Nexus between Extreme Weather Events, Marriage and Violence: A Study on a Vulnerable Population in

Khandaker Jafor Ahmed Research Associate, Centre for Climate Change & Environmental Research (C3ER), BRAC University, Bangladesh

Shah Md. Atiqul Haq Postdoctoral Fellow (FNRS), Institute of Demographic Research, Université catholique de Louvain, Belgium

Nexus between Extreme Weather Events, Marriage and Violence: A Study on a Vulnerable Population in Bangladesh

Abstract This study tries to explore how extreme weather events are related with early marriage and violence. It also tries to understand that whether people living in vulnerable areas to extreme events consider early marriage as a coping strategy to the impacts of extreme events such as poverty and escaping the fear of sexual harassment during crisis periods. We selected district as one of the flood prone areas and Brahmanbaria district as one of the tornado and flood prone areas. We collected relevant information from 120 household heads and used some descriptive statistics and qualitative analysis. Key findings of this study show that some household heads think the early marriage of their young daughters as one of the coping strategies to poverty and lowering their fear of sexual harassment to their young daughters during extreme weather events. They consider the early marriage of their daughters as reducing the cost to repair damages from the adverse impacts of extreme events. At the same time, they also think that decision of getting their daughters married at an early age can help them to maintain their family reputation since there is a fear of sexual harassment during the crisis. Finding reveals that most of the young girls were married before their age 18 years. As household heads consider the early marriage of their daughters as a coping strategy to tackle the adverse impacts of extreme events and lowering the risk of sexual harassment to maintain their family reputation, it may contribute to increasing the incidence of early marriage and low age at first birth. As a result it may influence to increase fertility in vulnerable areas to extreme events. Based on findings this study recommends some programs for girls such as compulsory primary and secondary education with stipends, vocational training, awareness raising programs by incorporating local leaders and religious leaders, and special monitoring unit to protect girls during extreme events and lastly appropriate law enforcement when needed.

Keywords: early marriage; extreme weather events, poverty; sexual harassment; vulnerable areas

1. Introduction

Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries to extreme weather events and it is the sixth most flood prone countries in the world (UNDP, 2004). Floods bring a large number of people affected and it damages properties in the country (Nasreen, 1998; Kumbetoglu & User, 2010). The biggest proportion of population and percentage of the economy is exposed to extreme weather events such as floods in developing countries (Peduzzi et al. 2009). Every year especially floods affect poor people in some part of Bangladesh (Azad et al. 2013). Floodplains areas are a predominantly poverty-stricken rural area (Brouwer et al. 2007). Flooding brings effects not only on the environment but also on the people’s socio-economic conditions such as income, education etc. And socio-economic conditions are very low for vulnerable populations to extreme floods (Philip & Rayhan, 2004). The nexus between poverty and early marriage is complicated (Otoo-Oyortey & Pobi, 2003). Poverty is a state of deprivation and a circumstance of vulnerability (Karim, 1996). The basis of various conventions, treaties, and international agreements, including the Convention on the Rights of Child, Universal Declaration of Human Rights early marriage is denoted as any legal union involving a boy or a girl below the age of 18. In this study, early marriage is considered for girls. From the Demographic and Health Survey of 2011, it is insinuated that 75 percent marriages are denoted as early marriage (Kamal et al. 2014). According to recent statistics on child marriage in southern Asia, the incidence of child marriage in South Asia is 70% (Jensen and Thornton, 2003). Whereas, Bangladesh is highest at 71%, followed by Nepal (62%), India (59%) and Pakistan (50%) (Godha et al. 2013). A study on Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, it is revealed that age at marriage is lower for Bangladesh and Sri Lanka; ostensibly, they get married much later (Caldwell, 2005). In the case of Bangladesh, early marriage is frequent and 66 % girls are married before the age 18 years (UNICEF, 2011). The mean age at first marriage of girls was 16.8 years for the country (Streatfield et al. 2015). Different studies concluded that socio-economic factors influence early marriage or age at first marriage (Islam et al. 2016; Kamal, 2011). But they didn't highlight any relationship between extreme weather events, poverty, and early marriage. Child or early marriage is associated with socioeconomic factors, such as poverty, social insecurity, unemployment, and social pressure (Islam et al. 2016). Early marriage is more frequent among the poorest families (Hossain & Islam, 2013; Haq 2013; ICRW, 2006; Parsons et al. 2015; Otoo-Oyortey and Pobi, 2003). Poverty is denoted as both a cause and a consequence of early marriage (Dahl, 2010; Maharjan et al. 2012). A study on indigenous people of Rangamati Hill District of Bangladesh found that socio-economic and familial factors influence the age at first marriage of women (Kamal, 2011). In this study, we talk about extreme weather events (floods and tornadoes) and the adverse impacts of the events make people poor and it may also be related early marriage and sexual violence. The notion of early marriage of daughters might be led to the incidence of sexual harassment. Particularly girls from poorer households experience more sexual harassment than those from richer households and consider early marriage as a solution (Verma et al. 2013). People also consider early marriage as protection of daughters from the fear of rape (Bierman, 2006), hunger or starvation, and vulnerability to natural disasters (Feerdousi, 2014). Perception

regarding the early marriage of girls is strengthened by the fear and anxiety during fragile contexts and vulnerability to extreme events (World Vision UK, 2003). For instance, in the tsunami of 2004, there was an increased rate of early marriage and different forms of sexual violence in Indonesia while poor families living in shelters/refugee camps contemplate early marriage as the only protection for their daughters against rape or any forms of sexual harassment (Bierman, 2006; Marife & Ballesteros, 2010). Parents also perceive that their married daughters will be in a comfortable economic circumstance and safe from sexual harassment (Ferdousi, 2014). Girls in shelters are more vulnerable when their parents pass away or become separated (Plan International, 2011). Infrastructure conditions in refugee camps may expose women and girls to sexual violence, particularly; long ways to toilets or showers and deficient closing mechanisms of tents are the predicaments to women's safety and security (Dasgupta et al. 2010). Incidents such as rape or abduction of young girls and women also occur during the flood (Dasgupta et al. 2010). During floods, sexual violence against women becomes rampant (Azad et al. 2013).

This study intends to explore the nexus between extreme weather events, poverty, and early marriage. Since disaster-prone areas are more vulnerable and people living in the areas suffer from poverty due to the adverse impacts of extreme events. This study considers how people consider marriage especially early marriage as a coping strategy to poverty and whether early marriage is related to the fear of sexual harassment during extreme weather events. From different studies, it is evident that during and after extreme events, women usually young girls face eve-teasing, public sexual harassment. For instance, the Hurrican Katrina and the earthquake of 2005 in Kashmir (Mehta, 2007), and Asian tsunami (Oxfam, 2005) suggested the evidence of sexual harassment. In this study, we consider sexual harassment as the incidence of eve-teasing, gender-related problems encountered by women and girls in extreme floods prone areas and in shelter camp. This study explores how the people living in extreme events areas consider the early marriage of their daughters due to poverty from the adverse impacts of extreme weather events and the fear of sexual harassment and incidence of rape or abduction which leads to losing their reputation.

2. Literature review

Vulnerability and poverty are closely associated, while vulnerability dimension of poverty is affected by the likelihood of natural disasters (Nelson and Agbey, 2005). Ostensibly, household’s vulnerability of poor is characterized by low income (Philip & Rayhan, 2004; Carter & Barrett, 2006; Carter et al. 2007; Masozera et al. 2007; Arouri et al. 2015). The vulnerability affects economic sustainability and forces to people remain poor. Poorer households are considered more vulnerable to natural disasters (De Haen and Hemrich, 2007; Greiving et al. 2006) and poor households suffer from high levels of vulnerability (Cutter, 1996).

2.1 Poverty and early marriage

In poor households the decision of early marriage is related to poverty and early marriage is perceived as an optimal preference for young girls (Bajracharya & Amin, 2010). Early

marriage is more frequent among the poorest families (Hossain & Islam, 2013; Haq 2013; ICRW, 2006; Parsons et al. 2015; Otoo-Oyortey and Pobi, 2003). Poverty is denoted as both a cause and a consequence of early marriage (Dahl, 2010; Maharjan et al. 2012). Low-income and poverty incidence might influence the decision-making of households while they might consider a girl as a burden. Poor people consider daughters as an economic burden to the family and perceive daughter’s marriage at the early age as a significant shift of the expenses such as rearing, educating and as a strategy of maintaining their reputation from sexual harassment (Hossain & Islam, 2013). Moreover, the practice of paying dowry during the marriage is associated with girl’s age. Poor family considers marrying off their daughters at the early age to keep giving dowry with low cost. They consider that investment may be larger if daughters get older (Dyson & Moore 1983; Mathur et al. 2003). Such decisions are considered as an economic survival strategy.

Factors involved with early marriage include poverty, lack of education as well as job opportunities, tradition and the force of custom (Malhotra, 2010). Some mothers in rural Nepal consider that if they got an opportunity to marry their daughters off to a man of wealth, they accept the offer to enable them to get relieved from burden (World Vision UK, 2003; Malhotra, 2010). But in Ethiopia people perceive early marriage of girls as a sign of economic prosperity and social prestige. They also consider having more girls in the family as a stressful condition which may turn them to be poor (Ezra, 2001). It is evident from a report by UNRWA Microfinance Department (2011) that poverty exposure and size of the family is highly correlated and marriage is a strategy to secure income of household during crisis periods such as natural disasters or fragility. In addition, rates of early marriage tend to be high where poverty, birth, and death rates are high (World Vision UK, 2003).

Poor people consider to marrying their daughter at an early age for economic survival and they perceive to have one less person to feed, clothe and educate (Malhotra, 2010). People also consider early marriage as protection of daughters from fear of rape (Bierman, 2006), hunger or starvation, and vulnerability to natural disasters (Feerdousi, 2014). It is also due to a strategy for economic survival, getting rid of suffering from poverty, lacking education of their daughters (Hossain et al. 2015), forcing of societal norms as well (Malhotra, 2010). In the case of Bangladesh, early marriage is common and 66 % girls are married before the age 18 (UNICEF, 2011). The mean age at first marriage of girls was 16.8 years for the country (Streatfield et al. 2015).

2.2 Sexual Harassment and Early Marriage

Sexual harassment may lead early marriage of daughters. Particularly girls from poorer households experience more sexual harassment than those from richer households and consider early marriage as a solution (Verma et al. 2013). Parents fear about rape and sexual violence to their girls is assumed a reason for early marriage. Rape or sexual harassment is also related with family’s shame and dishonor (World Vision UK, 2003). Perception about the early marriage of girls is strengthened by the fear and anxiety during fragile contexts and vulnerability to extreme events (World Vision UK, 2003). In the tsunami of 2004, there was

an increased rate of early marriage and different forms of sexual violence in Indonesia. Poor families those who live in shelters/refugee camps think early marriage as the only protection for their daughters against rape or any forms of sexual harassment (Bierman, 2006; Marife & Ballesteros, 2010). Parents also perceive that their married daughters will be in a comfortable economic circumstance and safe from sexual harassment (Ferdousi, 2014). During extreme events such as floods and cyclones, affected people take shelter in school, hospital, local office etc. for a short period or a long period in Bangladesh. It is evident that young girls face different sexual harassment at the time of staying in shelters. For instance, the rate of sexual harassment is high in the coastal belt of Bangladesh due to poverty and the impacts of extreme weather events. Girls in shelters are more vulnerable when their parents pass away or become separated (Plan International, 2011). Infrastructure conditions in refugee camps may expose women and girls to sexual violence, particularly; long ways to toilets or showers and deficient closing mechanisms of tents are the predicaments to women's safety and security (Dasgupta et al. 2010). Such violence increases whenever there is a crisis such as war or natural disasters. Incidents such as rape or abduction of young girls and women also occur during the flood (Dasgupta et al. 2010). During floods, sexual violence against women becomes rampant (Azad et al. 2013).

3. Methodology

Two vulnerable villages of Bangladesh were selected, such as (extremely flood prone area) from division and Brahmanbaria district (tornado and flood-prone) from Chittagong division respectively. From the national survey/census data, it is observed that the rate of early marriage (58% in Chittagong and 48% in Sylhet) and the incidence of poverty (headcount poverty is 26.2 in Chittagong and 28.1 in Sylhet) are the lowest in these both . National data reveals the lower rate of poverty and early marriage in Chittagong and compared with other divisions (see Table 1). Thus, two vulnerable areas/villages were identified from these two divisions. Every year Sunamgonj district (Sylhet) is affected by floods extensively and it is a common event for the Sunamgonj (IFAD, 2010). Brahmanbaria district (Chittagong) was also affected by extreme weather events such as tornado and regular floods. The Severe local storm is one of the most important natural hazards in Brahmanbaria District of Bangladesh (Hayashi & Yamane, 2010; Yamane et al. 2010).

Table 1: Poverty and early marriage in Bangladesh

Division Extreme poverty (%) HIES 2010 poverty Rate of early headcount (%) marriage (%) Rajshahi 16 29.7 73 Dhaka 15.6 30.5 66 Khulna 15.4 32.1 75 Barisal 26.7 39.4 72 Chittagong 13.1 26.2 58 Sylhet 20.7 28.1 48

Source: Bangladesh Source: Poverty Source: BDHS, 2007 Poverty Assessment maps of Bangladesh 2013, World Bank 2010 (Ahmed et al. (Gimenez et al. 2013) 2010)

We used multistage sampling design in this study to select household head as respondents. At first stage, we selected vulnerable districts Sunamganj as flood-prone and Brahmanbaria as tornado and flood prone. Subdivisions Jamalganj from Sunamganj and Brahmanbaria Sadar from Brahmanbaria were selected at the second stage. At the third stage, we selected Ali pur village from Jamalganj and Chandi from Brahmanbaria Sadar. This Chandi village from Basudeb union of Brahmanbaria Sadar was also worst affected (Siddiqui & Hossain, 2013. 120 households' head were included from a total of 340 households' head in both villages respectively. We separated sample size for both villages by using proportionate stratified sampling. In this way, we included 78 households from Chandi village of Brahmanbaria district and 42 households from Alipur village of Sunamganj district. At the prima facie of data collection, we went to the Union Office (Local Administrative Office) and discussed with the union officer about our study. We asked the officer to provide us with the local voter list. We also discussed with local people and local leader whether we will get any list of households' head. They suggested us to go to the Union Office and to observe the voter list. From the voter list, we found that the minimum and maximum age of household head is consecutively 34 and 67. Thus, we found 340 households' head (220 from Chandi, Brahmanbaria and 120 from Ali Pur, Sunamganj) along with the age category. Then we made a list of 340 households' head including their name and assigned a number against their name (Siddiqui & Hossain, 2013). Finally, we selected 120 households’ head using lottery systems from the list of name and then data collection proceeded (Islam, 2008) (See Table 2). We took help from the locals to reach the respective households’ head identifying their names from the sample list of lottery systems. Table 2: Sample sizes of the study villages

Stratum N (Total Households) n (Studied households) Brahmnbaria 220 78 Sunamganj 120 42 Total N=340 n=120

Data were collected by using semi-structured questionnaire along with in-depth interviews of household heads. Data were collected in two steps: in first step, households were surveyed; and in later step households were selected basis on their responses on the survey to conduct the in-depth interview. We included 40 household's heads (including 20 males and 20 females) for the in-depth interview. For the in-depth interview, we included households' basis on our survey justification of those households who have experienced during extreme

weather events, poverty incidence, sexual harassment as well as the early marriage of daughters. We used five-point Likert scales and asked 120 household's head to provide their reactions to different opinion questions. Scale items were developed on the impacts of extreme weather events, causes of early marriage, fear of sexual harassment, and poverty incidence. Each household head was asked about their responses toward different questions. The responses range from 1 to 5, such as 1 for ‘strongly disagree’, 2 for ‘disagree’, 3 for ‘unsure or don’t know’, 4 for ‘agree’, and 5 for ‘strongly agree’. We used five opinion questions regarding poverty; early marriage and sexual harassment (see Table 3).

Table 3 Opinion items Opinion questions

1. Early marriage works as a coping strategy against poverty? 2. Giving early marriage of the daughter is an instrument of protecting reputation in camp/household? 3. The extreme weather events are the main cause for your living condition? 4. Giving marriage in rich households will be helpful for your family? 5. Living in a shelter camp, your younger daughter will face a different kind of sexual harassment?

Both descriptive statistics and paraphrased translation of key information were used to analyze the collected data. We took the help of frequency distributions, chi-square test, and headcount poverty measurement. In here, we used headcount poverty measurement as likely it is ‘the simplest poverty measure is the obtained just by counting all the people who are in poverty and expressing this as a proportion of the total number of people in the society’ (Creedy, 1998: 82). Using Poverty Risk (PR) in headcount poverty measurement, we explicated the proportion of households who are living under the poverty threshold and it is also interpreted how much extent these poorer households consider early marriage. We also broaden our understanding by analyzing qualitative method, such as paraphrased translation of key information collected during the in-depth interview. Local language was used interpreting and collecting information from respondents and then we transcribed their answers in English and summarized key and relevant information to present in the analysis.

4. Results and Discussions

4.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics and Early Marriage

From field level survey, it was found that 38.1% households in Sunamgonj and 16.7% in Brahmanbaria are female-headed. Field observations show that female-headed households are more vulnerable to poverty and sexual harassment during extreme weather events. In terms of literacy, 71.4% respondents from Sunamgonj and 35.9% from Brahmanbaria were illiterate

and mentioned that they don’t know reading and writing. For income, in Sunamgonj 95.2% respondents couldn’t earn more than BDT 8000 and 37.2% respondents from Brahmanbaria were able to earn more than BDT 8000 (per month) respectively. Field survey suggests that households from Sunamganj cannot use their land while only 2.4% mentioned agriculture as their main income sources and they mentioned fishing (38.1%) and working as a day labor (35.7%) as their only income sources. On the other hand, in Brahmanbaria, their main sources of income are agriculture (38.5%), labor (24.3%), and business (21.8%). Low-income in Sunamganj highlights that household heads in Sunamgonj consider taking loan during the crisis and taking loan was relatively lower among household heads in Brahmanbaria. 52.4% and 26.9% respondents from Sunamgonj and Brahmanbaria took the loan to maintain and tackle the adverse impacts of extreme weather events. In both areas, average family size are closer to 6. Moreover, 14.3% households in Sunamganj and 51.3% in Brahmanbaria have no land. Field visits suggest that people from Sunamgonj are more vulnerable to poverty than Brahmanbaria (Table 4).

Table 4 Socio-demographic characteristics

Socio-demographic indicators Vulnerable Areas Sunamganj Brahmanbaria % (N) % (N) Household Head Male 61.9 (26) 83.3 (65) Female 38.1 (16) 16.7 (13) Educational Level Cannot read and write 71.4 (30) 35.9 (28) Can read and write 23.8 (10) 21.8 (17) Primary 4.8 (2) 21.8 (17) Secondary 17.9 (14) Higher Secondary 2.6 (2) Family Size (average) 5.81 5.59 Income (Taka) Less than 4000 40.5 (17) 11.5 (9) 4001 to 6000 31 (13) 25.7 (20) 6001 to 8000 23.7 (10) 25.6 (20) More than 8000 4.8 (2) 37.2 (29) Income Sources Agriculture 2.4 (1) 38.5 (30) Business 16.7 (7) 21.8 (17) Fishing 38.1 (16) 10.3 (8) Working on other’s land 7.1 (3) 5.1 (4) Labor 35.7 (15) 24.3 (19) Land Ownership Yes 14.3 (6) 51.3 (40)

No 85.7 (36) 48.7 (38) Having Loan Yes 52.4 (22) 26.9 (21) No 47.6 (20) 73.1 (57)

Age at First Marriage of Daughters (Mean) 15.41 16.86 Regarding age at first marriage of daughters, 14% from Sunamganj and 38% from Brahmanbaria were married off after 18 years old. In Sunamganj and Brahmanbaria 35% and 14% girls were married off even before 14 years respectively. In Sunamganj and Brahmanbaria, total 86% and 62% girls were married off before 18 years respectively. Age at first marriage is lower in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria (Table 4) and early marriage is higher in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria (see Figure 1). Regarding family size average family size is almost 6 per household head in both study areas.

60 Sunamganj 50 Brahmanbaria

40

30

20

10

0 below 14 15-17 18-20 20+

Figure 1 Age at first marriage in vulnerable areas (Bangladesh)

4. 2 Extreme Weather Events, Poverty, and Early Marriage

We did the in-depth interview and paraphrased translations of key information show that many household heads those who participated in the interview mentioned that they think about the early marriage of their daughter because they face challenges to having a large family and it’s burdensome. A household head from Sunamganj mentioned that large family is a burden and they prefer to reduce the burden by marrying their daughter at the early age. Another household head from Brahmanbaria also said that a large family can bring unhappiness for a family head and it’s difficult to bear expenses for a large family. Some paraphrased translations of key information from the selected informants are shown below. ‘We gave marriage off our four daughters out of five and still, one daughter remains to get married off. If we can give our all daughters marriage off, then we can reduce

our burden for their expenditures and follow this way we can also reduce family size as well.' (Male, 55) ‘Oh my son (‘bap-re' with a long breathe), my family is a large family and we struggle to manage our daily expenses. We also face extreme floods that destroy our rice production and we have a small piece of land. If this land and our home are affected by floods, we suffer a lot such we need to go to shelters or relatives home. Floods make us poor' (Female, 50). Another household mentioned that if they can give marrying off their daughter they can transfer their cost of bearing for daughters to groom’s family. They think that a large family with many daughters requires more money to maintain their expenditures. Daughters are considered as burdensome to households especially head of the household (Dyson & Moore 1983; Mathur et al. 2003). ‘There is more expenditure for daughters than having sons. We face the crisis from floods and tornados and lose our crops, sources of income and work opportunity. We understand how poverty becomes severe during extreme events. Having more daughters is more burdensome and we feel more fear than having sons. So we try to find a groom and give our daughter to marrying off at their early age. Because this is the only way we can transfer our burden and also keep our family reputation not facing sexual harassment of our daughters during the crisis. We think that after marrying off our daughters we can save some money by tackling crisis especially from floods and tornadoes’ (Male, 65). ‘The more members are in a family, the more expenses are for the household head. I have 6 daughters, 3 are married and 3 are not married. I have to think of them. I cannot manage the required expenses for my household as I am a poor and helpless. If I give marriage off my daughters, I will be able to save some money and I may buy good food’ (Male 50). The people living in flood-prone areas cannot use their land to produce crops and they cannot secure their food for all along the year. As their surroundings are under water, they cannot engage themselves in land activities. Moreover, working opportunities in flood-prone areas are very few and many of them are forced to migrate to the city to lead their back and belly. Thus vulnerable circumstances make them more vulnerable to poverty. Most of the households having many daughters consider early marriage as a way to cope with this circumstance. ‘We cannot work in land due to the flood occurrence and there is the scarcity of employment facilities in our locality. That's why our income is poor. It is difficult for me to manage a large family with ten members along with 4 unmarried daughters. I am intending to arrange the marriage for my daughters as early as possible to reduce my sufferings of maintaining a large family’ (Female, 44). In the vulnerable areas, parents hope to get more sons than daughters. They think that sons will support the family in the rainy day happening from extreme weather events. However, parents also wish to get married their daughters in wealthy husband so that her daughters may lead a happy life in her laws house. In some extent, they might get support from their bridegroom during the crisis after extreme weather events.

‘The miseries of poor are endless. I have no son but 4 daughters, 3 daughters are married. The age of my younger daughter is 14 but I will give marry her if I get an offer from a groom who is able to maintain his family well to do. I cannot help those by providing foods, clothes, cosmetics, and education. They will lead a happy life if they get a rich husband. I feel happy when I give marriage my daughters as they are secured now physically and economically after giving marriage. Besides, they might help us during our crisis’ (Female 48)’. 4.3 Extreme Weather Events, Sexual Harassments, and Early Marriage In our study, we assume that those who have a fear of sexual harassment of their daughters are more likely to consider to marrying off their daughters at the early age. Findings show that a small number of household heads felt the fear of sexual harassment of their daughter and they decided to get married off their daughter. They also mentioned that during extreme weather events especially floods; they usually go to shelters and sometimes stay in their relative's house. In those places many people stay together due to the floods and their daughters faced sexual harassment in different ways and that influenced them to think getting marrying off their daughters at the early age. They think that they can maintain their reputation since knowing something by others about their daughter's harassment is related with their family reputation. ‘One of my daughters was so beautiful. She was disturbed by boys when she goes to school. After 2013 tornado, we had to take shelter in shelter camp. I thought that it was not secured the place for my daughter. So I sent her to my relative's home so that she could stay in safe' (Female, 40). In Brahmanabria results show that 6 percent girls were married off before 18 years and 6 percent girls were married off after 18 years due to sexual harassment during flood periods. In Sunamgonj, 14 percent girls were married off before 18 those who were experienced with sexual harassment. Qualitative findings are highlighted in here to expose the linkage of sexual harassment and early marriage of daughters. A female head described the fearing about sexual harassment as like as it- ‘As I am a woman, I know how to protect the reputation of my daughters. During extreme floods, we have to take shelter in a primary school where the gathering of all people including male may disturb the movement of younger girls. I had to awake for the whole night to protect my daughters from any kind of abuse. Last year after the flood, I arranged marriage for my 15 years old daughter's as I had nothing to secure the reputation of my daughter and family'-(Female, 45). But many girls who didn't face sexual harassment were also married off for 18 years in both study areas. Cross-tabulation shows that some girls were married off before 18 years due to sexual harassment and even some were married off after 18 years. They mentioned that sexual harassment happened during extreme floods and that influenced their parents especially household's head to decide to give their daughter's married off at the early age. Results also show that early marriage was higher in Sunamgonj than Brahmanbaria. Sunamganj is vulnerable to extreme floods and Brahmanbaria is vulnerable to floods and tornados. In general, Sunamgonj is more vulnerable regarding socio-economic conditions

and the adverse impacts of extreme floods at the regular basis. Having fear of sexual harassment may lead to the early marriage of daughters as most participants agreed that. ‘In 2004 floods, we took shelter in the primary school. There were a lot of people in that small building. Some people passed their whole time in the boat. My family was in the corridor of the school including my two younger daughters. There were also young boys. One of them boys irritated my elder younger daughter. I was in fear with my younger daughters. Having fear of this, I decided to get my daughters married early of their age'- (Female, 50). In shelter house, all affected peoples are gathered to stay for few days. In Brahmanbaria, after the tornado, they had to stay in shelter camp for more than 30 days; while in Sunamganj, they had to stay for 7 days to 10 days when floods turn into the extreme. During floods, most of the tube well is covered by water that creates more vulnerability drinking safe water and taking bath. After taking bath they usually change their dress staying inside of the house or in the round wall of a tube well. Thus staying in a shelter might not be free from sexual harassment. ‘In our traditional society, younger unmarried girls feel very shy to stay in front of the younger male. During 2004 floods, when we were in a shelter house, we have to take bath in an open tube well. My younger daughter felt very shy to take bath in this tube well as well as it was the difficult gathering of people to change her dress. She told me she would take bath in the dark night. Thus, younger daughters have fear of sexual harassment during devastating floods. It creates more vulnerability for me staying in shelter house with my younger daughters. Thus the occurrence of floods creates the fear of sexual harassment that forces to decide for the early marriage of daughters' (Female 43). 4. 4 Poverty, Reputation, and Early Marriage To find the answer of this study question, we used five opinion questions and collected responses on different items from 120 household’s head. We found that poor living condition due to extreme floods and tornados, early marriage as a strategy to poverty, and fear of sexual harassment influencing early marriage for girls. Results show that many household heads consider early marriage as a strategy to cope with poverty and it can reduce the burden from the adverse impacts of extreme weather events. Many household heads also think that giving marriage off their daughter’s with a well-off family is the way to transfer cost and maintain their family reputation and protect the reputation of their daughters. This implies that early marriage is considered among many vulnerable populations to extreme events as a coping strategy to poverty as well as maintaining family reputation from sexual harassment during crisis periods. Many household heads also consider that their low socio-economic conditions and poor living environment influence them to consider early marriage of daughters as a coping strategy to poverty due to the adverse impacts of extreme events

Table 5: Opinions and responses

Opinion questions Percentage of responses/ reaction Strongly Agree Unsure Disagree Strongly Mean Agree Disagree 1. Early marriage works as a 46 (55) 21 (25) 12 (15) 12 (15) 9 (10) 3.83 coping strategy against poverty 2. Giving early marriage of 53 (63) 22 (27) 8 (10) 8 (10) 8 (10) 4.04 daughter as a way to maintain family reputation 3. Extreme weather events 60 (72) 8 (10) 5 (6) 8 (10) 19 (22) 3.83 as the main cause for your poor living condition 4. Giving marriage to a rich household as a strategy to 43 (52) 18 (21) 6 (7) 8 (10) 25 (30) 3.46 receive help during crisis

5. Living in a shelter camp as a place to face sexual 33 (40) 25 (30) 13 (15) 13 (15) 16 (20) 3.46 harassment

4.5 Incidence of Poverty, Sexual Harassment, and Early Marriage The incidence of poverty to know the percentage of poor people (under the relative poverty threshold) within the total population is measured by the poverty rate of the poverty risk rate (PR) and it is figured out likely: Poverty-rate (PR) =P/N Here, P is the number of poor people and N is the total number of people, poor or not, in the group within which the poverty rate is being calculated. Very often, the poverty rate is called H (headcount ratio). Though this study included 120 households, it found 79 households along with at least 1 married daughter to know the preference of early marriage to cope with poverty. Thus, 79 household is the total households for considering poverty measurement instead of 120 households. In here, poverty level will be the measured basis on the income of household (per month) along with sex of household head, land ownership, and savings of household. Then, age at first marriage and age at sexual harassment will be considered to relate the early marriage with poverty and sexual harassment. In order to calculate the first relative threshold, we take distribution median (the value that remains on the left of 50% of the individuals). The median is calculated as the arithmetic average of the intermediate data (income data for people 39 and 40). Relative poverty denotes as a percentage ranging from 40% to 60% of the median household income for a specific country (Iceland, 2003). The median is therefore 13000 BDT and the threshold (using 60% criteria) is 0.6*13000=7800 BDT. The income of 34 people is under the threshold and the number of poor people is therefore equal to 34. The poverty is the number of poor people

amongst the total population, or PR=34/79=43% of the population is poor. Particularly, the PR for Sunamganj and Brahmanbaria is 36% (15/42) and 24% (19/78) that denotes that higher incidence of poverty in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria. Table 1 illustrates the poverty incidence of households among the 34 poor households and characterizing the household basis on the sex of household head, land ownership, and savings of household. In total, 29 households are female-headed, while 50 households are male- headed. Amongst the poor 34 households, 23 households and 11 households are female- headed and male-headed consecutively. So, PR for female-headed and male-headed households is respectively 79% (23/29) and 22% (11/50). Moreover, PR for female-headed and male-headed households in Sunamganj is 48% (14/29) and 17% (5/50). On the other hand, the PR for male and female-headed households in Brahmnabaria is 12% (6/50) and 18% (9/50). These expose that more female-headed households are observed in Sunamganj than Brahmnabaria. In terms of land, 41 households have no land. Amongst them, 27 households belong to this poor category. So, the poverty rate for the landless households is 66% (27/41) and the poverty rate for landed households is 18% (7/38). In Sunamganj, PR for the landless is 66% (19/29), while in Brahmanbria, PR for the landless is 16% (8/50). This finding elucidates that most of the households from Sunamganj are landless poor than that Brahmanbaria. It is also revealed that totally 72 households amongst the 79 households having at least 1 married daughter have no savings of money. Besides, 31 households amongst the 72 households are found without savings. Then PR is the 43% (31/72) and 43% (3/7) consecutively for the poor households without savings and having savings. Precisely, in Sunamganj and Brahmanbaria, the PR for savings such as 76% (22/29) and 18% (9/50) highlights that most of the households of Sunamganj had no savings. In here, we tried to explore the incidence of sexual harassment and the early marriage of daughters amongst the poor households to characterize the poor households. It is found that 56 households get married their daughters off within 18 years. And 34 households are discovered as poor and got married their daughters off before 18 years that we call early marriage. Thus the PR is 61% (34/56) for those households who are poor and got married their daughters before reaching 18 years. Moreover, only 4% (1/23) poor experienced their daughters’ marriage after 18 years. Additionally, 55% (16/29) and 34% (17/50) girls from poor households, respectively in Sunamganj in Brahmanbaria got married before 18 years. Moreover, no girls from poor households in Sunamganj were married after 18 years. In this study, we wanted to relate sexual harassment with the early marriage of daughters in vulnerable areas. We found very few incidences of sexual harassment in both areas that we tried to highlight in the qualitative findings. However, 10 girls from both areas faced sexual harassment and 6 of them were married before 18 years while their households' income categorized them as poor in this study. In here, 4 girls are found from those poor households who had experienced early marriage due to the incidence of sexual harassment. Then the PR suggests that 67% (4/6) daughters are married before 18 years from poor households after facing sexual harassment. Furthermore, 33% (2/6) daughters amongst the poor households get married after 18 years despite facing sexual harassment. 14% (4/29) girls were married before 18 years due to the sexual harassment in Sunamganj. 4% girls from Brahmanbaria got married after 18 years due to facing sexual harassment (See Table 6). Thus it is exposed that

most of the girls from poor households’ experienced early marriage as well as sexual harassment is also a driver of early marriage in vulnerable areas of Bangladesh. Table 6 Poverty incidence, sexual harassment, and early marriage

Characteristics of Households Sunamganj Brahmanbaria Poverty Incidence (Total) Poverty Risk Rate 36% 24% 43% Gender Male 17% 12% 22% Female 48% 18% 79% Land ownership Yes 7% 10% 16% No 66% 16% 66% Savings of Household Yes 3% 10 4% No 76% 18 43% Age at first marriage Before 18 55% 34% 61% After 18 0% 2% 4% Marriage due to sexual harassment Married before 18 14% 0% 67% Married after 18 0% 4% 33%

5. Discussions and conclusions This study was conducted to know how poor and vulnerable populations living in vulnerable areas consider the early marriage of daughters as a coping strategy. This study also sought to understand how disastrous events lead to sexual harassment of daughters and what extents parents consider early marriage to protect their daughters. There were several kinds of literature on poverty incidence and the causes of early marriage distinctively but very few studies related poverty as a cause of early marriage in developing countries like Bangladesh. Regarding the socio-economic status, both study areas exposed variation. Likely, more female-headed households are observed in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria while it is suggested that poverty is a common affair in female-headed households (Khondker, 1996). Both educational level and income are lower in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria. Moreover, most of the households have no land in Sunamganj and they also took the loan to maintain their family. On the other hand, more than half of the studied populations have land and very few among them took the loan to maintain their family. This finding reveals that socio- economic condition is lower in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria that might indicate the higher incidence of poverty in Sunamganj. Besides, in terms of vulnerability, Sunamganj faces extreme flood each year that might influence their socio-economic condition. On the other hand, in Brahmanbaria, the flood occurs but not at all massive; while in 2013, it also

experienced a massive tornado that destroys their households, resources, and livelihoods. To sum up, this indicates the more vulnerability in extreme flood-prone areas of Bangladesh. Socio-economic condition suggests that poverty incidence is higher in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria. The headcount poverty measurement exposed that higher incidence of poverty is associated with higher rate of early marriage in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria. Particularly, the mean age at first marriage is lower in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria. In our study, we found that headcount poverty is 24% and 36% in the study area of Chittagong and Sylhet division (Table 7). This reveals that headcount poverty in study area Brahmanbaria from Chittagong division is lower than 2010 HIES data, such as 26.2% and 24%. On the other hand, in Sunamganj from Sylhet division, headcount poverty is found much higher than 2010 HIES data, such as 36% and 28.1%. In terms of early marriage in vulnerable areas, it is observed that early marriage is 58% and 48% in Chittagong and Sylhet division (BDHS, 2007). In this study, it is found that early marriage is higher in Sunamganj than the BDHS (2007) data, such as 55% and 48%. Contrarily, in Brahmanbaria, the incidence of early marriage is found very lower. Particularly, 58% according to the BDHS (2007) data, while in this study, it is illuminated as 34%. Succinctly, in this study, it is exposed that both poverty and early marriage is found higher in Sunamganj than Brahmanbaria along with the comparison of national data. Moreover, the mean age at first marriage of Bangladesh is 15.7 years. In here, it is revealed that mean age at first marriage in Sunamganj and Brahmanbaria is 15.41 years and 16.86 years respectively. Therefore, age at first marriage is higher in Brahmanbaria than Sunamganj. From the qualitative paraphrased translation, it comes to know that early marriage of daughters helps to reduce the burden of a large family (Dyson & Moore 1983; Mathur et al. 2003) along with many unmarried daughters. Based on these findings and qualitative paraphrased translation, it is suggested that early marriage is influenced by the poverty incidences of households that are concur several studies (Islam et al. 2016; Kamal, 2011; Bajracharya & Amin, 2000; Hossain & Islam, 2013; Haq, 2013; ICRW, 2006; Parsons et al. 2015; Otoo-oyortey and Pobi, 2003; Dahl, 2010; Maharjan et al. 2012). Table 7 Poverty Incidence and Early Marriage in Bangladesh Chittagong Sylhet (Brahmanbaria) (Sunamganj) Poverty Rate HIES 2010 poverty headcount (%) 26.2 28.1 In this study (%) 24 36 Early Marriage BDHS (2007) early marriage (%) 58 48 In this study (%) 34 55 Age at first marriage (Mean) 16.86 15.41

The PR suggests that 14% girls from poor households in Sunamganj married before 18 years due to sexual harassment. On the other hand, 4% girls from Brahmanbaria married after 18 years due to the sexual harassment. Those who faced sexual harassment they get married

early. Moreover, the qualitative paraphrased translation also suggests that younger daughters face sexual harassment when they take shelter in primary school during extreme floods. Households' head considers early marriage to protect their daughters' reputation from the sexual harassment that's why they prefer early marriage of daughters (Verma et al. 2013; World Vision UK, 2003; Bierman, 2006; Marife & Ballesteros, 2010; Ferdousi, 2014). Early marriage is a coping strategy to poverty as well as maintaining family reputation from sexual harassment during disastrous events. However, this study suggests detailed further studies relating extreme events, poverty and early marriage by including a large number of populations and sample size. Bangladesh is recognized as one of the most disastrous countries and every year several extreme weather events kill many lives as well as affects people’s lives (Azad et al. 2013). People those who live in areas which are vulnerable to extreme weather events such as floods, cyclones, tornadoes, and droughts get affected and think different ways to cope with adverse effects. Findings indicate more occurring of early marriage in the extremely flood prone area (Sunamganj) than flood and tornado prone area (Brahmanbaria). In general, most parts of Bangladesh get affected by floods and many areas are from extreme floods. Data analysis suggests household heads thinking on early marriage as a strategy to cope with poverty and maintain family reputation from sexual harassment. Many people also consider early marriage as an economic survival and transfer of cost to groom’s family. Poverty incidence (PR) revealed that 59% household is considered as poor and experienced the early marriage of daughters. 67% daughters from poor households who faced sexual harassment get married early. Poor households consider early marriage as a coping strategy to poverty and a protection against sexual harassment and this finding also corresponds with Malhotra (2010) study’s on child marriage in developing countries. During extremely events especially floods, people stay in shelter camps or any relative's house. Staying in shelter camp with others, people feel the fear of sexual harassment of their daughters. They feel early marriage as a way to escape from sexual harassment and even poverty. In this way, they think that they can protect their family reputation and daughter which also concordant with Ferdousi’s study (2014) on child marriage in Bangladesh. It was also reported by World Vision UK. Above findings imply that many early marriages occur due to poverty and from the fear of sexual harassment during extreme events, it is important to have a surveillance team in shelter houses and raise awareness among people to respect girls and consider sexual violence as a crime against law and punishable. People living in vulnerable areas don’t work during flood periods and they can’t maintain their subsistence. Government initiatives by creating job opportunities, increasing the number of shelter houses, providing loan with low interest and training for young boys and girls for vulnerable populations after the crisis can influence to change their decision to marrying daughters at early marriage and consider it as a coping strategy and transferring cost.

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