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Islamophobia & Muslims' Religious Experiences In ISLAMOPHOBIA & MUSLIMS‘ RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES IN THE MIDWEST— PROPOSING CRITICAL MUSLIM THEORY A MUSLIM AUTOETHNOGRAPHY by MOHAMAD RIDHUAN ABDULLAH B.Ed. (TESL), University Technology of MARA, 2003 M.S., Kansas State University, 2009 AN ABSTRACT OF A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Curriculum and Instruction College of Education KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2013 Abstract This study explored Islamophobia and Muslims‘ religious experiences in the Midwest. Its purpose was to propose a new theory named Critical Muslim Theory. The research methodology was autoethnography (me, the researcher) in concert with discovering in-depth experiences and narratives of nine Muslim participants (five Muslim females and four Muslim males) in dealing with Islamophobia. Religion became the centrality of Critical Muslim Theory in replacing race (as in Critical Race Theory) while centralizing other oppressions Muslims experience through intersections with religion and law, religion and gender, and religion and race. Critical Muslim Theory represents six basic tenets, namely: (a) Islamophobia is endemic and pervasive, (b) Critical Muslim Theory is critical towards how the dominant society views Islam and Muslims, (c) Islamophobia is a social construction, (d) Legal basis, (e) Intersectionality, and (f) Storytelling and counterstories reveal the oppression and pain of Muslims. An historical context was established for Muslims in the United States of America, although more research needs to be contributed to this area. Instances of interest convergence also were present, however, more research in this area is needed. One recommendation from this research suggests combating ignorance through education and establishing a pure relationship between Muslims and non- Muslims through dialogue for understanding. This study further proposes Muslim Double Consciousness as an area for future research. This topic was of interest due to proposing the theory, its further research and development, and the potential for Critical Muslim Theory to stand on its own as a methodology. ISLAMOPHOBIA & MUSLIMS‘ RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES IN THE MIDWEST— PROPOSING CRITICAL MUSLIM THEORY A MUSLIM AUTOETHNOGRAPHY by MOHAMAD RIDHUAN ABDULLAH B.Ed. (TESL), University Technology of MARA, 2003 M.S., Kansas State University, 2009 A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Curriculum and Instruction College of Education KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2013 Approved by: Major Professor Dr. Kay Ann Taylor Copyright MOHAMAD RIDHUAN ABDULLAH 2013 Abstract This study explored Islamophobia and Muslims‘ religious experiences in the Midwest. Its purpose was to propose a new theory named Critical Muslim Theory. The research methodology was autoethnography (me, the researcher) in concert with discovering in-depth experiences and narratives of nine Muslim participants (five Muslim females and four Muslim males) in dealing with Islamophobia. Religion became the centrality of Critical Muslim Theory in replacing race (as in Critical Race Theory) while centralizing other oppressions Muslims experience through intersections with religion and law, religion and gender, and religion and race. Critical Muslim Theory represents six basic tenets, namely: (a) Islamophobia is endemic and pervasive, (b) Critical Muslim Theory is critical towards how the dominant society views Islam and Muslims, (c) Islamophobia is a social construction, (d) Legal basis, (e) Intersectionality, and (f) Storytelling and counterstories reveal the oppression and pain of Muslims. An historical context was established for Muslims in the United States of America, although more research needs to be contributed to this area. Instances of interest convergence also were present, however, more research in this area is needed. One recommendation from this research suggests combating ignorance through education and establishing a pure relationship between Muslims and non- Muslims through dialogue for understanding. This study further proposes Muslim Double Consciousness as an area for future research. This topic was of interest due to proposing the theory, its further research and development, and the potential for Critical Muslim Theory to stand on its own as a methodology. Table of Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ xi List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... xiii Dedication ..................................................................................................................................... xv CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 Muslim History in the United States ........................................................................................... 3 Muslims in the United States Today ........................................................................................... 7 Mass Media and Muslims ........................................................................................................... 8 Muslim Experience in North America ........................................................................................ 9 Muslims Internationally ............................................................................................................ 10 Islam, Muslims, and Race ......................................................................................................... 12 My Stories ................................................................................................................................. 14 Background ............................................................................................................................... 42 Statement of the Research Problem .......................................................................................... 47 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 47 Research Question ..................................................................................................................... 48 Research Methodology .............................................................................................................. 48 Brief Description of Each Participant ....................................................................................... 49 Autoethnography Methodology ................................................................................................ 51 Definition of Terms ................................................................................................................... 53 Delimitations of the Study......................................................................................................... 55 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................................ 56 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 57 Researcher‘s Perspective ........................................................................................................... 58 Organization of the Study ......................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER 2—REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................................................. 62 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 62 Overview of Racism in the United States ................................................................................. 62 Theoretical Framework: Critical Race Theory.......................................................................... 65 vi CRT and Legal Constructs .................................................................................................... 66 CRT Challenges Oppressive Systems and Eliminates Oppression ....................................... 68 Voices of People of Color—Counterstories .......................................................................... 70 Racism is Normalcy in the United States .............................................................................. 70 CRT‘s Systematic Approach to Racism ................................................................................ 71 CRT and Intersectionality ...................................................................................................... 72 Asian Critical Race Theory ....................................................................................................... 73 Latino Critical Race Theory (LatCrit) ....................................................................................... 74 Tribal Critical Race Theory (TribCrit) ...................................................................................... 74 Critical
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