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ITALIAN AND GERMAN UNIFICATION
ITALY
ROMANTIC REPUBLICANISM
• Secret societies founded throughout Italy • Carbonari… • 1831: leadership passed to Guiseppe Mazzini…Young Italy – Goal…to drive Austria out of Italy – “Italia Irredenta” – A unified Italian republic
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• Guiseppe Mazzini – 1805-1872 – The SOUL of Italian unification – Involved in the ill-fated Roman Republic of 1849
GUISEPPE GARIBALDI…”THE SWORD” • Involved in the Roman Republic of 1849 • Continued to conduct guerilla warfare throughout the 1850’s
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REPUBLICANISM DEFEATED
• February 1849: Roman Republic • March 1849: Radicals forced Charles Albert to renew war w/ Austria • After defeat at Novara, Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II
How to save Rome from the Republicans???
• Send in the French troops… • France did not want a unified strong Italy on her southern border • June 1849: 10,000 French troops laid siege to Rome • July 3: Rome fell to the French forces • FRENCH TROOPS REMAINED IN ROME UNTIL 1870
Garibaldi Defends Rome Against the French, (April 30, 1849)
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nItalian Nationalist Leaders
nKing Victor nGiuseppi Emmanuel II Garibaldi [The “Sword”]
nCount Cavour nGiuseppi [The “Head”] Mazzini [The “Heart”]
nSardinia-Piedmont:The “Magnet”
Italian unification movement:
Risorgimento [“Resurgence”]
The Brain
– Camillo Cavour: Prime Minister of Piedmont- Sardinia
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CAVOUR…WHO WAS HE?
a cunning statesman a moderate liberal rich…made a fortune in railroads, agriculture and newspaper a strong monarchist…rejected republicanism ECONOMIC AND MATERIAL PROGRESS REQUIRED A UNITED ITALY
How did Cavour view unification? u Exploit the “grass roots” movement u Use the Nationalist Society to press for unification under Piedmont- Sardinia u Work for free trade, agricultural improvement, expansion of credit, and railway construction u Necessary to get French aid to be successful
What factors led to unification? u Business wanted it u Shared cultural heritage u Common language u Common religion u Patriotic music & literature
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nStep #1: Piedmont-Sardinia Sends Troops to the Crimea
What does Piedmont-Sardinia get in return?
How to play the political game internationally… • 1855: Piedmont joined the Crimean War • Cavour then raised the Italian question at the Paris conference • Gained Napoleon III’s confidence
nStep #2: Cavour & Napoleon III Meet at Plombières, 1858
What “deals” are made here?
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§ CAVOUR REPRESENTED A MODERATE LIBERAL ALTERNATIVE BY 1858
The plot…
Napoleon and Cavour met at Plombieres in July 1858 Idea: provoke a war with Austria in Italy…France would get Nice and Savoy from Piedmont and Piedmont would get rid of the Austrians…and unite Italy
War with austria
n 1859: Piedmont mobilized her troops n April 22: Austria demanded demobilization n France intervened to aid Piedmont n June 4: Austrians defeated at Magenta n June 22: Austrians defeated at Solferino n July 11: Napoleon III betrayed Piedmont… negociated a separate peace with Austria
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nStep #3: Austro-Sardinian War 1859
The consequences…
n Revolutions broke out in Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna n Piedmont received Lombardy n Venetia remained in Austrian hands n Parma et al voted to unite with Piedmont
GARIBALDI’S CAMPAIGN
• May 1860: Garibaldi’s Red Shirts landed in Sicily…by September, controlled Naples • Cavour rushed troops to confront Garibaldi… conquering the Papal States on t he way south • Only Rome remained the pope’s • Garibaldi’s nationalism trumped his republicanism…reluctantly, he voted to join the Two Sicilies with the northern union
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nStep #4: Garibaldi & His “Red Shirts” Unite with Cavour
ITALY: March 1861
n King Victor Emmanuel II
nA Unified Peninsula!
A contemporary British cartoon, entitled "Right Leg in the Boot at Last," shows Garibaldi helping Victor Emmanuel put on the Italian boot.
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nStep #5: Austro-Prussian War 1866
Austria loses control of Venetia.
Venetia is annexed to Italy.
Step #6: French Troops Leave Rome, 1870
Italy is united!
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What were the challenges???
• Cavour died in June 1861 • Republicans resented Garibaldi’s treatment • Clergy resented the conquest of the Papal States • Economies and social structures of north and south were incompatible • Political framework was unable to deal with the problems – Conservative constitutional monarchy – Ministers responsible to king, not Parliament – Leaders avoided major problems
nPope Pius IX: The “Spoiler”?
• Condemned socialism, nationalism, religious toleration and freedom of the press • Syllabus of Errors: it “is an error to believe that the Roman Pontiff can and ought to reconcile himself to, and agree with, progress, liberalism, n1846-1878 and modern civilization.”
“TRANSFORMISMO” u Political opponents became government supporters through bribery, favors, or political appointments u Italian politics became a synonym for corruption
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“Italia Irredenta”
• Rome: gained in 1870 as a result of the Franco-Prussian War…Pope “prisoner of the Vatican” until the Lateran Treaty of 1929 • Venetia: gained in 1866 as a result of the Austro-Prussian War • Trieste: gained in 1919…25% Slovenian • Trentino:gained in 1919…60% Italian
GERMANY FROM BLOOD AND IRON
n Otto Von Bismarck: Chancellor of Prussia
“The creation of a united Germany was the single most important political development in Europe between 1848 and 1914.” Donald Kagan
• Transformed the balance of power • The top down process determined the character of the new state • United by Otto von Bismarck, the conservative army/Junkers, and the monarchy
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nPrussian/Austrian Rivalry
German unification…
l Top down rather than grass roots…yeah, Bismarck! l Good for business…Zollverein, etc. l Common cultural heritage, music and literature l Religious split…north was Protestant, south Roman Catholic
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Otto von Bismarck 1815-1898 • A Junker • 1851-1859: Prussian minister to the Frankfurt Diet • Understood that Prussia needed a strong industrial base • Prime Minister of Prussia 1862-1871 • Prime Minister of Germany 1871-1890
What were Bismarck’s goals??
• Liberal majority in Parliament • Bismarck could not finesse the tax issue with this group • Had to find a way to attract popular support for the army/monarchy • Kleindeutsch solution to unification • ULTIMATE GOAL: A UNITED GERMANY ORCHESTRATED AND DOMINATED BY PRUSSIA
WAR : “BLOOD AND IRON” u 1864: Danish War over Schleswig and Holstein u 1866: The Seven Weeks War with Austria – Land to Prussia – Venetia to Italy u 1870: Franco-Prussian War – Alsace and Lorraine to Germany
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The danish war 1864
How to exclude Austria??? u Population of Schleswig and Holstein were mixed…Germans and Dane u Holstein belonged to German Confederation u 1863: Danish Parliament moved to incorporate both provinces into Denmark u Smaller states of German Confederation proposed an all-German war to stop this u Austria and Prussia defeated Denmark in 1864 u Austria in charge of Holstein and Prussia of Schleswig
Sneaky Bismarck…
n 1866: Secret treaty with Italy… n Italy to get Venetia if Italy attacked Austria in support of Prussia when war broke out n Napoleon III promised neutrality in an Austro-Prussian conflict
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The Austro-Prussian War 1866…aka “The 7 Weeks War”
Austria lost…decisively… n Venetia ceded to Napoleon III who ceded it to Italy n Habsburgs permanently excluded from German affairs n PRUSSIA the only major power among the German states
The North German Confederation 1867 n Prussia annexed Hanover, Hesse, Nassau and Frankfurt, which had all supported Austria n All of Germany north of the Main River formed the confederation n Legislature: Bundesrat and Reichstag n Constitution had the appearance, but not the substance, of liberalism n NATIONALISM trumped LIBERALISM
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How to get the southern German states to join the Confederation???
•creative editing…
The run-up to war
• 1868: Bourbon queen Isabella of Spain deposed. • June 1870: Leopold of Hohenzollern, cousin of William I of Prussia, accepted the throne
The Ems Dispatch
• The French objected to a Hohenzollern Spain • French ambassador Benedetti met with William at Bad Ems. • July 12: Leopold’s father renounced his son’s candidacy • July 13: William sent Bismarck a telegram regarding the meeting • Bismarck released an edited version of the telegram…it appeared that William had insulted Benedetti • THE RESULT: FRANCE DECLARED WAR ON PRUSSIA
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FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 1870-1871
Battle of Bazelles 1870
Montgolfier balloon…siege of Paris 1870
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Napoleon III and Bismarck after the battle of Sedan
From Le Monde Illustre, April 1871
The german empire
• Proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors, January 18, 1871
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The Second Reich
Kaiser Wilhelm I
nCoronation of Kaiser Wilhelm I [r. 1871–1888]
nPrussian Junkers Swear Their Allegiance to the Kaiser…
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the treaty… u Germany was a federation…the local princes remained the heads of their respective states u France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany u William accepted the imperial title of emperor (Kaiser)
nBismarck Manipulating the Reichstag
nBismarck ’s Kulturkampf: Anti-Catholic Program
Take education and marriage out of the hands of the clergy civil marriages only recognized.
The Jesuits are expelled from Germany.
The education of Catholic priests would be under the supervision of the German government.
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nBismarck ’s Rapproachment with the Catholic Church
Bismarck & Pope Leo XIII
CONSEQUENCES
• …creation of a powerful new state • …German Empire much stronger than Prussia militarily and economically • …new state was conservative • …revealed the weakness of France and the Habsburgs • …lasting animosity towards Germany on the part of France: revanche became part of French foreign policy • MORAL OF THE STORY: DON’T HUMILIATE YOUR ENEMY!!
nOtto von Bismarck . . . .
I am bored. The great things are done. The German Reich is made.
A generation that has taken a beating is always followed by a generation that deals one.
Some damned foolish thing in the Balkans will provoke the next war.
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NAPOLEON III
u “I will forgive you, history will forgive you, but my people will never forgive yours.”
FRANCE AND THE THIRD REPUBLIC
• March 1871: The Paris Commune • Riots in the streets • May: last Communards defeated • 20,000 executed • 1875: finally a new government • Third Republic lasted 60 years • Multiple political parties • Hatred of Germany – “We shall demand each day before Europe our rights and our ravaged provinces…” Leon Gambetta
BALANCE OF POWER BROKE DOWN • Britain and Germany were the two great powers by 1871 • Austria, Russia and Italy lagged far behind • Austrian Empire became the Dual Monarchy…Austria-Hungary in 1867 • France somewhere in between
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