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Home , Allah, Ilah

Sharing the Message “with Courtesy and Respect” (I Peter 3:15) Who is “”? by Rick Brown

he rise of Islamist terrorism has outraged people across the world. Many Christians have directed their anger, not simply towards T militant Islamists, but towards in general and towards in particular. (Most Muslims, on the other hand, direct their anger sensibly towards the Islamist terrorists themselves rather than against the whole Muslim community.) Much of the anger expressed in the West has taken the form of demonizing the Islamic religion, to the extent of accusing Muslims of worshiping a demon. A key element of this attack has been the claim of some that the name Allah refers to a demon or at least a pagan , notably the so-called “moon .” Such claims have even been made by scholars who are reputable in their own fields but who are poorly acquainted with the language and Middle-Eastern history. The Kingdom of God, however, is never advanced by being untruthful, so this matter bears further investigation. Moon God? Those who claim that Allah is a pagan deity, most notably the moon god, often base their claims on the fact that a symbol of the crescent moon adorns the tops of many and is widely used as a symbol of Islam. It is in fact true that before the coming of Islam many “” and idols were worshiped in the Middle East, but the name of the moon god was Sîn, not Allah, and he was not particularly popular in Arabia, the birthplace of Islam. The most prominent idol in was a god called , and there is no proof that he was a moon god. It is sometimes claimed that there is a temple to the moon god at Hazor in . This is based on a representation there of a supplicant wearing a cres- c cent-like pendant. It is not clear, however, that the pendant symbolizes a moon god, and in any case this is not an Arab religious site but an ancient Canaanite site, which was destroyed by Joshua in about 1250 BC. There is also an ancient temple in the ruins of the kingdom of (Saba), in , and it includes Rick Brown is a scholar and inscriptions to the kingdom’s patron god . It has been claimed that mission strategist. He has been was a moon god, but there is no solid evidence for this, and scholars involved in outreach to the Muslim Almaqah world since 1977. now think Almaqah was a sun god.1 If the ancient worshipped hundreds International Journal of Frontier Missions 23:2 Summer 2006•79 80 Who is “Allah”? of idols, then no doubt the moon god Talmud and in the Syriac and they suggest that the name Allah Sîn was included, for even the Hebrews Bible used by many Middle-Eastern is derived from the expression al ’, were prone to worship the sun and Christians today. These Aramaic- meaning “the God.” It might be the moon and the stars,2 but there is no speaking Jews and Christians lived noted that the word ’ilah is related to clear evidence that moon-worship was throughout the Middle East, and the words ’eloh and prominent among the Arabs in any way or there were also many Arabic-speak- ’, meaning “God,” as well as to that the crescent was used as the symbol of ing Jews and Christians. It might the word elâh, so a moon god, and Allah was certainly not be recalled that there were Arabs at regardless of the derivation, the word is the moon god’s name. Pentecost (Acts 2:11), and Paul went to related to the Biblical terms for God. So if the crescent symbol does not Arabia before beginning his ministry represent an Arabian moon god, among the Syrians and Greeks (Gal Jewish and Christian Use then where did it come from? The 1:17). There were Arab bishops at of ‘Allah’ crescent had been a symbol used in the Council of Nicea, and there are However the term Allah came into Constantinople (modern ) and archeological remains of pre-Islamic Arabic, we know from ancient inscrip- was used on the flag of the Byzantine churches in Yemen, in southern tions that Arabic-speaking Christians Empire, which proclaimed itself to be Arabia (Najran), along the Gulf, and were using the form Allah before the Christian. Some of the ancient Turkish in . Archeologists have found rise of Islam. This is evident from tribes also used a crescent-like symbol, inscriptions on tombs and from a although it might have been derived pre-Islamic inscription in the ruins of 7 from the horns of a bull rather than the a church at Umm al-Jimāl, Jordan. moon. But when the Turks conquered The prophet of Islam claimed to Constantinople and the rest of the preach a continuation of the mes- Middle East in the 15th century, they sage of the Jewish prophets and of the kept the Byzantine symbol of empire. It is the term Jesus, so it stands to reason In fact, they affixed crescent symbols that he would use the same names that atop public buildings throughout their would have used. Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians empire as a symbol of their impe- were using. Some of the statements in rial rule. It also figured in the flags the Qur’an reflect a situation in which of their vassal states, even after the Christians are using the term Allah, states became independent. Once the such as when they proclaim that Jesus crescent no longer represented Turkish is Allah. This claim is rejected in the imperial rule in its former colonies, it Qur’an, which says, “In blasphemy was reinterpreted as a symbol of Islam, indeed are those that say that Allah 3 inscriptions in cemeteries associated which is its modern significance. So with these churches. The proper names is Christ the son of Mary” (Sura 5:17, the crescent symbol has not been passed found in these inscriptions are often ). The very next down through Islam from a supposed names compounded with Allah, (such verse in the Qur’an condemns Jews ancient Arabian moon religion but is a as ‘Abd Allah, servant of God) so Allah and Christians for claiming that they symbol imposed by the Ottoman Turks was clearly a name that Christians are “sons of Allah” (Sura 5:18). So for political reasons. were using for God.4 the term Allah seems to have been in common use among the Jews Origin of the name ‘Allah’ Unfortunately the Bible was not and Christians. So where did the name Allah come translated into Arabic at that time, so from? To anyone who knows the although these pre-Islamic Christians Even today, Allah is the Aramaic language and its history in spoke Arabic, they used Scriptures for God that is commonly used by the Middle East, it seems obvious that in the Aramaic language. One result Jews and Christians. The standard the Arabic name Allâh is an adapta- of this was that they introduced Jewish Arabic translation of the tion of the Aramaic word for God, many Aramaic words and names into was translated by the Jewish scholar Alâh or Alâhâ. Prior to the rise of Arabic, often transforming them in Saadia Gaon before 1000 AD and has Islam and for some time afterwards, the process to fit the sound patterns of been used by Middle Eastern Jews Aramaic was the main language of Arabic. It seems likely that this is how until the present time. It was also used Jews and Christians in the Middle the Aramaic word for God came to be by Christians until American mis- East (apart from Egypt, where variet- borrowed into Arabic as the name of sionaries widely distributed an Arabic ies of Coptic were used), and many God.5 Especially revealing is the fact version of the King James Bible in the Aramaic words were borrowed into that Allâh is pronounced in Arabic as late 19th century. There were other Arabic. The usual term for God in it is in Aramaic, using the Aramaic Jewish Arabic as well, Aramaic was Alâh(â). It is the term pronunciation of the second syllable, notably the one made by the Karaites that Jesus would have used. It is used as even though this pronunciation is at the same time as Saadia. All of the term for God in the books of Ezra unusual in Arabic.6 Muslim scholars, these Jewish translations use Allah as and Daniel, in the Jewish translations however, do not like to admit that the the name of God, using it to translate of the Bible (the Targums), in the Arabic of the Qur’an has loan-words, both Elohim and YHWH. There are multitudes of ancient Christian Arabic International Journal of Frontier Missions here has hardly been any translation work done in very small languages and . . . there is not not likely T to be much more.

Rick Brown 81 translations of Scripture, from the seventh century until now, and they here is no inscription that identifies Allah as a moon all without exception use Allah.8 So for god or as a pagan deity. This contrasts with the Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians, the name Allah is the name of the Hebrew, Greek, and English words for God . . . God of the Bible, and Tbestower of all , the sender of often respond with amusement and a physical union with Mary to beget dismay when Westerners “point out” to all prophets and Scripture, then that is Jesus. Jews and Muslims typically think them that they shouldn’t use the name what the term means for them, and not of God as one and indivisible, without Allah. Millions of Muslims have come a moon god. Allah is God. distinctions of person, and without to faith in Jesus, and they have not seen Lexical meaning has at least two com- being incarnate in any way as the a need to stop using Allah in reference ponents, called ‘sense’ and ‘denotation’. Messiah, but Jews also conceive of God to God, whom Muslims identify as The denotation is the of entities that as preferring Jews over others, whereas “the Creator,” “the Lord,” “the God of are conventionally described by that Muslims think of God as preferring ,”, “the God of Moses,” etc. If word. The sense is the set of proper- themselves to Jews.10 Like Jews and they were using Allah in their lan- ties that are typically attributed to Muslims, Jesus-only Protestants guage to refer to God previously, then an entity when it is described by that are anti-Trinitarian, but they view they continue to do so after becoming word. For example, the English word Jesus as God. Liberal Protestants do disciples of Jesus Christ.9 ‘dog’ denotes the set of dogs and also not view God as incarnate in Jesus The Meaning of ‘Allah’ expresses a set of descriptive proper- but as revealing his characteristics ties that are typical of dogs. A speaker and message through Jesus. Some Suppose for the sake of argument might use the denotative power of a Christians view God as punitive and that the ancient Arabs did worship the word to refer to some particular entity, requiring regular propitiation through moon. This would have no bearing as in “Look at that dog swimming the of the mass. Atheists on the name Allah, for there is no in the water,” or she might use the typically share the concept of God as inscription that identifies Allah as a descriptive power of a word, its sense, judgmental and punitive but without moon god or as a pagan deity. This to describe some entity, as in “That is a grace, and they conveniently add the contrasts with the Hebrew, Greek, muskrat, not a dog.” (Most words actu- property of non-existent. Deists view Latin, and English words for God, all ally have several senses and denotations, God as distant, uncaring, and unin- of which descend from words that were distinguished by their domains and volved. And then there are evangeli- commonly used by pagans in refer- contexts of usage.) cals. All of these people use the same ence to pagan . So the name word ‘God’ to refer to the same entity, Allah is freer of pagan roots than are Different Concepts of God yet they have different concepts of these other names! Now suppose for The sense of a word is the common who God is. The significance is this: the sake of argument that the ancient conceptualization of the entities that it One cannot change a person’s concept of Arabs did worship some pagan deity denotes. It is the concept that is evoked God merely by changing the name he uses under the name of Allah, whether the when the word is used with that sense. for God. Any name that denotes God moon or something else. This would As it happens, however, people do not for someone will evoke that person’s still have no bearing on current usage always share the same conceptualiza- concept of God. What is required for of the term or even the usage in the tion of something. Their concepts of it reconceptualization is new information Qur’an. The meaning of a word is a can be different, even though they use about God that will change the concept function of how people conventionally the same words to refer to it. For exam- itself, and that is the task of the Bible. use it to refer to things, not how it was ple, there are some traditional people used in the past. Modern speakers of Fortunately God has designed the Bible who think the moon is a disc in the sky English, for example, say the names of such that it builds and revises one’s or that it emits light of its own, rather the week without thinking that they concepts of God and man, creation than being a large globe that reflects are honouring the Anglo-Saxon gods and destiny, and holiness, Jesus and the light of the sun. Their concept of after whom the days were originally , etc. It is through reading or the moon is different, but when they named, yet Quakers used to piously hearing the Word of God, particularly refer to the “moon,” they are referring avoid these names for that very reason. in one’s mother tongue, that one’s to the same object in the sky that I call Most Christians happily use words like concepts and worldview are revised. “the moon” even though their concept ‘enthusiasm’ without thinking about This change in the concept of God may is different from mine. People also have spirit possession, yet some Holiness involve eliminating some properties different concepts of God. Even within Christians avoid the term because it (such as capriciousness and dispas- cultures that share a Christian heritage, originally had that meaning. The list sionateness), adding new properties sub-cultural conceptualizations of God could go on. The meanings of a word (sympathy and joy, consistency and reli- can be quite different. Mormons, for are a matter of social convention. If ability), increasing the strength of some example, think of God as a man who Muslims use the term Allah to refer to properties (lovingness and holiness), became a god, created the earth, joined the one and only God, the creator of and decreasing the strength of other with spirit women to beget spirits who the universe, the sustainer of all life, the properties (vindictiveness), as well as would be born as humans, and had adding new information (incorporating 23:2 Summer 2006 82 Who is “Allah”? Word and Spirit, incarnate in Jesus, produced a wonderful new translation propagated by Ditlef Nielsen in Der dreie- purposeful in guiding history).11 of the Bible that suits the modern and inige Gott in Religionshistorischer Beleuchtung, better-educated Turks quite well, but Vol. 1 (Berlin, 1922); Vol. 2 (Copenhagen, Complications of Rejecting the religious Turks refuse to read it, 1942). His claim was based largely on what he thought was a crescent moon on a temple even those who long to know what the the Name ‘Allah’ in Saba (Sheba), but further investigations, There is another aspect to this ques- Bible says. Why? Because the modern cited in the Anchor Bible Dictionary, have tion, and that is the social implica- translation uses the Turkish word shown that it is a bull’s head. tions of using Allah. If I am speaking Tanri for God, and the religious Turks 2 See Jer 8:2; 2 Kgs 17:16; 21:3; 23:5; another language, the language of associate this term with pagan gods. Deut 17:2-3. the people I hope to reach, and the In their view, if a book does not use 3 See the entries for ‘crescent’ in Wiki- normal word for God in that lan- Allah for God, then it does not come pedia, ‘crescent’ in Encyclopædia Britannica guage is Allah, then any refusal on from God. So the very group of people 2003, and ‘hilâl’ in the Encyclopædia of my part to use that term will distance who are most concerned about spiritual Islam (Leiden: Brill, 1999). 4 me from the very people I am trying issues are locked out of God’s Word by One would have to search many dif- to reach, and it will distance them the absence of the word Allah.14 ferent journals and books to collect all of the from the message. My insensitivity examples. The main journals are the Journal to their preferences and taboos will Summary of Semitic Studies and Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy (Blackwell’s, Oxford). There signal a lack of genuine care for them While the concept of God held by is also a series of 54+ volumes called Proceed- and a lack of respect for their culture Muslims differs from that of biblical Christians, so does the concept of ings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. and heritage. My rejection of their 5 God held by non-Messianic Jews. Pre-Islamic Arab Christians in preferred terminology will signal a southern Arabia also used the term Rahman rejection of them personally and of The Jewish concept of Elohim is not Trinitarian, just as the Muslim “the Merciful” for . See the their community and kinfolk in gen- entries for ‘Allah’ in the Encyclopædia of Islam eral. Thus my attempt to draw them concept of Allah is not Trinitarian. (Leiden: Brill, 1999), in Wikipedia, and in will in fact repel them because I reject The Apostle Paul wrote about Encyclopædia Britannica 2003. See the entry their way of talking about things.12 this in Romans 10:2: “For I testify for ‘South Arabia, Religion of’ in the Anchor And if a Christian tells a Muslim that about them that they have a zeal for Bible Dictionary. he is worshipping the moon rather God, but not in accordance with 6 The vowel is zqapha. In western Syriac than the creator of the universe, then knowledge.” Such is the case with it is written with a Greek omicron. It’s sound Muslims as well. If the name Allah was much like the English vowel in ‘ought’. the Christian will be viewed as a liar 7 and a blasphemer, and his testimony were unsuitable because Muslims See Enno Littmann, Arabic Inscrip- will have no credibility at all, because have a non-Trinitarian concept of tions (Leiden, 1949) and James Bellamy, ‘Two Pre-Islamic Arabic Inscriptions the Muslims know that it is God God, then the name Elohim would be unsuitable for the same reason. Revised: Jabal Ramm and Umm al-Jimal’, whom they fear and whom they seek Journal of the American Oriental Society, to please. Muslims want to please God and escape his judgement, but they lack 108/3 (1988). Bellamy disputes Littmann’s In the early sixties, most Western the Biblical of what God reading of Allah, but Bellamy’s read- missionaries were expelled from is like and his provision of salvation ing seems contrived, both in sense and in Sudan. One man instigated most of decipherment, as if he were avoiding the through Jesus Christ. They have zeal word Allah. In any event, it is significant this by campaigning against the mis- without Biblical knowledge. The sionaries and by arranging many false that many pre-Islamic inscriptions record problem is not their name for God but “theophoric” names that include Allah, just charges against them. In the seventies their concept of God. The concept of as many Hebrew names included or Yah. I had an opportunity to talk to this a holy, loving, consistent Trinitarian 8 The author has personally examined man and listen to him. It turns out God comes from absorbing the microfilms and photographs of manuscripts that what angered this Arab man the worldview revealed in the Bible. representing the history and spectrum of most was that the missionaries had It is the Word of God, with the Arabic Bible translation, and they all use pointedly rejected many of the normal enlightenment of the and Allah. One of the earliest Christian Arabic Arabic names for God and Jesus and the testimony of the saints, that can translations is the so-called Elegant Gospels certain prophets, and he perceived this lead Muslims to a fuller concept of (Leiden 2378 / OR 561; Vatican Arabic 17 as a humiliating insult to himself and God, regardless of the name they use and 18). Like Saadia’s translation, it often his people. The man’s name? ‘Isa.13 for him. IJFM uses Allah to translate both Greek Theos and Kurios. This practice has been resumed Modern Turkey has two predominant in recent Arabic translations such as the subcultures: modern Muslims and Endnotes 1 Sharif Bible. religious Muslims. Modern Turks See entries for ‘Allah’ and ‘Hubal’, 9 In many of the languages ranging use a modern “Turkified” language in the Encyclopædia of Islam (Leiden: from Iran to Central Asia to northern in which foreign words have been Brill, 1999), entries for ‘Sin (mythology)’, India, Muslims commonly refer to God as ‘Hubal’, and ‘Allah’ in entries for replaced with neologisms based on Wikipedia, Khoda rather than as Allah, although they ‘Sin’, and ‘Arabian religion’ in Encyclopædia use the latter form as well. Turkish, while religious Turks retain Britannica 2003, and especially the entry for 10 For a comparison of a Biblical concept many Arabic and Persian loan-words, ‘South Arabia, Religion of’ in the Anchor of God and concepts held by many Muslims especially those pertaining to reli- Bible Dictionary. The claim of widespread gion. The Turkish Bible Society has moon worship in the was Endnotes continued on p. 86 International Journal of Frontier Missions