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The World’s Major Languages

Comrie Bernard

Germanic Languages

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 John A. Hawkins Published online on: 28 Nov 2008

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:51 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203301524, chapter2, 10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 n fian 5mlin rsa vr4000;Egihwrdie 320 worldwide, English 400,000); over Frisian million, fi 25 Afrikaans and h nyetniercrsw aeaefo orhcnuyBbetasaininto the translation into era. nought Bible Gdan year present fourth-century the now the around a is of Sweden what from southern centuries around from are early migrated area have western the had Goths we in in The records regions Africa) Gothic. the ori- extensive North numerous tribes were even only occupying other These (and The south and Europe extinct. Gepids migrated eastern the now that Vandals, and are Scandinavia the Burgundians, members in the whose ginating Goths, of the of all languages Germanic, East recognised: of has English which pr rmEgih prxmtl 2 ilo 9 ilo o emni European in German for Germanic million West of (90 47,000); has million North it Faroese 125 which follows: Swedish in and approximately million, as countries 4 260,000 English, divided over from Icelandic today, Norwegian apart million, million, world mil- 5 450 8.8 the over least (Danish in approximately at million languages are 18 there over Germanic Demographically Germanic, of language). regional speakers or lion national a (as status Creole Jamaican and (e.g. but dialectal Pacifi Atlantic Africa, the the the and and of just India Krio) creoles Australasia, Pidgin not and America, and pidgins include North English-based Isles, and numerous Yiddish British extensive The also including the Frisian. particularly varieties, of and its variants are Flemish) regional all and English (in Afrikaans of German (including varieties varieties), Dutch Faroese. its German), and all Pennsylvania Icelandic, and (in Swedish, English Nynorsk), and latter: Norwegian Germanic Danish, Bokmål The North comprises: Dano-Norwegian group groups: the former major both The two (i.e. Germanic. into West fall and Scandinavian) spoken (or currently languages Germanic The hto n te ru flnugs neeycnietteeaecutisi hc a which of in some are countries has Dutch are or there used and extensively continent German is every English) Scandinavian, In than (primarily languages. which extensive language of more Germanic in group is modern other globe languages any Germanic the the of of of that distribution regions geographical the the spoken, list this to s agaeues ls300 plus users, language rst hr satidgopo agae ihnteGrai aiyta ed obe to needs that family Germanic the within languages of group third a is There fi ilsau c.Cytl2003). Crystal (cf. status cial fi ilsau,Gra olwd ehp 0 ilo,Dutch million, 100 perhaps worldwide German status, cial – 0 ilo sr ncutislk ni n igpr in Singapore and India like countries in users million 500 ´ eg aainPdi n o ii) hnoeadds one When Pisin). Tok and Pidgin Hawaiian (e.g. c k(rgnlyGticnz) After Gothiscandza). (originally sk emncLanguages Germanic onA Hawkins A. John AD 0 hymoved they 200 – 0million 80 fi 2 cial 51 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:51 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203301524, chapter2, 10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 paigae.Frhreiec feryGrai oe rmwrsctdb h classical the by Germanic- Common cited the words Late (e.g. from alphabet called Tacitus throughout comes runic sometimes as Germanic differentiation special is such early dialect of a language writers evidence in minimal the Further century wood) of area. exhibits third or stage speaking it the bone This to since stone, Futhark. back in the Germanic dating carved as inscriptions rather to runic (or referred are written between These and correspondence were 2.1. AD the cognates. Figure Gothic Crimean in recognised Germanic Crimean the illustrated West who of on own 1562, words spoken his in Eighty-six still and diplomat century. was words Flemish eighteenth Gothic these a the of by as form recorded late a as addition, peninsula In below). see system, Spanish eunl obcm bobdi h oa ouain,bti diint h Bible names the place of to form addition the in in but relics linguistic populations, numerous local behind left (e.g. the have in they absorbed translation become to sequently ore unr1972. Kufner Source: 2.1 Figure and Visigoths Spain groups, and two France into southern up in split kingdoms later new and established Bulgaria, ( Visigoths now The is Ostrogoths. what into south LANGUAGES GERMANIC 52 rsn hti o otenSee,suhr owy emr n h oe Elbe lower the and com- Denmark 1000 area Norway, to an It southern prior occupied point Sweden, Proto-Indo-European. people some southern of Germanic-speaking at now a speakers is that the what however, prising about agreed, be uncertainty to more seems language, even parent and Germanic the Germanic, of have we as as Indo-European knowledge and such Germanic with Proto-Germanic. both us to provide applied whole reconstruction a comparative of method the od orwdb h egbuigBli agae n ins eg Finnish (e.g. Finnish and languages Baltic neighbouring ‘ the by borrowed words opr oenGerman Modern compare AD king h aletrcrsta ehv o l he ruso emnclnugsare languages Germanic of groups three all for have we that records earliest The hr smc netit urudn h rgnadntr ftesekr fProto- of speakers the of nature and origin the surrounding uncertainty much is There 419 ’ Catalonia .Terncisrpin,teeerycttosadlas h ohceiec and evidence Gothic the loans, and citations early these inscriptions, runic The ). – guerra 1) n h srgtsi tl u till (up Italy in Ostrogoths the and 711), h aletWitnRcrsi h emncLanguages. Germanic the in Records Written Earliest The originally , ‘ war ’ ,adas oesrcua etrs(uha h emncstress Germanic the as (such features structural more also and ), ‘ Roderich Gothislandia ru BC - na n hta xaso hnto lc oht h north the to both place took then expansion an that and , ‘ rune and ’ n rmsm xrml al emncloan- Germanic early extremely some from and ) ’ ,proa ae (e.g. names personal ), Ferdinand ,nmru onod eg Italian- (e.g. loanwords numerous ), AD 5) hs rbswr sub- were tribes These 555). Rodrigo and Fernando kuningas , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:51 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203301524, chapter2, 10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 uthv irtdt hi otenSadnva oainsmtm eoe1000 before sometime location Scandinavian southern their 25 to pages migrated have (see must themselves speakers Indo-European the pcltv n eed none on depends and speculative unl eaevie tp) h otdlines dotted The stops). voiced became quently Eng. nwr-ee tespten;adrdcin n ossi ntesdsyllables. unstressed changes in shifts; losses vowel and several reductions Shift; and Sound patterns; Germanic) stress (or word-level First in the following: the were rlycniee ohv encmltdb tlat500 least at by completed been have to considered 56). erally a languages page Germanic have the (see of origin to vocabulary Indo-European Proto-Indo-European. the were of of from one-third that not Proto-Germanic as is much borrowed of as were Hutterer development to non-Indo-European- the features According a on linguistic there impact encountered whom they substantial from 1975) Hutterer people (cf. speaking theory one to according a 2.1 Map peoples Germanic the of 500 expansion to southward the 1000 illustrates period 2.1 the Map in south. the to and ore dpe rmHtee 1975. Hutterer from Adapted Source: aaa/ea itnto hogot n olpe h nsiae n siae series shi aspirated stops and Lat. voiced example, unaspirated Unaspirated the be the abandoned stops. a could Proto-Germanic collapsed palatal, voiceless which shown. a of and dental, as of throughout, stop, a each bilabial, distinction velar) consonants, a (labialised palatal/velar was labio-velar of there a series Proto-Indo- series and each reconstruction voiced velar within this a and to aspirated, and or According voiceless unaspirated 11). a page had volume, European this Baldi, (see (1903) 2.2. Figure in illustrated h is on hf affected Shift Sound First The h ao hne htstofPooGrai rmPooId-uoenaegen- are Proto-Indo-European from Proto-Germanic off set that changes major The h eosrce rt-noErpa osnnso iue22aetoeo Brugmann of those are 2.2 Figure of consonants Proto-Indo-European reconstructed The th ree xaso fteGrai epe1000 People Germanic the of Expansion ,adaprtdvie tp hfe to shifted stops voiced aspirated and ), d ecem ,Eng. t en BC ,vieessossitdt ocls rctvs(..Lat. (e.g. fricatives voiceless to shifted stops voiceless ), eosrcino h vnsbfr 1000 before events the of reconstruction A . ’ hoyo the of theory s all h o-aa tp fPooId-uoenadis and Proto-Indo-European of stops non-nasal the – 0 BC. 500 nFgr . niaeteoeaino what of operation the indicate 2.2 Figure in tdt hi ocls oneprs(e,for (see, counterparts voiceless their to fted ocdfiaie ms fwihsubse- which of (most fricatives voiced ‘ Urheimat – 6.TepeGrai speakers pre-Germanic The 26). ’ BC o rgnlhmln)of homeland) original (or ntepoooythese phonology the In . EMNCLANGUAGES GERMANIC BC srather is BC t and res 53 , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:51 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203301524, chapter2, 10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 etaie yterasgmn fpiaysrs.Tu,bt I * PIE both Thus, Verner stress. of to subsequently primary were assumed operation of that * commonly the reassignment type and is since Indo-European the tones) the Shift, by low of neutralised Sound patterns versus First accentual high variable the i.e. supposes originally, after argued a been pitch affi occurred has on on stem-forming that have fallen system based and accentual had be word- Proto-Indo-European stress a to root, (from the (the shift Proto-Indo-European This types endings). in syllable where of languages variety Germanic the of ‘ olpe into collapsed xml,a meitl olwn tesdslal ol nueviig f Go. cf. voicing, induce For voiced. would become syllable stressed or following voiceless immediately remain either an would example, Germanic of fricatives voiceless the called is 1948. Krahe from Adapted Source: 2.2 Figure LANGUAGES GERMANIC 54 ‘ fádar aaso rt-noErpa became Proto-Indo-European of nasals iue22wr culygotlsdsos hc ottergotlcfauei Proto- in critique, a feature also and glottalic (1992). Voyles details, their further see of For lost reconstruction stops shown. this which voiced stops of voiceless unaspirated stops, the the glottalised in 14) resulting actually Germanic, page were volume, 2.2 this Figure Baldi, (see (1981) Gamkrelidze eeclasdit Germanic into collapsed were (PIE rcs a eludra npeilca emncadwst otneatrthe after continue to This was syllables. and unstressed Germanic of Indo-European predialectal loss dialects. in the and of underway reduction separation well corresponding was shifted the process stress was the stress Had patterns. initial accentual earlier to testimony bears latter the od hudhv changed have should words wili h rt-noErpa ondsigihdtregnes(acln,fmnn,neuter), feminine, (masculine, genders three distinguished noun Proto-Indo-European The fi Eng. fl father a ogvwl eerdcdi length. in reduced were vowels long nal wr bloom ower, h hne nwr tesrsle ntemn odiiilpiaysrs patterns stress primary word-initial many the in resulted stress word in changes The h oe hfsaeilsrtdi iue23 Short 2.3. Figure in illustrated are shifts vowel The of reconstruction consonantal Proto-Indo-European recent more the to According h xrml ihmrhlg fPooId-uoenwsrdcdi Proto-Germanic. in reduced was Proto-Indo-European of morphology rich extremely The ‘ n e h lento ewe ocls [ voiceless between alternation the yet and , when ok ewill/wants’ he p ’ @ ˆ tér to rnucdwt ð ahrta [ than rather [ð] with pronounced - ‘ h is Grai)SudShift. Sound (Germanic) First The ,Go. ), Verner .Fnlsotvwl eedopd(Gk. dropped were vowels short Final ). ‘ father o - ’ ,adtenme fdptog a eue sshown. as reduced was diphthongs of number the and ), (Lat. ’ a Law s htau ’ n pwt rmr teso h nta ylbei Go. in syllable initial the on stress primary with up end ,and ), fr a - ‘ ’ eight ter eedn nteslal htrcie rmr odstress, word primary received that syllable the on Depending . Go. , fi nal ’ t PIE ; ntesm a.Amjradlsigcneuneof consequence lasting and major A way. same the in a -m br cmaeLat. (compare o - þ*ar a ihrdopdo eue to reduced or dropped either was p @ ter u ‘ Go. , lsalqi rnslcnoat Long consonant. nasal or liquid a plus brother h fi ,fo I * PIE from ], nal f -t a ’ dar h a ;Lat. a eual rpe (Lat. dropped regularly was ntefre aeadvie ð in [ð] voiced and case former the in ] ger o ˜ ı da ‘ Go. , a father , fl o ‘ p o - see I @ s and tér (PIE a ’ .Teslai iud and liquids syllabic The ). krs f Skt. cf. , ’ Go. , @ *bhl nProto-Indo-European in ‘ e,ee infl even xes, fi l,acre eld, wait o - men bhra pit -n ‘ ár- (OLat. ,Go. ), know I ´ - ter ’ ’ a pre- Law s Gk. , bro Lat. ; fi velit ´ - ‘ s,both rst, brother þar ectional a blo - ’ quom ,and ), pate and fa Go. , - o ma and d cto ar ´ - r. o ’ - , , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:51 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203301524, chapter2, 10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 ifrn in fl different the Germanic the on ablative case, depending the single and of genitive. a uses instrumental the some in by and dative, united over attested; were the taken are ablative) forms were nominative; instrumental the to the occasional func- extent reduced though and with some dative, were forms collapsed to cases their (and eight was preserved locative The genitive vocative dialects). and the early accusative, tions; the nominative, of original the system four: pronominal preserved the were infl genders in dual three vive special The accusative, but locative). vocative, Germanic, and (nominative, in instrumental cases ablative, eight and dative, dual) genitive, plural, (singular, numbers three 1969. Meid and Krahe Source: 2.3 Figure on n detvsedn nase oe,wietewa detv infl adjective with weak adjectives infl the while and adjective vowel, nouns stem strong infl of a pronominal Germanic in those ending of The adjectives and fusion nouns. nouns a for from that formed to similar mentally 97 pages rilso h oenGrai agae,adi sn cietta detvswithin adjectives that accident no is it and languages, Germanic indefi modern the of articles forms. dual of between number the in reduction the more for carried except been had that hitherto. morphology distinctions the semantic by disambiguate clearly to order in prepositions 2.1. Table in illustrated is languages the Germanic (particularly others earliest of expense the at o members gain, to continue PIE to were and gained, ilcscridamaigdfeec iia ota fteindefi the of that to similar difference meaning a carried dialects l nls) n nyteatv uvvs itntsbucieadottv om were forms optative and subjunctive Distinct and survives. Gothic active in the relics only few and a English), for Old (except lost was voice medio-passive Proto-Indo-European today. German - cas o eiienus.Teinfl The nouns). feminine for -class) rt-noErpa on eeas iie nonmru elninlclasses declensional numerous into divided also were nouns Proto-Indo-European srgrsteajcie emncinvtdafntoal rdciedistinction productive Indo-European, functionally of a those innovated to Germanic large adjective, the and regards by As correspond of Germanic use of the in pronouns expansion The an by accompanied was system case the of syncretism The rt-noErpa eblmrhlg a osdrbyrdcdi emnc The Germanic. in reduced considerably was morphology verbal Proto-Indo-European o ievru de versus nite cas(Gmc. -class – ‘ emncVwlShifts. Vowel Germanic strong 8frilsrto) rt-noErpa detvlmrhlg a funda- was morphology adjectival Proto-Indo-European illustration). for 98 cinlprdgs hs aaim uvv nGrai,tog some though Germanic, in survive paradigms These paradigms. ectional ’ and fi a fi cas o acln n etrnus n h PIE the and nouns, neuter and masculine for -class) a oe rcnoato h tmslal,ec ihpartially with each syllable, stem the of consonant or vowel nal ienu hae r yial togadwa epcieyin respectively weak and strong typically are phrases noun nite ‘ weak ’ in fl cin,wihi tl on nMdr emn(cf. German Modern in found still is which ections, cin iapae tog eiulda om sur- forms dual residual (though disappeared ections n ses togadwa detvsi h early the in adjectives weak and Strong -stems. cinlprdg o masculine for paradigm ectional cin ihtedcesoa aaimfor paradigm declensional the with ections EMNCLANGUAGES GERMANIC ievru de versus nite a a sesi the in -stems - cin were ections cas(Gmc. -class cin were ections fi nite 55 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:51 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203301524, chapter2, 10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 epe,epcal rmLtn huhas rmCli.TeLtnlasrva h strong the reveal loans serious Latin The a Celtic. from considered infl also though be Latin, must from especially sys- it peoples, be gives Germanic can (2003) in etymologies research. al. items Indo-European further et of unless vocabulary worthy Philippa and basic possibility Marlies idea, these it. of substrate for to dictionary refer the found not recent Dutch to do More the (1992) attention speculative. Robinson hand, tematic and considered other (1992) Voyles be the as distinctive must On such other substrate Germanic for early the of or from studies borrowing, Germanic lexical of for features arguments language, substrate Germanic meeting), l o.dago Nom. Pl. et uvv ny(atal)i ohcadOdNre pca noainof innovation special and A strong between Norse. distinction Old systematic (exemplifi and former a The Gothic of verbs. development in weak the the (partially) involved in in agreement maintained only Germanic were verb survive distinctions Separate aspect tenses. jects and past tense versus several present of Germanic two only and collapsed, Germanic Notes: 2.1 Table LANGUAGES GERMANIC 56 of semantic vocabulary basic following the the of Proto-Indo-European. core in from the predominate derived to be belong They cannot peripheral, Germanic. items being as that lexical from Common argues Germanic far (1975) of items, Hutterer earlier, third These out a pointed as were as Yet, that much Germanic. passive) of (the origin Proto-Germanic. voices European have to and forms Proto-Indo-European pluperfect) periphrastic from and new transmission verbs addition perfect the in strong (e.g. in and of tenses lost ones), number the weak the of for (though favour evolved languages in Germanic reduced been modern has the all suf in a maintained use Eng. (e.g. latter alternation the forms, tense or tions, Indo-European from derive g o.dg ardæ dagr dags Nom. Sg. mast utn n amn;cmua ciiisadsca ntttosadtte;admis- are: and English) titles; from and institutions (taken social examples and Some activities (particularly terms. names communal cellaneous animal farming; weaponry; and and hunting warfare for terms terms; omnGrai loto ueoslawrsfo egbuigIndo-European neighbouring from loanwords numerous took also Germanic Common h emnclxcn ietepoooyadmrhlg,rvasceryteIndo- the clearly reveals morphology, and phonology the like lexicon, Germanic The ec fRmnclueo h al emncpolsi ra uha agriculture as such areas in peoples Germanic early the on culture Roman of uence , c.dgn aada daga do dagans dagam dage Acc. Dat. Gen. o.dg( o. =Nm)( o. =Nom.) (= Nom.) (= Nom.) (= Nom.) dæ (= dag dags Inst. dagis Voc. Gen. c.dgdgdæ dæ dag dege dag daga Acc. Dat. steer h In The ‘ ablaut king, , sail; fl a cinlPrdg o emncMasculine Germanic for Paradigm ectional sesexempli -stems knight ’ sepgs14 pages (see —— o NO SOHG OS OE ON Go. sword - - and ; love/loved aa da dagar s o ses(f Latin (cf. -stems , bow leap, fi aada daga db Gothic by ed ˛ ; o da gom – .Tevra opooyo rt-emnchsbeen has Proto-Germanic of morphology verbal The ). carp 5,i itnusig o xml,ps rmpresent from past example, for distinguishing, in 15), bone fi otiigadna lmn ihu n vowel any without element dental a containing x db Eng. by ed , lupus, nteasneo needn vdnefrthe for evidence independent of absence the In . eel dags dæ , ɡ ɡ ɡ ɡ earlier calf ɡ ɡ ɡ ɡ ɡ sdgstaga tago tagum taga dagos dagum dago dagos as um a as ̷ ̷ ̷ ̷ autagu tage dagu tages dage e dages e es ̷ ̷ ̷ ̷ ̷ ‘day , sing/sang/sung ’ lupos lamb n ontsi h te emncdialects Germanic other the in cognates and a -Stems a tag tag dag dag ‘wolf ; thing ’). oiial communal a (originally xli oe alterna- vowel exploit ) sea, fl cin o ulsub- dual for ections keel fi h n em for terms and sh) fi , ls seafaring elds: boat , rudder , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:51 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203301524, chapter2, 10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 tuto ( struction al eidd o edceec osc nerydaetslt however. split, dialect early an such to credence lend not do period early mango noErpa sawoeado h eosrcino eeomnswti emncpirt the to prior Germanic within within Germanic developments of of position reconstruction the the on on Krahe English) Proto-Germanic, and (in (1903), of fi whole papers Brugmann syntax many a volume), contains and as (1972) this Indo-European morphology Kufner phonology, 1, and the Coetsem (Chapter Van on Baldi (1981). Gamkrelidze see and background, (1948), Indo-European the For Bibliography Eng. (cf. hpe nGti n h eosrcino rt-emnc(..Lhan19) lscatr on a chapters 1994), languages. plus Auwera Germanic 1994), West der also Lehmann and (W.P. van volume North Proto-Germanic and of of This (Henriksen stages reconstruction 1994). languages historical the the Germanic (Romaine and the Gothic creoles on on Germanic chapter chapter overview including Germanic. an early languages, includes in cultures Germanic order the word of modern of and the summary languages a Germanic the gives a all (1971) is of Smith (1975) histories speakers. Hutterer and syntax. their of grammars of discussion the includes of also compendium Robinson general (1992). Robinson and (1992) Voyles Germanic. within subgroupings eosrce aka al stescn century second the as early as dialect back and threefold Germanic, reconstructed a the Rhine-Weser that Germanic, was Sea grounds Germanic North the the Elbe departure (into on against Germanic language argue West of scholars parent within Some Germanic grouping point West tell. tribes a to common impossible of proximate almost assumption whose geographically is innova- between language, dialects the borrowing parent whether Germanic distinct and or and contact for descended, increasingly Proto-Germanic of are of, from speaking result dialects existence off Germanic the the West split are a to later which tions the of point language all innovations assumption parent which migra- these the from Germanic following whether and West involved But a itself languages homeland. instance, group the characteristic the the for enough from development of undergone tion linguistic has existence separate groups the of the both period the of justify in each established the to 2.1: clearly of innovations very Figure exception already the of is With records division dispute. West earliest tripartite long-standing earliest the of inscriptions, question the runic a In earliest is West) languages. and East OV (North, many in verb- preposed. less as predominantly correspondingly it, are is before verb noun the the not contrast, and by dialects, noun, Germanic the was verb after verb-fi the modi is adjectival of cent of position order per dominant basic 16 the extensively and that quite verb-second been establishes has He Germanic) (1971). clause- Common Smith (Late by inscriptions documented earliest the of order ekaela rnltosfo h ai (e.g. Latin the from translations loan are week s eod.I nldsKufner includes It records. rst h hpesi öi n a e uea(94 iegamtclsmais(nEgih fall of English) (in summaries grammatical give (1994) Auwera der van and König (1969), in Meid chapters and The Krahe see languages, Germanic early of morphology and phonology the For h rcs anri hc h rt-agaesltu notetregroups three the into up split proto-language the which in manner precise The word the though Proto-Germanic, of syntax the about certainty less much is There fi =slave-trader), (= a 6 e eto h lue eivsiae eeverb-fi were investigated he clauses the of cent per (62 nal cherry/ street/strata – Lat. locle epcieyItenc nvoi n rioi)cnbe can Erminonic) and Ingveonic Istveonic, respectively called also ceresia , wall/vallum ,wrae( warfare mint/moneta), ’ , 17)smayadsnhsso h ifrn hoisconcerning theories different the of synthesis and summary (1972) s plum/pluma fi , r n fpsesv n eosrtv determiners demonstrative and possessive of and ers chamber/camera s) ihntenu hae oee,tepre- the however, phrase, noun the Within rst). , plant/planta udyslsdies Sunday/solis camp/campus ,tae( trade ), AD , cheese/caseus h ui ncitoso this of inscriptions runic The . pound/pondo .Ms ftedy fthe of days the of Most ). etc.). , EMNCLANGUAGES GERMANIC fi a,wt 9prcent per 19 with nal, a,admodi and nal, ,bidn n con- and building ), , fi shmonger/ fi r of ers 57 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:51 28 Sep 2021; For: 9780203301524, chapter2, 10.4324/9780203301524.ch2 erke,C n a e uea .1994. J. Auwera, der van and C. Henriksen, 1981. T.V. Gamkrelidze, 2003. D. Crystal, rgan .1903. K. Brugmann, volume. this P., Baldi, References LANGUAGES GERMANIC 58 öi,E n a e uea .(d)1994. (eds) J. Auwera, der van and E. König, unr ..1972. H.L. Kufner, —— 1948. H. Krahe, 1975. C.J. Hutterer, emn,WP 1994. W.P. Lehmann, mt,JR 1971. J.R. Smith, a ote,F n unr ..(d)1972. (eds) H.L. Kufner, and F. Coetsem, Van hlpa . erbnee .adQa,A es 2003. (eds) A. Quak, and F. Debrabandere, M., Philippa, oan,S 1994. S. Romaine, 1992. O.W. Robinson, ols ..1992. J.B. Voyles, ooHmn ou:Esy nHsoia igitc nMmr fJ lxne Kerns Alexander J. of Memory in Linguistics 571 Historical pp. in Amsterdam), Essays Benjamins, Donum: System Homini Stop Indo-European Bono the of Reconstruction uea(eds) Auwera Budapest) n ..Kfe (eds) Kufner H.L. and uea(eds) Auwera Rulde odn,p.566 pp. London), (Routledge, rs,SnDiego) San Press, Micro University from available Illinois, Languages Amsterdam) Press, University (Amsterdam 1 Vol. Tübingen) n ed .1969. W. Meid, and Safr nvriyPes Stanford) Press, University (Stanford h emncLanguages Germanic The h emncLanguages Germanic The noemnsh Sprachwissenschaft Indogermanische nls saGoa Language Global a as English ‘ al emncGamr r- Pr Pre-, Grammar: Germanic Early emncCreoles Germanic odOdri h le emncDialects Germanic Older the in Order ‘Word uz egeced rmai e noemnshnSprachen indogermanischen der Grammatik vergleichende Kurze h ruigadSprto fteGrai Languages Germanic the of Separation and Grouping ‘The i emnshnSrce:ir ecihei Grundzügen in Geschichte ihre Sprachen: germanischen Die ohcadteRcntuto fProto-Germanic of Reconstruction the and ‘Gothic noErpa Languages ‘Indo-European l nls n t lss eaie:ASre fteEris Germanic Earliest the of Survey A Relatives: Closest its and English Old agaeTplg n agaeUiesl n hi mlctosfrthe for Implications Their and Universals Language and Typology ‘Language oadaGamro Proto-Germanic of Grammar a Toward emnsh Sprachwissenschaft Germanische – 603 – ’ 609 nE öi n .vndrAwr (eds) Auwera der van J. and König E. in , fi Rulde odn,pp.1 London), (Routledge, Rulde odn,p.19 pp. London), (Routledge, m,AnAbr Mich.) Arbor, Ann lms, h emncLanguages Germanic ‘The oadaGamro Proto-Germanic of Grammar a Toward h emncLanguages Germanic The n d CmrdeUiest rs,Cambridge) Press, University (Cambridge edn 2nd , ’ nYL reta n ..Bmad(eds), Bomhard A.R. and Arbeitman Y.L. in ’, t- n otGrai Languages Post-Germanic and oto-, Wle eGutr Berlin) Gruyter, de (Walter tmlgshWodnokvnhtNederlands het van Woordenboek Etymologisch os(atrd rye,Berlin) Gruyter, de (Walter vols 2 , MxNeee,Tübingen) Niemeyer, (Max ’ PDdsetto,Uiest of University dissertation, (PhD – 18 – nE öi n .vnder van J. and König E. in ’, nE öi n .vnder van J. and König E. in ’, 37 Rulde London) (Routledge, h emncLanguages Germanic The nF a Coetsem Van F. in ’, Tünr Strassburg) (Trübner, AaéiiKiadó, (Akadémiai MxNiemeyer, (Max (Academic (John ,