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Lester F. Ward: Applied Sociology (1906) [i] APPLIED SOCIOLOGY A TREATISE ON THE CONSCIOUS IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY BY SOCIETY BY LESTER F. WARD L’application est la pierre de touche de Toute doctrine. – ADOLPHE COSTE Seite 2 von 408 Lester F. Ward: Applied Sociology (1906) [ii] COPYRIGHT, 1906 BY LESTER F. WARD ________ ALL RIGHTS RESERVED GINN & COMPANY Boston – New York – Chicago – London 1906 Seite 3 von 408 Lester F. Ward: Applied Sociology (1906) [iii] PREFACE This work and its predecessor, Pure Sociology, constitute together a system of sociology, and these, with Dynamic Sociology, The Psychic Factors of Civilization, and the Outlines of Sociology, make up a more comprehensive system of social philosophy. Should any reader acquaint himself with the whole, he will find it not only consistent with itself, but progressive in the sense that each successive volume carries the subject a step farther with a minimum of repetition or duplicate treatment. The central thought is that of a true science of society, capable, in the measure that it approaches completeness, of being turned to the profit of mankind. If there is one respect in which it differs more than in others from rival systems of philosophy it is in its practical character of never losing sight of the end or purpose, nor of the possibilities of conscious effort. It is a reaction against the philosophy of despair that has come to dominate even the most enlightened scientific thought. It aims to point out a remedy for the general paralysis that is creeping over the world, and which a too narrow conception of the law of cosmic evolution serves rather to increase than to diminish. It proclaims the efficacy of effort, provided it is guided by intelligence. It would remove the embargo laid upon human activity by a false interpretation of scientific determinism, and, without having recourse to the equally false conception of a power to will, it insists upon the power to act. It is this mobilization of the army of achievement which it is sought to express in the title of Part I. Until there is movement there can be no achievement. Movement is the condition to achievement, and achievement is the means to improvement. With a clear conception of the logical relations of these three terms in the argument the entire scheme and scope of applied sociology will unfold, and the reader will be put in position at least to understand the work, whether or not he accepts its general conclusions. Seite 4 von 408 Lester F. Ward: Applied Sociology (1906) [iv] The small claim made for applied sociology at the present stage of the science will probably disappoint many, and it will be said that little advance is made beyond the position taken in Dynamic Sociology; but the world has made little progress in the past twenty-three years, although they have been years of great social unrest. And every attempt to take a step forward, with its virtual failure to do so, has only confirmed the view there set forth that ends cannot be attained directly, but only through means, - the universal method of science. It has also become more and more apparent that improvement cannot be secured through the increase of knowledge, but only through its socialization, and that therefore the real and practical problem of applied sociology still remains the distribution of the intellectual heritage bequeathed to all equally by the genius of mankind. I take great pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to M. H. Welter, Librairie Universitaire, 4, Rue Bernard-Palissy, Paris, publisher of M. Odin's great work, La Genèse des Grands Hommes, for his courtesy in permitting the use of the valuable maps, charts, and tables of Chapter IX, and I sincerely hope that this may have some effect in making this work known to a larger circle of readers. L. F. W. WASHINGTON, March 30, 1906 Seite 5 von 408 Lester F. Ward: Applied Sociology (1906) [v] CONTENTS PART I – MOVEMENT CHAPTER I RELATION OF PURE TO APPLIED SOCIOLOGY PAGE General remark. 3 PURE SOCIOLOGY Answers the questions What, Why, and How. - Stability of social structures. - Applied 3 sociology rests on pure sociology. - Social structures must be understood before they can be modified. APPLIED SOCIOLOGY Answers the question What for. - Essentially practical. - Relates to improvement. - Subjective. 5 - Anthropocentric. - Egalitarian. - Presupposes an acquaintance with pure sociology. - Science versus art. - Modification of phenomena. - Utility of science. - Applied sociology versus the social art. SUPERIORITY OF THE ARTIFICIAL Illustrations. - Language as an example. - Justice as an example. 11 CHAPTER II THE EFFICACY OF EFFORT The laissez faire school. - How illogical. - Alleged evils of interference. - Benefits of 13 interference. - The fundamental fallacy. - Social initiative. - Social achievement. - Faire marcher. CHAPTER III END OR PURPOSE OF SOCIOLOGY PROGRESS VERSUS EVOLUTION Views of Herbert Spencer. - Definitions of progress in earlier works. Its relation to happiness. - 18 The paradox of hedonism. Seite 6 von 408 Lester F. Ward: Applied Sociology (1906) [vi] WELTSCHMERZ Pessimism. - Position of Gumplowicz. - Views of the socialists. - Of Huxley. - No attempt yet 19 made to cure. ACHIEVEMENT VERSUS IMPROVEMENT Purpose of applied sociology to harmonize achievement with improvement. - Theory of natural 21 inequality. - Achievement never duly rewarded. DEFINITION OF JUSTICE Enforces artificial equality. - Long resisted and denounced. - A form of social interference. - 22 Wholly artificial. THE OLIGOCENTRIC WORLD VIEW Confined to the intellectual aspect. - Apotheosis of genius. - Sociology opposes it. 23 SOCIAL VERSUS POLITICAL JUSTICE Only civil and political justice thus far attained. - Social justice still to be attained. - This will be 24 simply another step in the same direction. SOCIAL WELFARE Happiness an active state. - Ennui. - Normal exercise of the faculties. - Not a question of 25 intelligence or social worth. SOCIAL FREEDOM The three kinds of freedom: national, political, social. - National freedom, how attained. - 26 Struggle for political freedom. - Disappointed hopes. - Social freedom in process of attainment. - Difficulties of this problem. - It belongs to applied sociology. THE NEW ETHICS How it differs from the old. - Primitive ethics concerned only with race safety. - Its modern 28 degeneracy. - Aim of the new ethics. - Not philanthropy. - The luxury of altruism. - The summum bonum. THE CLAIMS OF FEELING Philosophy of license. - Feeling versus function - Asceticism. Spiritual pleasures. - Subjective 29 trend of modern philosophy. - Puritanism. – Utilitarianism. - Greatest good to the greatest number - Pursuit of happiness. - Eudemonism. - Pain economy. - Cruelty of nature. - The struggle for existence. - Savages not happy. - Fear of nature. - Perpetually at war. - Ethics of function. - The deficit of life. - Its removal. Seite 7 von 408 Lester F. Ward: Applied Sociology (1906) [vii] CHAPTER IV SOCIAL ACHIEVEMENT Usually denied. - The parable of Saint-Simon. - The illogical inference. - The social order. - 37 The ameliorative function of society. - Social integration. - Social intelligence. CHAPTER V WORLD VIEWS In what sense ideas rule the world. - World ideas. - Thought, to be effective, must be 40 possessed by society. INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY Historical materialism and intellectualism. - Economic interpretation of history. - Ideological 40 interpretation of history. RECONCILIATION OF THE ECONOMIC AND IDEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATIONS OF HISTORY Views of Comte and Spencer. - De Greef on the influence of ideas. - Völkergedanken. - 41 Zeitgeist. - Public opinion. Idea Forces. - Confusion of ideas on the subject. 44 Beliefs. - Belief versus opinion. - Beliefs rest on interest. - Grow out of desires. - World views 45 due to economic conditions. - Oriental and occidental ideas. - The study of mind versus the study of matter. CHAPTER VI TRUTH AND ERROR Primitive reasoning. - Based on interest. - Dominated by fear. 50 ANTHROPOMORPHIC IDEAS How the animal mind differs from the rational mind. - The simplest phenomena always 51 regarded as subject to natural laws. - All motion explained as voluntary. - Animism. Religious Ideas. - Anthropomorphic. - How explained. 52 Spiritual Beings. - Tylor's minimum definition of religion. - Causes of belief in spiritual beings. - Shadows. - Reflections. - Echoes. - Dreams. - Delirium. - Insanity. - Trance. - Death. - Universality of the belief in spirits. - Multiplication of spirits. - Ancestor-worship. - Objective influences. - Fetishism. - Metamorphosis. - Idea of cause. - Effect of the Seite 8 von 408 Lester F. Ward: Applied Sociology (1906) [viii] phenomena of nature. - Continuance theory. - Metempsychosis. - Immortality. - Origin of 53 gods. - Theological conceptions. - Polytheism. - Monotheism. - Dualism. RELIGIOUS STRUCTURES Ecclesiastical institutions. - The church. - Fear of spiritual beings. - Origin of the priesthood. 62 ERROR May error ever be useful? - Religious ideas and structures exclusively human. - Ignorance 65 versus error. - Error a product of reason. - Paradoxes of nature. - Error necessary. - Reason untrustworthy. Consequences of Error. - Sacrifices. - Not practised by the lowest races. - Waste of property 68 at funerals. - Costly tombs. - Pyramids of Egypt. - Other examples. - Self-mutilation. - Superstition. - Asceticism. - Zoölatry. - Witchcraft. - Persecution. - Resistance to truth. - Science explains phenomena and dispels error. - Opposition to science. - Science corrects its own errors. -
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