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Transnational Families and Digital Technologies: Parenting at a Distance Among Chinese Families Transnational families and digital technologies: Parenting at a distance among Chinese families Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Hong Chen Department of Media, Communications and Cultural Studies Goldsmiths, University of London November 2019 Declaration of Authorship I….Hong Chen….hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: ___________________Date: ___________________ 2 Acknowledgements My heartfelt thank first of all goes to all the people who participated in this study for sharing their touching and bittersweet life stories with generosity. More importantly, their moral inspiration has largely deepened my understanding of what life is all about. I also would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Mirca Madianou, who provided enormous support and invaluable critical comments at every stage of the thesis writing. I am especially grateful to those who read the whole or parts of this thesis in earlier drafts and have given insightful advice and feedback: particularly David Morley, Natalie Fenton, Gareth Stanton, Jason Vincent Cabanes, and Lia Uy-Tioco. I also wish to thank all my friends in London, who have offered emotional and academic support whenever I am in need. Special thanks also go to James Mason for his meticulous proofreading the thesis. Finally, I am deeply indebted to my parents, whose uncomplainingly support sustained me throughout my PhD journey. 3 Abstract This thesis aims to address how Chinese transnational family members involved in the ‘caregiving triangle’ – migrant parents, left-behind children and guardians (Suarez- Orozco et al., 2002) – navigate new media environments to negotiate their family roles and maintain kinship ties. Acknowledging the structural ‘asymmetrical reciprocity’ (Baldassar & Merla, 2014) of transnational families – which derives from the intersection of internal factors (including family obligation, expectations and norms) and external transnational socioeconomic contexts – this study examines the power dynamics and care circulation through mediated communication among family members across borders. To this end, this study employs a three-year multi-sited ethnography, including participant observation, in-depth interviews and online ethnography of Chinese labour migrants in Britain (mainly clandestine and low-skilled workers) and their family members, conducted between 2015 and 2018. The findings highlight the varied forms of agency and challenges experienced by migrant and non- migrant family members embedded in different social-technical contexts. Notable among these are: the transnational family structure; migration status and generation; Chinese patriarchal ideology; and the socio-economic discrepancies between Britain and (rural) China, which contribute to the shaping of mediated transnational communication. The adoption of communication technology in transnational family life has minimized the geographical and temporal constraints that divide these dispersed family members and enhanced the ‘reciprocity’ between them (including childrearing collaboration between migrant parents and guardians and strengthened intergenerational solidarity between migrant parents and children). However, it has also exacerbated the ‘asymmetry’ of transnational families, such as increased gendered parenting burdens and parental surveillance over left-behind children. This study argues that this mediated ‘asymmetrical reciprocity’ is subject to constant negotiation, as a consequence of unconfined translocal family settings along with the affordances of communication technologies. 4 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 3 Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 12 1.1 Transnational communication in new media environments ................................... 18 1.2 Caregiving triangle in transnational families ........................................................... 20 1.2.1 Migrant parents ...................................................................................................... 20 1.2.2 Left-behind children ............................................................................................... 22 1.2.3 Left-behind guardians ............................................................................................ 25 1.3 Research questions ...................................................................................................... 26 1.4 Mapping the thesis ....................................................................................................... 27 Chapter 2. Transnationalism, transnational families, and the Chinese context .. 32 2.1 Transnationalism from below .................................................................................... 33 2.2 Transnational families: ‘Doing family’ across borders ........................................... 37 2.2.1 Situating transnational family practices ................................................................ 38 2.2.2 Conceptualizing transnational family relationships .............................................. 41 2.3 Contextualizing ‘asymmetrical reciprocity’ in transnational families ................... 44 2.4 The power dynamics in Chinese families .................................................................. 51 2.5 Chinese transnational families ................................................................................... 57 2.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 59 Chapter 3. Transnational families in digital media environments ........................ 60 3.1 The interplay of society and technology: A socio-technical perspective ................ 63 3.2 Mediation and mediated communication: Locating the power of communication technology ........................................................................................................................... 66 3.3 How technology specificities matter: Affordances as socio-technical possibilities 70 5 3.4 Polymedia: Communication technology as integrated environments of affordances ............................................................................................................................................. 76 3.5 “Doing family” through mediated communication in polymedia environments ... 80 3.6 Mediated communication and co-presence in transnational families .................... 82 3.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 85 Chapter 4. Doing multi-sited ethnography to study transnational family ........... 87 4.1 Multi-sited ethnography to study transnationalism ................................................. 88 4.2 Online ethnography for studying the Internet .......................................................... 92 4.3 Recruiting participants in Britain .............................................................................. 94 4.4 Recruiting participants in China ............................................................................... 98 4.5 Entering the field(s) ................................................................................................... 101 4.5.1 (Online and offline) participant observation ....................................................... 102 4.5.2 In-depth Interviews ............................................................................................... 104 4.6 Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 106 4.7 Researcher’s positionality and reflexivity ............................................................... 107 4.8 Research ethics ........................................................................................................... 112 4.9 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 114 Chapter 5. Overseas labour migration, transnational family, and the media landscape in the Chinese context ............................................................................ 115 5. 1 Leaving China and migrating to Britain ................................................................ 127 5.1.1 The history of UK-based Chinese migration ........................................................ 127 5.1.2 “Pull” and “Push”: Political and economic discrepancies between Britain and China ............................................................................................................................. 128 5.1.3 Improving financial status .................................................................................... 131 5.1.4 Children’s education ............................................................................................ 136 5.1.5 Culture of migration ............................................................................................. 138 5.1.6 Entry and life in Britain ....................................................................................... 141 5.2 Living apart together: The emergence of Chinese transnational
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