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Direct Effects of Trait Construct and Stereotype Activation on Action Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 1996 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 1996. Vol. 71, No. 2. 230-244 0022-3514/96/S3.00 Automaticity of Social Behavior: Direct Effects of Trait Construct and Stereotype Activation on Action John A. Bargh, Mark Chen, and Lara Burrows New York University Previous research has shown that trait concepts and stereotypes become active automatically in the presence of relevant behavior or stereotyped-group features. Through the use of the same priming procedures as in previous impression formation research, Experiment 1 showed that participants whose concept of rudeness was primed interrupted the experimenter more quickly and frequently than did participants primed with polite-related stimuli. In Experiment 2, participants for whom an elderly stereotype was primed walked more slowly down the hallway when leaving the experiment than did control participants, consistent with the content of that stereotype. In Experiment 3, par- ticipants for whom the African American stereotype was primed subliminally reacted with more hostility to a vexatious request of the experimenter. Implications of this automatic behavior priming effect for self-fulfilling prophecies are discussed, as is whether social behavior is necessarily mediated by conscious choice processes. For many years, social psychologists have studied the effects Automaticity in Attitudes and Social Cognition of priming on the individual's subsequent impressions of oth- ers. Priming refers to the incidental activation of knowledge The extent to which one's own thought and behavior are or structures, such as trait concepts and stereotypes, by the current are not under one's own intentional control is a fundamental situational context. Many studies have shown that the recent existential question (see Posner & Snyder, 1975; Uleman & use of a trait construct or stereotype, even in an earlier or unre- Bargh, 1989). Indeed, over the past two decades, researchers in lated situation, carries over for a time to exert an unintended, the area of attitudes and social cognition have documented that passive influence on the interpretation of behavior (see Bargh, many of the phenomena they study are unintentional or auto- 1994;Higgins, 1989; Wyer&Srull, 1989, for reviews). matic in nature (for reviews, see Bargh, 1994; Smith, 1994, in We argue here that such passive, automatic effects of priming press; Wegner & Bargh, in press). Attitudes are discovered to need not be limited to social perception. Recent research has become activated automatically on the mere presence of the at- shown that attitudes and other affective reactions can be trig- titude object, without conscious intention or awareness (i.e., gered automatically by the mere presence of relevant objects preconsciously; see Bargh, 1989), to then exert their influence and events, so that evaluation and emotion join perception in on thought and behavior (Bargh, Chaiken, Govender, & Pratto, the realm of direct, unmediated psychological effects of the en- 1992; Bargh, Chaiken, Raymond, & Hymes, 1996; Fazio, San- vironment (see Bargh, 1994, in press, for reviews). But assum- bonmatsu, Powell, & Kardes, 1986). The self-concept (Bargh, ing that behavioral responses to situations are also represented 1982; Bargh & Tota, 1988; Higgins, 1987; Strauman & Higgins, mentally, as are stereotypes and attitudes, they should also be 1987) is shown to become active automatically on the presence capable of becoming automatically activated, by the same prin- of self-relevant stimuli to affect self-perception and emotions. ciples that govern the development of automaticity of other Stereotypes become active automatically on the mere presence representations. of physical features associated with the stereotyped group (Brewer, 1988;Devine, 1989; Perdue &Gurtman, 1990; Pratto & Bargh, 1991), and categorizing behavior in terms of person- ality traits (e.g., Carlston & Skowronski, 1994; Winter & Ule- John A. Bargh, Mark Chen, and Lara Burrows, Department of Psy- man, 1984) and then making dispositional attributions about chology, New York University. This research was supported in part by Grant SBR-9409448 from the the actor's personality (e.g., Gilbert, 1989; Gilbert, Pelham, & National Science Foundation to John A. Bargh and by a Max Planck Krull, 1988) have both been shown to occur automatically to Society (Germany) Research Prize to John A. Bargh and Peter Goll- some extent. witzer. The contributions of Elliott Rosenthal, Gayatri Taneja, and This growing evidence of automaticity in social psychological Jayme Yocum to this research in their capacity as experimenters is phenomena notwithstanding, it remains widely assumed that gratefully acknowledged. We also thank Peter Gollwitzer, John Skow- behavioral responses to the social environment are under con- ronski, Dan Wegner, and especially Leonard Berkowitz and Dan Gilbert for their comments and suggestions concerning an earlier version of this scious control (see review in Bargh, 1989). These responses article. might well be consciously chosen on the basis of automatically Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to John produced perceptions and feelings (especially when the individ- A. Bargh, Department of Psychology, New York University, 6 Washing- ual was not aware of the potential for any such nonconscious ton Place, Seventh Floor, New York, New York 10003. Electronic mail influence; see Herr, 1986, and Neuberg, 1988), but the ultimate may be sent via the Internet to [email protected]. behavioral decisions themselves are believed to be made con- 230 AUTOMATIC SOCIAL BEHAVIOR 231 sciously. Devine (1989), for example, argued for a two-stage Several theorists have argued that behavioral responses are model of prejudice in which the perceptual phase is automatic activated immediately by the situational context. Lewin's (i.e., activation of stereotypes by the target person's features), (1943) notion of the psychological situation considered it to whereas the second phase of prejudiced behavior is a matter of consist of the totality of the individual's immediate reactions to conscious choice, driven by one's relevant values. Fiske (1989) the objective, external situation. Mischel (1973) further devel- argued that a person could "make the hard choice" and over- oped this concept as part of his social-cognitive model of per- come stereotypic influences on behavior if sufficiently moti- sonality. He noted that an individual can have all sorts of im- vated to do so. mediate reactions to a person or event, not limited to cognitive Indeed, the traditional rationale for the study of attitudes and or perceptual ones but including (a) expectancies for what was social cognition is the belief (even faith) that choices of social going to happen next in the situation; (b) subjective evaluations behavior are based on the outcome of these processes—thus, it of what was happening; (c) emotional reactions one has had in is social behavior that is the long-term focus of this research that situation in the past; and, most important to the present (i.e., "thinking is for doing"; Fiske, 1992). The historic purpose thesis, (d) the behavioral response patterns one has available of attitude research has been that attitudes predicted behavior, within the situation based on one's past experience (see also and evidence to the contrary (e.g., LaPiere, 1934; Wicker, 1969) Higgins, 1987). was cause for alarm, similar to the purpose of personality re- There is no theoretical or conceptual reason why the effects search (e.g., Mischel, 1968). of preconscious, automatic activation should be limited to per- The impetus behind automaticity research is no different. ception and evaluation. Preconscious activation of mental rep- Research into the automaticity of attitudes was first conducted resentations develops from their frequent and consistent activa- because it was hypothesized that attitudes that became active tion in the presence of a given stimulus event in the environ- automatically (preconsciously) in the presence of the attitude ment (Bargh, 1989; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). This is the object would be more likely to influence behavior toward the mechanism behind the automaticity of trait construct activa- object than those that depended on intentional conscious re- tion given the mere observation of trait-relevant behavior, of at- trieval of the attitude (Fazio et al, 1986). The presumption be- titudes in the mere presence of the attitude object, and of ste- hind studies of automatic influences in social perception, such reotypes on the mere presence of a stereotyped group member. as via primed or chronically accessible trait constructs (e.g., To the extent that an individual repeatedly has the same reac- Bargh & Pietromonaeo, 1982; Bargh & Thein, 1985), was that tion to a social stimulus event, the representation of that re- such preconscious influences would play a stronger than usual sponse should come eventually to be activated automatically on role in subsequent behavior toward the target person, as the per- the mere occurrence of that event. Thus, if an individual con- ceiver would not be aware of the interpretive bias and so could sistently behaves the same way in response to a situation, that not correct for it (Bargh, 1989). In a similar fashion, research behavioral response should become automatically associated into the automaticity of stereotyping has been motivated by a with those situational features. In harmony with this hypothe-
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