttosign state isandmustremainthemoral inevitable fortheSaxon fatherland ortheentire love of idea that Thereforehave the we The editorial of the local Hungarian daily Theof thelocal editorial The Germannewspaper , 20 October 1896 , 20October 134 Ğ ségét! És haszétmállaszt isazid Ĭ amireménységünk, ami bizodalmunk oszlopa. Mint abibliai KronstädterTageblatt 63 Ĭ vidéken, hirdesd az ezeréves magyar Ĭ séges vidéket ujabb évezredekre." Ğ BrassóiLapok tt. Ilyen oltár vagy te, magasztos te, vagy oltár Ilyen tt. Ğ , mely megszámlálhatatlan encouraged Saxons to encouragedSaxons expressedall 133 CEU eTD Collection 136 Kronstädter Tageblatt Interessedes ungarischen Staates entnationalisiert werden müßten." im ausbrechenden 2. Jahrtausend die Zeit noch nicht kommen, wo wir Sachsen im Staate zu Staate Bürger des ungarischen Staates sein, so müssen wirbereit sein, mit dem ungarischen oder die Sprache unserer Mutter zu vergessen trachten. … Denn wollen wir wahrhafte „magyarisieren” Väter unserer Namen wir den daß bestehen, darin nicht uns für allerdings nicht selber unser Todesurteil unterschreiben wollen. DieseVaterlandsliebe kann auch für das Sachsenvolk eine sittliche Notwendigkeit ist und bleiben muß, wenn wir 135 party followers did not accept his argumentation. Ameetingofthecity party followersdidnotaccepthisargumentation. ThalyAlthough thoughtthathisspeech convinced localSaxons,the Green Romanians mightassimilatetheentire populationofTransylvania. that GermansandHungariansmust unite againstRomanians,since autonomy, respectedtheircultureand language. Heevenwarnedthem reminded KronstadtGermansthat Hungary hadbeenguaranteed their Thaly minority totheBlack party. the state,buttheyfoundthemselvesin not protestagainstit). at leastdid ofcolumns(or accepted theerection the otherlocationslocals Thismillennial column. protest made Brassóuniqueinthissense,since at Brassó partoflocalpopulationheavilyprotestedagainsttheidea in of alltheapprovalbyMagyars, Thereforenot surprisingthatdespite itis nationalization whichtheauthorofthis articlethoughttobeavoidable. exactly that wanted todo However, theHungariangovernment Thaly, 40-41 "Darum sind wir der Meinung, daß die Liebe zum Vaterlande oder zum Staatsganzen the interestofHungarianstate. have benationalizedin forecoming secondmillenniumtomust tothepointin consciousness, butwewillnotcome Wearefullwiththis state. to stayandfallwiththeHungarian be truthfulcitizensoftheHungarianstate, weshallbeprepared fathers orforgetlanguageofourmothers. …Aswewouldliketo love offatherlandcannotmeanthatweMagyarizenameour The Green Saxons did not want to let the territory of the Zinne hill to Zinne hill territory ofthe the to let not want TheSaxons did Green stehen und zu und , 17 October 1896 , 17October fallen . Sind wir aber von solchen Bewußstein erfüllt, so wird auch wird so erfüllt, Bewußstein solchen von aber wir . Sind 64 135 136 CEU eTD Collection Pesti Napló Pesti day ofthefestivity and Germancivil associations hadseriousquarrels ceremony, manyGermansdecoratedtheir houseswithSaxonflagsonthe column. Budapest governmentandacceptedtheexistenceofmillennial confront withthe did notwantto Blacks the Blackpartyaswell,however, Thechauvinism." Greenpartywassharedbyseveralfollowersof viewofthe Finally, theydiscouragedGermanstopartakein"theorgyofMagyar that theHungariangovernmentdepressedGermans Transylvania.in without theassistanceof Magyars. As a further matter,theywere claiming to becelebrated, as their ancestors had settled inKronstadt later than 896, millenniumforthemwasnot Moreover, theywerearguingthatHungarian 138 Kronstädter Zeitung eine beabsichtigteBeleidigung herrschenden des deutschen Elements in Burzenland." Errichtungdiesed ArpaddenkmalsKronstadt in Nonsens,ist ein historischeeine Lüge, Stadt ist.Unternehmens, das eineHerausforderung und Beleidigung… des Sachsentumes dieserDas Weiterwuchern137 des Chauvinismus können wir nicht unterstützen. Die Kronstädter Zeitung did notwanttocoverthe increased expenses ofthefestivity.As unveiling ceremonydevelopedintoahuge scandal,astheGreenSaxons the question andthecostsof council inSeptemberconcerningthe "Die Stadt kann doch ihr Geld wahrlich besser brauchen, als zur Föderung eines Pesti Hírlap Pesti insult oftherulingGermanelementinBurzenland. historic lie,anintended monument inKronstadtisanonsense, chauvinism cannotbesupported.ErectionoftheÁrpád- Thesprawl of … further city. challenges andinsultsSaxonsofthe aprojectwhich Theits moneywiserthanfinancing citycoulduse As a result, pupils of German high schools didnotparticipateinthe high schools As aresult,pupilsofGerman 138 18, 19 September 1896 18,19September 18, 19 September 1896 18,19September , 15 September 1896, 15September argued: 65 137 CEU eTD Collection 142 1923, fiveyearsaftertheoccupation Transylvania:of millennial monumentontheopening page ofhispamphletpublishedin media, whichwasworryingaboutthefuturefaithofstatue. Thetown. damageitselfwasnotserious,stilltheact shocked Hungarian unknown personsdamagedthestatue, which waskeptinsidea mill inthe as well.Two monthsbeforetheunveiling ceremony,during the night but byacts expressedinwords only millennium wasnot Theof the refusal same timepraisingTransylvanian fortheirpatrioticattitude. Armenians 141 Meschendörfer, 170-171 Stadt Árpád-Denkmaldie ein pflanzen„in zu – unserer Stadt!”" 140 moderate Even the resistance, ofcourse,shockedHungarianpublicopinion. This oftheRomanianflag. festival onCenkHill,usingthecolors having anOrthodoxchurchfeastinthe townjustduringtheunveiling either. Indeed,Romanians were not decoratetheirhouseswithflags, Romanians didnottakepartintheunveilingceremonyatallandthey monument ontheZinneabovecity–»inourcity!«" an Árpád- festivitytoerect millennial for their lords inBudapestplan theirs: "The themonumentas feel did not clearly showsthatGermans 139 about theparticipation. "Die Herren Magyaren in Budapest planen zu ihrer Tausendjahrfeier auf die Zinne über Pesti Hírlap Pesti Pesti Hírlap Pesti Pesti Hírlap Pesti A localRomanian,AndreiPopoviciintroducedtheshockof Romanians were even more rejecting. According tothenewspapers, Romanians wereevenmorerejecting.According Pesti Hírlap , 9 August 1896 August , 9 , 20 October 1896 , 20October , 17 September 1896,15 1896October , 17September condemnedtothebehaviorofRomanians,at 139 The alreadycitednovelofAlfredMeschendörfer 66 140 142 141 CEU eTD Collection Why Popovoci calls Bra calls Popovoci Why Transylvania) (Budapest: Szent István Társulat, 1896) late as 1211. See: János Karácsony, János See: as 1211. late example, argued acknowledgedin by somecontemporary a Hungarian scientistslecture as well. János Karácsony, for delivered in 1896, that the Brassó region was conquered as PopoviciEditura Ziaruli Carpa is right at the point that Árpád had never been to Bra Andrei Popovici, în idol unguresc unguresc idol în vârful „Tâmpei”, cea mai mongol mai cea „Tâmpei”, vârful pacinic 143 investigated short,too.Theregionof Pannonhalma andPusztaszerwas millennial columnsbynon-Magyars,the otherfivemonumentsshallbe of theHungarian-Magyarnation-building. populationtotheattempts local non-Magyar a lotabouttheattitudeof into twocamps.Thus, thelocalreception of themillennial monuments tells Pressburg Germansacceptedit,while the KronstadtGermansweresplit of theHungarianmillennium, and theSlovakswererefusingidea the samekindofmonument between Pozsony andBrassó.The Romanians local non-Magyars(andbyMagyarsaswell,justintheotherway). shows whatahighimportancewasascribedtothemillennialmonumentby this clearlychauvinistic-racist work shall notbetaken seriously, it clearly people whoalwayssoughtdeprivationofSaxonsandRomanians.Although rule forSaxons.HeaccusedMagyarsofbeingbarbarian,Asiatic,primitive Popovici’s leafletwantedtodemonstratehowadvantageouswasRomanian "Peste noapte Bra The faceofBra stood, whoneverevenenteredBra Tâmpathe mostMongolfigure above whichonthetop of the from apeacefulGerman-Romanian town became aMagyar nest, stone symbol. Ć In order to be able to analyze and compare thereceptionof compare to analyzeand Into beable order As itwaspresented,seriousdifference emerged inthereceptionof germano-românesc ü i simbol de piatr de simbol i Bra ü ü Ħ ovul ii, 1923),ii, 1 143 ovul. Rom ü ü ov a peacuful German-Romanian town, however, is a secret to me. to a secret is however, town, German-Romanian a peacuful ov ov changedduringonlyone day,becameMagyar, ü i-a schimbat fizionomia, a devenit unguresc Ć adevenit uncuib unguresc, peste cares’a în Ć Ć nii figur Ć unguresc ü i Ć ûDü , care nicicând nu a c nu nicicând , care A honfoglalás és Erdély ii 67 (Bra Ć ." ü ov, a Magyaridol, ü ov. Romanians and Saxons) (Bra Ć lcat prin Bra prin lcat (The settlement and ü ov. This fact was ü i dintr’o localitate ĆOĦ ü ov, „Arpad” at sus, pe ü ov: CEU eTD Collection 146 21 July1896,22 1896; On the 'patriotic behaviour' of Hungarian Rusins: 145 Press,University 122-123 1999), I. 1848-1914" in 144 burnings andstreetdemonstrations. the unveilingceremonyandcommitted someminoractionslikeflag- 'desacralization oftheholyland Croatia.'They rejected toparticipatein tower,since theyhelditasa Croatian publicprotestedagainsttheZemun which belongedtotheautonomousCroatiawithinHungary.Apartof Szerém (SrijeminCroatian,SremSerbian, SyrmieninGerman)County, The highestconflictwasprovokedbytheZimonymonument.isin but theRusinsinHungaryentirelyacceptedpoliciesofBudapest. of HungarianRusins, protested againstthemillenniumandMagyarization that representativesoftheUkrainian Democratic PartyinLemberg economic developmentoftheregioninchange.It isasignificantfeature editorials praisingtheirdevotiontoHungaryandMagyarscalledfor nation. the festivitiesanddeclaredtheir willingness toassimilateintoMagyar local RusinscooperatedwithHungarianauthoritiesattheorganizationof able toprotestagainstit.ThecaseofMunkácsmemorialisevenclearer: Zobor monument,thus,itseemsthatSlovak nationalmovementwasnot National newspapersdidnot report about any Slovakaction concerning the toSlovaksofUpperHungary. Thememorials. Zobor obeliskwasamassage three Thethe other more do this study. attention fromthepointofview therefore theydonotneedspecial inhabited purelybyMagyarpopulation, Protest from Lemberg: from Protest Paul Robert Magocsi, "Rusyn Organizations, Political Parties, and Interest Groups, Pesti Hírlap Pesti 144 The Budapestpress'rewarded''patrioticRusins'by several , 24April1896; Of the Making of Nationalities There is No End Pesti Napló Pesti Pesti Hírlap Pesti Pesti Napló Pesti , 19 July 1896, 21 July 18961896, 21July , 19July , 21 July 1896, 23July1896 , 21July , 11 September 1896 , 11September 68 146 Pesti Napló Pesti The pro-Hungarianstream, , 19July 1896,20 July 1896, (New York: Columbia 145 CEU eTD Collection independent Serbia. See: century Hungarian kings dominated Serbia, too. perceived Serbs asthisattack an towards medieval Serbia was showed at themillennial parade9 May1896, since on the in 15th 149 (Temeschwar/Timi On cooperation seefor instance festivity the ofTemesvár Napló 148 led topublicscandalinBudapest,too. millennium: inBelgradestudentriotedand burnedHungarianflags,which 147 population intheregionmight be a cause ofHungarianuninterest therelativelackofSlovak deserves attention,too.Inthe caseofPressburg of theeffectsMagyarization. in theassimilation project, while Romanians andSerbswere almost intact Rusin elitedecidedtoMagyarize entirely. Slovaksstoodonthe third rank assimilation: Germans,JewsMagyarizedtraditionallyeasyandrapidly;the Thiscooperate. patternabsolutelycorrespondstothegeneralwillingnessof to themseemed tobeready millennial idea,too,althoughsomeof entire Romaniancommunity.Slovaks and Serbstendedtorefusethe Germans (andindeed,byJews,too)whileitwasrejectedalmostthe groups inHungary.The millennialideawasacceptedbyRusinsand most patriotically.' although someSerbiancommunitiestook partinthefestivities 'very Serbs ofHungarymostlyrejected to participate inthemillennialevents, Serbian public,bothinHungaryand Serbia,refusedthemillennium. monument symbolizedthebrotherhood betweenthetwonations. place ofthe stressedthatthe cooperate andthus however, waswillingto The exact reason for the riots On refusionwas that amongof Hungarian Hungarian Serbs: historic flags the flag of Pesti Napló Pesti 15 September 1896 15September Beyond this general pattern, the exact case ofPozsonyandBrassó Beyond thisgeneralpattern,theexact Thus the millennium emerged as a significant challengetoallethnic a significant Thusmillennium emergedas the , 21 September 1896;, 21September 148 The Serbs of Serbia were entirelyoutragedbythe The Serbs ofSerbiawere ü oara/Temišvar), Pesti Hírlap Pesti Pesti Hírlap, Pesti Napló Pesti , 21April1896, 4 May1896, 7 May1896 Pesti Hírlap Pesti 69 149 , 12 May 1896 , 12May 21September 1896 , 26March 1896,24May 1896; Pesti 147 CEU eTD Collection century itbecameclear toeverybodythat the modernizingHungarianstate and1890’s.Attheendof into amodern,nationaloneinthe1880’s Transylvanian Saxons.Thisearly-modernpatrioticfeelingwas converted This1870’s. autonomyresultedinawidespread patrioticfeelingamong rulewasnotdenieduptothe Thehome Transylvanian rightof princes. kingsandlaterfrom received highlevelautonomyfrom Hungarian has togobackintotheMiddleAges.TheTransylvanian South Saxons long run. the goalsofHungariannation-buildingandeventoassimilatein 150 surprising thattheGerman' educational andculturaltiesbetweenPressburgVienna,itisquite closeness ofethnicGermanterritoriesandtheflourishingeconomic,social, Takinginto accountthe accept Hungariancontrolonnationallevel. to citizensof Pressburg seem against Magyardomination,theGerman Pressburg acceptedtheideaofmillennium. surprising thatGermancitizensof quite in theirtown,atthefirstlookitis against themillennialmonument Kronstadt Saxonswereheavilyprotesting motherland, orpraisingtheir'patrioticattitude'. Consideringthefactthat being potentialtraitorsofthe groups, eithercondemningthemto ceremony andthenewspapersdealta lot withthenon-Magyarethnic the Germanpopulation,whereasin other casesthespeakersof Not evenawordwasaddressedto forget theGermancitizensofPressburg? concerning theunveilingceremony.ButhowcouldMagyarpoliticians Babejova, 50 Babejova, While anincreasingnumberofKronstadtSaxonswereprotesting 150 Accordingtomyassumption, to findthemaindifferenceone Bürgers 70 ' of Pressburg werewillingtoaccept ' of CEU eTD Collection 2006) before. TheTimi el 151 nationalism. Hungarian tendedtoaccept easier s/he arrived intoHungary,the assimilate intotheHungariannation.The latersomeone’sancestors Transylvanian Saxons,generallytheGermans werethemost willing to achieve anysuccessin Pressburg. Indeed, apartfromthe Southern GreenGermanpartydidnot Saxons. Itan accidentthatthe cannotbe modern nationalismwasnotassharp inthecaseofTransylvanian Thereforepatriotism wasratherlinkedtothecityitself. theshifttoaccept autonomy,thePressburgian Germans. Duetothelackofregional pressure tochange was not as serious inthe case of the Pressburg to choosebetweenthetwopossiblenationalisms: GermanorMagyar.This patriotism andHungarus-consciousnessatthesametime.The Saxons had phenomenonlikeSaxon can nolongertoleratesuchanearly-modern preferences. Thus,preferences. German,MagyarandSlovakpopulation lived mixed, that immigrantsmovingintothecitywere allowedtoliveaccording tothere began aftertheabolishingoftraditional bourgeois privileges,whichmeant to themiddleof19thcentury.Themass immigrationtoPressburg ethnic groups.Pressburgusedtobe an almost pureGermansettlementup Brassó populationtomillennium was the geographicalstructureof the harder itprovedtobefindthewayintoamodernnation. Ages andtheearlymodern, community enjoyedduringtheMiddle Ğ Several convincing examples can be found at Béla Borsi-Kálmán, tte következik … :Atemesvári levente-pör 1919-1920 Another factorcauseddifference between attitudeofPozsony and 151 ü oara criminal case'Levente-guys', ofthe 1919-1920) (Budapest: Noran, And alike, the higher level of autonomy a certain ofautonomya higher level Andalike,the 71 (Five generationsand what come Öt nemzedék és ami CEU eTD Collection county openswiththedescriptionofDévénymonument,thus: scientificbooklet onPressburg in apositiveconnotation.Apopularizing German travelguides The ofHungariannationalcanon: years before. monumentbecamepart This excursionremindsoneofthejourneystudentsL’udovitStúr60 October 18961200highschoolstudentsmadeanexcursiontoDévény. the Dévénycastlealreadydayfollowedunveilingceremony.19 or lessdividedfromeachotherwhichweakenedthechanceofassimilation. Thus,were more ethnic groups century. division remaineduptoearly20th Thiscentury, tendedtoprefera third partofBrassó. patternofethnic outskirts. Romanian andGreekinhabitants lacking bourgeoisrights,inhabiting county andBratislava city) (Budapest: Szent István Társulat, 1913), 32 város rövid földrajza 156 Buchhandlung. n.d.), 125-126. surrounding county Bratislava in colored print) (Bratislava: Sigmund Steiners guide through Bratislava and surrounding. With 52pictures, map of thecity and the Stadtplan, Karten Umgebung der unddes Komitates Pozsony in Farbendruck 155 154 was inhabitedbyGerman 153 152 which promotedahigherlevelofintegration. Babejová,272-278 János Gy Miskolczy, Pesti Napló Pesti Illustrierte durchPozsony Führer (Pressburg) und Umgebung. Mit 52 Abbildungen, The local(i.e.Pozsony)Hungariansstarted tousethemonumentin The waron 153 Ğ rffy and Arnold Zelliger, , 20 October 1896 , 20October A brassói román brassói A Magyars,movingintothecity fromthemiddleof19th (Geographical preliminary knowledge. A short geography of Bratislava lieux 155 begins:1896-1918 , Magyartextbooksforschoolchildren , 52-68 Bürgers Földrajzi el livingand in themiddle partofthecity 72 Ğ ismeretek. Pozsony vármegye és Pozsony 152 Onthecontrary,Kronstadt 156 mention it mention (Illustrated 154 CEU eTD Collection Viktor nyomdája, 1909),1 Magyar Tudományos Egyesület. Népszer Gyula Déri, amelynek határát tisztelet illeti." istenkéz alkotta tilalomjel figyelmeztetiaz utast, hogyittSzent István birodalma kezd elképzelni sem lehet, mint ahatárszélen azt ameredek hatalmasés sziklát, amely mint 157 organized, national songs and patriotic poems were performed at the poemswereperformed patriotic organized, nationalsongsand used themonumentinsamewayas inPozsony:nationalmarcheswere monuments,too.LocalMagyars the course, Magyarswereenthusiasticon point oftheirnation-building. monument, whileSlovaksratherpreferredthemiddleregionasfocal Germans didnotwanttoquestionthe Magyar rulebyanattackofthe the localnon-Magyarpopulation, certainly fortheaforementioned reasons: concept seemedtowork,sincetheDévény monumentwasnotcontestedby whether theywereof Slovak, German or Jewishorigin).Up to 1918 this they couldidentifythemselveswiththeMagyarnation(withoutaregard, potential assimilationists,themonument served asareference point where spot, emphasizingtheMagyarpastand forgetting theMoravianone.For TheEric DévénymonumentaimedtoexcludeSlovaksfromthe Hobsbawm. 'invented This viewcanbeseenas typical. Thus, thewholeprocess is a kind of "A Bécs fel Bécs "A respected. whose bordershallbe begins theempireofSt.Stephen, attentionthathere made byGod’shanddrawsthetraveler’s the steepandgreatrockatborder which asaprohibitionsign border atDévény.Onecannotimagineamoreelevatingviewthan The reachestheHungarian travelercomingbyboatfromVienna Not surprisingly,thecaseofBrassówas significantlydifferent.Of lieu demémoire Pozsony és Pozsony vármegye Ğ l hajón érkez l hajón 157 Ğ utas Dévénynél éri el a magyar határt. Lélekemel határt. a magyar el éri utasDévénynél ', tounitethewell-knownconceptsofNoraand Ĭ tudományos felolvasások 67. Bp., Hornyánszky 73 (Bratislava and Bratislava county) (Uránia Ğ bb látványt Ğ dik, CEU eTD Collection Szózat 62 d.), n. Franklin, (Budapest: Elek Benedek, ..." Hazádnak aszózatot: szavalni kezdem s önkéntelen keblemet érzem nekem, hogy nemcsak megszerezte eszép földet, hanem honszerz országba? S ki merne szemet 161 vetni e drága, vérszenteltenothing to dowith Hunyadi. földre, mikorHunyadi (Janko Sibinanin), who is ihol,said tohave died there. The monument, ittof course, had áll Árpád,time. a Alike,standing onthestatue Árpád, thealthoughreality in represented it a warrior ofÁrpád’s locals160 18 d.), n. Fiai), F.és (Wodianer Lampel of Zimony has claimed that the monument was dedicated tonor wasthe foramillennium, belong toHungary neither didthisterritory János travel guidefrom1898claimsthemonument wasunhistorical,since same feelings,theywereratheroutragedbythemonument.AGerman 159 1906 18 October 158 panorama andtheMagyarfigurewhenclimbingCenkHill: known writerandfairy tale collector Elek Benedekwasastonished by the the thousandyearoldgloryof Magyar nation tostrangers. Brassó regionintroducesthemonumentonCenkHillthatfigureshows publications, too.Apopularizing,semi-scholarlybookletconcerningthe statue. "A szem s a lélek nem tud betelni Ita gyönyöris remarkable that in both the case of Dévény and Brassó locals hold the figure Lajos Kolumbán, monument. the of unveiling the of anniversary tenth the on instance For and I begin torecite … Ifeelmyhearttoswell too. this landbutkeepsguardoverit, of agreatcolumnandit seems tomethat henotonlyconquered standsonthetop TheÁrpád. heroic figureofthehomeland-taker here standsÁrpád dare takeafancy to thissweet, by blood sacredterritory,since desires toleaveanothercountryfrom here?Andwhowould fromtheview.Who enough Theand spiritcannothave eye (Appeal) is a national hymn, written by Mihály Vörösmarty. by Mihály written hymn, national a is (Appeal) Romanians (andtoalessextent,Germansaswell)didnotsharethe 158 Ğ Árpád szobra! Hatalmas oszlop tetején áll a honszerz áll tetején oszlop Hatalmas szobra! Árpád The Cenk monument became involved intoseveral Thekinds of Cenkmonumentbecame Szent Anna tavától a Cenk-tet A Barcaság és népe 160 Szózat , themonumentto the homeland-taker spontaneous:Ofyourhomeland… (The Bra 74 Ğ ig (From the St. Anne Lake to the Tâmpa Hill) Ĭ ü séggel. Ki kívánkoznék innen idegen ov regionov anditspeople) (Budapest: Ğ rködik is felette ... Dagadni Ğ daliás alakja s úgy tetszik úgy s alakja daliás 159 Brassói Lapok, The well- 161 CEU eTD Collection 167 166 event. the of details the than research the of sake the for interesting more much are attack discover the exact nature this of connection. Nevertheless, the localreactions theon He certainly had some relations with Romania, but up to this point I was not able to 165 24/05/2007), withoutpagenumbers Catarau, instigatedPopovici, Eliad to bombmember the Bra used to be Katarov.of Gazeta also claimed that Catarauthe was a Russian spy, indeed, Gazeta he wasTransylvaniei a terroristbe a Bessarabian, groupactions in Hungary (for instanceethnic in Debrecen). Origin of Catarue is unclear: he claimed to Romanian ChamberHowever, student the main who role was(Kingdom was persecuted playedof by a certainArchangel by OctoberRussian Ilie 1 1913) Catarau, Later authorities. it turned who outcommitted that a certain a severalRomanianMihailof wrestler-boxer alike Romania),from Tulcea andSymbols) Gabriel164 of 155 1903), W. Krafft, von Verlag (Sibiu: traveler) Kiev.Cotofan See:163 Heinrich Zeidner, 1898), 92 Eliad was responsible for damaging the monument. followed by recitation of several patriotic poems. followed byrecitationofseveralpatriotic high schoolsmarchedtothemonument, where apriestprayed,which was the followingdaypupils of RomanCatholic (i.e.Magyar)elementary and state, thereforetheattack was adirect challenge toentireHungary. Hungarian thenation and the claimed thatthemonumentsymbolized Umgebung 162 region enculturedbyMagyars. outraged: editorialof collapse butthebottombecameheavily damaged. Magyarsof thecitywere a bombattack. monument wasdamagedby in ashort,neutralsentence. millennial monumentismentioned Theroles ofGermancivilassociations. Transylvania ofthecity,emphasizing stressestheGermancharacter person shootonit,damagingthe hat ofthestatue. The Hungarian press blamed for the attack immeditely Romanians. ( Bogdan Florin Popovici, Emil Sigerus, Muntele Tampa si simbolurile sale (The Tâmpa Hill and Its Joseph Schuller, Joseph Brassói Lapok, Brassói Lapok, The monument was object of various attacks. In 1901 an unknown In1901 an of variousattacks. Thewas object monument Muntele (Bra Magazin istoric Magazin ü ov. New illustrated guide through the city and surrounding) (Bra 3 October 1913 3October 30 September 1913 30September Siebenbürgen. EinHandbuch für Reisende reported that Catarau had come from Bulgaria and his original name original andhis Bulgaria from come had thatCatarau reported Kronstadt.illsutrierter Neuer Führer durch die Stadt und ihrer June 2001 June (accessed from www.itcnet.ro/history on Brassói Lapok 163 162 ü ov monument. ( AnotherGermantravel to guide 75 on thenextdayafterattack on 165 Thenot monumentdid Brassói Lapok (Transylvania. A guide for 167 Bythis the act 164 In 1913the , 7March 1914) Brassói Lapok 166 On ü ov: , CEU eTD Collection Brassói Lapok,Brassói elrejteni." állottak meg apusztulás képénekláttára, e voltakmások képesek nem kárörömüket immediately startedtonationalizethe city, thusscriptswereallowed only cooperate withthenewpower.The Romaniancityadministration serfdom." Romanianpopulationwas eager toacceptthe new ruleand brothersfrom"Magyar Romanian Kingdom forever,liberatingtheir in 1916. The Romanian military declared Bra Thein 1916. Romanianmilitarydeclared remained onlyaMagyarsymbol,thereforeitwasnotabletofulfillitstask. monument allefforts,the that despite Thisthus acknowledges article megtekint 168 Brassói Lapok reaction ofBrassócitizenswastendentious, asthefollowingreportof months aftertheattackahugestormfell itdownandruinedtotally.The recanonization ofthemonumentcould not preventthestatue:coupleof statue itself,butitsfunctionas a shrine aswell.However,the not onlythe the attackruined since monument becameagainsacred, "Aszobrot egész délel malicious joy. their could nothide some others terrible viewofruining, awedbylearningthe their nationality.Manyofthemstoodthere its viewprovokeddifferentreactionsinthe visitors,dependingon The monumentwasvisitedbycurious people duringmorningand Brassó wasconqueredby Romanian troops foroneandhalf months, The afterlifeofthemillennialstatues Ğ kben, nemzetiségük szerint, vegyes érzelmeket keltett. Többen megillet 31 December 1913 31December says: 168 Ğ tt tömegesen keresték fel a kíváncsiak annakés látása a 76 ü ov aspartoftheRomanian Ğ dve CEU eTD Collection Stekl and Elena Mannová Slovakia) in 172 171 170 occupation) (Bra monuments connectedwith past werealso ThisMagyar destroyed. one. fromMagyarto(Czecho)Slovak the changeofcity’snationalspace Thecity. nationalizationofBratislavabeganimmediately, which included Hungarian, thenewcapitalcitywasseenasa'foreign-hearted',cosmopolite Slovakia. AsmajorityofBratislavawas notSlovakbutGermanand new nameBratislavain1919,hasbeenpartofCzechoslovakiaandthen Pozsony onthefirst day of1919. Since then thecity, which receivedits monument. Tâmpa thelateHungarianmillennium the justcoupleofmetersawayfrom of themaretoseeevennow. 169 Stalin, Bra name ofthewiseleaderinternationalist proletariat.Afterthedeathof So peoplewhenlooking at the hill from thecitycenter, could read the pine treeswereplantedonTâmpainapatterntoformthelettersofStalin. destroyed thebottomofmonument onTâmpa Hill. Romaniansoldiers Romanian administration, semi-official dailyofthe in Romanian. However, inthefifties,whenBra the cityforever, Romanians never erected anewmonument on Tâmpa Hill. L’ubomir Lipták,"Bratislava ald Hauptstadt Slovakei" der (Bratislava as capital of 50 Balázs, Popovici, Tibolt Schmidt, Tibolt 172 The faithofDevínwassimilartoBra Besideschangingstreetnamesand settingupnewinstitution, Heroen, Mythen, Identitän. Die Slowakei und Österreich im Vergleich ed Hannes Muntele ü ov regained its name, and the pine trees were cut out but some cut out pinetreeswere the name, and ov regainedits ü 169 ov: Brassói Lapok,ov: Brassói 1917), 28-35, 85-88 AccordingtoGazeta Transylvaniei, whichemerged asthe Brassó az oláh megszállás idején (Vienna: Wiener Vorlesungen, (Vienna:Wiener 2003),135-154 171 NowahugeRomanianflagisonthetopof ü ov was named Ora ov was 77 ü ov. Czechtroopsmarchedin ov. (Bra ü ü ov during the Romanian ul Stalin(StalinCity), 170 Afterconquering CEU eTD Collection Ország-Világ pusztulása" (Desrtuction of monuments and sculptures ofdetached parts of Hungary) 175 174 Szemle Budapesti területeken" (Faith of Hungarian memorials and Hungarian art in thedetached territories), 173 destroyed themonumentbyironbars. January 1921soldiersofaCzechlegion went toDevín,builtascaffoldand have anychancetosurvivethechange of regime:duringthenight11 "manifestation oftheHunlies." Hungarian territorialclaimtoCzechoslovakia.Devíncalledtheplaceof and itsborders.The millennialcolumnwasanobviousmanifestationof Magyar, nationalmemorialrepresentingthe'old',prewarHungarianstate one, themillennialmonumentin Devín had noexcuse.It wasclearlya state, tryingtogetridofanysignthepast. totally new whilebuildinga policy: the Czechoslovak the clearestsignof could notbeacceptedbythenewpower.The destructionofthisstatuewas of aHungarianruler,evenifMariaTheresa wasanAustrianHabsburg, The figure letherstatueremain. not the cityalot,newauthoritiesdid reign ofMariaTheresa andtheQueenherselfhelped Pressburgflourished, Despite ofthefactthatunder the city. which usedtobethesymbolof destruction wavedidnotevenavoidthe statue ofQueenMariaTheresa, soldiers remainedunknown, as the Czechoslovak authoritieswere not The bythefactthatCzech Hungary. was juststrengthened scandal public scandalamongHungarians living bothinCzechoslovakia and in Miklós Markó, "Magyarország elszakított országrészei m Kilianová, Ferenc Olay, "A magyar emlékm "A Olay, Ferenc If the statue of Queen Maria Theresia beseenasa'neutral' Maria could Ifstatue ofQueen the The destruction of the Devín Millennium monumentcaused ahuge TheDevín Millennium destructionofthe , 26 Februry 1922,99 , 26Februry Ein Grenzmythos no. 628(1930) , 66 174 Ĭ vek és a magyar m a magyar vek és Therefore theDevínmonumentdid not 78 175 173 Ĭ Ĭ vészet sorsa azelszakított sorsa vészet emlékeinek szobrainakés CEU eTD Collection Symbolik. memory November inMetz, 1918-1922), in Alsace-Lorraine. Destruction monument of and reinterpretation national of spaceof Erinnerungslandschaftnationalen inMetz (November 1918-1922)" (Change times in of 177 Méry Ratio,2000), 98-99 national monuments,thus(re)nationalize the(re)conqueredspace. the GermanstatutesofAlsaceandLorraine, replacingthem by French 176 the caseofDevínand Bra exception, indeed,itfit entirely into(Western) European patterns.Likein favor ofHungaryinthepopularvote1921. Austria andHungarybecameSopron(Ödenburg), thetownwhichvotedin The new emblematicpointbetween strengthened theprocessofforgetting. hearts andminds.Thelack of ethnicMagyarpopulationinDévényjust decades provedtobe not sufficientto make thetraceof Dévény inMagyar demonstrates thattheattemptofinventing The lossofMagyarinterest in the Dévény millennialmonument clearly accept thedestructionofstatues,oranykindMagyarculturalheritage. Devín monument.Inthe Hungarianminoritydidnot manyothercases barbar Czechs. figure ofÁrpádasthesymbol West, whichwasattackedbythe the interpretinginhismemoirs destruction ofthemillennialmonument, writer, wholivedinPozsony/Bratislava for decades,wasoutragedbythe searching forthedelinquents.Marcell Jankovics, thethenwell-known Annette Maas, "ZeitenwendeElsaß-Lothringen. in Denkmalstürzeund Umdeutung der Marcell Jankovics, The destruction of the monuments following WWI was by no meand WWIwasby monuments following Theof the destruction The bowedtothelossof HungariancommunityinCzechoslovakia ed. Winfried Speitkamp. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1997) Ruprecht, & Vandenhoeck (Göttingen: Speitkamp. Winfried ed. 176 Húsz esztend Húsz ü ov, Frenchauthorities immediatelydemolished Ğ Pozsonyban Denkmalsturz. Zur Konfliktgeschichte politischer 79 (Twenty years in Bratislava) (Budapest: Bratislava) in years (Twenty lieu demémoire failed.Two 177 CEU eTD Collection unity ofGermannation. Germans oftheReich. In thisveryEastern pointtheyhad to representthe (Hungary, Slovakia,Protectorateof Bohemia andMoravia),aswell countries intheneighboring representatives ofGermanminoritiesliving 1939 a'borderlandmeeting'(Grenzlandtreffe) tookplacethere, collecting perception changedduringthe Theben belongedto(1938-1945).Inperiod any roleintheGermannation-building before 1938.However,theGerman Munich agreementin 1938. As we have seen before, Theben didnotplay public, Thisregion. perceptionofDevínbecamewidelyacceptedbytheSlovak the region,claimingthatDevínhadbeen thefirstSlavicsettlementin same year.Besides,Slovakarchaeologistsmadeextensiveexcavationsin was followedby a meeting of the nationalist gymnasticsociety Sokol in the Štúr andhisfollowers.This kind ofevent100yearsaction ago byL’udovit students madeamemorialexcursionto Devín torememberonthesame march decidedtorepeatthisevent every twoyears.In 1936Slovak this Members of birthofCyril. of the celebrate the1100thanniversary organized bytheCatholicchurchandlaicSlovakgroupswasheldto extensively usedintheinterwarperiod. At firstinJuly1927,a procession 179 180 17-18. I Vol. 1933), Steiner, S. Commissionsverlag (Bratislava: Bratislava-Pressburg) city 178 turn itintoan See for See example EmilPortisch, Kilinova, Kilianova, The process of Slovak nationalization of Devín brokeoffbythe Theof Slovaknationalization process While MagyarsforgotDévény,(Czecho)Slovak authoritieswantedto 178 andevensomenon-Slovakauthorsemphasizeditaswell. Lieux de mémoire Ein Grenzmythos haut lieu 180 , 160 , 66-68 of the Czechslovak nation,thereforeDevínwas oftheCzechslovak Geschichte der Stadt Bratislava-Pressburg 80 (History of 179 CEU eTD Collection Bratislave, 1945)Bratislave, in the Slovak world. All-Slovak day inDevín) (Bratislava: Vydalo Všeslovanské Sdruženie v 181 turned intoapan-Slavic were theageofincreasingfriendshipwithSovietUnion,Devínwas the eventemphasizedbrotherhood among Slavnations. the CyrilandMethodiustraditionamongSlavs.The detaileddescriptionof theSlavicwaragainstGermans, followed byreportsamongotherthingson this eventstartswiththe pictures ofEduard BenešandStalinwhich are 'eternal antifascistcoalitionof nations.' TheSlavonic bookletintroducing Cyril andMethodius.The festivalwascarriedoutinthe name ofthe the warinEurope thefirstPanslavicday washeldinDevín, on theday of of Soviet-Czechoslovak Friendship. Some minor event happened in the minoreventhappenedin of Soviet-CzechoslovakFriendship.Some held thereagain,liketheFestivalofCzech-Slovak friendshiporthe Festival regained someimportanceduringthe1960’s whensomeopenfeastswere background becauseoftheincreasinganti-clericalism oftheregime.Devín watchtowers. Moreover,thecultofCyril and Methodiuswaspushedinto situated ontheborder,itwasdetached from thecountrybywirefenceand were heldinDevín.AsDevínwas Since theearly1950’snomorefestivals expelled toGermany,whileMagyarswerepartlymadeleaveHungary. the followingmonths German population ofCzechoslovakia was entirely sphere: during onlyinsymbolic indeed, not of GermansandHungarians, the warthisperceptionbased on Slavic antifascist meritsmeantexclusion Rudolf Mrlian, ed., Mrlian, Rudolf In 1945 Devín turned back to Czechoslovakia. As the after-war years Astheafter-war Czechoslovakia. back to InDevín turned 1945 However, the renewed importance of Devín did not last for awhile. didnotlast Devín However, therenewedimportanceof Slováci v slovenskom svete. (Všeslovanský de lieu demémoire 81 . Coupleofweeksaftertheend ě na Devíne) 181 Justafter (Slovaks CEU eTD Collection 183 Slovak nation." "has graduallybecomea current CyrilandMethodiuscelebrationstookplaceratherinNitra,Devín iscalledafterit.Althoughthe TV abank appeared constantlyin spotsand marking freedom.Sincethen, Devín has been apopular recreation place, meaning, sinceitsymbolizedthefalldown oftheIron Curtainandthus ThisDevín anew action gave several thousandsofBratislavacitizens. a boatto Hainburg in the Austrian side of the Danube, accompanied by 1989 agroupofSlovaksprotestedinDevín againstcommunismbytaking 182 prevented fromthisaction. the millennialmonumentsinreconquered Munkács,butlack of time a travelguidepublished in 1940,Hungarian authoritieswantedto reerect an 15 March,dayofthe1848revolution,while theMunkácsfortress servesas places: studentsofNitraUniversityhave celebrations ontheZoborhill on these however, did notforget purposes byCzechoslovakia.LocalMagyars, national thespotswere usedfor takeover ofCzechoslovakstate.Neither Devín, themillennialmonumentsweredestroyedin1921,soonafter castle", "siteofourhistory." exhibitions commemoratingGreatMoravia). castle organizedbythe Bratislava City Museumaswell (for instance Ibid 162 Ibid Kilianova, haut lieu Since the fall of the communism, Devín’s importancehasgrown.In Since thefallofcommunism,Devín’s Nyitra and Munkács also became parts of Czechoslovakia.Likein parts Nyitra andMunkácsalsobecame Lieux de mémoire fortheHungarianslivinginpresent-day Ukraine.Accordingto 183 DescriptionsintheDevín castle refertotheplaceas"our , 161 lieu de mémoire 82 , whichwas»occupied« by the 182 CEU eTD Collection Archive of Serbia and Montenegro, fond 66, folio 627. folio 66, fond Montenegro, and Serbia of Archive ukloniti." (12April1921) imao ni rušiti ni preudesiti nego održati. Gradjevna ošte Berlinuu Siegessäule t.z.v pr. (na spomenika svojih jedijelove kao ih puni upotrebljava muzeje im diže francuskihsvjetskog rata. Nijedantopovskih narod ne uništava svojetrofeje, nego ih cijevi iz godine 1871). Po tom se taj spemenik ne bi and the Hungarian scripts were damaged but it was not demolished. but itwasnot damaged and theHungarianscriptswere The monumentsbecamedamagedbutdid notcollapse.In 1918the 185 184 did notdemolishthemonument,indeed: the contrarywiththeirCzechoslovakcounterparts,Yugoslavauthorities it wasa Austrian eagle.(In thereality the tower,sincetheyholdbirdontopofmonumentsan as watch-towerofthelocalbrigade.DuringWWI Serbian artillerybombed rather typical,theZemuntowerhadauniquefaith.After1896itwasused it. and findsomecultural functionto Zemun councilplanstorestorateagain the thetowerisempty,locked, these solutionsweresufficient.Rightnow functions, suchasmuseum,café,apainter’s workshop.However,noneof how toutilizethetower.Sincethentowerwasusedforvarious Although governmentalcarewasordered,authoritiesdidnotfindtheway "Milenijski spomenikZemunu u imadese smarati pobjedni našom Kolapis, 355 war. that thisplaceshouldbeusedasacommemorationonthe be destroyed,norrearrangedbutmaintained. Directionconsiders instance SiegessäueleinBerlin).Thus monumentshallnot this ownmonuments(for its part of museums andusesthemas generations, builds destroys itstrophiesbutkeepsitforfuture no singlepeoplewhich victory trophyfromthe Thereis war. our beconsideredas Zemun shall Themonument in millennial While thestoryofNitraandMukachevemonumentscanbeseenas 185 83 turul , symbolic totem of old Magyars). , symbolictotemofold þ enja na njemu bise imala Ā uva za poznija pkoljenja, Ā kom trofejom 184 turul On CEU eTD Collection early 20thcenturies. on modernizationandembourgeoisement,keywordsofthelate19th building, assimilation,localpatriotism and historicalconsciousness,thus monuments onecanmeasuretheviewsofacertaincommunityonnation- attitude andmentalityofthe covered societies. Viareceptionofimportant paper triedtoarguethatsymbolicpolitics wasabletoshowsensitivelythe socialandethnicgroups.This differences inthesocialstructureofvarious legitimation. as nationalconflict,hectic political regimes, extensiveneedfor symbolic of Magyarization.The samechallenge,whichdividedGermans sodeeply, the twopossible,nevertheless antagonistic answers giventothedemands increasing tensionbetweenthetwostreams oflocalGermans,representing the caseofBrassó the symbolic challenge ofthemillennium led to rapidly MagyarizingPressburgGermans accepted theDévénymemorial.In can beshownbytheimpotentprotestagainst themillennialidea, whilethe into thispattern.The actualweaknessoftheSlovaknational movement the storyofDevín and Bra introduce acompressedhistoryofCentral Europe inthelasttwocenturies: Thenations. twoaxisofinvestigation (political andnational)allowedmeto mémoire In thecaseofDevínandBra Furthermore, comparisonofsignificant events canreveal delicate The aim of this study was to demonstrate thestoryoftwo was todemonstrate Theof thisstudy aim : how they were used by various political regimes and by different political regimesand various used by they were : how ü ov bear all major problemsofthe region, such Conclusion ü ov the millennial monumententirelyfit 84 lieux de CEU eTD Collection modern Magyarnation,level population toassimilateintothe indicator ofthewillingnesslocal project, thusresistingonMagyarizingattempts. bourgeoisie servedasapowerfulengine of theRomaniannation-building andhigh-culturedRomanian the well-off nation-building. Atthesametime, demand howtotransformthisearlymodernphenomenoninto their traditional,feudalconceptofnation.The millenniumrevealedthe citizens ledTransylvanian anotherdirection,insistingon Germansinto consciousness. OncontrarywithPressburg,theautonomyofSaxon Hungarian identitywaseasilytransformed intoamodern,national Magyar The19th century,was traditionally aHungarus-city. pre-national population uptothemiddleof although havinganalmostpureGerman indicates thesocial-historicalbackgroundoftwocities.Pressburg, and tendedtoomittheSlovaks,asiftheywerenon-exisiting. question, too:HungarianmediareactedmainlytotheactionsofRomanians the century.The millenniumshowsMagyarperceptionofthe nationality Romanian nationalmovementwasdevelopingandpotentialattheendof nationalization. Ordinarily,the united RomaniansagainsttheMagyar The Hungarian Millennium columns can beseenthereforeas The HungarianMillenniumcolumns the millennialmonuments Furthermore, thelocalreceptionof 85 CEU eTD Collection * DivededbetweenSerbiaandCroatia Munkács Hungarian Ukraine In present-day Zimony Újvidék Szerém* Hungarian Serbia In present-day Turócszentmárton Szepes Pozsony Nyitra Dévény Besztercebánya Neusohl Hungarian Slovakia In present-day Temesvár Nagyszeben Nagyenyed Kolozsvár Cenk Brassó Hungarian In present-day Romania In present-day Towns names. arelistedaccordingtotheirHungarian Appendix: Name oflocations in languagesrelevant Munkatsch German Semlin Syrmien German Zips Pressburg Neutra Theben German Temeschwar Hermannstadt Klaußenburg Zinne Kronstadt German Lemberg Martin Turz-Sankt Mieresch Straßburg am 86 Banská Bystrica (Mukacheve) ǺȡȘȎȥȓȐȓ ǹȐȳȐ Ukrainian ǵȓȚȡț ǿȞȓȚ Serb Spiš Nitra Devín Slovak Timi Sibiu Aiud Cluj Tâmpa Bra Romanian Sad) ǿȎȒ ǻȜȐȖ Martin Tur 1919) Bratislava (after 1919) Prešporok (before Ā ü ü (Lviv) iansky Svätý ov (Srem) oara Zemun (Zemun) (Novi Srijem Temišvar Croatian Serbian CEU eTD Collection Filtsch, JosefW. Déri, Gyula: Benedek, Elek. Führer für KronstadtFührer für und Umgebung Andersen, HansChristian. Ady, Endre. Articles and books Laws ofHungary:www.1000ev.hu Internet Vasárnapi Újság Preßburger Zeitung Preßburger Tagblatt Pesti Napló Pesti Hírlap Nyugatmagyarországi Híradó Narodnie Noviny Magyar Állam Kronstädter Zeitung Kronstädter Tagblatt Egyetértés Brassói Lapok Press Archive ofSerbiaandMontenegro Archive Primary sources county). UrániaMagyarTudományos Egyesület. Népszer T the nyomdája, 1909. HornyánszkyViktor tudományos felolvasások67.Budapest: stories foradults).Budapest:Polar,2005. EinheimischeFremde und Bra 1886. guide forlocalsandstrangers). Vienna: VerlagvonCarlGraeser, ü ov: JohannGott&Sohn Heinrich,1874. Ć mpa hill).Budapest:Franklin,n. d. Összes versei Pozsony és Pozsony vármegye Pozsony és Szent Anna tavától a Cenk-tet Die Stadt Kronstadt und derenUmgebung. EinFührerfür (Oeuvre). Budapest: SzépirodalmiKiadó,1965. (Oeuvre).Budapest: Mesék éstörténetek feln Bibliography (The city Bra (The (AguidetoBra 87 Ğ (Bratislava and Bratislava (Bratislava ig ü ov and its surrounding. A ov anditssurrounding. (FromtheStAnne lake to Ğ tteknek ü ov andsurrounding). (Fairy tales and (Fairy Ĭ CEU eTD Collection Krickel, AdalbertJospeh. .Ğ Kemény, G.Gábor,ed. Karácsony, János. Jankovics, Marcell. Ipolyi Arnold. Sziklay, J. Imendörffer,– Gerlai,W. A. undUmgebung.Mit 52 IllustriertePozsony (Pressburg) Führerdurch Haksch, AlexanderF. Gross-Hoffinger, A.J. Gy váry, László. Ğ rffy, János–Zelliger, Arnold. Turoß unddas Waagthal in dieBergstädte Neusohl,undvondain die Schemnitz, Kremnitz und memorials). Budapest:Athenaum.1897. emlékalkotások Kiadó, 1952-1985.I-VI. question inHungaryduringthe dualist era). Budapest:Akadémiai Magyarországon korában adualizmus Transylvania). Budapest: 1896. Szent IstvánTársulat, Bratislava). Budapest:MéryRatio,2000. Mountains). Bratislava:Madách-Posonium,2004. Zürich: OrellFüssli&Co.,n.d. nach Budapest Buchhandlung. n.d. SigmundSteiners print). Bratislava: county Bratislavaincolored cityandthe surrounding surrounding. With52pictures,mapofthe Pozsony inFarbendruck Abbildungen, Stadtplan, Karten unddesKomitates derUmgebung city). Budapest:SzentIstvánTársulat, 1913. knowledge. AshortgeographyofBratislavacountyand és Pozsonyvárosrövid földrajza Vienna –Bratislava:Commissions-VerlagvonC.Stampel,1884. Umgebungen Constantinople). Wroclaw: Verlag von Eduard Trewendt,Constantinople). Wroclaw:VerlagvonEduard 1846. Ulm, Linz,Wien,[Buda]Pest, Gala source totheBlackSea.AhandbooktravellersonDanubeof über das shwarze Meer nach Constantinopel DonaureisendeGalatzEin Handbuch vonUlm, Linz,Wien,Pesth, für Fehér-hegységi útiképek A Millenium lefolyásának története és amillenáris (Illustrated guidethroughBratislavaandsurrounding). (To and through Hungary. From Vienna to Budapest). From Viennato through Hungary. (To and (The historyofthemillenniumand millennial A honfoglalás ésErdély Die Donau vom bisindasUrsprung schwarze Meer. Húsz esztend Illustrirter durch Pressburgundseine (sic)Führer Wanderung vonWienüberPressburgund Tyrnau Iratoka nemzetiségi kérdés történetéhez (Wanderings from Vienna through Trnava (WanderingsfromVienna through to (Illustrated guidethroughBratislavaand Földrajzi el 88 Ğ Pozsonyban (Travel picturesfromthe White Nach und durch Ungarn. Von Wien Nachdurch Ungarn. Von und Ħ (Documents of thenationality (Documents throught theBlackSea to Ğ (Geographicalpreliminary ismeretek. Pozsonyvármegye (The settlementand (Twenty yearsin (The Danubefrom CEU eTD Collection Portisch, Emil. Popovici, Andrei. Phillipi, Friedrich. Pernold, AdolfEmmanuel. Paget, John. Mysz, Edward. Mrlian, Rudolfed. Meschendörfer, Adolf: Méhely, Lajos. Miklós Markó,"Magyarországelszakítottországrészeim Losonczy Tóth,Izsák, Árpád– Sámuel(eds). Kollár, Ján: 1933. Bratislava-Pressburg) Bratislava:CommissionsverlagS. Steiner, Saxons). Bra Bra the author,1839. picture. Firstclass,Bratislavaand surrounding included).Vienna:by magában foglalván Pozsonyta’ környékeivel New YorkTimes, 1971. Social, Political and Economical surrounding Bra UmgebungKronstadt von Vydalo VšeslovanskéSdruženievBratislave,1945. Bratislava: dayinDevín) world. All-Slovak (Slovaks intheSlovak Albert Langen,1934. county). Cluj:Erdélyrészi 1895. Kárpát-Egyesület, detached partsofHungary) szobrainak pusztulása"(Destructionof monuments andsculpturesof Sámuel Fenichel).Budapest:Lucidus,2006. Tanárkyin theDanuberegion.The traveldescriptionsofGedeon and Tanárky GedeonésFenichel Sámuel útleírásai 1831. Turocthere to andtothevalleyofVah).Vienna:M.Ehr Adolph, the hilltownsBanskaŠtavnica,Kremnica,Bystricaandfrom ü ov’s pastandpresent).Kronstadt,1874. Dielo Hungary andwith Transylvania; Remarks ontheir Condition, Geschichte der Stadt Bratislava-Pressburg Geschichte derStadt Touren-Weiser für AusflügeGebirge der indieBergeund Touren-Weiser für Brassóvármegyei turista-kalauz , ed.CyrilKraus.Bratislava:SlovenskyTatran, 2001. Slováci vslovenskom svete. (Všeslovanský de ü Bra ov: Editura ZiaruliCarpa Aus Kronstadt’s Vergangenheit und Gegenwart ü ü Die Stadt im Osten ov). Bra ovul. Rom Magyarország’ Távcs ü (Tour advisor for excursionsinthehills (Tour advisor ov: VerlagvonAdolfAlbrecht,1890. Ország-Világ Ć nii 89 . VolI-II.NewYork:ArnoPress –The ü i (The cityintheEast). Munich: ûDü Ħ ii, 1923. ii, Magyar aDuna-tájon. utazók , 26Februry1922 ii (Bra (Torist guide forBra (Torist Ğ -földképe. Els -földképe. (Hungary’stelescope (Hungariantravellers ü ov. Romaniansand (Historyofcity Ĭ emlékeinek és ě na na Devíne) Ğ Osztály (From ü ov CEU eTD Collection Tom inHungary:AnExercise Barcsay."The 1896MillennialFestivities in Ábrahám, Barna. 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