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Snakestones in Early Modern Medicine and Society

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Snakestones in Early Modern Medicine and Society the physical characteristics of snakestones, their various ONLINE CONTENT compositions, and evaluates the medical eff ectiveness of this treatment, which involved the placing of a stone Snakestones in early modern medicine over the area of a venomous bite; it would adhere to the and society skin, purportedly extracting the toxins. Th is contribu- tion also considers the worldwide distribution of snake- Rachael Pymm stones and explores their value and popularity. Th e body of evidence also aff ords the opportunity to explore Abstract the role of snakestones in society; in particular, it pro- Snakestones were exotic, manufactured pharmaceutical vides insight into the social and academic interest in items used to treat snakebite. Drawing on a spectrum ‘exotic’ medicines, an opportunity to explore some of of accounts, and building on my previous work, this the factors driving the choice or otherwise of snake- article explores the role of snakestones in early modern stones as a treatment, and the persistence of popular European society. Forming part of the gift-giving cul- medical beliefs associated with them. Snakestones thus ture, snakestones were also subject to empirical trials provide a lens through which diff erent aspects of the by natural philosophers who sought to challenge estab- changing scene of early modern medicine can be ex- lished medical philosophy and advance the study of plored. snakes and venom. Th eir high cost and limited medical use in comparison with remedies such as theriac and Snakestones prior to the seventeenth century bezoar, resulted in snakestones having minimal eff ect Th e concept of a snake with a powerful stone in its head on the British medical market, in contrast to other ex- can be traced to ancient India.3 Its dissemination otic imported pharmaceuticals. through European thought and literature was due in large part to inclusion by Pliny the Elder (AD 23-79) Introduction in his Historia Naturalis (Natural History), which Snakestones were one of many medicinal ‘stones’ which formed the bedrock of early European natural philoso- formed part of the therapeutic arsenal against ill health phy. Th e concealment of precious stones inside the bod- in the early modern period and were part of the subset ies – particularly the heads – of animal hosts is a com- of ‘animal stones’ thought to naturally occur in the mon feature of other precious animal stones. Stones bodies of their animal hosts. Other such stones include were said to be found in toads, fi sh, birds and porcu- toadstones (bufonites), cock-stones (alectorius), and be- pines,4 amongst others; a number are referenced in zoars; although generally not aesthetically pleasing, Pliny’s work. they were valued for their supposed magical or medici- Snakestones were also recorded in the Greek work nal virtues.1 Th e author has previously classifi ed ‘ser- Kyranides, a compilation of magico-medicinal texts as- pent stones’ into fi ve broad types.2 Th is work considers sembled in the fourth century AD. Kyranides indicated one of these types, the snakestone, a stone said to be that snakestones were to be found in the water serpent extracted from the head of a snake, in further detail. ydros: ‘Ydros, is a water snake […] Th is has a Stone in Th e snakestone became famous as a universal remedy its Head, if any catch the Serpent alive, he will fi nd the for snakebite and was known by a variety of appella- Stone if he charm it, it will vomit up the stone’.5 Ydros tions, many of which refl ected its supposed ophidian is likely synonymous with hydrus, a taxonomically non- origin: pierre de serpent, piedra de cobra, slangensteen, specifi c serpent which lived near water.6 Hydrus was re- pamboo kaloo and schlangenstein. Th e snakestone’s sup- corded as early as circa 750 BC by Homer.7 It later fea- posed origin is entirely fabulous; such a concretion does tured in medieval bestiaries, in which the hydrus was not form inside the head of a snake. Experimental anal- ascribed antipathy towards the crocodile and, covering yses of snakestones with a view to revealing their true itself in mud, it would enter the crocodile’s maw, slip composition were undertaken throughout the eight- down its gullet, and burst out through its side, causing eenth and nineteenth centuries. Consideration of these the crocodile’s death.8 Th e imagery was likened to fi ndings provides an insight into the question of natural Christ’s victory over death (Figure 1).9 versus manufactured therapies in this period. Snakestones were also recorded in the works of Th is paper briefl y outlines the history of snake- ninth and tenth century Islamic alchemists such as Ibn stones in medicine and the sudden interest in them Washiyya al-Nabaţī (Abū Bakr Aḥmad bin ‘Alī al- which developed in the mid-seventeenth century. It Kasdānī, fl . 10th century) and Al-Biruni (Abū Rayḥān draws on a spectrum of accounts and expands on my Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Al-Bīrūnī, 973-1050, also earlier overview of serpent stones to consider in detail known as Alberonius).10 PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2020 · Volume 50/4 129 seventeenth century. Th e details are typical of early modern snakestone accounts: the stone was said to come from the head of a snake and was dark in colour, apart from the centre. Used as a snakebite remedy, it would be placed over the bite, to which it would adhere, ostensibly extracting the venom. It would fall off either when all the venom was extracted, or when it was full, in which case it could be cleaned, detoxifi ed and then re-used until it failed subsequently to adhere. After ap- plication, the stone was to be placed in milk; some ac- counts stipulate that human breastmilk should be used, others substitute water. Th us steeped, the stone would purportedly expel the poison it had absorbed into the liquid, which was sometimes said to bubble, or to change colour as a result. Th ereafter, the stone was con- sidered fi t for re-use. Figure 1. A hydrus slithering into a crocodile’s mouth and out of its side. (© British Library Board, MS Royal 12 C. xix, f. 12v, British Library, London) Snakestones appeared occasionally in later works as their authors drew from and replicated the text of ear- lier authorities directly, or from derivative works. Th e snakestone might have gradually faded into obscurity had it not been the subject of an upsurge of interest in the mid-seventeenth century. At this time, compelling tales of the snakestones’ effi cacy against poisoned bites and their alleged ongoing practical use in the lands to the east were reported by missionaries and other travel- lers returning to Europe. Polish Jesuit Missionary to China, Michał Boym (c. 1612-1659) published his Flo- ra Sinensis (Chinese Flora) in 1656, during a sojourn in Rome. In this work, Boym wrote of the snakestone: In India and the kingdom of Quamsi, a stone can be found in the heads of the type of serpents which the Portuguese call Cobras de Cabelo, which means hairy serpents. Th is stone can be used as an antidote for the serpent’s bite, and without this one would die within twenty-four hours. Th is round stone (usually lentil-shaped) has a white middle and blue or brown edges. When placed on the wound, it adheres by it- Figure 2. Athanasius Kircher. Stipple engraving by self, draws the poison, and falls off when full of the R. Cooper. (Source: Wellcome Collection, London) poison. When placed in milk, it will gradually return to its natural state. Th is stone, not found every- Boym’s work unexpectedly prompted academic scru- where, will adhere if the wound has not been com- tiny of the stones. At this time, the authority of classi- pletely drained. If it falls away, the natives congratu- cal and medieval sources was being challenged, and late the sick person that the danger of death has been natural philosophers began to pursue empiricism,12 the overcome.11 expression of which included the undertaking of ‘trials’ to test claims.13 Boym’s work piqued the interest of fel- Th is passage on snakestones was the earliest and most low-Jesuit, natural philosopher Athanasius Kircher oft-plagiarised passage on snakestones penned in the (1602-1680) (Figure 2) who met Boym in Rome in 130 PHARMACEUTICAL HISTORIAN · 2020 · Volume 50/4 1655.14 Several years later, in 1662-4, Kircher also met bite envenomization. He had displayed astounding per- Jesuit Henry Roth (1620-1677) in Rome;15 Roth had sistence and experimented repeatedly on the snake- spent approximately a decade in India and gave Kirch- stones, before coming to the fi rm conclusion that they er three snakestones which, Roth asserted, he had ex- – like several other exotic items – were medically inef- perimented with himself.16 Boym and Roth both af- fective.26 fi rmed to Kircher that the snakestone was eff ective in Martha Baldwin has detailed the competing social curing snakebite.17 and professional interests at play between Kircher and Kircher undertook a single trial on the snakestone, Redi in the snakestone debate: Redi was in competition using it to treat a viper-bitten dog. Th e dog recovered, with his fellow physicians for infl uence at the Medici although it took a day to return to full health.18 Kirch- court, and sought to enhance his status by engaging in er notes that contemporaneously Carolo Magnino, also disputes with high-profi le guresfi outside the court, si- of Rome, treated a human patient in the same way, with multaneously avoiding the potentially damaging con- a successful outcome.19 Kircher published his unequiv- sequences of such debate with local peers.
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