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Neither Memsahibs nor Missionaries: Western Women who Supported the Indian Independence Movement by Sharon M. H. MacDonald B.A. with distinction, Mount Saint Vincent University, 1988 M.A. Atlantic Canada Studies, Saint Mary's University, 1999 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Graduate Academic Unit of History, Faculty of Arts Supervisor: Gail Campbell, Ph.D., History Examining Board: Margaret Conrad, Ph.D., History, Chair Carey Watt, Ph.D., History Nancy Nason-Clark, Ph.D., Sociology External Examiner: Barbara Ramusack, Ph.D., History, University of Cincinnati This dissertation is accepted by the Dean of Graduate Studies UNIVERSITY OF NEW BRUNSWICK March 2010 © Sharon M. H. MacDonald, 2010 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington OttawaONK1A0N4 OttawaONK1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-82764-2 Our file Notre r6f6rence ISBN: 978-0-494-82764-2 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. 1*1 Canada TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements v Preface ix Introduction 1 Chapter One: Setting the Historical and Historiographical Scene 28 Chapter Two: Mary/Polly/Tarabehn Chesley (1891-1936) 54 Chapter Three: From Missionaries to Revolutionaries 84 Chapter Four: Marjorie Sykes (1905-1995) 121 Chapter Five: Sarala Behn/Catherine Mary Heilemann (1901-1982) 148 Chapter Six: Mirabehn/Madeleine Slade (1892-1982) 169 Chapter Seven: Supporters in Britain: Muriel Lester (1883-1968) and Agatha Harrison (1885-1954) 209 Conclusion 258 Bibliography 271 Appendices: Appendix I: Web of women 281 Appendix II: Principal subjects 282 Appendix III: Gandhi's letters referring to Mary (Tarabehn) Chesley 283 Appendix IV: Exemplary behavior of the Police 293 Appendix V: Exchange of letters between Mirabehn and Gandhi 294 Appendix VI: Glossary 298 Curriculum Vitae In loving memory of my mother and father, Katherine (MacLeod) and Robert MacDonald and my aunts, Helen (MacDonald) Rand, Lilias (MacDonald) Toward and Alison (Wood) MacLeod ABSTRACT In recent decades, historians of women and gender have been interrogating Western women's involvement in India, exploring, for the most part, the roles that memsahibs (wives of colonial administrators) and missionaries played in maintaining or undermining the empire. Some have argued that even early Western feminists who took up the cause of Indian women's rights maintained colonial blinders and an ethnocentric bias that prevented them from recognizing their Indian "sisters" as equals. In counterpoint, others have offered a more sympathetic view of particular Western women engaged in the Indian story. This dissertation is a study of a group of anti-imperialist Western women who supported the nonviolent movement for Indian independence. As friends and associates of Mohandas K. Gandhi, these women were sometimes held suspect by the British authorities—at worst, imprisoned for their involvement in the independence movement, and, at best, considered misguided "bleeding hearts". Some were subject to innuendo regarding the nature of their relationships with the charismatic leader and dismissed as mere camp followers of the great man. This study argues that these women, as autonomous individuals, brought their own intelligent agency to the Indian movement and that their affinity with Gandhi was based on shared political, social and spiritual values. Unquestionably, Gandhi played a significant role in their lives, but the reverse can also be argued and, further, that without these women, Gandhi's cause would have had less support internationally. Gandhi's philosophical and political ideas were partially inspired by Western writers such as Tolstoy, Thoreau and Ruskin, individuals who have been referred to as "the Other West". This study argues that the women included in this collective biography should also be considered part of "the Other West" and that, because of their connections to activist movements for civil rights and peace across the globe, they played an important role in the cross-pollination of political and social ideas among such movements. These women activists were fueled and sustained by a radical and unconventional faith that gave them the courage to abandon Western privilege and fully live their politics, even in the face of personal danger. By example, they provided role models for younger generations of social activists, both in India and elsewhere. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In any project that spans the amount of time I have been working on this dissertation, inevitably there are many individuals and institutions to acknowledge. I would not have been able to complete this project if it were not for the financial support I received from a number of sources. I thank the University of New Brunswick and its History Department for believing in my work enough to provide generous funding which allowed me to pursue the doctoral program. To the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), I extend gratitude for the fellowship they awarded me. Pendle Hill, the Quaker Center for Study and Contemplation, provided me with a scholarship and a rich environment in which to begin my writing. With the solitariness of being a graduate student, participating in the community life at Pendle Hill was especially meaningful. My thanks also to the Canadian Yearly Meeting and Halifax Monthly Meeting of The Religious Society of Friends for their support. From 2008-2009,1 was awarded a research fellowship at the Canadian Museum of Civilization in Gatineau, Quebec. While my work there did not relate to my dissertation topic, the fellowship allowed me the financial freedom to complete the writing in a city where I did not have the distractions and responsibilities of home life. During the months of research in India and Britain during 2003-2004,1 met countless people who helped in many ways. Regrettably, part way through the trip, the theft of a backpack that held my journal, research notes, and address book has meant that I cannot name all those I would like to thank. However, there are some individuals to whom I am particularly indebted. Prior to going to India, I made contact with David Hopkins, of the Lakshmi Ashram in Kausani, Uttarakhand. Through David, I was able to V meet with staff and children at the school and, fortuitously, I was there at the same time as Radha Bhatt, the former principal of the school, a woman who has had a long and distinguished career in India promoting women's and children's rights. Radhabehn had been one of the early pupils of Saralabehn, one of the subjects of this study and she graciously gave me precious time to share stories of her personal relationship with her mentor. I visited Shobha Vidyarthi, another former student of Saralabehn's, at the small ashram in Dharamghar, Uttarakhand, where Saralabehn spent her last years under the care of Shobhabehn. David, who has now completed a translation of Saralabehn's autobiography, generously shared his work with me, chapter by chapter, through email correspondence. Many of the people that I met in the course of my journey were inspired community activists, often working in challenging situations with little financial help. I will not forget the generosity of these individuals. Deena (whose last name I cannot recall), worked with a leper colony in Rajasthan and had organized reforestation projects in the foothills of the Himalayas. He introduced me to a number of social workers who had known Saralabehn. At the Brahma Vidya Mandir (the Vinoba Bhave ashram in Paunar), I met with a number of long-time residents. Thank you to Kusum Despande, Previnabehn, Jotibehn Patankar, Goutam Bajaj, and Rambhau Maskar for sharing their knowledge and insights. At the Gandhi Seva Sangh, Sevagram, Wardha, I met with Kanakmal Gandhi, Dharampal, and Radha Krishna Bajaj. The welcome and very useful leads I received while visiting the Institute of Gandhian Studies in Wardha will not be forgotten. Thank you to Siby Joseph, Dr. Raman Modi, and Chandra Shekhar Dharmadhikari. At the Friends Rural Centre in Rasulia, Hoshangabad, I met with Daniel vi Yakub and Jagdish Mishra. Words cannot convey my gratitude to Raju and Shalini Titus of Hoshangabad who, with no advance warning of our arrival, hosted us overnight at their Rishi Keti (natural) farm. To Lorry Benjamin of Kesla, who does remarkable work with rural women and children, I extend my thanks for her hospitality and for sharing her personal knowledge of one of my subjects, Marjorie Sykes.
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