DOCSLIB.ORG

Participatory Democracy in Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Participatory Democracy in Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by ResearchArchive at Victoria University of Wellington Participatory Democracy in Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte Terence Wood Participatory Democracy in Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte Terence Wood Victoria University of Wellington Wellington, New Zealand Contact: [email protected] Submitted in partial fulfilment of the Master of Development Studies Degree August, 2004 Abstract Participatory budgeting is a form of Participatory Democracy that is being increasingly used in Brazilian cities. This dissertation describes research conducted on the participatory budgets of two Brazilian cities, Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte. The research was undertaken with the overall aim of examining and comparing the participatory budgeting experiences in these two cities and then using this examination to identify the key local variables that can influence the outcomes of participatory budgets. The research made use of both primary and secondary data sources. The primary data used the result of 22 semi- structured interviews that took place in April and May 2004, and the secondary data was the already existing body of literature on participatory budgeting in Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte. The key findings of this research are that participatory budgeting has had some significant successes in both Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte. At the same time though the participatory budgets in Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte have encountered problems that have limited their abilities to produce results. There are also several areas where the outcomes of participatory budgeting are, at present, unclear. Some of the outcomes of the participatory budgets in Porto Alegre and Belo Horizonte are very similar yet there were differences in the processes’ results. Two key variables are identified in the analysis: the ability of the participatory budget to produce tangible results and the degree of need that a city’s populace has for municipal services. Associated with these key variables are a range of secondary variables that also influence the outcomes of participatory budgets. i Acknowledgements In New Zealand, I would like to thank Vijay Naidu, my course co-ordinator, and Warwick Murray, my research supervisor, for their assistance with this project. I would also like to thank my parents for supporting me – again. And finally, I would like to thank Joanna Spratt for her helpful suggestions, meticulous proofreading and constant support. In Brazil, I would like to thank all my research participants for their time and assistance. In particular, I am grateful to Sergio Baierle and Alexandre Stolte for going out of their way to help me. I would also like to thank Ricardo Holtz, Magaly Pazello, and Nara Hirschland for their help and friendship. And I am most grateful to Rodrigo Valente Noronha and his family for taking me in and showing me true Minero hospitality. And above all, I want to thank Flávio Carvalho Brito, Yamil Dutra and Liseth Bacellar, without whose assistance this project would definitely not have been possible. Although I am indebted to all of the people listed above, I want to stress that any errors or omissions in this dissertation are mine alone. ii Contents ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................................II CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................ III LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................ VII LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................. VII CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES...............................................1 1.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1 1.2 PARTICIPATION AND PORTO ALEGRE....................................................................................3 1.3 THE NEED FOR A BROADER RESEARCH FOCUS .....................................................................3 1.4 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................4 1.5 THE STRUCTURE OF THIS DISSERTATION ..............................................................................5 CHAPTER 2 - EPISTEMOLOGY, METHODOLOGY AND METHODS.............................8 2.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................8 2.2 EPISTEMOLOGY ...................................................................................................................8 2.3 METHODOLOGY...................................................................................................................9 2.4 CHOICE OF SETTING...........................................................................................................10 2.5 METHODS USED ................................................................................................................11 2.5.1 A Mixture of Primary and Secondary Research...........................................................11 2.5.2 A Comparative Approach to Primary Research...........................................................12 2.5.3 Semi-Structured Interviews.........................................................................................12 2.5.4 Critical Analysis......................................................................................................... 13 2.5.5 Finding My Participants.............................................................................................13 2.5.6 Observing the Participatory Budget in Action.............................................................15 2.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................................16 2.7 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED.................................................................................................17 CHAPTER 3 – DEMOCRATIC THEORY AND PARTICIPATION ....................................20 3.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................20 3.2 BASIC DEMOCRATIC THEORY.............................................................................................20 3.3 PARTICIPATION AND DEMOCRACY .....................................................................................24 3.4 WHAT IS PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY? ............................................................................27 3.5 DEVELOPMENT AND PARTICIPATION ..................................................................................27 3.6 CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................30 CHAPTER 4 – BRAZILIAN POLITICAL HISTORY...........................................................31 4.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................31 4.2 EARLY POLITICAL HISTORY...............................................................................................31 4.3 ‘IMPERIAL’ BRAZIL AND THE FIRST REPUBLIC ....................................................................32 4.4 VARGAS, THE SECOND REPUBLIC AND THE RETURN TO MILITARY RULE .............................34 4.5 RETURN TO DEMOCRACY...................................................................................................36 4.6 BRAZIL’S CURRENT POLITICAL SYSTEM .............................................................................36 4.7 DEMOCRATIC BRAZIL ........................................................................................................37 4.8 CONCLUSION.....................................................................................................................39 CHAPTER 5 – THE PT IN OPPOSITION AND IN POWER...............................................40 5.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................40 5.2 THE RISE AND RISE OF THE PARTIDO DOS TRABALHADORES ...............................................40 5.3 THE PT AND THE PROBLEMS OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNANCE.................................................46 5.3.1 The PT’s Inexperience in Municipal Government........................................................47 iii 5.3.2 Divisions between Different Party Factions ................................................................47 5.3.3 The Gulf Existing between Expectations of Social Reform and what is Actually Possible 48 5.3.4 The Hostility of Local Elites to the PT.........................................................................48 5.3.5 The Need to Form Political Coalitions........................................................................49 5.3.6 Hostility from State Governments ...............................................................................49 5.3.7 Tensions with Municipal Workers...............................................................................49 5.4 FAILURE IN SÃO PAULO .....................................................................................................50
Load more

Recommended publications
  • From Participatory Democracy to Digital Democracy
    Fast Capitalism ISSN 1930-014X Volume 1 • Issue 2 • 2005 doi:10.32855/fcapital.200502.003 From Participatory Democracy to Digital Democracy Mark Kann Tom Hayden posted on his website, http://www.tomhayden.com, an article he coauthored with Dick Flacks to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the Port Huron Statement. The two SDS founders concluded, “Perhaps the most important legacy of the Port Huron Statement is the fact that it introduced the concept of participatory democracy to popular discourse and practice.” The concept of participatory democracy encompassed values such as equality, decentralization, and consensus decision-making. It provided direction for “all those trying to create a world where each person has a voice in the decisions affecting his or her life.” [1] In this article, I suggest that Port Huron’s concept of participatory democracy included some ideas that were potentially antithetical to democracy and that potential, unfortunately, is being fulfilled in contemporary theories of digital democracy. The Port Huron Statement Revisited The Port Huron Statement contained two underlying themes that potentially subverted democratic equality. One was the notion that the American people were fundamentally flawed, most apparently, by their apathy. The other was that the best means to eliminate this flaw was to follow the lead of rational, deliberative activists. Both themes could be (and would be) used to justify political inequalities. Port Huron’s student-authors expressed a dim view of American citizens. The American people had closed minds. They exhibited a foolish confidence that the nation could muddle through its problems. They harbored a false sense of contentment, “a glaze above deeply felt anxieties,” arising out of loneliness, isolation, and estrangement.
    [Show full text]
  • Workplace Democracy: from a Democratic Ideal to a Managerial Tool and Back
    The Innovation Journal: The Public Sector Innovation Journal, Volume 19(1), 2013, article 3. La Revue de l’innovation : La Revue de l’innovation dans le secteur public, 19(1), 2013, article 3. ___________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ Workplace Democracy From a Democratic Ideal to a Managerial Tool and Back Markus Pausch Head of the Centre for Futures Studies University of Applied Sciences, Salzburg, Austria Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Sociology, Paris Lodron University, Salzburg, Austria 1 The Innovation Journal: The Public Sector Innovation Journal, Volume 19(1), 2013, article 3. La Revue de l’innovation : La Revue de l’innovation dans le secteur public, 19(1), 2013, article 3. ___________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ Workplace Democracy: From a Democratic Ideal to a Managerial Tool and Back Markus Pausch ABSTRACT In different political theories, democracy is not reduced to state institutions, but includes the democratization of the whole society, its organizations and enterprises. This idea goes back to the beginnings of modern democratic theory and to Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Social Contract. It was adopted by different socialist thinkers, later on by trade unions and, in the 1960s and 70s, by political scientists such as Carole Pateman and other promoters of participatory democracy. According to this tradition, workplace democracy is considered to be necessary for the realization of democratic ideals like individual autonomy, freedom, voice and participation in all relevant questions influencing citizens’ lives. Parts of this normative idea were realized by trade union movements and laws, especially in Western European countries. Nevertheless, workplace democracy in the sense of the above-mentioned theories remained far from becoming reality.
    [Show full text]
  • Lisbon & Porto
    2020 PRESIDENT’S CLUB MEETING Lisbon and Porto Portugal May 31, 2020 – June 6, 2020 WHICH LEVEL ARE YOU GOING TO QUALIFY? QUALIFICATION PERIOD January 1, 2019 THROUGH December 31, 2019 12062018 2020 PRESIDENT’S CLUB 7 Day Portugal Experience See beautiful Portugal through 2 of its most popular destinations: Lisbon & Porto PRESIDENT’S CLUB MEETING INCLUDES: Round trip air fare for 2 Ground transportation to/from airport/Lisbon/Porto 3 nights Hotel Pousada de Lisboa-Lisbon 3 nights Hotel Infante Sagres--Porto Company Sponsored Activities Begin your vacation in Lisbon, the dazzling capital with an ancient fortress at its heart, charming neighborhoods with local culture and festivals, nightlife along the Tagus riverbank and delectable food. Then transfer to Porto, the former residence of the Royal Family, medieval cathedrals, concert halls, a national library and museums with breathtaking art treasures. Lisbon: The spectacular capital of Portugal stretches along the Tagus River and is one of Europe’s most vibrant and charismatic cities. Its nucleus, an ancient fortress, is now circled by neighborhoods drenched with medieval charm. At night, yellow electric tramcars continue to wind their way up and down the hills to the passionate sound of traditional Fado songs. Ample opportunities exist for seeing popular celebrations, for shopping, and enjoying trendy nightlife activities along the Rua Nova do Carvalho Porto : Visiting Porto is a journey of discovery through the medieval streets, stunning architecture and historical riverbank. churches and buildings. The city is an exciting blend of experiencing old and new: from restaurants offering simple Hotel Infante Sagres in Porto: Porto’s most traditional fare to modern eateries with contemporary fine prestigious city center luxury hotel.
    [Show full text]
  • Participatory Democracy in Chávez's Bolivarian Revolution
    Who Mobilizes? Participatory Democracy in Chávez’s Bolivarian Revolution Kirk A. Hawkins ABSTRACT This article assesses popular mobilization under the Chávez gov- ernment’s participatory initiatives in Venezuela using data from the AmericasBarometer survey of 2007. This is the first study of the so- called Bolivarian initiatives using nationally representative, individ- ual-level data. The results provide a mixed assessment. Most of the government’s programs invite participation from less active seg- ments of society, such as women, the poor, and the less educated, and participation in some programs is quite high. However, much of this participation clusters within a narrow group of activists, and a disproportionate number of participants are Chávez supporters. This partisan bias probably reflects self-screening by Venezuelans who accept Chávez’s radical populist discourse and leftist ideology, rather than vote buying or other forms of open conditionality. Thus, the Venezuelan case suggests some optimism for proponents of par- ticipatory democracy, but also the need to be more attuned to its practical political limits. uring the past decade, leftist governments with participatory dem- Docratic agendas have come to power in many Latin American coun- tries, implementing institutional reforms at the local and, increasingly, the national level. This trend has generated a scholarly literature assess- ing the nature of participation in these initiatives; that is, whether they embody effective attempts at participatory forms of democracy that mobilize and empower inactive segments of society (Goldfrank 2007; Wampler 2007a). This article advances this discussion by studying popular mobiliza- tion under the government of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, referred to here as the Bolivarian Revolution or Chavismo.
    [Show full text]
  • Destination Portugal
    Portugal is famed Lisbon’s trams for its sinfully DESTINATION trundle along delicious traditional the capital’s sun- custard tarts PORTUGAL dappled streets Anja Mutić refects on a journey through Portugal as this vibrant European destination savors its moment in the spotlight GETTY / A view of Porto Coastal retreat from the Dom Cascais has a rich Luís I Bridge, over cultural tapestry the River Douro to explore 4CORNERS portugal he sun slowly drops in Lisbon as I walk by the Porto Tagus river from the grand Terreiro do Paço T SPAIN square toward the Cais do Sodré district. Along the Ribeira das CascaisÓ Naus promenade, lovers huddle on terraced limestone steps of this Lisbon city “beach,” sipping cold Super Bock beer by the kiosk. Children and joggers run loose on the broad former boatyard converted into a lovely stretch of riverside. It is a mark of how much this city has transformed that when I frst visited Lisbon back in 2003, this particular sweep edging the Tagus had little of this waterside loveliness. Instead, one would head straight to perennial favorites such as the historic oceanfront district of Belém. Here, you climb to the top of Torre de Belém, a 16th-century riverside tower built during the Age of Discovery, or sample the sinfully delicious custard tarts, pasteis Clockwise from pea salad with braised tuna and codfsh pataniscas (batter- de Belém, at Antiga Confeitaria de Belém, their recipe dating far left: Lisbon’s contemporary fried balls of cod), closing my meal with honey and olive oil back more than 180 years.
    [Show full text]
  • Playground of Violence: Mennonites and Makhnovites in the Time of War and Revolution
    International Relations and Diplomacy, July 2015, Vol. 3, No. 7, 439-447 D doi: 10.17265/2328-2134/2015.07.001 DAVID PUBLISHING Playground of Violence: Mennonites and Makhnovites in the Time of War and Revolution Mikhail Akulov The Kazakh-British Technical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Focusing on the relationship between the German Mennonite colonists and the self-professed followers of Nestor Makhno, this paper attempts to present a view of the Revolution in which participants are seen primarily through the framework of competition, rather than through binary narrative structures of victims vs. perpetrators, bourgeoisie vs. proletariat, revolutionaries vs. counterrevolutionaries, etc.. Always with an eye at a real or an imagined opponent, the Mennonites and the avowed adherents of the fabled bat’ko ended up profoundly influencing one another, conditioning one’s moves and limiting one’s latitude as does the omnipresent other vis-a-vis the unfolding self. In that light, violence, which both sides had on their record, functioned to cement such ongoing dialects, carrying the protagonists of these turbulent times well beyond their original intentions. Keywords: Russian Civil War, violence, Makhno, Mennonites, revolution Introduction The Russian Revolution, a subject relegated from the top priorities of the scholarly scrutiny in the late 1990s and early 2000s, is now making a comeback. The multiple jubilees are certainly working in its favor. Thus, pouncing upon the opportunity proffered last year by the centennial anniversary of the Great
    [Show full text]
  • Dark Tourism in the Land of Sunshine: A
    INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE CONTABILIDADE E ADMINISTRAÇÃO DO PORTO POLITÉCNICO DO PORTO MASTER’S DEGREE M INTERCULTURAL STUDIES FOR BUSINESS n Dark Tourism in the land of and Sunshine: An intercultural business model for the routes of death and disaster in Portugal Ana Cristina Resende Rodrigues 06/2020 Dark Tourism in the land of Sunshine: A business model for the routes of death . 2020 / ntercultural Ana Rodrigues i disaster in Portugal 06 INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE CONTABILIDADE E ADMINISTRAÇÃO DO PORTO POLITÉCNICO DO PORTO MASTER’S DEGREE M INTERCULTURAL STUDIES FOR BUSINESS n Dark Tourism in the land of and Sunshine: An intercultural business model for the routes of death and disaster in Portugal Ana Cristina Resende Rodrigues routes of death Master Dissertation present to Instituto Superior de Contabilidade e Administração do Porto to obtain the Master's Degree in Intercultural Studies for Business, under the supervision of Professor Clara Maria Laranjeira Sarmento e Santos. Dark Tourism in the land of Sunshine: A 2020 / Ana Rodrigues. intercultural business model for the disaster in Portugal 06 ii Dedication I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my grandfather Manuel Martins Resende, who passed away on December 18, 2017. One of the most important persons in my life, who has always supported me along the way. I will carry you in my heart, until I find you again. iii Acknowledgements This Master's dissertation was supported by some very important people without whom it would not have become true and to whom I will always be grateful. As such, I wish to express my gratitude to all those who, in some way, allowed this dissertation to take place.
    [Show full text]
  • Re-Theorizing Politics in Water Governance
    water Editorial Re-Theorizing Politics in Water Governance Nicole J. Wilson 1,* , Leila M. Harris 2,3 , Joanne Nelson 2 and Sameer H. Shah 2 1 The Peter A. Allard School of Law, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada 2 Institute for Resources, Environment & Sustainability, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada 3 Institute for Gender, Race, Sexuality & Social Justice, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 22 June 2019; Accepted: 26 June 2019; Published: 16 July 2019 Abstract: This Special Issue on water governance features a series of articles that highlight recent and emerging concepts, approaches, and case studies to re-center and re-theorize “the political” in relation to decision-making, use, and management—collectively, the governance of water. Key themes that emerged from the contributions include the politics of water infrastructure and insecurity; participatory politics and multi-scalar governance dynamics; politics related to emergent technologies of water (bottled or packaged water, and water desalination); and Indigenous water governance. Further reflected is a focus on diverse ontologies, epistemologies, meanings and values of water, related contestations concerning its use, and water’s importance for livelihoods, identity, and place-making. Taken together, the articles in this Special Issue challenge the ways that water governance remains too often depoliticized and evacuated of political content or meaning. By re-centering the political, and by developing analytics that enable and support this endeavor, the contributions throughout highlight the varied, contested, and important ways that water governance needs to be recalibrated and enlivened with keen attention to politics—broadly understood.
    [Show full text]
  • The Publicness of the Curriculum and the Ambiguity of the Shift to Participatory Politics: the Intersection of Politics and Education Regarding “Representation”*
    Educational Studies in Japan: International Yearbook No. 12, March, 2018. pp. 135-151 The Publicness of the Curriculum and the Ambiguity of the Shift to Participatory Politics: The Intersection of Politics and Education Regarding “Representation”* Shigeki Izawa† translated by Nadezhda Murray‡ This paper considers the functions and effects of “representation” in poli- tics and education. The voting age for public elections in Japan has been low- ered from 20 or older to 18 or older, calling for a shift in the curriculum to the basics of political participation and competence. In this paper, while focus- ing on the political issues concerning the publicness of the curriculum up until now in particular, I will demonstrate experimentally that considering this prob- lem means radically reconsidering the struggles contained in the meaning of participatory politics itself, not only the situation of representative democracy in modern society, and that it clarifi es once again the covertly confi gured edu- cational problems of competency. Keywords: Curriculum; Publicness; Representation; Democracy; Participatory politics 1. Where the problem lies: increasingly transparent politics and education On June 17th, 2015, Japan’s Revised Public Elections Act passed the Diet Upper House, and the age of suffrage, previously “20 or older”, joined that of much of the world at “18 or older”. While various issues remain, based on the meaning of the concept of “publicness” as “openness, Öffentlichkeit” allowing access by anyone (Habermas 1994; Saito 2000), the meaning reported by various media of some 2.4 million new voters is very important. In par- ticular, given the issue of the generation gap in Japan as it faces a shrinking and aging soci- ety, encouraging the participation of young people in politics and revitalizing democracy are * This article was originally published, in Japanese, in The Japanese Journal of Educational Research Vol.
    [Show full text]
  • Discover Your Roots in Portugal with ABC6
    Sagres Vacations +1 877-412-4394 Don´t Just Travel [email protected] Experience IT! http://www.sagresvacations.com Discover your Roots in Portugal with ABC6 Aug 31, 2019 - Sep 9, 2019 4899.00 per person Travel back in time and connect with your origins and ancestors as you visit your village and town in Portugal. Learn about your family, connect with lost relatives, visit the family farm, attend mass at the church where your great grandparents were baptized or married. Let Sagres Vacations and ABC6 re-connect your past so that you can pass on your family's history, traditions and customs to your children and the new generations to come. This itinerary includes: Round trip airfare with TAP from Boston Logan Airport. Round-Trip Bus Transportation from Providence to Boston Logan Airport 4 Nights Accommodation at the Pestana Vintage Porto Hotel in Porto *or Page 2 of 19 similar 4 Nights Accommodation at the PortoBay Liberdade Hotel in Lisbon *or similar Opportunity to Travel to your family's village or town and discover your Heritage, accompanied by English Speaking Guide. 11 total meals, including daily breakfast, 2 lunches and 2 dinners (Welcome & Farewell Dinner) Private Tours in: Porto, Aveiro, Obidos, Nazare, Lisbon and Sintra & Cascais; Private Transfers from/to airports in Portugal; Private English Speaking Guide in all tours. Page 3 of 19 Trip Summary August 31 - Overnight Flight to Portugal 6:20 PM Depart from Logan International Airport (BOS) - Boston Logan International Airport September 1 - Arrive at Porto City 5:45 AM
    [Show full text]
  • Study Tour Report 2013 – Lisbon & Porto –
    Study Tour Report 2013 – Lisbon & Porto – 2nd to 10th of February 2013 Master in International Tourism 2011-2013 Table of Contents 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 Study Tour Program ................................................................................................................................. 4 2 Introducing Lisbon as a destination ................................................................................................................. 7 By Carolin Dietlmeier, Laura Pelizzari, Annina Reimann ....................................................................................... 7 2.1 Sunday activity ........................................................................................................................................ 9 2.1.1 The concept and the task ................................................................................................................ 9 2.1.2 The results ..................................................................................................................................... 11 3 Turismo de Lisboa: Marketing Strategy ......................................................................................................... 15 By Sil Alden, Odile Roulet, Sara Saghir ................................................................................................................. 15 3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Mediated Political Participation: Comparative Analysis of Right Wing and Left Wing Alternative Media
    Mediated Political Participation: Comparative Analysis of Right Wing and Left Wing Alternative Media A dissertation presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Nune Grigoryan August 2019 © 2019 Nune Grigoryan. All Rights Reserved. This dissertation titled Mediated Political Participation: Comparative Analysis of Right Wing and Left Wing Alternative Media by NUNE GRIGORYAN has been approved for the School of Media Arts & Studies and the Scripps College of Communication by Wolfgang Suetzl Assistant Professor of Media Arts & Studies Scott Titsworth Dean, Scripps College of Communication ii Abstract GRIGORYAN, NUNE, PhD, August 2019, Mass Communication Mediated Political Participation: Comparative Analysis of Right Wing and Left Wing Alternative Media Director of dissertation: Wolfgang Suetzl Democracy allows a plural media landscape where different types of media perform vital functions. Over years, the public trust towards mainstream media has been eroding, limiting their ability to fulfill democratic functions within the American society. Meanwhile, the Internet has led to proliferation of alternative media outlets on digital space. These platforms allow new outreach and mobilizing opportunities to the once peripheral alternative media. So far, the literature about alternative media have been heavily focused on left-wing alternative media outlets, while the research on alternative right-wing media has remained scarce and fragmented. Only few studies have applied a comparative analysis approach to study these outlets. Moreover, research that examines different aspects of alternative media such as content and audience reception is more rare. This study aims to demonstrate the heterogeneity of alternative media by highlighting their history and functions within the American democracy.
    [Show full text]