From Mediaeval Sword to Renaissance Rapier from Mediaeval Sword to Renaissance Rapier

Home , Cinquedea, Ear dagger, Estoc, Hilt, Katzbalger, Knightly sword

Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer ISSN 0435-029X

FROM MEDIAEVAL SWORD TO RENAISSANCE RAPIER

by Dr. Ada Bruhn HoffmeyerHolffmeyer

THE sword types of the Middle Ages proper are not numerous. They are assembled chiefly aboutabut two main types:types: the sword with the brazil-nut.shapedbrazil-nutshapecl plommelpommel and the swordswolrd with the disC'-ordisoor wheel pommel. In both main groups there are numerous variations ofolf the pommel forms, with a certain amount of typological se1quence,selqueme, interinter- mediate formsform~sand sp€lcialspecial forms. To some extent the shape of the pommel is related to the hand.guard,hand-guard, wh1chwhich may be horizontal'horizontal or curved, thick and heavy, round, flat, much curved or sligthly curved. The shape of the pommel, the length of the tang and the shapesh~.peand length of the guard or quillons are the most important aids to the period and provenance determination of the sword. In this respect the blade is secondary in importance,implortance, because in the ma1joritymajolrity of cases blades were mass'produced mass-produced in great blade centres, whereas the hilts mostly are individual work, carried out in accordance with the owner's personal idelas and pecuniary circumstances, and RIsoalso accor.according to the intended purpoisepurpose of the weapon: ceremonial, coronation, magistracy, public authorities or war. No doubtdmb& further and detailed examinations of the various types ,andand shapes of bla~des,blades, their matemate rialandrial and the manufacture of the blades wmwill be most useful as an important aid in regard to the determination of provenance, use and chronology. The sword with the braz,u-nutbrazil-nut pommel and the horizontalquHlonshorizontal quiIlons dates chiefly to the pieriodperiod between 9'50-1250,950-1250, more especially in the l'2th12th ,century.century. It 1sis the sword of the Bayeux tapestry, carried both by Anglo-SaxonsAnglohS'axons and by NormanslNormans (fig. 1). (Yet some few variations are seen in the tapestry, e,e. g. the State Sword of king Harold). But the forerunners occur in such illuminations as for instance TheTbGos·Gos. pels of Otto II!,111, fromfroim about 983-9;g19183-991 (Munich Staatsbibl. God.Cod. Lat.4453).Lat. 4453). The brazil-nut sword appe'8l'sappelaw sometimes with curved quillons, but these are not common. The brazil·nutbrazil-nut pommel sword is a direct continuation of the common Germanic-Viking Age types..types. In actual fa,ctfaot it represents the close of an epoch, of the srpathaspatha which conti continued from the Merovingian sword through the swords of the CaroCsro- lingian and Viking periods with the many pommel variations,variatiolns, by Jan Petersen divided into groups named after the letters of thethe al.alb phabet. The brazil-nut sword occurs especially in Central and North Europe, but it is also to be found in the northernno~thmpart of West

Digitalizado por InterClassica Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://interclassica.um.es http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer ISSN 0435-029X

Fig. 1. Transitional s WIV o0 r d, fromfrom Meuse, late 11th century. In blade name/lame of Ulfberth.Ulifberth. (Coll.(Coli. E. A. Christensen,Chr;stensen, Copen-Copen hagen,hal?en. E 131).

Europe,Europe, forfor instanceinstance inin northern France, Holland, Belgium and En-En· gland,gland, as well as inin thethe Baltic countries, eastwards as far as the Volga regionsregions andand possiblypossibly still more toto thethe East. On the other handh3nd it occursoccurs lessless frequentlyfrequently inin South EuropeEurope and in thethe South of France, regionsregions inin whichwhich thethe disc-and wheelwheel pommels are sovereign.

TheThe brazil·nutbrazil-nutpommel polmmel variesvaries withwith thethe periods,periods, andand toto somesome extentextent alsoalso withwith locality.locality. InIn earlyearly timestimes itit waswas often often almost almost aa ha.lfhalf disc;disc; soonsoon afterwardsafterwards itit acquiredacquired moremore oror lessless olive,olive, lenticular,lenticular, hathat oror saddlesaddle shapes,shapes, thickthick belowbelow andand thinthin above,above, roundedrounded oror withwith anan almostalmost pointedpointed top.top. (A(A detaileddetailed examinationexamination andand divisiondivision hashas beenbeen undertakenundertaken byby thethe EnglishEnglish archaeologist archaeologist R.R. EwartEwart Oa.keshott,Oakeshott, inin hishis book:book: TheThe ArchaeologyArchaeology ofof Weapons,Weapons, 1960).1960). InIn mostmost casesoases thethe tangtang isis veryvery short,short, somewhatsomewhat longerlonger onon thethe later later swords,swords, espec;ally especially thosethose with with aa tall,tall, pointedpointed pommel.pommel. TheThe quillonsquillons areare generallygenerally horizontal:horizontal: thinthin andand slenderslender in in latelate VikingViking types,types, thickthick andand four-sidedfoursided onon thethe earlyearly swords,swords, laterlater onon moremore slender, slender, oftenoften withwith aa cross cross section section thatthat isis roundedrounded oror almostalmost round.round. InIn NorthNorth Italy,Italy, SwitzerlandSwitzerland andand AustriaAustria wewe some·some. timestimes findfind broadbroad quillons,quillons, horizontalhorizontal along along thethe top,top, curvedcurved underunder- neath,neath, perhapsperhaps thethe resultresult ofof influenceinfluence ofof SouthSouth EuropeanEuropean formsforms (fig.(fig. 2-3).2-3). TheThe curvedcurved quillon quillon (including(including thatthat onon somesome VikihgVikibg

Fig. 2.2. So-called Sct.Set. Mauritius sword,sword, aboutabout 1200-1250. (Armeria(Armerin Rea/e,Reale, Thrino,Tbrino, GG 25).

types)types) is presumablyp~resumablydue due to Oriental influence.influence. TheThe blil.desblades areare ofof the heavy cutting typetype1 with a moremolre or lessless roundedrounded point. OnOn thethe earlier ones thethe g-roovesgrooves extend almostto' almost to; thethe point, whereas laterlater they reachreach only threethree fourths of09 the length oror less.less.

The Viking pattern-welded damast has disappeared; it is now en-en countered olnlyonly very oiocasionadlyoccaslonatlly (e. g. a fragment in the National Museum in Copenhagen).Copenhagen}. Instead the blade-smiths have adopted another and improved technique. (Actually this new methcd makes its appearance as earliyearly as thethe 9th century.) His minute resea~chesresearehes and analyses have enabled thethe Italian scientist Carlo Panseri to ex-ex plain the technique, starting'Starting inter alia with a 12th century sword of the brazil-nut type found in 194819148 at Adige, near Legnago castle, the important defence f~rtifica~tionsfortifications against the barbarian hordes olfof mi-mi gration times and against the enemies of later days. As regards the blades, continued metallurgical research will presumabiypresumably make it possi-possi ble to make fairly valid distinctions between the bladecentresblade-centres olfof South and Central Europe. InscriptionsIns<:riptions and pictorial scenes onOn bla-bla des are not uncommon. On solmesome of the early swords we find the master's signature «Ingelri((Zngelri me fecit)),fecit», or simpl,ysimply the name Zngelri,Ingelri, spelt in Ria variety of ways. Swords signed Ingelri can be traced across large sections of Europe, fosrfor instance in northern FraWx,France, Bel-Bel gium, Englcmd,England, Germany, Norway and Sweden right over to the Volga. Only one specimen is known to have been found in Denmark,Denhark, in South Schleswig and now in private DlanishDanish ownership (Coll. H. Briins Hansen, Hillerod). The lettering is the same as on the Ulfberth blades, goodgoold and painstakingly executed on the earliest, often slipshodslipshold and clumsy on the later ones. Other inscriptions a,ppear a'ppsar combined with this one, especially of a religious character (fig. 3) such as HOMO DEIJXI or INI;N NOlMJNENOMINE DOMINI,DOIMINI, whichwhilch are familiar from swords with a wheel pommel. p~o~mmel.It is presumable that these really are swords of the early days of the Crusades (Homo Dei, «Man((Man of God»,God)), as the first crusaders called themselves see I. Timothy, 6,11:6,ll: ctTh«Tu autem, o0 homo Dei!l).Dein). Side by side w;thwith the iron-inlaid inscriptions we find several with fine silver or bratssbrass inlay, pictorial and allegoallego- rical scenes Oror merely ornaments between the letters. A remarkable example is the sword L. M.M, 10116, ZUrich,Zurich, with its long series of allealle- gorical pictures. IncovationsIncolvations of Christ or His Mother (0 Sancta Maria), st.St. Peter, blessings, «Eripe((Eripe Nos)),Nos», from the Psalms or other religious inscriptions are also met with. In South EuropeE'urope they are often supplications to Virgin Mary. Another noteworthy sword is the one at Rouen, found in the Seine at the ChateauClhBteau Gaillard, a relic of the siege by Richard Coeur d'Leond'leon ;nin 1203-4 with the insins- cription DEUS and Romanesque birds between each letter. These religious inscriptions are mostly confined to one pa,rticularpalrticular period, perio~d, the Crusades under Richard Coeur d'Leon,d'leon, FrederickErederick Barbarossa, Philippe.Auguste,Philippe-AugUste, the Counts of Flanders and in the days of St. Louis. Letters and ornaments Onon the sword blades have close parallels p~aradlelsin

the manuscriptmanuacrilpt illuminationsilluminations of those times and sometimes can be dated by means of comparisons with dated manuscripts. They conscons- titute an important chronolo-gicalchronolo~gicalsupport.support. Among the swordsswords with a brazil-nutbrazil nut pommel therethere areare severalseveral fine specimensspecimens that are fairly reliablyreliably dated. Among the most distinctive we may reckon the so-called St. Mauritius sword in the Vienna Weltiiche Weltliche Schatzkammer, the Austrian coronation and ceremonialceremonial sword, which isis dated by itsits inscriptionsinscriptions and heraldic figures, the German-Roman eagle and the three leopards,lelopards, the arms of the emperor Otto IV (1198-1215). The scabbard, adorned with chased gold work and its borders of enamel and semi.precious stones seemsselems to be Sicilian work. Another rere markable sword is the second St. Mauritius specimen, originally from St. Mauritius monastery at Va~ois,Valois, Switzerland, taken to Torino in 15911591 (See(See Panseri, I.1. c. I., p. 10). The hilt is well proportioned, with a charasteristic saddle-shapedsaddle-shaped pommel, short grip, band-shaped quiqui- lIonsllons curved on the underside, a fcrmfarm to be seen mostly inin the sword material of the Latin lands (fig. 2>-2). The fragmentary sword from the Seine, outside the ChateauCh&teau Gai.Gai- llard,Ilard, dated to about 1203-4, is of interest on account of its finding place and its inscription.inslcripltion. Related blade inscriptions will be found on twotwo1 blades in thethe! Real ArmeriaArrnerio in Madrid (G 21 and G 180); G 180l80 has a later hilt, made by the Toledo ma-stermaster Salvador de Avila, prior to 1539. The St. Mauritius sword at T(}rino,Torino, a similar specimen in the D'aDla. nish private collectiO'n,aollection, of mr. E. A. Christensen,Christensm, Copenhagen, and one in the Landesmuseun at Zurich must be ,placedplaced among the latestlatest of the swords with a brazil-nut pommel.pommel In a:1lall probability allad1 three are of NorthNoirth Italian workmanship (fig. 3>.3). At about the middle of the 13th century the type almost disappears from the practical sword material and is encountered only now and then in the pictorialplictorial arts, especially in Germany and the ScandinavianScandina~viancountries, though it is still to be found in the illuminations of Matthew of Paris and in the Maciejowski Bible, dated about 1250. It appears on the tombstone of the Swiss Ulrik vanvon Regenl;bergRegensberg as lateiate as 1280. This type Ofof sword, terminates the era Ofof the old CarolinQ'ianCarolingian andancl Viking sword, which can be followed from certain Viking types via the swords of the Bayeux tapestryta~pestryto the mostmolst characteristic GermanicGermanilc type of sword of the 12th century. The relatively few swordsswolrds with a lobed pommel like some of the late Viking types may be regarded as descendants of Viking swords with subdivided pommels, such as the types Jan Petersen: R, S, and Z.2. The Norwegian sword from Korsoygard with its runic inscriptions -owner's and maker's names-has a forerunner in a sword fromfrolm Riga

Fig.Fig. 3. SwordSword proyro- hahablyb Jy ofof NNorthorlll IlalianItalian workmansworkmans- hip,hip, aaboutbo III 12001200 - - 1250.1250. BBladeJa d c insins- criplion:cription: ININ NOMINENOMINE DOMDOMINZ.IN I. (Coli.(Coll. E.E. A.A. ChChrir slensen,isrensen, Copen;;agen.CopenL ngen, EE I.I. GripGrip modern),modern).

ininLatvia, Latvia,a a youngeryounger paraUelparallel inina asword swordin inan anEnglish English privateprivatecollec co~llec- tion,tion, foundfound ~n.nRiver River TrentTrent inin England, England,and andis isknown knownin inpictorial pictorial artart interinter aliaaliafrom fro~mthethe Ebberston Ebberstoncarving carvingin inEngland. England. ThisThistype typeof of pompom- melmel stillstill is is toto bebe foundfound inin DanishDanish altaraltar carvings carvings fromfrom thethe endend ofof thethe15th 15thand andthe thebeginning beginning ofof thethe16th 16thcentury. century.The Thetrilobate trilobate pommel,pommel, thatthat recursrecurs inin thethevarious variousMSS MSlSof of thetheApocalypse Apaaalypseof of S.S.Beato Beatode deLie Lie- bano,bano, dateddated toto10th. loth, 11th11th oror laterlater centuriescenturies originates originates fromfrom Eastern Eastern types.types. ItItis iswell wall knowknow fromfrom variousvariousSpanish SpanishMSS, MSS,from fromthe thenotable notable

sword of San FernandoFemando in Real Armeria in Madrid and from spespe- cimens, for instance in Musee Cluny inin Paris. We find it too, forfor instanceInstance inin Matthew of Paris, o.o 1250, inin his description of the Battle of Stamfordbridge inin 1066.10166. The Maciejowski Bible of about 1250 has itit too. The 12th and 13th13th century trifoil pommel sometimes occurs onon crusader's swords, with the leavesleavels moreover decorated inin varie·varie- gatedgated enamels This type of pommel is to be foundfound inin Span:shSpanish paintings as latelate as the end of 15th15th and the beginning of 16th16th cencen- tury. Coming of the Knightly Sword TheThe main formform of swordsword in the Middle Ages isis thethe disc-andcPiscand wheelwheel- p~mmelpgmmel sword, whetherwhether thethe pommel isis flatflat or moulded, groovedgroo~vedor round-lenticular.round-lenticular. The wheel pommel ;sis combinedcombined withwith horizontalhorixWzta1 andand withwith curvedcurved quillons.quillons. InIn thisthis groupgroup thethe materialmaterial is immenseimmense and spansspans over a period fromfrom about 1100l100 tota 150G-for1500-for the Northern countries inin factfact to about 1550.1550. InIn this large large group severalseveral sub-groupssubgroups can be distinguished accoraccor- dingding toto the pommel details, forfor exampleexample thethe size of thethe mouldings, thethe thicknessthickness and weightweight of thethe pommel,p~ommel,thethe size and shapeshape ofof the toptop rivetrivet onon thethe pommel, thethe shapeshape andand lengthlength of thethe guard, the lengthlength ofof thethe tang.tang. TheThe resultsresults ofof thisthis subdivisionsubdivision must be supplesupple mentedmented by studiesstudies ofof thethe shape,shape, typetype and size ofof thethe blades, to which must bebe addedadded anyany individualindividual marks, heraldry, ornamentation,ornamentation, etc.etc. WithWith shapeshalpe and typetype asas aa basis itit isis possible toto splitsplit thethe material intointo severalseveral chronological chronological sections, sections, inin which thethe typestypes groupgroup themthem- selvesselves aboutabout characteristic, characteristic, more oror lessless definitely definitely dateddated specimens.specimens. TheThe groupsgrolupls comprisecomprise thethe earlyearly swordsswords up to 12001200 oror shortlyshortly after,after, thethe swordsswords ofof thethe 13th13th century,century, thethe truetrue classical knightly swordsword ofof aboutabout 1300..13501300-1350 andand thethe various chronologicalchronological periods afterafter aboutabout 1350.1350. TheThe timetime aboutabout thethe middlemiddle ofof thethe 14th14th centurycentury signifiessignifies aa distinctdistinct lineline ofof demarcationdemarcation inin thethe evolutionevolution ofof thethe weaponweapon asas rere- gardsgards thethe hilthilt andand especiallyespecially thethe blade: newnew bladeblade types,type~s,thethe thrusthrus- tingting blade andand thethe cut·andthrustcut-and thrust bladeblade begin begin toto bebe veryvery muchmuch inin evievi- dencedence andand exertexert anan influenceinfluence onon thethe evolutionevolution ofof thethe swordsword otherwise.otherwise. Moreover,Moreover, itit isis possiblepossible toto drawdraw moremore distinctdistinct nationalnational lines,lines, toto distindistin- guishguish moremore clearlyclearly betweenbetween NorthNorth andand South,South, oror ratherrather betweenbetwelen LatinLatin andand Germanic.Germanic. AtAt anan earlyearly stagestage therethere isis alreadyalready aa separationseparation between thethe LatinLatin and and thethe Germanic.Germanic. ThisThis appliesapplies also also toto England,England, whichwhich toto aa certain certain degreedegree isis more more Latin Latin thanthan GermanicGermanic in in character. character. ThisThis partingparting ofof thethe waysways between between LatinLatin and and Germanic Germanic developmentdevelopment isis perceptibleperceptible particularlypart~cularlyafterafter thethe middlemiddle ofof thethe 14th14th century.century. AmongAmong thethe LatinLatin peoplespeopihes thethe developmentdevelopment passes via via thethe pointedpointed infantryinfantry

thrustingthrusting swordsword andand thethe h;spano-arabhispano-arab jinetejinete sword sword with with a a shortshort hilthilt toto thethe aristocraticaristocratic rapier,rapier, whereas whereas amongamong thethe GermaricGermaric peoplespeoples thethe oldold cuttingcutting techniquetechnique isis continuedcontinued andand developed.developed. FormidableFormidable cutcut- tingting swordsswords areare producedproduced forfor useuse byby thethe infantry.infantry. MixedMixed forms,forms, in in- termediatetermediate forms,forms, mutualmutual influencesinfluences andand currents currents fromfrolm thethe OrientOrient andand EastEast EuropeEurope areare introducedintrolduced andand oftenoften makemake itit difficultdifficult toto unraunra~ velvel thethe typestypes ofof subsequentsubsequent epochs.epochs. TheThe wheelwheel pommel pommel (in(in whichwhich context context thethe sphericalspherical pommelpommel mustmust bebe included)included) hashas nothingnothing whatever whatever toto dodo with with VikingViking traditions.traditions. ActuallyActually itit is is anan ancientancient Mediterranean Mediterranean inheritance. inheritance. NeitherNeither thethe wheelwheel nornor thethe sphericalsplherical pommelpommel is is toto bebe observed observed inin CarolingianCarolingian- VikingViking swords, swords, anyany moremore thanthan itit waswas onon thethe spathasspathas ofof thethe MerovinMerovin. giangian period.period. BeyondBeyond thethe RomanRoman EmpireEmpire itit is is toto bebe foundfound priorprioir toto thethe MigrationMigration periodperiod inin provincialprovincial RomanRoman areas areas andand inin thethe RomanRoman IronIron AgeAge ofof thethe ScandinavianScandinavian countriescountries e.e. g inin thethe bogbog depositsdeposits ofof Denmark.Denmark. InIn realityreality itit isis possiblepossible to to tracetrace thethe mediaevalmediaeval wheelwheel oror sphericalspherical pommelpommel backback via ByzantiumByzantium andand thethe BosporanBosporan cultureculture rere giongion andand the the LevantLevant asas farfar asas the the ancientancient RomanRoman andand ByzantineBymntine empireempire reached, reached, including including Persia, Persia, etc,etc, toto thethe thrustingthrusting swordsword ofof thethe soldierssoldiers ofof thethe RomanRoman legions.legions. ItIt isis chara:teristiccharacteristic ofof thisthis typetype thatthat forfor instance instance inin the the 12th12th century century when it it reappearedreappeared inin Europe,Europe, itit waswas commoncommon inin SouthSouth Europe,Europe, lessless commoncommon inin CentralCentral EuropeEurope andand sparselysparsely representedrepresented inin thethe ScandinavianScandinavian lands. lands. InIn pictorialpictolrial artart itit isis almostalmost universal universal inin thethe LatinLatin countries.countries. From thethe 10th10th centurycentury ByzantineByzantine triptychtriptych inin thethe LouvreLouvre (Harbarville)(Harbarville) andand otherother ByzantineByzantine worksworks ofof thatthat timetime it it cancan bebe followedfollowed inin Italy,Italy, SpainSpain andand France.France. ItsIts occurrenceoccurrence isis earliestearliest inin ItalyItaly andand Spain,Splain, wherewhere anan examinationexamination ofof earlyearly artart foundfound itit toto bebe common.common. OnOn aa capital capita,l fromfrom SanSan PedroPedro dede laslas DueiiasDuefias inin Lea7lJ,L~~Tu,nownow inin thethe Archeol.Archeol. Mus. Mus Madrid,Madrid, 11thllth century,century, aa sword sword ofof thisthis kindkind isis toto bebe seenseen thrustthrust intointo thethe jawsjaws ofof aa lion;lion; inin Biblia Biblia decEe FarfaFarfa (Santa(Santa MariaMaria dede Ripoll), Ripoll), 11thllth century,century, nownow inin BibliotecaBiblioteca Apost6licaApostolica Vaticana,Vaticana, itit appears appears distinctlydistinctly several several times. times. TheThe samesame isis truetrue ofof thethe LibrosLibros de de los101sTestamentosTestamentos fromfrom thethe cathedralcathedral inin Oviedo,Oviedo, 1126-29,1126-29, aa frescofresco inin thethe apsisapsis centralcentral in in SanSan Marttn,Martin, inin MuseoMuseo EpiscopalEpiscopal dede Vich,Vich, aboutabfout 1150,1150, inin ms.ms. ill.ill. Cantigas(Tantigla~dede AlfonsoAlfonso elel SabioSabio inin ElEl Escorial,Escorial, latterlatter partpart ofof 13th 13th century,century, inin MonrealeMonreale atat Palermo,Palermo, 1174-87,1174-87, onon thethe sealseal ofof RaoulRaoul dede Fougere,Fougere, 1161,1161, onon thethe tombstonetombstone ofof GeoffreyGeoffrey PlantagenetPlantagenet (in(m enamel)enamel) atat Mans,Mans, aboutabout 1175,1175, wherewhere thethe renderingrendering isis veryvery characteristiccharacteristic ofof LatinLatin swordsswords inin that that period.period. ItIt cancan bebe tracedtraced inin numerousnumerous otherother monumentsmonuments andand illumiillumi- nationsnations ofof manuscripts.manuscripts. AsAs aa rulerule thethe pommelpommel is is renderedrendered asas aa flatflat discdisc withoutwithout mouldings,mouldings, asas wewe alsoalso seesee itit inin thethe archaeologicalarchaeological mama- terial.terial. AroundAround 12001200 oror inin thethe firstflrst halfhalf ofof thethe 13th13th centurycentury wewe seesee

the commencement of the mouldings that become so characteristic of thethe wheel pommel of the classical Knightly sword. The other de-de. tailstails of thesethese earIyearly swords are more or less the same as thosethose of thethe brazihnutbrazil-nut sword: thethe tangtang is short, the guard often has horizontal quillonsQuillons thatthat are rectangular in cross section,section. thethe blades are as befo~befo re, with a more or less rounded point, but sometimes with an approach to a sharpersharper form. As regards inscriptions, these early blades tootoo are sometimes furnished with an Ingelri mark, though lessles& frequently than thethe (previous,previous ones, whereas HOMO DEI or IN NOMINE DIOMINI,DOMINI, benedictory inscriptions, silver and brass inlays-religiousinlays-religious or decorati-decorati· ve--areve-are more frequent, especially after about 12100.1200. EntireEnLre complexes olfof letters occur, framed or separated by ornaments, animal figures, cros-cros ses, etc. With regard toto thesethese apparently meaningless and insoluble devices however itit isis probable that at anya,ny rate some could be inter-inter preted by means of a careful study of thethe culture in Crusade days, of thethe Old Testament, especially thethe Books of PsalmsPsaims and Proverbs. It seems thatthat thesethese wheelp~ommelwheel pommel swords made their appearance with the first crusades. It is the close contact with Byzantine cul-cul ture and warfare, a contactcontact thatthat leftleft its tracestraces inin other fields, also within thethe sphere of warfare and arms and is particularly pro~minentprominent in thethe enamel-decoratedenamel·decorated mountings on equestrian trapphgstrapp:ngs and harness. Sword pommels of thethe disc form, decorated with heraldic figures inin coloured enamels, are known from thethe 12th century. A special ordinance established thethe national colours, white for English crusaders, red for French and green forfor Flemish. Disc pommels with castlecastle motives and thethe like,like, have been found inin Syria i.i. a. at Damascus, as inin thethe case of bronze pommels forfor instanceinstance inin thethe Musee Cluny. A fine enamel pommel nownOW isis inin thethe Metropolitan Mu-Mu seum,seum, New York, with thethe arms of Pierre de Dreux and his national colours. Pierre de DlreuxDreux tooktook part inin StSL Louis'Louis' crusade atat thethe siege of Jerusalem in 1248-50. With thethe crusaders thethe Mediterranean sword typestypes were spread out over thethe countries of Europe which inin one way or another had contributed man-power or had been implicatedimplicated directly inin thethe crusades. The wheelwheel pommel developed inin thethe course of thethe 13th century. It became larger,larger, heavier, thicker,thicker, withwith groovesgrooves and an elevated pa. nel on each side,s;de, a panel which especially on thethe Germanic swords was often o~ccupiedoccupied by a smallsmaH tininlaidtin inlaid cross. These crosses are also familiar in pictorial renderings and are not uncommonuncommon inin French illuminatedilluminated MSS of thethe latelate 13th and thethe 14th century (e.(e. g. French Titus Livius ms. at Bordeaux). The pommel acquires higher and more conical toptop rivelt,rivet, often of brass. The tangtang becomes longer,longer, thethe guard longer,longer, often more slender, roundround or octagonal-sometimes

round at the ends only-in cross-section. Among the different pommelspo~mmels the details become much more varied. On the whole, however, these wheel pommels p~ommels provide quite good material for their chronological and typological classification,classificatio~n,and sometimes a determination of their provenance. The 13th and 14th centuries are the period of chivalry's floresflores- cence. Chain mail for man andaind horse, additional defences in the form of cuir bouilli, iron plates, helmets, triangular shields and heavy lances, massive cradlesaddles and good rowel-spurs are a knight's outfit, besides his sword and the military dagger, especiaUyespecially in the 14th century. The effective and costly cutting sword, like the helmet and dagger, are chained to the iron breast plate under or over the mail. There may be national differences in details of the helmet and sword, probably individual pireferencespreferences too, but there is a certain international stamp about the equipment, for which reason the type of sword is more or less the same in the greater part of Europe in the real days of chivalry. The classical knight's sword has the sharshar- ply profiled pommel, the high top rivet, the grip of fine but not exaggerated length, the hor:zontalhor,zontal or the curved quillons in proportions suitable to the length of the hilt, the blade heavy, with grooves half or three quarters of the way down and with a more pointed tip than before. In this period the curved quillons are encountered chiefly in the Latin regions and in England. It is well known from the pictorial representations of the period, illuminated MSS, as well as the nume-nume rous sepulchral monuments, particularly in Italy, Spain and England. German and Swiss tombs provide excellent specimens of the knightly sword with horizontal quillonsquillo~ns(many of the French were delstroyeddestroyed during the Revolution). But in the archaeological material the horihori- zontal quillons are also frequent :n,n South Europe. There are good, datable specimens ofo~f both types. Among characteristic specimens that are fairly well dated there is, for the early period, the Oldenburg sword, which was found near Harmenhausen in Oldenburg and is probably a reHcrelic of the battle of stedingeStedinge in 1234, where a crusader army fought against a force of peasants.pfeasants. The sword represents the introduction of the classicalcllassical knight's sword, the pommel still only slightly modelledmo~delle~dand a tanghang that is just beginning to lengthen. The decorative and well-executed silver-inlaid blade inscription was deciphered by the late Paul Post together with Professor Riithinger, Ruthinger, and in all probability correctly so. From this sword, dated to the first quarter of the 13th century,oeatury, developments proceed via types like the fragmentary Breslau swordswo~d

whichwhich probably probably belongedbelonged toto KingKing OttokarOttokar 0/of BohemiaBohemia andand whichwhich hashas bladeblade figures, figures, inlaidinlaid withwith silver,silver, representingrepresenting a a knightknight crusadercrusader wearingwearing hishis helmet,helmet, aa CrossCross ofof JerusalemJerusadem onon hishis shield,shield, thethe AgnusAgnus DeiDei andand withwith aa tintin crosscross inin thethe nownow moremore profiled profiled pommel, pommel, altogetheraltogether aa splendidsplendid specimenspecimen ofof aa crusadercrusader swordsword ofof thethe periodperiod aboutabout 1255-1275.1255-1275. AlthoughAlthough thethequillons quillons arearenow now missJngmissung itit isis reasonablereasonable toto assumeassume thatthat theythey were were probably probably horizontal.horizontal. RoundRound aboutabout thethe yearyear 13001300 thethe classicalclassical swordsword reached reached itsits fullfull dede- velopment,velopment, andand inin thethe firstfirst halfhalf ofof thethe 14th14th centurycentury wewe findfind thethe bestbest andmd clearestclearest representativesrepresentatives ofof thethe GermanicGermanic knightly knightly swords swords inin aa numbernumber ofof specimensspeoimens i.i. a.a. atat Ziirich,Ziirich, Hamburg,Rambusg, Liibeck,Lubeck, Berlin,Berlin, CoCo- penhagenpenhagen andand severalseveral otherother localities.localities. ForFor exemple,exemple, withwith itsits date date determineddetermined from from thethe findfind combinationscombinations isis thethe BettzimattBettximatt swordswo~dfromfrom thethe battlebattle ofof 1337,1337, nownow inin thethe L.L. M.,M., Ziirich.Ziirich. Undated,Undated, but but closelyclosely relatedrelated thoughthough moremore LatinLatin ofof typetype andand ofof splendidsplendid shapeshape isis aa swordsword fromfrom thethe Thames,Thames, nownow inin thethe BritishBritish Museum; Museum; anotheranother Frenchmench spespe cimencimen is is nownow ;nin thethe WallaceWallace ColI.Coll. inin Loncton.London. AA SouthSouth EuropeanEuropean swordsword from from ToledoToLedo cathedralcathedral isis thethe child'schild's swordsword otof Juan,Juan, yaungeryounger brotherbrother atof SanchoSancho IV;ZV; thisthis well-preservedwell-preserved specimenspecimen hashas aa silversilver gilt gilt ponunelpommel ofof modelled-wheelmodelled-wheel formform withwith thethe armsarms ofof CastilleCastille andand Le6nLeon onon bothboth sidessides inin colouredcoloured enamels, enamels, aa gripgrip ofof mediummedium size,size, horizontalhorizontal quillons,quillons, aa goodgood cut-and-thrustcut-and-thrust blade,blade, thethe scabbardscabbard coveredcovered withwith velvetvelvet andand havinghaving thethesame sameheraldic heraldic coatscoats ofof armsarms inin enamel.enamel. ThisThis well-prowell-pro- portionedportioned typetype isis aa clearclear expression expression ofof thethe classicalclassical knightlyknightly sword swor~datat itsits bestbest andand typologicallytyp~ologicallyconformsconforms wellwell toto thethe firstfirst quarter quarter ofof thethe 14th14th century. century. IfIf thethe interpretationsinterpretations ofof thethe heraldicheraldic emblemsemblems areare correctcorrect itit agreesagrees wellwell withwith thethe claimclaim thatthat thethe swordsword belongedbelonged toto Juan,Juan, whowho fellfell inin 1319,1319, fightingfighting thethe MoorsMoors nearnear Granada. Granada. TheThe weaponweapon isis undoubtedlyundoubtedly ofof SpanishSpanish workmanship; workmanship; thethe enamelenamel mightmight indicateindicate Valencia,Valencia, whichwhich waswas well well knovmknown forfor itsits enamelenamel workwork inin thethe period.period. AsAsa amatter matterof of factfactthe thetown townwas was alsoalsofamous famousfor for itsitsblades. blades.One One ItalianItalian parallelparallel isis thethe swordsword ofof Can Can GrandeGrande delladella ScalaScala (ob. (ob. 1329),13291, fromfrom thethe tombtomb atat VeronaVerona dateddated to to pre-1330.pre-1330. ItIt isis also also inin thisthis periodperiod thatthat wewe findfindthe the bestbest parallelsparallels toto thethe archaeologicalarchaeological objects objects onon tombstones tombstones inin Spain,Spain, ItalyItaly andand Germany.Germany.Another Another characteristiccharacteristic featurefeature ofof thisthisgroup group ofof swordsswords isis thethe inlayinlay ofof letters.letters. BothBoth letter letter groups groups andand letterletter typestypes areare first-ratefirst-rateadjuvants adjuvants ,nin datedate determinations.determinations. AmongAmong examplesexamples of of databledatable swords swords withwith (;..J.rvedcarved quillons quillons I I maymay mentionmention anotheranother swordsword inin ToledoToledo cathedral,cathedral, recoveredrecovered fromfrom thethe tombtomb ofof SanchoSancho IV,ZV,king king 0/of CastilleCastille andand LeanLeon 0284-1295),(1284-1295), aa sonson ofof AlfonAlfon- soso XX elel Sabio Sabio (fig. (fig. 4).4). TheThe cruciformcruciform hilthilt hashas aa modelledmodelled ponunelpommel ofof aa form form whichwhich wellwell matchesmatches thethe laterlater partpart ofof thethe 13th13th century,century, a a shortshort tangtang onon whichwhich thethe gripgrip covering covering is is stillstill extant,extant, short,short, flatflat andand

Fig,Fig. 4.4. SwordSword 1fromro m thethe tombtomb 01of SallchoSancho IV,IV, King 01of CastCasti-i lielle (I284-95).(1284-95). IIIIn bladeblade part 01of illscriptiollinscription stillstill visiblevisible IJnbn bothhorh sides.sides. With part 01of thethe belt.belt. (Ca(Ca- pillapilla Mayor, ToledoToledo CatheCathe- dral),dral).

curved quillons with decorated lobate ends. Pommel andand quillonsquillons areare decorated with ornaments in Mudejar stylestyle andand with Arabic letters.letters. The sword is a characteristic South European fonnform and and thethe shortshort grip is fully in concord with local customcustom there.there Another outstandingoutstanding sword ofolf the type undated it isis true, is the characteristic specimenspecimen inin the InstitutoInstitute del Conde Valencia de Don Juan, the so-calledso-called SantaSanta Casilda Sword with its heraldicallyheraldioally ornamentedarnamented disc pommel onon which the wavy lines are seen in enamel and surrounded by thethe prayer: Ave

Maria,Maria,gratia gratiaplena plena(fig. (fig.5). 5).The Thequillons, quillons,which whichare arebroad broadwith witha a slightlyslightlycurved curvedupper upperedge edgeand andunder underedge edgein inthe theshape shapeof ofa a,doubie double arch,arch,are areof ofa aform formthat thatis ischaractenstic characteristicof ofand andvery verypopular popularin in SouthSouthEurope. EXlrope.They Theyhave havean aninscription inscriptionin inSpanish Spanishwhose whosecharacters characters andandcontents contentsplace placeit itto tothe theperiod periodshortly shortlyafter after1300: 1300:Dios Dioses esvencedOr vencedor enentodo. todo.This Thissword swordtype typeis isknown knownbut butis isanything anythingbut butcommon commonin in

Fig.Fig.5. 5.So-called So-calledSanta SantuCasilda's Casilda'ssword. sword.Inscriptions Inscriptionson onpommel: pommel:AVE AVEMARIA MARZA GRATIAGRATIAPLENA; PLENA;on onquillons: quillons:DIOS DlOSES ESVENCEDOR VENCEDOREN ENTODO, TODO, A(MEN).A(MEN).(Inst. (Inst.de deValencia Valenciade deDon DonJuan, Juan,Madrid). Madrid).

17 2 Digitalizado por InterClassica Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas http://interclassica.um.es http://gladius.revistas.csic.es Gladius, II (1963), pp. 5-68 Ada Bruhn Hoffmeyer ISSN 0435-029X

the first half of the 14th century in the Germanic countries, whereas it is frequently met with in the pictorial arts of the Latin lands.

From cut to thrust, change-over about 1350

The sword isis inin constant evolution, dependent as it is upon thethe development of the oth~erother weapons, upon strategy and tactics.tactics. For this reason it may often be hard to draw sharp chronological bound-bound aries,al."i.es, even when therethere are apparently good evidences. On thethe other hand therethere are some points that make sharp distinctions and help to set up a good terminus.terminus. This holds good of the time around the middlo of the 14th century-a restless, belligerent period. Conditions arear~ disturbed in the Mediterranean world. On the Iberian peninsula it is thethe conflict between Pedropedro el Cruel and Enrique de Trastamara. EllEl prinoipeprincipe negronegru Edward of E3lglandEngland isis actively trying toto introtduceintroduce his new tacticalltacticaJ methods on the peninsula. Barcelona isis enjoying a golden age, the Catalanians holding all the strings toto thethe maritime routes on the Mediterranean, with brisk communications with Athens, Morea, Byzantium etc, with dominion over Sicily and a Iargelarge part of the islandsislands in thethe Tyrrhenian Sea. Opposite themthem are the Italian trade republics, especially Pisa and Genoa. The Hundred Years War between France and England was in progress; the famous BattleBatble of Cre~yCreQY in 1346 had revealed an important tactical advance, a form oifof shock tacticstactics with thethe E,nglishEnglish long-bow archers against heavily ar-ar moured French cavalry. The Swiss fight for freedom against thethe Austrians, commencedconunenced with thethe Battle of Moorgarten in 1315, continued with Laupen inin 1339, Sempach inin 1386, again with infantryinfantry superior toto thethe knights. The house of Anjou was at Naples, thethe French knights, conducted by Peter of Lusignan, were defeated by thethe sultan at Ale-Ale xandria in 1365. The ItallanItalian republics and duchies fighted. Cavalry had begun toto waver, unable to cope with a mobile infantryinfantry carrying other categories of weapons such as thethe halberd, pikepike and two-handtwo-hand sword, or against thethe short and sharp thrustingthrusting swords of South European foot soldiers. The thrustingthrusting sword had already been usledused inin battle inin thethe second half of thethe 13th century. Of thethe Battle of Benevento inin 1266 Primatus de BouquetBouquet writes thatthat at first thethe Proven~alProvenQal troopstroops of Charles $Anjoud'Anjou were unable toto stand upup to thethe great cutting sworldsswords of thethe German cavalry, wieldedw:elded with both hands. It was only when, covered by thethe longlong pikes and armed with small, light thrusting swords, theythey engaged thethe horsemen at close quertersquarters and thrust theirtheir sharp blades intointo armpits, groin and other unprotectedunprotected parts of thethe riders thatthat theythey

got the better of the heavily armoured cavalry. Thus the thrusting sword was in use, at any rate by the lower ranks of soldiers in South Europe, in the 13th century. Sieur de Joinville relates in his memoirs, written, when he was en old man, about 1309, of the Battle at Man.Man- sourah during St. Louis' crusade in Egypt in the year 1250, ofOC a sword used for thrusting. A Saracen had struck him with a lance, so that he was pressed against the neck of his horse and the lance, and he was unable to draw his sword, which was suspended at his waist belt. When the Saracen now saw the knight draw the other sword, suspendeldsuspended at the saddle, he turne~dturned his horse and rode away, but the knight too turned his hcrse, rode against the Saracen and killed him, using his sword in the manner of a lance, as!as1 he writes in the memoirs. In Chapter 13 of his manual: De regimine principum, on the art of war, the Italian nobleman archbishop of Bourges since 1295 and general of the Augustine Order, ./EgidiusBgidius Romanus Colonna, the tutor of Philip the Fair,Flair. writes that the thrusting sword is the most useful form of sword, because it penetrates chain-mailchain·mail more easily than the cutting sword, gives deeper and more mortal wounds and is less strenuous in use. In his manual lEgidiusIEgidius is evidently in-in· fluenced. by his studies of Vegetius, just as was king Alfonso el Sabio of Castille, who wrote a textbook on warfare in 1260. Yet Alfonso was even more influenced by the Arabic authors. And so it appears that in the wars of the 14th century - especially in the latter half - the heavily armoured cavalry with its cutting sword, which in the meantime had become very large, had difficulty in holding its own against the agile infantry armed with short thrusting swords. TimeT'ime and again Froissart, writing on the Hundred Years' War, relates how both French and English had short, stiff thrusting swords, short Bordeaux swords Whichwhich are stiff and pointed. French pictorialpictorid pepre-repre sentations ofolf the period contain splendid examp:es examples of such thrusting swords. At Semp2chSempach and elsewhere the Swiss carry a characteristic thrusting sword with a slender, sharp-pointed blade and a new form of hilt, a facetted, pear-shaped pommel, short gripgr;p and curved quillons, a weapon presumably inspired by French forms and, after the many finds on the battlefield of Sempach, came to be known as the Sempach sword. The Swiss freedom wars in the 14th and 15th centuries stand like a series of epitaphs over th,ethe cavalry. Side by side with the pointed thrusting sword the heavy two-hand sword proved to be an efficient infantry weapon. In the second half of the 14th century the course of developments divided into two prin-prin cipal directions: a thrusting swordszuord and a cutting sword, both esesr sentially for infantry use, and in between a more commonly carried cut-and-thrust sword,sword. used from horseback. The cutting sword, which

evolved from a handhand-and-half and-half to a two-hand sword, is mainly a Ger-Ger manic creation, the thrusting sword a Latin. The former is used chiefly in the GermanicGennanic lands but is by no means unknown in~n Latin regions, though there it differs in appearance from the Germanic.Gennanic. It was in the Latin regions that the foundation was laid in this period for the 16th century rapier hilts with their complicated systems of branches for the protection of the hand. This hilt is the product of several factors, the Latin way of using a sword - whether thrusting or cutting weapon - influence from the cavalry sword of0/ the BwbeTsBerbers with its very short hilt, and the systemization 0/of fencing as an art. Towards the close of the 15th century gunpowderglUlpowder and firearms bring more ,influence influence to bear upon thethe art of war. The change of men-men tality with the new school 0/of thought, the Renatssance,Renaissance, disinterreiddisinterred the inheritance from antiquity, its great generals and its writings on war and strategy, the study of Vegetius, Vitruvius, Polybius, Caesar, the impulses from the learned Greek-speaking world which had to flee before the Turks, all led to a complete change. In 1521 came in Florence Machiavelli's work: Libro dell' Arte della Guerra in which that great politician drew largely upon the antique writers, particularly Polybios and Cesar; but even Vegetius and Frontinus were his teachers. Machiavelli too had much to say about the role of the thrusting sword. As4s an adjuvant to the thrusting sword the long infantry pike acquired great importance. Italy, Spain, the Low Countries and Switzerland brought it forward into the front ranks; the Swiss had halberds too. The two-handed sword or the halberd was combined by the Swiss withwith, the pike, whereas the Latin nations combined pike and thrusting sword. The latter combination proved superior to the former in the famous Battle neurnear Bellin:<.onaBellinzona in 1422. Armed with the thrusting sword the Italian infantry commanded by the famous MiMi- lanese Carmagnola, were more mobile and effective than the Swiss with the halberd. It is not without reason that the pointed thrusting sword became dominant in the South. The Germanic line, i. e. Gennany,Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Scandi Scandi- navia, in that period had gone inin, completely for the large cruciformcrucifonn hilt with a heavy highly profiled pommel and a long grip, horizontal quillons (more rarely curveld),curved), or an entirely different type, the basbas- tard sword with the pear-shaped pommel that was merely smooth or facetted. The tang was long, the quillons horizontalhoirizontal or curved almost like thosekhose of the 8empachSempach swords. This type belongedbelongeid mainly North of the Alps, though it is sometimes met with to the South e. g. in Spain, introduced by the mercenaries under the Hapsburgs. There areere many variations, and databledabble specimens become more numerous.

ItIt isis possiblepossible toto makemake a a typologicaltypological andand chronologicalchronologicd classification,classification, whichwhich showsshows howhow developmentsdevelopments took took place place withinwithin periods periods ofof aboutabout aa quarterquarter or or aa halfhalf century.century. AA pear-shapedpear-shaped pommelpommel isis oftenoften seenseen onon thrustingthrusting swords,swords, frequently frequently thethe veryvery long long onesones small small lanceslances inin fact.fact. Cut-and-thrustGut-and-thrust swordsswords andand thethe purelypurely cuttingcutting swordsswords mostly mostly havehave aa wheelwheel oror moremore oror lessless sphericalspherical pommel.pommel. InIn thethe ScandinavianScandinavian countriescountries thisthis typetype ofof swordsword continues continues inin useuse rightright upup toto 1500,1500, andand eveneven laterlater oftenoften inin conjunctionconjunction withwith anan almostalmost sphericalspherical pommelpommel thatthat waswas especiallyespecially popularpopular inin thethe North.North. Early Early inin thethe 16th16th centurycentury in in thethe ScandinavianS~candinaviancountriescountries thesethese hand-and-halfhand-and-half swordsswords areare furnishedfurnished withwith branchesbranches andand loopsloops whichwhich turnturn themthem intointo big,big, awkwardawkward versions versions ofof thethe rapier.rapier. InIn aa great great manymany instancesinstances thethe bladesblades ofof thesethese large large cut-and-thrustcuband-thrust swordsswords andand thethe cuttingcutting swordsswords bearbear thethewolf wolf andand croziercrozier stamp,stamp,the theemblem emblem ofof thethe ?assauPassau workshops.workshops. PassauPassau blades blades werewere inin particularparticular favourfavour inin thethe ScandinavtanScandinavian countriescountries inin thethe 14th14th andand 15th15th centuries;oenturies; inin fact,fact, thesethese bladesblades were were inin veryvery widewide useuse inin thethe GermanicGermanic countriescountries atat thethe time.time. AllAll throughthrough thethe MiddleMiddle AgesAges thethe PassauPassau smithssmiths diddid a a largelarge exportexport tradetrade withwith EastEast Europe.Europe. InIn thethe 15th15th centurycentury thethe SolingenSolingen factoriesfactories camecame moremore andand moremore intointo thethe foregroundforeground andand in in timetime displaceddisplaced thethe PassauPassau products, products, atat anyany raterate onon thethe NorthernNorthern market,market, especiallyespecially afterafter aboutabout 1500.1500. TheThe PassauPassau workshopsworkshops hadhad provedproveld ca.pablecapable ofof satisfyingsatisfying thethe militarymilitary standardsstandards setset byby thethe NorthNorth GermanicGermanic countriescountries forfor aa swordsword blade,blade, andand Solingen·Solingen in in itsits turn turn diddid thethe same.same. TheThe skilfulskilful Solingen Solingen smithssmiths inin thethe nextnext centuriescenturies succeeded.succeede,din in turningturning outout bladesblades thatthat satisfiedsatisfied thethe requirementsrequirements ofof bothboth LatinLatin andand GermanicGermanic countries,countries, andand therebythereby inin thethe coursecourse ofof timetime becamebecame paramount-quantitatively;paramount-quantitativelv; onon thethe otherother handhand therethere isis nono doubtdoubt thatthat thethe SpanishSpanish factories, factories, atat anyany raterate ToledoToledo andand Valencia,Valencia, andand thethe Italian,Italian, Mi.:an,Mi,:an, Bel/unoBelluno andand BresciaBrescia werewere1 quali.quali- tativelytatively superior.superior. TheThe largelarge cut-and-thrustcut-and-thrustswords swords andand thethe longlong GermanicGermanic PanzerstePanzerste- chercher or or fainingfoining estoc estoc ofof thethe endend ofof thethe 15th15th centurycentury have have nono longlong religiousreligious inscriptionsinscriptionslike like thethecutting cuttingsword sword ofof CrusadeCrusade times.times. stamps,Stamps, figuresfigures suchsuch asaswolf woIf marks,marks, stars,stars, ca·rtouchescartouches containingcontaininge. e. g.g. INRIZNRZ oror JHSJHS inin GothicGothic minusclesminuscles appearappear frequentlyfrequently onon thethe GermanicGermanic swords.swords. InIn the the LatinLatin regions regions conditions conditions inin thethe 15th15th andand 16th16th centuriesaenturies areare somewhatsomewhat d:fferent;different ; «Maria»((Maria))inscriptionsinscriptions andand invocationsinvocations ofof VirginVirgin MaryMary areare notnot uncommon.uncommon. NaturallyNaturally thesethese years years have have handedhanded downdown aa m;..~bern~nberofof distinctivedistinotive andand costly costly dateddated oror databledatable swordsswords ofof GermanicGennanic type,type, individual individual specimensspecimens createdcreated toto suit suit thethe wisheswishes andand wealthwealth ofof thethe patron,patron, andand therethere areare alsoalso many many plain, plain, simplesimple warwar swords,swords, somesome factoryfactory made made throughout,throughout, forfor instanceinstance from from PassauFassau oror Solingen,Solingen, othersothers finishedfinished offoff

inin thethe importing countries. It is possible to draw up a fairly re-liablere~liable chronology for these swords from the 15th century. However there is one group of swords that is mostly of Latin origin, some thrusting swords, others of the cut-and-thrust type, almost all of them with a wheelwhe-el pommel, the majority with a short grip and curved quillons. These swords are dated by means of their blade inscriptions in Arabic, which give brief historical information about thethe weapons. They are war trophies, captured by the Egyptian sultans, from the Cypriote knights in 1365 when they besieged Alexandria and were defeateld,defeated, and in 1426 when Barsbey raided Cyprus and took aa large booty (fig. 6-7).6-71. InclUdingIncluding swords, helmets and other weapons thisthis booty was taken to the arsenal at Alexandria and hung as trophies,

Fig. 6. ZtalianJlaJilln sword withwifh AArabicrabic inscription.illScript;oll. Part. of spoilspil latu- ken fro111m the CyprioleCypriofe knights by Iht:the t.'gyEgyptiansptialls illin 1365./365, (Col/.(Coll. E. A. ChristellChristen- WII,sen, Copellhagell.Copenhagen. E,E. 190). 22

Fig. 7.7. /III/ianItalian swordsword wirh with ArabicArabic insins- cription.cription. War-bootyWar-booty fromfrom SU/sul- tantan Barsbey'sBarsbey's invasion invasion ofof CyCY- prospros in in 1426.1426. (Coli.(Coll. E.E. A.A. ChristclIsen.Christensen. EE 129.129. GripGrip mo1120- dern).dern).

butbut whenwhen thethe MamelukeMameluke capturedcaptured Egypt Egypt inin 15171517 mostmost ofof themthem werewere carriedcarried toto Constantinople.Constantinople. (Some (Some fewfew specimensspecimens NapoleonNapoleon laterlater waswas fortunatefortunate enoughenough toto bringbring awayaway fromfrom Egypt).Egypt). SeveralSeveral specimensspecimens camecame intointo thethe EuropeanEuropean marketmarket inin thethe 1930's.1930's. ThanksThanks toto theirtheir ArabicArabic inscriptionsinscriptions theythey provideprovide parLcularspartkulars ofof sultans,sultans, emirs,emirs, etc.,etc., whichwhich havehave enabledenabled themthem toto be dateddated positively.positively. On On somesome ofof thesethese swordsswords (of(of whichwhich oneone groupgroup can can bebe dateddated priorprior to to 13651365 thethe otherother toto beforebefore 1426,1426, aa fewfew specimentsspeciments toto 1419,1419, 1431,1431, etc.),etc.),there there isis aa bladeblade detaildetail ofof consideraconsidera- ble interest,interest, aa rlcassoricasso ornamentedornamented withwith a a veryvery plainplain design: design: anan engravedengraved lineline atat eacheach sideside terminatingterminating inin aa curve curve andand anan eye.eye. SometSomet- hinghing similar similar isis toto bebe seenseen onon thethe handsomehandsome swordsword recently recently publishedpublished byby PierrePierre ConContattat (Annales(Annales ValaisannesValaisannes 1960),19601),thethe ceremonialceremonial swordsword ofof thethe ArchbishopsArchbmishops ofof Sion,Sion, dateddated toto aboutabout 140014010 (fig.(fig. 8).8). SomeSome ofof thethe swordsswords fromfrom thethe AlexandriaAlexandria arsenalarsenal havehave veryvery pointedpointed thrustingthrusting bladesblades withwith aa sharpsharp grat,grat, broadbroad atat thethe top,top, almostalmost triangulartriangular inh shape.shape. TheyThey recallrccall whatwhat Froissart Froissart sayssays ofof thethe sharpsharp andand stiffstiff BordeauxBmdeaux swordsswords ofof thethe latterlatter halfhalf ofof thethe 14th14th century.century. AA numbernumber ofof swordsswords ofof LatinLatin

"1.v~-,

. ''If ~ .. ~orf'4. • : ...;~ .

"',' ..... ~

Fig. 8. Ceremonial sword @fuf theIhe ArchbishopArchhishops of Sion,.'lion, Swit-Swit zerland, aboutaboul 1400. (Coll.(Coli. PiLrrePierre Contat,Conlal, Sion)..'lion).

origin, mostly Spanish, and Italian, with a wheel pommel, some with a concave-mirror likelike depression in the side panels, other with enamel-enamel led heraldic arms, others again with a lenticular or shawlysharply profiled pommel, but all with almost horizontal quillons whose ends bend downwards like hooks, are of the period around 1400-a140o-a little before or after. One particularly characteristic expression of thisthis Latin type isis thethe Italian sword inin the Metropolitan Museum inin New York, dated by its Arabic inscription to before 1419. Several others group themselvesthemselves about it, e. g. a type familiar from Spanish paintings of about 1400 and a littlelittle way into thethe 15th century. The Italian blades from centres such as Milan, Belluno, Brescia, and other places were renowned far and wide for the quality of their products. Through Venice, Pisa and Genoa they were exported notwithstanding reiterated papal prohibition-to thethe Orient while simuitaneouslysimultaneously Oriental blades were imported, for instanceinstance from Syria. The Syrian factories fell intointo disuse inin the 15th century. It is true that others began working in Egypt and Morocco, but part of thethe Syrian business seamsseems to have passed to the Iberian peninsula. It isis hardly likelylikely that any est-est ablishment approache~dapproached Toledo for quality. (As inin the case of thethe Milanese products Toledo blades were extensively imitatedimitated by Sol-

ingen). With only few gaps Toledo's history can be traced back to antiquity, to the Iberians and Gelto-Iberians,Celto-Iberians, from whom the Romans, who already had excellentexoellent Etruscan workshops, learned a great den,!. dea~l. But there were other centres, Valencia for instance, which produced fine blades that were much in demand; some are still extant with signatures.signatures. Seville too was one of the most renowned establishments, and besides there werewere Granada,Granada, Murcia, Barcelona and various Basque smithies. The documents and accounts in the locallocal archives of SpanSp1a.n- ishish towns contain thethe names of a host of blade smiths. France, too, was inin no wayway behind inin thethe Middle Ages: The RhoneRhbne valley, French SavoieSavffie withwith Annecy, Bordeaux,Bordeaux, and other places. Mention of blade smithssmiths isis toto be foundfound inin severalseveral townstowns ofof southernsouthern France, at Lyons, Chatellerault,Chatellerault, Poitou,Poitou, andand inin thethe North at Paris,Paris, RouenRown etc. TheThe swordsword type of thethe LatinLatin countriescountries inin thethe 15th15th centurycentury isis well representedrepresented inin thethe museums, andand richlyrichly soso inin thethe pictorial arts ofof the period.perio~d. Characteristic typestypes with thethe special formsforms of pommel, the shortshort grip, usually curved quillons, distinctlydistinctly thrusting blades with gratgrat and strengthenedstrengthened point, and in many instancesinstances with a ricasso,~icasso, are toto be foundfound on severalseveral Spanish altar'pie<:es,altar-pieces, sepulchralsepulchral monuments, muralmural paintings paintings andand inin illuminatedilluminated manuscripts.

TheThe birthbirth ofof RenaissanceRenaissance

ItIt waswas aa restlessrestless epoch, epoch, aa timetime ofof ferment,ferment, ofof incessantincessant political political disturbance,disturbance, ofof intellectualintellectual currents,currents, commercial connectionsconnections withwith distantdistant parts, parts, thethe period leading leading up to to thethe crisiscrisis ofof thethe RenaissanceRenaissance andand humanism.humanism. TheThe MediterraneanMediterranean world liveslives under aa pressure born ofof thethe fearfear ofof thethe advancing Turks,Turks, who inin 14531453 finallyfinally demolisheddemolished thethe weakweak andand effeteeffete ByzantineByzantine empire.empire. TheThe kingdomkingdom ofof Arag6nAragdn growsgrows upup toto aa periodperiod ofof brilliancebrilliance which ledleid toto aa certain certain rallying rallying ofof thethe differentdifferent MediterraneanMediterranean culturalcultural elements.elements. Catalonia Catalonia andand withwith itit BarBar- celonacelona havinghaving fallenfallen behind behind inin manymany respects respects onon account account ofof internalinternal andand internationalinternational politicalpolitical competition competition andand conflictsconflicts inin thethe MediterraMediterm nean.nem, thethe househouse ofof Arag6n.Aragon, ofof thethe TrastamareTrastamare family,family, roserose toto aa mighty mighty state.state. TheThe veryvery complicatedcomplicated political political situationsituation betweenbetween France,France, Milan,Milan, Arag6nArag6n andand otherother statesstates ledled toto thethe greatgreat naval battlebattle atat PonzaPonza inin 1435,1435, wherewhere thethe kingking ofof Arag6n,Aragon, Al/onsaAlfonso VV andand hishis navynavy waswas defeateddefeated byby thethe Genoese.Genoese. EightBght yearsyears laterlater mattersmatters turned,turned, andand Arag6n under AlfonsoAlfonso camecame forwardforward intointo thethe limelight,limelight, whenwhen thethe AragoneseAragonese kingking defeateddefeated thethe defendersdefenders ofof Naples,Naples, RenatoRenato dede Anjou Anjou andand thethe Genoese.Genoese. InIn 14421442 AlfonsoAlfonso marchedmarched into into NaplesNaples andand from from therethere conductedconducted aa largelarge scalescale imperialisticimperialistic policy, policy, w:thw;th dreamsdreams ofof becomingbecoming anotheranother Ale-Ale.

xander the Great assembling the entire civilized world under his ban-ban ner. He assumed the titles of king of Jerusalem, Hungary, Croatia, Greece, Cyprus, had mercantile relations with Syria and its hinterlands and with such remote regions as Abyssmia,Abyssinia, where he became friend with the NegusNegus. with Mogul and Peking. On the Balkan he contacted the famous chieftain of Albania, Scanderbeg. He called himself Divus and in the Roman manner had a triumphal arch erected at CastelCaste1 Nuovo in Naples. The kingdom of Naples became a most important factor in the Mediterranean world, a strong safeguard against the Turkish menace just outside Byzantium. The whole Mediterranean world without France partook in this saf-saf eguard againstag'ainst the Turks. With this important position Naples was destined to influence cultural developments. With the numerous and far reaching'reaching trade connections and the cultural currents nowingflowing in from many quarters: the learned men of the Greek-speaking world, fleeingneeing from the Turks to Venice, Florence and South Italy, the Arabian and Byzantine craftsmep.craftsmen and artists coming to Italy, the Spanish artists and gold-gold smiths attracted to the Ho-yHo'y See and to the court at Naples, and the Italians travelling to the cities of the Iberian peninsula, it is nothing remarkable that some measure of cultural fellowship was formed; Naples became a centre of politicspolztics and culture, from which emanated a stream of cultural renewal to the rest of the world, a Renaissance. In addition there was the rich culture that thrived at the courts of the various Italian princes, at Florence with the family of Medici (Cosimo, Piero and Lorenzo «ilctil Magnificon)Magnifico») in Milan, in 1395, created a ducal with the family of the Viscontis and since 1450 the family of the Sforzas. Milan was the sovereign of almost all Lombardy with Pisa (since 1399) and Genoa «lactla Superba))Superbax since 1464. In Mantova we find the ducal family of the Gonzagas, in Verona the family of the Sceuas.Scalas. Venice was the ruler of a great part of the Dalmatian coast, the island of Crete and after 1489 even the ruler of Cypros. There can be no question of definite delimitations in the Latin world, for which reason we find noble Italian goldsmith's work on Spanish swords, Zaragozan goldsmith's work en Roman swords (e. g. the goldsmiths Pedropedro de lasilm Cel/asCellas and Antonio from Zaragoza). Nor is it remarkable that we find almost the same sword types and the same <

followed. There are many intermediateintermediate forms, many individual prod-prod ucts. But towards the middle of the 15th century the remnants of mediaeval knightly culture is forced to make room for the new. With the defeat of Charles the Rash in 1477 it was all over with the Middle Ages and chivalry which, in the first half of that century, and es-es peciallypeciallY by this monarch had beer,been elaborated to its culminative but most rigid perfection. Gunpowder and the new school of thought, the renaissance, a product of the many distant trade relations, the Arag-Arag onian empire, the cultural life in Milan, Florence, Venice, etc., the fear of the Turks, Byzantine culture, and ancient Roman and Greek trad-trad itions, marked an epoch-for the art of war and for its weapons. Maximilian's organization of the Germanic infantry with its special weapons, the strategy tught by Machiavelli in his great work Arte della guerra, which after allal1 was based upon philosophy, political experiences and the organization and works of Vegetius, Caesar and Polybius in antiquity, and GonzaloGonxalo de C6rdoba,Cdrdoba, «El((El Gran Capittin»,Capitam, decided the course of developments.developments. EvenHven for a thing so apparently small as sidearms the new outlook was decisive. With the Renaissance the sword was transformed. The estoc and the rapier appeared, not suddenly but as the result of a comparatively complicated process of evolution. Just as the Renaissance is a product of the Latin-or more precisely the Italian world, the estoc and rapier were a Latin product. Just as the Renaissance ran a different course North of the A1lps,Alps, especially in the Scandinavian countries (where it developed almost into a social revolution), the evolution of the sidearm was also different, not least in the SCancUnavian Scandiavian regions, at any rate in the 16th century and the first half of 17th Just as ScandinaviamScandinarviam inteinte- llectual lifelite frotmfrom now on was d:rected from Wittenberg, the evolution of the sidearm here came under the strong influence of the artists and craftsmen of the Saxon Electoral court

From sword to rapier

In order to understand this development it is necessary again to distinguish between Latin and Germanic peoples. The form and use of the weapons are intimately related to the temperament and charchar- acter of the nations and to the history of their intellectual culture. The ancient thrusting traditions of the mediterranean people in concon- junction with the cavalry technique of the Moroccan Berber tribe:stribes lcad to the swepthilt with its many branches. The cutting technique of the Germanic nations persists during the Renaissance and in the course of its further evolution leads to the large infantry swords, the

bidenhanders (which quickly fall into disuse as a war weapon) and to the huge cutting swordsswords that are stillstill characteristic of the ScanScan- dinavian lands in the firstfirst half of the 16th century. ItIt also leadsleads to the small cutting swords,swords, the katzbalgers, thethe special sideannsidearm of the lansquenets. Under influence influence of the Asiatic and the East EuropeanEhropean cavalry's single-edged,single-edged, more or less curved weapons, sabres,sabres, came the intermediatomtermediato forms, i.i. a. with sabresabre blades and basket hilts. The Lombardic swordsswords inin North Italy and the VisigothicVisigothic swords inin SpainSpain were cutting swords likelike thethe Vilting-AgeViking-Age swordsswords of the Franks. InIn thethe infantryinfantry battles ofof thethe followingfollowing centuries inin Germany Germany the usual sword sword waswas used for cutting.cutting. ItIt isis rarelyrarely seenseen employed employed forfor thrusting,thrusting, thoughthough somesome fewfew suchsuch specimensspecimens ofof about 1200,1200, isis to to be seenseen i. i. a.a. inin a manuscript atat Trier,Trier, Jungfrauenspiegel.Jungfrauenspiegel. ItIt isis unusual toto findfind any mention ofof thrustingthrusting inin thethe Germanic literatureliterature -though --though of coursecourse itit occurs now andand then.then. OrdinarilyOrdinarily the swordsword was wielded with one hand. InIn the 12th12th and 13th13th centuries therethere was stillstill roomroom forfor one hand only on thethe short grip; and yet itit is sometimes seen grasped inin both hands when a particularly particularly heavy blow was required.required. ThisThis occursoccurs as early asas inin the the period around 900,9100, inin a manuscript fromfrom St.Bt. GallenGallen (Cod. (Cod. PerizoniPerizoni 17,17, Leyden), where oneone hand isis closed about thethe gripgrip itselfitself andand thethe otherother isis laid laid overover thethe first.first. InIn thethe 12th century itit isis depicteddepicted several several times, forfor instanceinstance inin Hortus DeliDeli- ciarumciarum andand inin variousvarious otherother ms.ms. illuminations ofof the period. CavalryCavalry andand thethe more solidsolid weapons weapons of defensedefense necessitated thethe heavierheavier sword,sword, thethe largerlarger gripgrip andand thethe longerlonger quillons.quillons. The blade became correspondingly correspondingly longer longer andand heaVier.heavier. InIn thethe 15th15th century a a broadbroad areaarea isis requiredrequired toto receivereceive thethe adversary's cut. cut. The longlong quillonsquillons areare not sufficientsufficient enough enough forfor cover;cover; thethe protectingprotecting surface surface isis expandedexpanded byby bendingbending thethe quillonsquillons S-shapedS-shapeid onon thethe horizontalhorizontal planeplane oror byby addingadding horizontal horizontal siderings siderings where where thethe hilthilt crossedcrossed thethe blade, sometimessometimes only only one one on on thethe outside,outside, sometimes sometimes one one onon eacheach side.side. TheThe horizontal,horizontal, S-shapedS-shaped quillonsquillons came came intointo use before thethe middle ofof thethe 15th15th century.century. SomeSome fewfew specimensspecimens areare knownknown fromfrom anan eveneven earlierearlier date, as as shownshown by mr.mr. Oakeshott,Oakeshott, i. i. a. a a a swordsword inin thethe CambridgeCambridge UniversityUniversity MuseumMuseum ofof Archaeology.Archaeology. ButBut thethe practisepractise became moremore commoncommon duringduring thethe laterlater halfhalf ofof thethe 15th15th century.century. SwordsSwords ofof thisthis descriptiondescription areare toto bebe seenseen inin museumsmuseums especiallyespecially inin Switzerland,Switzerland, GermanyGermany andand the the ScandinavianScandinavian countries.countries. NumerousNumerous woodwood carvingscarvings by artistsartists suchsuch asas Beham,Beham, BurgkBurgk- mair, LucasLucas Cranach,Cranach, Diirer,Durer, UrsUrs Gra!.Graf. HolbeinHolbein thethe YoungerYounger andand seveseve- ralral othersothers depictdepict lansquenetslansquenets armedarmed withwith two-handedtwo-handed swords swords andand withwith thethe katzbalgerkatzbalger atat theirtheir belt with guardsguards ofof thisthis kind.kind As regardsregards DenDen- markmark there there isis aa locallocal versionversion ofof thesethese guardsguards with with aa large, large, broadbroad

surface made of a thinthin Ironiron rodrod shaped intointo a figurefigure eight. Some Scandinavian swords with horizontal quillons and side-rings abeare importsimports from Passau and Solingen. On some of themthem thethe pommelspommels are disc-shaped,disc-~haped, on others scentstopper or pear-shaped, or spherical. A knuckle-bow isis scarcely everever seen on thesethese German typestypes of swords, thoughthough itit does occur on a few lansquenetlansquenet swords, usually of thethe slightly curved and single-edged types.types. The knucklebow reaches only toto thethe middle of thethe grip, where it-it isis bent slightly outwaadoutward as inin Albrecht Durer'sDiirer's woodcuts of thethe Apocalypse of 1498. A vertical knuckleguard,knuckle-guard, also also reachlngreaching toto thethe middle of thethe grip, appears on some typestypes of hand-and-half swords from Switzerland, but itit differs from those on thethe lansquenetlansquenet swords. On South JZuropeanEuropean sabres, both those with a one-hand-andone·hand-and those with a hand-and-halfhand·and·half grip simi-simi larlar knucklebowsknuckle-bows already appear inin thethe 15th century, for instanceinstance inin thethe execution scene on meone of thethe paintings of thethe Spanish-Flemish painterpainter Francisco Gallego on an altar-piece in thethe Museo Diocesano inin thethe Old Cathedral at Salamanca. It also shows how thethe indexindex fingerfinger isis laid in Latin fashion over the quillon.quillon. There are several other exam-exam ples of this most importantimportant manner of grasping a cutting weapon. Both in Spain and in Italy itit is quite usual to find a knuckleguard combined with side-rings, as shown inin paintings by Pinturiccio. A fine example occurs inin a picture of St. Michael from about 1473.81,14.73-81, now in Leipzig. Even here we find thethe index finger across the guard. The Germanic development with thethe hilt guarded by rings and branches lying horizontally isis observable during thethe greater part of thethe 16th century and can be followed into thethe 17th. In the latterlatter part of the 16th century addit-onaladdiLonal hand protections make their ap-ap' pearanoepearance inin thethe form of more branches, rings and plates on both sides. These give a closed basket-hilt entirely horizontal inin plane, a hilt providing complete protection to thethe hand. It is toto be seen inin Austrian and South German sidearms with a slightly curved or a stradghtstraight two-edged blade, introduced into Denmark and Norway in thethe early 17th century (dusagge or so-called SinclairSinciair sabres). And we meet itit in Jost Ammans woodcuts of lansquenets of the 1580's. Something similar applies to thethe Venetian schiavones (fig. 9) in which Latin and Slav elements are combined. Opposite the Germanic line is the Latin, with a hand guard pri-pri· marily designed against the cut, but soon afterwards for the thrust too. The Latin line is diffused out over Europe, inter alia by the accession to the throne of Spain by the Habsburgs, by foreign diplo-diplo mats and with the mercenaries of the various countries and soon brings its influence to bear upon the Germanic line too. Mixed forms arise. A certain combination of Latin and Germanic is to be found

Fig.Fil:. 9. a: Venetian sword,sword, early 16th century,ceJ1tury, h.h: VenetianVenet;an schilll'ona,xhiuvonu, late 16th century (Coll.(Coli. E. A. Christensen. E 1601(,0 and 55).(15).

inin thethe Low Countries, especially inin Flemish rapiers (fig. 21). In ad-ad dition, therethere were currents from thethe Orient via Venice and across thethe Iberian peninsula. The Latin development ISis more complicated thanthan thethe Germanic, andand moremore elegant. The typicaltypical South European sword with itsits wheel pommel, short grip and curved quillons ending inin more or lessless rolledrolled volutes towardstowards thlethe edges of thethe blade can be tracedtraced inin Italian and Spanish picturespictures fromfrom an early point of time.time. If thethe soldier isis wear-wear inging mail gauntlets he must naturally hold h;sh:s hilt with thethe four fingersfingers together.together. But inin several instancesinstances where thethe hand isIs bare we findfind threethree fingersfingers around thethe grip itselfitself whilst thethe indexindex finger isis laidlaid

across the foremost quillon. The examples of this are fairly nume numerous. Even on Sassanian silver bowls of the 4th-7th centuries A. D., the hand is holding the grip in that fashion (seetsee Gladius I, p. 65 ff). CuriouslYCuriously enough the swords bear a striking resemblance to the weapon of the crusaders. A similarsim~largrip will be found in the aforesaid St. Gallen illumination of about 900-950.9010-950. A search of early MSS.MSS, will presumably add to the number of examples. ThereT1here is one dating from about 1125, in ms. Nero C VI.VI, now in the British Museum. Here again the index finger is laid across the guard. From 13th cencen- tury is the fine example from Santa Lucia de Mur in Barcelona,Barcelona. Very clear is the Chinese water colour d!awingdrawing of warriors in battle, from Yuan period (1260-1368).(1260-13168). We see not only this handhand'grip grip on the holrse-horse man's sword but another warrior is holding a short sword with two protection rings instead of the quillons. This may be aa, special way of holding cavalry swords, sometimes used in centralCentral Asia. ByzantineByzantine- Russian 12th and 13th century ikons, e. g. an ikon in the Archeological Museum at Kiev, is displaying the same hand-grip for drawing the sword from the scabbard. Among the mosaics in St. Mark's, Venice, we find the same thing, for instance in the Capella de San Isidro, 14th century. Here the blade is remarkable, with a serrated edge.e~dge. On an address from the town of Prato in Tuscany, 1335·40,1335-40, to Robert of An-An jou, king of Sicily,SiciIy, we find the same hand-grip (Brit. Mus. Royal ms 6E.6.E. IX). The frescoes in Santa Campc camp^ at Pisa, 1380·90,1380-90, have it tooto10 just as the mural paintings from about 1400 in the cathedral of MonMon- doiiedo,dofiedo, Spain. About the year 140014010 it appears on an alter-piece from Tessin, work by a North Italian master depicting the execution of a martyr-into the bargain on a hand-and-halfhand-and-haIf sword. Other examples could be cited. In most of the reproductions it is to be seen rather clear. ly that the blade has a talon, almost a ricasso below the quillons. In actual fact a heel of th:sth-S kind appears early in the archaeological material. A sword at Arlington, Virginia (H. Peterson collection) must date from early in the 13th century. Chronologically thethe1 type comes close to the Oldenborg sword but the details suggest a South EuropeanEhropean origin. The swords having inscriptions in Arabic are datable. The Royal Ontario Museum at Toronto, canada,Canada, possesses two excellent speoimens of early, dated Italian swords with a strong ricasso, one from 1365, M. 976. It is of the type characteristic of the middle of the 14th century and the sword itself is a trophy of the ItaloItalo- Frankish invasion of Egypt.Elg~pt. The blade has a very distinct ricasso, as well as the designs along the margins that are characteristic of these blades. In all probability this is an Italian swcrd.sword. (Cf. the two swords figs. 6-7 in Danish coIl.) coll.) The same appliesappliels to M. 973 in the same museum, but dated to the time prior to 1426, taken as booty by

Barsbey during his invasioninvasion of Cyprus. This sword has a pear-shaped pommel,ponunel, whereas most swords bearing Arabic inscriptionsinscriptions have wheel pommels. A long, slender biadeblade inin the Musee de 1'Armeel'Armee inin Paris (J. 13) must also date from about 1400; this too has a ricasso, though it is less pronounced than on the two Toronto swords. From this to furn- ,• ishing the underside of the quillons with a guard ring for the index finger is merely a short step. And actually one of the earliest exam-exam ples of it is to be seen on another of Barsbey's trophy swords from Cyprus, formerly inin the collection of Baron de Cosson, then in the Hearst collection, now in the Tower of London. The sword is dated 1432 but isis part of Barsbey's booty from his Cyprus raid in 1426. In a paper on the sword of Fernando el Cat6licomtolico in the Capilla Real of Granada cathedral, the prominent Spanish archaeologist D. MlanuelM1amuel G6mezGomex Moreno holds that this kind of quillons is a SpanishSpan;sh invention andan'i that it dates presumably from about the middle of the 15th century (fig. 10). In all probability, however, it was introduced much earlier. Just up until the 13th century the Spanish Moslems wore the same types of weapons as did the warriors of Christian Spain. But in th,ethe 13th century the Hispano-Arab panoplie completely changed. We hear about it in the Chronicles of Alfonso el Sabio. Weapons and the use of weapons changed and the manner of «pelearccpelear a la jinetanjinetall was introduced by the cavalry of the BenuBmu Marin tribes, in the service of Mohamad I of Granada. The SpanishS~panish Moslems willinglyWillingly adopted the methods introduced by the African horsemen. Their equipment from now consisted of a solid broad sword, lance, shield and body protection (Exercicios de la gineta, Madrid, 1641). Though the use of jineta-swords is represented in pictorial art of the 14th centuryoentury no sword from this century seems to exist. The outstanding and rich series of Hispano-Arab swords now preserved in various museums and collections in Spain, France, and U. S. A. belong to the 15th century. The type of sword had originally been introduced for the Moorish cavalry, but very soon it was adopted by Christian knights, and used by certain branches of the cavalry in Spain (Gla (Gla- dius I, p. 49, fig. n7). In his paper on Granadine Arabian warfare, published in Arch. Espafiol de Arte 1943, the famous Spanish orientaorienta- list D. Jose FerrandisFerrmdis Torres, demonstrated dernonstratea that the origin of these Moorish swords with their extremely short hilts and the particular method of holding them doubtless lay in the Near East. Possibly we have to look for it among the SassanidsSasanids and the Arabs (Gla(Gla- dius I, p. 46 ff). The new type of sword contributed towards a complete renewal of the ancient hilt. The new hand-grip called for a stout and convenient ricasso for the sake of the index finger, and so it led to a notch in the edge of

Vig.Fig. 10.10. Sl\lordSword ofof ElEl ReyRey Fernando Fernando elel Catolico,Catblico, latelate 15th15th century.century. GoldenGolden hilthilt withwith tracestraces ofof blackblack enamel;enamel; possibly possibly Florentine workmanship.workmanship. Blade shortenedshortened andand ill-treatedill-treated RicassoRicmso andand pointpoint cut cut awayaway centuriescenturies ag"O.age. (Capi(Capi- /laIla Real, GranadaGranada Cathedral).Cathedral).

33 3

the blade or in thetha ricasso itself, such as is to be seen in some blades in the Real ArmerzaArmeria in Madrid and in a number of infantry swords in the Arsenal at Venice, dated to the close of the 15th century. Then came the guard-ring below the foremostforemolst quillon, as on the sword with Arabic inscription in the Tower. This ring is frequently shown in Spanish and Italian art of the 15th century. In the retable in the cathedral of LeanLeon is a painting of NicolcisNiooMs Frances,Francds, of before 1435, with a similar ring and below horizontal quillons. Two sepulchral monuments, dating from about 1467, one at GuadalupeGuaclalupe and one at San Gines, in Guadalajara, have similar swords. On the tomb of the constable AlvlarezAlvcirez de Luna in Toledo cathedral, set up after 1453, there is the same detail but with curved quilIons.quillons. It also appears at Va·Va- lencia on a picture by the Marti de Torres master of St. Martin, painted about 1443. From about the middle of the 15th century two rings are not uncommon in Valencian paintings. The same is to be seen in paintings of FernandoFmando Gallego and his school, in Pedro Ferncindez Fernandez of Seville and in Bartolomeo Bermejo, for instance in his large painting of Santo DomingoDorningo de Silos of about 1470, now in the Prado Museum in Madrid. In this picture, as indeedindeeld in most of the others, we see the wheel pommel with the concave panels that is familiar inter alia from some swords in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, from about 1450, and a number ofolf Spanish swords in other mu-mu seums. Bermejo gives a clear rendering of the quillons and the pas·d'ane;pas-d'8ne; the blade has a ricasso and a sharp grat with a:a strong, reinforced point. Round about 1460-7014601-70 the same is to be seen in several paintings by the Portuguese artist NunoNuAo GonzalesGomdes (examples e. h. in the art gallery in Lisbon). On the other hand it is rarely met with in Catalan and French art. Swords with two pas-d'anespas-d'8nes are also depicted on several of the large Spanish tombs, for example that of the Infante XfonsoAlfonso at Cartuja de MirafloresMirajlores near Burgos, a work of Gil de Siloe. About 1450 and in the subsequent periodperiOd the type occurs frequentlyfrequentIy in Italian pictures. In Signorelli's frescoes in Orvieto cathedral we find it, as well as some very early examples of the knuckle-bow. These swords are on the whole very common in Tuscan art in the latter half of the 15th century, for example on Nicolo da Bari's monument to Santo Domingo at Bologna, about 1478. The painters Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Raphael have the motif (Raphael's picture of The Vision of ScipioSdpio Africanus in the National Gallery, London). With a knuckle bow and two pas-d'8nespas-d'anes we find the hilt of a sword in the illuminations of the Statutes fo~for Los CabaCaba- llerosllero~s de la Hermandad de Santiago (founded at Burgos in 1338), executed about 1490-99.1490.99. As I have said, the starting point of G6mezGrjmex Moreno's theories

was the sword of Fernando el Cat~lzcoCat6lico in the Capilla Real, Granada (fig. 10). In thethe royal and municipal archives of SimmcasSimancas and Granada this sword has been mentioned and discussed ever si~cesince thethe death of FernsndoFernmdo in 1516. This costly sword which has suffered badly in the course of time, with ~tsits bicanicalbiconical pommel, curved quillons and the two prctection rings-in the shape of a snake-is of a form unusual in Spain. The pommel type is strange to the Iberian peninsula but com-com mon in Tuscany, especially in Florence, and an examination of the goldgoldplatedplated hilt and its ornamentation seems to show that it is Fbrm-Floren tine goldsm:th'sgoldsm-th's work. But the blade may be Spanish. The ricasso is now lacking, becauseb€~ause at some time or other the upper part of the blade has been shortened. The wholewholfJ type of the sword is Tuscan, dating from the latte~rlatter quarter of the 15th century. From these swords with pas-d'8nepas·d'ane below the quillons it is no long step to the next protective measure, the two small pitons, iron tiges E;ndingcnding in small knobs projecting from the lower ends of the pas-dkne.pas-dane. They were possibly inspired by the Moroccan swords 01'of about the same period. On the Italian and French swords of this type, from about 1520-30,152030, the pitons are sometimes connected on the guard side by a ring, in which a small notch or hollow often is to be seen, which acts as a kind of stop for the thrusting blade. Apparently this notch dropped out of use about 1540·451540-45 and only reappeared towards the end of the 16th century in the form of a small plate. The late French collector M. Georges Pauilhac together with M. Robert-Jean CharlesCharJes were the f.rstLrst to notice it and gave it the name of etrier a pattes, in order not to confuse it with the small sidering with its plate later on. On the opposite side of this ring two small stems project like hooks. Whereas Spanish sidearms of the early period often have only pitons, Italian sidearms of the same period in stead of pitons have a ring, especially in Venice. Buttin drew attention to this and suggested that the Spanish fonnform was due to influence from Moroccan swords, whereas the Venetian came from the Arabian. Communications between Italy - especially Venice - and the Arabian world were very brisk in the 15th century. Venice had made herself mistress of Cypros (489)(1489) and had trading offices and stores both in Fama Gusta and in Alexandria for commerce with the Arabian countries and2nd the India via Aden. To the Iberian peninsula however pitons came via North Afr:caAfrica with the Berber horsemen. There are fine specimens of the Spanish form 1.i. a. in the Real Armria,Armeria, Madrid, on Nos, G 29, 30 and 31. The first two swords belonged to ElEi gran CapiLli-n,Capitan, GonzaloGolzxalo de Cordoba, the great general and military organizer. The pommel of G 29 is disc-shaped, the quillons are curved downwards with pas-d'anepas-Cane and pitons, the blade has a ricasso. The decoration of the pommel is Italian renais-rends-

sance and depicts the victory of Gonzalo over thethe French at Cannae in 1503, as the inscription proudly announces. The third swordsword bebe- longed to FernandoFemando el Cat6licoCatolico and is of the samesame typetype (the blade signed by Antonius). In the InstitutoZnstituto del Conde Valencia de DonDun Juan there is another such sword, No. 59, signed by Cathaldo, who was also the maker of the sword of FrangFrans I of France, in Paris. Of about the same period we find an Italian type represented by aa number of estocs in thethe Pa!azzoPa:axxo Capodimonte at Naples (fig.(fig. 11).11). Among themthem thethe most remarkable isis a specimenspecimen which lastlast century was furnishedfurnished with an inscriptionins~criptionattributing itit to to Ettore FieramoscaFieramolsca ojof Capua, born about the end of thethe 15th15th century and died in VallaValla- doliddolid inin 1515.1515. Tradit:onTradition has itit that thethe swordsword was carried by this great soldiersoldier in thethe Battle of Barletta in 1503,1503, a dating which seems too early; it would be reasonablereasonable toto put thethe period toto about 1510-20. The

Fi~.Fig. 11. ItalianItalian eslOc.cstoc, about 15101510 20. Attributed toto Ettore FieramoscaFiermnosca di Capua. Capua, who dieddied inin ValladoNdVallrrdoEid inin Spain inin 1515.1515. (Palazzo(Palazzo CapodiCapdi- monte, Naples).

sword is a finer specimen than the others of similar Italian types at Capodimonte. Several more are:are now in the Musee de 1'ArmCel'Armee in Paris. Similar types of blades are also to be found on the swords men-men tioned by Buttin in his article on La Vale~ncianaValonciana in ct«Armes Armes Anciennesn,Anciennesll, 3,1954.3, 1954. The most remarkable specimen, acquired by Reubell, * has been proved to have belonged to Carlos V. It is reproduced in Inventario Iluminadolluminado and described in RelacionRelaci6n de Valladolid. According to these documents Carlos V had a store of 24 of them, presumably intended for the emperor's courtiers. Most of them must have been stolen in 1808 when the mob plundered the Armeria Real; three specimens now remain thelre-besidesthere-besides thethe Reubell sword. The latter has a wheel pommel, horizontaJ.horizontal SrshapedS-shaped quillons which at the ends spread out into wide, volutelikevolute-like scrolls. There are also pas-d'hepas-d'ane and pitons. The blade is signed by Juan el Viejo, who worked both at Valencia and at Toledo;Tolerlo; the majority of these swords had Valencian blades. The three specimens in the Armeriahrmeria display the Valencian signatures IOANNESME FECIT and the famous Salvador. Buttin, however, supposes that the type should be attributed to Venice, not to Valencia, and that it should rightly be called Veneziana; his argument is that the earliest specimen known to him appears in Carpaccio's picture of the martyrdomma.rtyrdom of Santa.Santa Ursula in the Accademia Reale, Venice, dated 1480, where this very type is shown. The blade is much like the aforesaid Neapolitan blades, but on it the lower ends of the pas-d'anepas-d'he are joined by means of a ring in the Venetian manner. However,ITowever, there is a very closely related sword with the same torsion of the quillons and with pas-d'an&"-butpasrd'8neLbut differing slightly in the pommel-pommel in a Spanish painting of about 1470, by an anonymous artist, in the Fine Art Gallery in Copenhagen. In addition to the pas-d'anepas-d'he other forms of hand protectors make their appearance in the 15th century. At any rate pictorial represen-represen tations sometimes include the horizontal sidering on the cross, though frequently differing in form from the Germanic. It occurs here and there in Spanish manuscripts of the first quarter of the 15th century, but generally speaking only in the countries North of the Alps and East of the Rhine is it common. From these basic forms progress is made in the course of the following sixty years, so that the complete rapierrapk hilt with its compli.compli- catedguardcated guard branches culminates at about the 1560-70's. In his article in Revue Historique de l'Armee,E'Armbe, 1947 Robert-Jean Charles essayed to Clarifyclarify the evolution ofelf the hilt and its branches, and to show how a hilt can be dated with very brief intervals from the nature and

•* This swordsward is now in Inst. de Valencia de Don Juan (no 213).

Fig.FiK. 12. a-b: ItalianItalian sword, cword, earlyellrly 16th16th century. Pommel and quillquil/ol1.\' on^ of0/ giltKilt itan.i/'.m. (Coll.(Coil. H.H. Bron~Brons Han~en,Han.\'{'l/, Hillerod, Denmark).

placingplacing of thethe branches.branches. Although one cannot of course proceed tootoo rigoristicallyrigoristically inin attempting a dating, thethe position of the branches does help greatly toto determine the periodperiod and sometimes also thethe nationality.

Before turning to thethe further evolution from sword to rapier I would mention -a. a smallsma,ll group of Italian thrusting swords. The form is mediaeval but :nin several instances the decoration is pure Re-Re· naissance. Their common feature is the sharp thrusting blade, wide at the top, with a prominent grat down to the point. The quillons are well curved and often terminate in volutes. The grip is short and thethfl pommel usually disc-shaped, though sometimes lenticular and ornamented with a mussel-shell or rosette. Forerunners of these swords are those such as Armeria Real, Madrid G 23 and the bu&a.lbur'al sword of Henry V in Westminster Abbey, of the latter half of the 15th century. The most distinguished representative of the type is the richly ornamented and costly specimen which once belonged to Cesarecesare Borghia. Duke of Romagna and Valentino, now in the possession of the Duke of Simoneta. The wheel pommel is adorned with ornaments of pure Renaissance, with cloissonne work and filigree on gilt copper. The blade is signed by Ercole dei Fideli of Ferrarra. The sword seems to have been made in the period 1490-1500. There are other specimens in Italian, Spanish and French collections and museums, including one in the Museo LaxaroLazaro Galdiano in Madrid. An excellent specimen of this type of sword is to be found in the outstanding DlanishDanish collection of mr. H. BrOnsBrons Hansen, Hillerod (fig. 12). This sword, of Italian workmanship, has a fine and characteristic blade, the length of which is 82 cm. largestlargesl width 8 cm. the total length including grip 97,5 cm. The point is sharp and strong, and the blade has the characte-characte r:sticrlstic fullers, strong midrib in lower part and reinforced point. Beauti-Beauti· ful and rich ornamentation with scrolls, flowers and masks still with good traces of gilding has been preserved. The grip, pommel -andand quillons are of gilt iron, with pommel in the shape of a faun-mask, and with faun-masks at the ends of the quillons. Related to this type of swords are the baselards or cinquedeas (fig. 13), with almost triangular blades, sometimes with a reinforced prismatic point and with rich etchings and gildings, very curved quillons, short grip and lenticular or wheel pommels. The Venetian specimens are of characte-characte ristic form with their special type of grip and with pierced ornaments at the rivet-holes in as style reminiscent of wood carvings from Baghdad and the Moorish palaces in Arag6n (Zaragoza), and Andalucia from the 15th century. The best blades in the cinquedeas were made by Ercole GrandiGrmdi and Ercole dei Fideli of Ferrarra. Even Florence and parti·parti- culnlycularly Verona were famous for their cinquedeas. In Venezia they seem to have been the swords of the archers, particularly from about 1520. In their shape they are almost copies of the antique parazo-parazo mum.nium

Fig.Fig./3. 13./talion Italiancinqucdca, cinquedea,about about1525. 1525.QllillOIlS Quillons modem.modern.Said Said 10to have havebelonged belonged 10to aa DOllishDanishIlobleman noblemmof ofIhe theRanIZ(JI/ Rantzaufami family,ly,who whobrought broughtil ithome homefrom fromhis histra tra- vclvel in in llalyItaly aboutabut1528. 1528.(Nat. (Nat.Mus. Mus. .. Copenhagcn.Copenhagen.10115, 10115,mus. mus.fot.) for.)..

SCientificScientific fencing fencing

TheThefact factthat thatsword swordhilts hiltswere wereon onthe theeve eveof of suchsucha arapid rapiddevelop develop- mentment waswas aaresult result notnotmerely merely ofof thethestrategy, strategy,the thegreat gre~atimportanceimportance ofof thetheinfantry, infantry, thethenew new fashionfashionof of wearingwearing expensive expensiveand andbeautiful beautiful sidearmssidearms totocourt courtand andcivilian civilian dress, dress,but but veryvery muchmuchof of thethesystemiz systemiz- ationation ofof thetheart artof of fencingfencingand andthe theperiod's period's interestinterestin inthat that art. art. AsAs

early as in 1295 the Italian del Serpente of Milano had written a work on the techniquetechnique of fencing. Almost a century later came Fior di Bat-Bat taglia, Flos Duellatorum (published at Bergamo in 1910). Fencing masters are mentioned in Italy in the 14th century, where they give instruction in agility exercises, cunning and tricks likely to come in useful when duelling. In the 15th century fencing academies were an established fact, i. a. at Milan, Venice and Verona. But fencing then was based upon hewing and hand-to-hand fighting; it was only systematized later. There were two styles in the 16th oentury,century, the Spanish anda,nd the Italian. SCientificScientific works on the art appeared in Spain at the end of the 15th century, for instance the manuscript works in 1472 and 1474 respectively. They were La verdadera esgrima y el arte de esgrimir by Juan de Pons, Mallorca, and El manejo de lasilas Armas de Combate by Pedro de laia Torre (Petrus Turrus) of Seville. These two works are no longer extant but are known from numerous quotations in later fencing books. To these two authors fencing was actually a science. A special category of fencing masters, Tenientes examinadoresexaminado?es de la destrezadestrexa de las armas was organized through a special ordinance of 1478 by the Catholic king and queen. Los Reyes Cat6licos.Catolicos. A document of high interest is kept in Cordoba: Orde·Orde- nanzasnanxas para 10slos maestros de esgrima from 1512. In 1532 Francisco Roman of Seville issued a work (now lost) Tratado de la Esgrima which had an important bearing upon developments in Spain. A continuation of his work appeared in 1569 by the fencing master HieronimoHier6nimo de CarancaCal'a~n~aof Seville. He was the real founder of Spanish fencing, which followed a different (Ooursecourse from the Italian and the later French. His work, Especulaci6nEspeculacion de la DestrezaDlestrexa was re-issued in Lisbon in 1582 and in Madrid in 1600.1600.. It was based upon a number of sciences such as philosophy, medicine, astronomy, music and others, but particularly upon geometry. His theories, which are difficult to follow, were elaborated by his eminent discipledisciplle LuisLuts Pacheco de NarvaezNarvaex of Baeza, who wrote a number of works, including Libro de las grandezas de la Espada, which appeared in Madrid in 1600.16W. The 17th century saw the publicationpublir.ation of other writers' works. It was according to the principles laid down by these scientific fencing masters that the Spanish rapiers were evolved. In its later period especially, fencing there developed along a line that differed from that of other countries. The evolution of the very long rapier la espadaesp& de lazo 0o del Emperador and the cuphilt rapier, together with other long sidearms must be seen on the background of the strictly scientific method with its geometrical, well studied movements.molvements. Matters were different in Italy. Four years after Francisco Roman'sRomWs work there appeared in Modena in 1536 the Italian work Opera Nova

Chiamata Duel10Duello overo Fiore dell'Armidell'Armi by fencing master AchilleAchtlle Maroxzo,Marozzo, one thatthat became of great importance toto thethe evolution of thethe sword hilt. He put the art of fencing intointo system inin a relatively precise way. Although as yet it was based chiefly upon the cut, i. a. fencing with thethe two-hand sword, with a rapier or striscia (as was the Italian name to the long and slender rapiers), with rapier and shield, shafted weapons and even daggers, though this little weapon is cnly sparselysparseiy mentioned, he attached great importance to the shape and thethe construction of the quillons and the manner of grasping the hilt and the quillons with one or two fingers over the quillons. In his illustrations he demonstrates the various positions and movements. WsHis work received so much appreciation that it appeared in a number of editions in rapid succession. By the year of 1540 the swcrd hilt had acquired a veritable but still rather simple counter-guard, but as yet the bows did not reach up over the cross. During the subsequent twenty or thirty years events moved only slowly. Between 156(}-and1560-and 1570 the bows of the counter-guard extended upwards and joined the:the knuckle bow of the hilt. This rapid development was due to two other fencing masters, first Camillo Agrippa and shortly afterwards Giacomo Grass!.Grassi. The work of Camillo Agrippa: Trattato di scientiasctentia d'arme appeared in Rome in 1553 and in Venice in 1568. Agrippa was an architect and engineer, a good mathematician and impassioned fencer. (Renowned among many other things for his direction of the erection of the obelisk on Piazza di San Pietro in front of the Vatican.) Among other aspects of the art he treated of fencing with left-hand daggers (fig. 14), with twin-rapiers, with halberds, etc. (Twin rapiers are rather seldom found Two excellent pairs are to be seen in the Musee de I'Armeel'Arm& in Paris, oneom pair belongs to the Danish Nationalmuseum, for the moment on deposit in the Royal Arsenal Museum in Copenhagen.) Like his Spanish colleague Carenc;aCaren~ahe analyzed the movements of the body and arrived at the conclusion that the cut is the natural movement and easier to carry out than the thrust. The thrust is complicated and demands rapidity and circumspection. And he is mostly in favour of the thrust. His theories would scarcely have gained so much ground and so much recognition had they not had the support of Giacomo Grassi's work: Ragioni di adoprar sicuramente l'Arme1'Arme si da offesa come da difesa. This work was issued first in Venice in the year 1570. ItIt was even translated into English. Grassi studied all forms of fencing in practice in his day, with two swords, with sword and left-hand dagger, with a small, round shield and with a larger shield and with a cloak about the leftleft arm. Grassis book forms the background of the Frenchman Henr!Henri de Sa!nct-Didier'sSainct-Didier's work published

Fig. 14.14. !..A'lt-handkfr-hand dUKI!(·r.~.dogger~.u:a: po.\'.rih/ypostihly NorthNorth Italian,Italian, ('aca /5l/0-/600.1580-1600.h: h:SuxolJ;an. Saxoniun, helongsbelongs toto rapil'rrapier I;/:,fig. 28.28. (Detail~'(Details01 of hi/thidt differ),differ).c:c: Saxolliarl Saxonidn triple-hiudi'd.triple-bladed, ('(lcn IMO.1600. (Nrll.(Not. Mu.,',Mus. Copenlra,flC'lI.Copenhagen, 10104,10104, 10103. 10103, ,0'1"IOlll,m((.f mus f'Jt.).fit.).

in Paris 1573, which likewise covered all forms of fencing. About 1606 came a book by thethe Italian fencing master Salvator Fabris. This fencing master was the teacherteacher in fencing of thethe DlanishDanish king Chri-Chri· stian IV (1588-1648); he came toto Denmark and was in 1590 appointed fencing master at the Roya!Royal Danish Court. His book is written in Italian: De 10lo Schermo overo scienxascienza d'Arme, and itit includesincludes 200 cop-cop' pars by J. IEalbeechHalbeech inin Copenhagen. In thethe same year was issued another work by NicoIettoNkoletto Giganti, in Venice (1606) on fencing with thethe sword and left-hand dagger. In 1610 came Ridolfo Capo Ferro da Cagli'sCaglt's work in Siena. During thethe last period of thethe 16th century and thethe first half of thethe 17th century florished the left-hand daggers. Various types came into use, many of them richly chiselled or ornamented with chased silver or with beautiful siIversilver incrustrations, corresponding toto thethe rapiers. Among the characteristical Italian daggers of the time is thethe slender, elegant stiletto with its grip often finely chiselled. The left-hand daggers with triple blades were toto be found in many countries, in Italy and e. g. in Germany (fig. 14 c). In scientific fencing it had become necessary toto protect the hand and body by means of a well-thought-out hilt construction with nu-nu merous bows and branches, each having its own purpose and signifi-signifi cance. In France, around 1580, the development of fencing led to thethe counter-guard extending well upwards. About 1580-851580.85 we see the reap-reap pearance of the old "etrier a pattes", but now in the form of aa: small finely perforated or elegantly decorated plate in the lower side ring. The thrust had practically displaced the cut and demanded still more branches and often plates inside the guard-rings. From thethe first little plate in thethe lower ring a further development leads to thethe more or less basket-hilted swords. But the development is also visible inin the shape of the blade. The long, slender rapier blades reach their florescence. We find thethe most elegant blades in Spain and Itally,Italy, heavier and less slender inin France and in the Germanic countries. As with thethe hilt types,types, the blades of thethe various nations are evidence thatthat South European fencing was modified to suit thethe temperamenttemperament and character ofot the different peoples. In time the elements of the hilts of the different countries become blended. Latin and Germanic were combined. From Germany the Latin rapiers received the mussel-shell guards which acquire impor-impor tance on many Spanish raplers.rapiers. Although certain nathnalnational characters still prevail in hilt details, it is most often in the ornamentation thatthat the provenance of a rapier hilt can be determJled.determined.

Renaissance ornamentation

If the mediaeval sword had mostly been a strong and vigorous fighting or ceremonial weapon, carried in battle or on special occasions, the rapier of the Renaissance in quite a different manner became a regular detail of civilian dress, worn indoors as an indispensable acces accessory to the costly and elegant court dress. This meant that a prince or a nobleman not only had a number of expensive swords, designed to match his various costumes and his taste, but also a wealth of materials, precious stones and ornaments. Many of the Renaissance hilts are true jewels. The goldsmiths of the Renaissance held sway over a large field. Artists and craftsmen were entrusted with big tasks. This is evident not merely from the portrait painting of royalty and nobility, the sidearms that have been handed down, but also the many designs drawn by artists and goldsmiths as weBwell as from the accounts and inventories written at the time. The aesthetical value had replaced the value of force. In Italy already in the 15th century we find goldsmith wo~rkwork of brilliant quality applied to the hilts of swords and rapiers. It is the time of Rafael (born 1483 in Urbino), the pupil of amongst others perugino.Perugino. Tuscany is a region where the art of outstanding craftsmen florished abundantly, led by Florence where DonatelloDonate110 worked and designed many such hilts. In Lombardy it attained to great heights, and there it was Milan, where Bartolomeo Campi worked for the Spanish king Carlos V and h:shis son Felipe 11,n, and the same did Cesare FerammcaFeramosca too.toto. Among the most outstanding sword hilts from Milan the specimen made for Carlos V in gold and enamel, now in Vienna must be mentioned."mentioned. * Mantova, Venice, Rome, Siena and many other towns were also numbered among the weB-knownwell-known centres. ThereThero is eminent early Renaissance work for instance on some of the benedictional swords which the Popes, solemnly celebrating the Holy Mass on Christmas EveElve in a certain period distributed to princes and other persons of high rank who had done weB-merited well-merited service in the fight for Christianity. Among the goldsmiths who made sword hilts of this description the papal archives mention i. a. those of Florence, Rome and Siena, and some of the most outstanding swords perhaps are the one pre presented in 1454 to Ludovico Bentivoglio of Bologna and the specimens with which some of the Doges of Venice were honoured. In this context mention must be made of the highly skilled goldsmiths of

•* See C. Blair: European and American Arms. 1962, p. 115.85. ThilThe hilt now justly considered Spanish.

the Spanish town of Zaragoxa,Zaragoza, who turned out richly adorned renaisrenais- sance hilts in gold and silver (Pedro de las Cellas) especially under the Popes of the Borgia-family. And at about the middle of the 16th century we find a number of profusely ornamented Italian rapier hilts, some of iron with inlaid gold and silver decoration in the typical tendril style of the RenaissanceRemaissance with putti, herms, fauns, fruit etc. or with pictorial scenes of mythological contents. On the whole, Italian damascening attained to extremely high levels on the gala armour and shields of the time; the artists were such as Giorgio Ghisi of Mantova, the members of the Negroli family, Pompeo della Chiesa, Antonio and Lucio Piccinino and several others from Milan. Venice presented her own styles; in the forms there is often a trace of in-in fluence from Oriental weapons, due to that town's trade relations with the Oriental countries and because craftsmen came from there to the ,powerfulpowerful commercial republic to work. Currents are also perceptible from the Balkans;Balkans,. among weapons particularly affected from there were the large schiavones (fig. 9) with their basket hilts, which were carried by the Venetian foot-soldiers and somewhat later, bigger in size, by the cavalry for instance the cuirassiers of FerdinFerdin- and n.11. The?*he Oriental influence is particularly evident on the ear daggers of Venetian type which differ from the Spanish type in the style of their ornamentation. In his memoirs, Ch. VI, Benvenuto Cellini relates how in 1524 he saw some Turkish daggers with hilts and scabbards of iron, inlaid with fine foliage in gold in keeping with Turkish taste. He took a fancy to cultivate the art himself and was very successful, whereafter he began to make more of the same kind. However,Howelver, his weapons were finer and more durable than the Turkish, for one reason because he engraved deeper into the steel. BeHe also invented a richer variation of the ornaments the Turkish ones being most chicory leaves with a few flowers of Echites,Echites «In((In Italy there is a much g1'eatergreater wealth of ornaments»,ornaments)),he says. «In((In Lombardy they fashion the most elegant garlands of ivy and vine leaves which are a great joy to the eye. The Romans and the artists of Tuscany have excellent taste, especially in their use of acanthus and all their garlands and flowers. Moreover they place birds and animals of various kinds among leaves and flowers, employ wild flowers such as the so-called snapdragon. In addition there :s;S a wealth of imaginary beings which are termed grotesques by the ignorants)).ignorants». Benvenuto then turns to explaining why such things are called grotesques. In NaplesNa,ples too the goldsmith's work is of magnificent quality; moreover, in both Naples and Brescia were produced the elegant chiselling work that resembles lace made in iron. (One branch of it

/. -,

l..- 'i, ~~ ~.... : I !j , ,. I, ! ;~ ~ .;.... ·1

Slelliu.f Fig. 15.Italiall Itnlilrnrapiers rapierswith withsi/V!!,. silverornamellts ornamentsin inthe thehills. hills.In Inblades: blades:a: a: Stetzius Filt· 15. Hom Keu/lerKeullerme mefecil fecitSolingcn SolingenUlld andstamps stampswith withAgnus AgnusDei. Dei.b: Clemensb: Clemens Horn n1US. fot.). mrmefecit feritSolingen. Solingen.(Nat. (Nut.MU.f. Mus.Copenhagen. Copenhagen.JOJ2fJ 10126and and21715. 21715, mus. fot.).

47 47

....

~ " r ."

Fig. 16.16. a:a Ita/ianltalian rapier,rapier, fi"~1first halfhalf ofof 171h17th celltury.century. GrOI('.I"qlleGrote~quemusKs.matk\, fiogerfingcr guardsguards inin shape shape 'Vfef win~('dwinged momter".monstets. Qui/IonsQuillons wilhwith Turk'sTurk'r hwd,head, OIl('one missinf:.missing. IIIIn ricas.,·:)ricassv slamp.\"sfampr ofof SellastionSehasticin Herntllldel.Hernhndez. h:h: RI/piNRapier fromfrom aboutabout 1600, floral ornaments,ornaments, tracestraces ofof gold.gold. InIn bladl'blade thl'the namename ofof AAntonionlOn;o Piccinino severalseverat times.times. SicklesSickles ofof thethe Stiinrler Sfantler family.family. (Nat.(Nat. Mu.\".MUY.CoCo- penIJO/:ell.penhagen. 10141 (/Ildand 10135, 10135, mus.mus. fo(.).for.).

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Fig.Fig./7. 17.Rapier R,apierprobably probably/wlian Italianwith withsilver silverincrustatiolls. incrustations.Abow About1585. 1585.(Call. (all.E.E. A. A. Chrisrensen,Christensen,E. E.99). 99).

4949

isis thethe mountings on on thethe ornamentalornamental firearms firearms ofof thethe day.)day.) FromFrom Naples we havehave thethe signaturessignatures ofof severalseveral artistsartists whowho forfor instanceinstance fashionedfashioned thethe cupscups forfor SpanishSpanish cupcup hilthllt rapiers.rapiers. RoundRound aboutabout 15301530 many rapierrapier hiltshilts werewere designeddesigned byby Raphael'sRaphael's disciple disciple Caravaggio.Caravaggio.

Fig.Fig. 18.18. a:a: SpanishSpanish rapierrapier «espadactespada dede [azo».laze>>. 111In bl'Gdeblicade DeDe RonunoHortuno dede AguireAyuire enen ToledoToledo alldand rhethe officialofficiul.r/llIllp stump ofofEspadero Espudero deldel Rey.Rey. h:h:Spanish Spanish rapiarupkr withwith dll1nllsceneddamascened ornaments.ornaments, nownow faint.faint. InIn ricassoricusso stll/llPstamp ofof ]ohanne,\'Johunne, Wunde,Wunde, inin bladeblade namename ofof SebastianSebasticin RernwuJezHeincinder andand inscriptions.inwiptions. INat.(Nat. Mus.MUF,Copellhaf?l'll.Copnhagen. 2171121711 andand1013(,. 10136, m/ls.mus. fot.).fot.).

North Italian hilts often have a rather complicated basket with many bows, which is nothing strange having regard to the fencing masters there and the manualsmanua,ls on fencing published in that part of the country. The Italian hilts are often extremely elegant with slender guards and quillons. The latter are very long, longer than for instance the German and French though scarcely comparable with the Spanish. The bows are often artistically entwined. From below the pas-d'hepas-d'ane runs the traditional bow followed upwards by a midway bow which may assume the form of a spiral volute; a third joins the knuckle bow at its middle"middle. and on the side of the countercounter- gUardgiiard three bows emanate from the pas-d'Bnepas-d'ane and join on to the knuckle bow. Often the latter is only loosely joined on to the pommel. It may end in a small bdlball or knob corresponding to the ends of the quillons, or in a hook bent outwards; or, slightly rounded, it may terminate a very short distance from the pommel,ponunel, often no more than a millimetre. The museum min the PalazzoPdaxxo Capodimonte has a number of typical Italian hilts of the middle 16th century. Several of them are richly ornamented, a type that is familiar for example from the famous work from 1554 in the Victoria and Albert Museum on London (No,(No. E 1764-1929),1764-19291, by PhilipploPhilippo Urso of Mantova,Mantova. The hilt material is often iron (fig,(fig. 15) gold or silver gilt with a wealth of ornaments and figures inlaid wlthwith the technique mentioned by Benvenuto. Although this form of inlay recalls thethe Spanish and French it differs from them; thethe blades are often of Italian work, especially from Milan (Caino, Piccinino (fig. 16'17)16-17) and others), from whichWhich city we also have archival evidence of a large production of arms, and not armour alone. Other names are Ferrara of0/ Belluno, Pedro di Napoli. They may also be Spanish, signed by Hortuno de Aguirre, Delaorta, Ayala, Sebastian,sebastian, HernandexHernandez (fig. 18),IS), Alonso de Sahagun and others. In many instances the blades are from Solingen, some of them imi-imi tations of the Italian and Spanish-and into the bargain with imita-imita tions of the names of the Italian and Spanish Spanlsh masters.masters, Sometimes it may be difficult toto distinguish between the genuine blades and the good imitations, but the Spanish blade smiths had their own techniquetechnique for farmingforming and placing the letters, and this could not be copied. Spain is highly individual with her rapiers (fig. 18-20). The hilts are remarkably short-an inheritance from the Moorish 'swords. swords. The pommels are often like those of Italy and France but therethere are special forms tootoo (lantern-shaped, etc.) (fig. 20). There isis something undefinable, something foreign about many of the Spanish forms. The pas-d'hepas-d'ane bows, guards, pitons and thethe like are slightly more prominent than on thethe weapons of the other countries, but first and

I I

Fig. 19./9. a: SpwlishSpanish rapier with engraved ornaments in therhe hilt.hilf. InIII the blade.Made; Juan MartinezMartine" ('11en Toledo andalld stampslOmp oaful Erpaderoe.fpadero del Rey.Re)'. b: Spanish? ropierrapier withIv;,1I engraved('n1?,.a~·ed scrollsseroJ/s mdGild withwilh hearts and flowers/101-1:(''',,, inin enamel and silver openwork.opellll'ork. In the blade the{he whole prayerprayer of AveA~'e Maria, gratia plena. In rrcas.'ioricasso crossbow sramps.stamp^.. (Nar.(Na,. Mus.It/us. Copenhagen,Co[Xnhagl>n. 10134 and 10130,/0130, IH1H.mur. fot.)./ot.).

foremost the quillons are often of a differentd;fferent style, the foremost being turned upwards into ana,n open knuckle guard, often inin an elegant arc, whereas the lower one is turned downwards inin a corresponding curve (fig. 18).181. Sometimes there is quite a small cage of close bows emanating from the pas-d'gne.pas-ct'une. One guard is sometimes turnedturned upwards in an open knuckle guard, the quillons forming a long,long, elegant letter S.9. In these rapiers, whose blades are often unusually long,long, slender,slender, strong but whippy, like a steel splring,spring, Toledo work, we find the prototypes of the curious Flemish rapiers withwith a basket hilt of

i ,.l ~ .. " l fjo i :l (.

Fig. 20. a: Spanish rapier with lantern-shaped Ian~ern-shaped pommel and lantern-ornaments 011on quili'Onsquill'ons and side rings. About 1580. In the blade De Francisco Ruiz en To~edo.Tokdo. b: Officers sword, so-called «Pappenheimer».c>.DU/chDutch type from about 1620-30. The rypetype was very popular in Sweden. In the hilt engraved omaments,ornmenrs, in the blade: Clemens Deinger, and stamp with a swan.wan. (Nat. Mus. CopenhaKen, Copenhagen, 10123I0123 and 10132, mus.rnus. tot.).fot.).

many bows that almost wraps itself about the hand. The shape of the quillons may embody a reminiscence of the old a lala Valencianas. It is no long step from there to the more or lessless perforated musselmussel- shell guard plates to be found especially on the Flemish rapiers but not uncommonlyuncc~mmonlyon the Spanish too. There is nono! doubtaoubt that in this we see an influence from Germany (fig. 21). The Spanish rapier hilts also provided the goldsmiths with opOp- portunities to display their skill. Like the Italian, the art of thethe goldsmith in Spain was on a particularly high levellevel inin the early ReRe- naissance and the 16th century. One of the most remarkable localitieslocalities forfor this art was Guado1upeGuadalupe in Estremadura, which had fosteredfostered one of the most able Spanish goldsmiths, Fray Juan de Segovia. Most

Fig. 22/.'I. Flemish rapier,rap i er, «Pappellheimer».<>, aho/ltabout 1620-30./620-30. In/11 the hladeblade the lIamename of HeinrichHeillrich Pae-Pue ther. (Call.(Coll. E. A. ChristellSell.Christensen, E 18)./8).

prominent, and also one of the oldest, was Toledo, followed by SanSan- ttagotiago de Compostela and Ovtedo,'Oviedo; the art was somewhat younger in LeOnLeon and Seville. Granada too belonged to the circle. Zaragoza Zaragoxa must also be mentioned, because from it came a large number of skilfulskilful goldsmiths to the many Italian courts and to Rome. The damascedamasce- ning technique that was practised at Toledo was closely related to the Oriental, which originally came from India. Both technically and stylistically it differs from the damascening of the other Romanesque countries. This special products of damascening is to be seen not only on rapierrapler hilts but also on daggers, particularly on the charactecharacte- ristic ear daggers. Like the Venetian weapon the Spanish types originated in the Orient, but the two types-the Venetian and the Spanish-differ in both ornamentation and form. The main center of manufacture in Spain may have been Granada. An outstanding representative from this center is the dagger of Boabdil in the Real

ArmeriaArmeria in in Madrid.Madrld. AnotherAnother outstandingoutstanding spec:menspec:men ofof earear daggerdagger possiblypossibly fromfrom Granada Granada is is to to bebe foundfound inin InstitutoInstitute ValenciaValencia dede DonDon JUaJ"l.Juan. Madrid.Madrid. Various Various specimens specimens areare in in thethe museummuseum ofof Laza;roLazaro GaldianoGaldianoin inMadrid., Madrid,in inthe thecoll, coll,oj of Pala"i!zoPalazxoOdeschalchiin Odeschalchi inRome Rome andand inina a,few fewother othermuseums. museums. TheThetypes types havehavebeen been treatedtreatedby by mrs.mrs. PilarPilar Fern{mdezFernandezVega Vega ininan anessay: essay:Dag9s Dagas granadinas.granadinas.The TheSpanish Spanishtype type byby thethe wayway waswas popularpopular atat thethe FrenchFrench court,court, andand French French accountsaccounts ofof bothboth 15th15thand and16th 16thcenturies, centuries,make makemore moremention mention ofof SpanishSpanishear elar dagdag- gers,gers, e.e. g. g. thethe inventoryinventory fromfrom FontainebleuFontainebleu asas latelate asas 1560.1560. DatingDating fromfrom1538 1538there thereis isa a drawingdrawinq byby thethegoldsmith goldsmith Crist6balCristobal JuanJuanat at BarBar- celona,celona, ofof aa most most elegantelegant ~arear dagger. dagger. TheThe archivesarchives ofof BarcelonaB,arcelona mentionmentiondrawings drawingsfrom fromsuch suchartists artists asasAntonio Antonio dedeValdes Valdesand andRajael Rafael dede XimenesXimenes fromfrom 1537.1537. TheThe mostmost characteristiccharacteristic rap:ersrap-ers areare thethe cupcup hilthilt rapiers,rapiers, which which makemake theirtheirappearance appearanceearly earlyin inthe the17th 17thcentury centuryand andculminate culminate roundround aboutaboutthe the1650's 16501's (fig.(fig 22).22).They Theywere werestill stillin inuse usearound around1700, 1700,and anddated dated a,ndandsigned signedspecimens specimensof of afterafterthe theyear year 17001700are areknown. known.The Thecup cupwas was passiblypossiblydesigned designedunder under thetheinfluence influenceof of thethemussel musselshells shellsof of GermanGerman rapiers,rapiers,which which ononthe theSpanish Spanish rapiers rapiers wereweremade madelarger largerand and rounder,rounder, andandin in timetime grewqrew intointo thethe well-knownwell-knowncup cup oror bell.bell. TheThe turned turned edgeedge waswas developeddeveloped inin conformityconformity withwith thethe manualsmanuals ofof thethe SpanishSpanish fenfen- cingcing masters,masters, itsitsfunction function beingbeing to to catchcatch andand breakbreak thethe blade.blade. TheThe quillonsquillons areare extremelyextremely long, long, thethe gripgrip veryvery shortshort andand thethe knuckleknuckle guardguard doesdoesnot not closecloser:ght r;ght up up to to thetherather rather flattenedflattenedspherical sphericalpom pommel.mel.On On thethelater later cup cup hilt hilt rapiersrapiers various various detailsdetails areare addedadded onon thethe insideinsideof of thethebell, bell,details detailsthat thatare areof of importanceimportanceto tothe theholding holdingof of thethe weapon.weapon. CupCup andand pommel.pommel may may be be quitequite plain,plain, undecoratedun~decoratedor or haha- vingvingmerely merelya anarrow narrowlace laceedge edgecut cutin in thetheiron; iron;but but thethemost mostcharac charac- teristicteristic formformis is thethe cupcup with with openwork openwork likeLke finefine lace.lace. OutstandingOutstanding specimensspecimensare areextant, extant,made madein inSpain Spainitself, itself,i. i.a. a.in inMadrid Madridby by MadrileMadrile- nfannian artists,artists,and andindeed indeedin inPortugal. Portugal. ButBut ititwas was thetheartists artistsat atNaples Naples -then-then underunder Spanish Spanish rule--whorule--who becamebecame famousfamous forfor their their extraordiextraordi- narilynarily fine fine cup cup hilthilt rapiers.rapiers. The The cupcup waswas carvedcarved a a lala espagnole,espagnole, andand amongamong thethe moremore renownedrenowned artistsartists inin thisthis fieldfield areare twotwo whosewhose signedsignedworks worksnow nowrepose reposein inthe theVictoria Victoriaand andAlbert AlbertMuseum Museumin inLondon London andand thetheDetroit Detroit ArtArt Institute,Institute, U.U. S.S. A.,A., Ant01lioAntonio Cilenta Cilenta andand LorenzioLorenzio Palumbo.Palumbo. Brescia Brescia andand MilanMilan areareother other townstownswhich which hadhad aa namenamefor for theirtheir Spanish-styleSpanish-stylecup cup hilthilt rapiers. rapiers. The The SolingenSolingen factoriesfactories imitated imitated them,them, andand in in Germany Germany wewe findfind thethe typetype represented,represented, butbut often often ofof somewhatsomewhat coarsercoarser finish. finish. CoupledCoupled withwith thesethese rapiersrapiers areare thethe SpanishSpanish lejt-hand left-hand daggersdaggers withwith similar similar iron·work iron-work (fig.(fig. 22).22). JustJust asas the the cupcup ofof thethe cupcup hilthilt rapierrapier waswas producedproduced inin variousvarious forms, forms, forfor :nstance instance likelike aa scallopedscalloped

·t, .. .C'~ . .,.

.. :~.-;<> , ; " Fig. 22. Spanish left-hand dagger and cup-hilt rapier. The pierced and chiselled hilts are possibly Italian workmanship, about 1650. (Coli.(Coll. E. A. ChrisChris- tensen, E 71 and 79).

calyx of greater or smaller depth and especially in the latter part of the 17th century got sloping brims with a higher margin under the knuckle guard, so the guard on the SpanishSDanish left-hand dagger varies in appearance, becomes lobate, with a «lace((lace border»border)) on the smooth irolniron plate. That the cup hilt rapier pers-stspers:sts so long in Spain is due to the special line of development in Spanish fencing as evolved by Luis PaeheeoPacheco de Nal'vaezNarvaex with its methodology and its geometrical,geometr~cal, scientifically devised movements. A good idea of the Spanish school of fencing was provided by the large work which appeared in Leyden in 1630, by Girard Thibaust d'Anvers: AcademieAeademie de i'epeel'epee ou se dcmonstrentuemonstru"nt par reigles mathematiques sur le fondamentfondamnt d'un eerclecercle mysterieuxmysterteux la theorietheofie et pratique des vrais et jusqu'a present incopusineognus

secrets de maniement des armes a pied et a cheval, a work difficult to understandtUlderstand but illustrated by eminent artists. In France at about the middle of the 17th century a change was made to a shorter small-sword-xlasmall-sword-----{(la courte &peenepee» and the left-hand dagger was abolished. The three edged blade was introduced at the same time and a distinction was made between epee militaire and epee de v;lle.v:Ile. A book by Le PercheP(~rche du Courdray the founder of the French School with: L'Exercioel'Exercice des armes ouOU le maniement des fleu-Ileu ret-, Paris 1635 was of particular interest,interest. The French school was ins-ins trumenta~ltrumental in causing the long rapier to disappear in Italy and elsewhe-elsewhe re except Spain, and the new shorter and more simple form to appear. During the second half of 17th century the small-sword led to the handsome dress-swords which flourished during the rococo. France separated herself on the whole from Italy and Spain by her heav:erheavkr forms of sword, though maintaining a high degree of elegance. Iron chiselling came into1into the foreground and Spanish dam-dam ascening made its way acrossmross the PyrtntesPyrenees (fig. 23). At first the hilts were of the same complicated types as the Italian and Spanish. Some way into the 17th century the French swords separated from those of the other Romanesque countries on accountaccotUlt of the French fencing system. French renaissance hilts are scarcelyscarceIy ever lacking a quillon runrun- ning right through the cross with a front and back end. Then there are the knuckle-guard and the other bows. It has several points of similarity with SouthSlouth German hilts, which were often mfluencedinfluenced by French work especially towards the close of the the1 16th century and arotUldaround the year 1600. French artists and goldsmiths provide drawings and suggestions for characteristic renaissance hilts in gold and silver, and several such drawings are extantextant. after them i a at Lyons by Pierre WoeiriOtWoezriot from Lorraine, Bordeaux, Paris and elsewhere. The drawings of EZienneEtienne Delaune influenced the artists and swords makers at the Bavarian court, including iron chisellers like Daniel and EmanuelBnanuel Sadeler,Sadetler, whose hiltshIlts are actually French in style. A special iron-work technique developed in France, with orna-orna ments and whole pictorial scenes in blued relief on a gilt backgrotUld.background. One famous sword and gtUlgun smith, Antoine Jacquard 0/of Poitiers, drew designs for hilts with silver incrustations in black steel. In the late baroque and during the rococo France, especially Paris, became the European centre for elegant dress-swords. French 16th and 17th cencen- tury inventories and other documents sometimes mention swords with hilts ah la espagnole, aB la italienne, and a la allemaigne by French artists. A sword hilt was not necessarily made in the countrycotUltry in

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Fii!.Fig. 23.23. TileThe «classical»<FrenchFrench rapier rapier INmf&m aboutabout 1575.1575. HiltHilt richlyrichly damascened damascened wilhwith Raidgold and and silver.xihr. SlamStampsps inin Ihethe ricasso. ricasso. (Call.(Coll. E.E. A.A. Christensen.Christensen, EE 208).208).

whose typetype andand stylestyle itit waswas designed. designed. FormForm andand stylestyle dependeddepended upon thethe desiresdesires ofof thethe customer.customer. TheThe swordsswords inin EnglandEngland standstand toto somesome degreedegree quitequite alone.alone. InIn thatthat countrycountry werewere evolvedevolved aa separateseparate groupgroup ofof designsdesigns andand aa separate separate stylestyle whichwhich onon thethe wholewhole werewere locallocal (fig.(fig.24 24 b).6). TheThe hiltshiltsoften often havehaveseveral several bowsbows andand guards,guards, half-andhalf-and wholewhole guardguard plates, plates, small,small, shallowshallow bowls, etc.etc. SometimesSometimes thethe pommelspommels areare reminiscentreminiscent ofof thethe SpanishSpanish andand French, occasionallyoccasionally ofof thethe German.German. TheThe quillonsquillons areare frequentlyfrequently peculiar,peculiar, forfor instanceinstance extremelyextremely volute-rolled. volute-rolled. TheThe decorativedecorative elements elements areare highlyhighly characteristic.characteristic AA specialspecial favouritefavourite isis thethe damascening,damascening,

Fig.Fig. 24.24. a:a: /lalian.Italian. b:b: EnglishEnglish and.and. r:c: SpanishSpanish nw-hillcup-hilt rapiers.rapiers, the the EnglishEnglish rara- pierpier IVithwith richrich silversilver incruslalions.incrustrrtions. Fir,l'l First halfhalf ofof 171h17th cenlury.century. (Call.(Coll.E. E. A.A. Chri.wensen,Christensen, EE 91,91, 20.20, 20(,).206).

whichwhich recallsrecalls thethe FrenchFrench oror SouthSouth german.german. ThereThere isis aa predilectionpredilection forfor sJversalver andand goldgold incrustationsincrustations inin thethe darkdark steel.steel. TheThe artisticartistic qualityquality isis oftenoften veryvery high.high. InIn manymany casescases it it is is impossible impossible toto decidedecide whetherwhether thethe hiltshilts areare thethe workwork ofof Eng;ishEngiish goldsmithsgoldsmiths andand artistsartists oror ofof immi·immi- gratedgrated SouthSouth GermanGerman craftsmen. craftsmen. TheThe latterlatter alternativealternative isis notnot unu·unusual,sual, asas inin thethe 17t~17th centurycentury EnglandEngland sentsent forfor GermanGerman craftsmen craftsmen andand bladeblade smithssmiths (HOWlSlow(Hounslow blades).blades). ThereThere isis alsoalso piercedpierced ironiron workwork withwith nono formform ofof inlayinlay inin otherother materials.materials. Some Some ofof thisthis workwork attainsattains toto greatgreat beautybeauty whereas whereas othersothers areare rather rather crude,crude, almost almost primitive. primitive. OnOn thethe whole,whole, England's England's 17th 17th centurycentury sidearmssidearms havehave a a physiognomyphysiognomy ofof theirtheir own.own. ThereThere asas inin ItalyItaly andand FranceFrance thethe hilthilt becamebecame simplified simplified about about thethe

middlemiddle ofof thethe 17th17th century. century. TheThe manymany bows disappeardisappear andand are rere- placed by aa singlesingle knuckle-bow andand mussel-shell guards,guards, oftenoften ratherrather smallsmall andand placed belowbelow thethe quillonsquillons atat thethe lowerlower endsends ofof thethe pas-d'fl.lle.pas-d'8ne. AlthoughAlthough itit cannotcannot generallygenerally bebe saidsaid thatthat allall EuropeanEuropean swordsword hiltshilts can can bebe divideddivided intointo LatinLatin andand GermanicGermanic andand these these againagain into into Italian,Italian, Spanish,Spanish, French,French, English,English, etc.,etc., itit isis possiblepossible toto makemake aa certaincertain subdivision.subdivision. TheThe GermanicGermanic hilts hilts were evolvedevolved onon a.nother another basisbasis andand originallyoriginally accordingaccording toto otherother principles thanthan thethe Latin.Latin. ActuallyActually itit waswas notnot long long before before thethe LatinLatin characteristicscharacteristics beganbegan toto influenceinfluence thethe GerGer- manicmanic andand vicevice versa.versa. InIn GermanyGermany especiallyespecially inin thethe South,South, manymany LatinLatin elements elements were absorbed.absorbea. TheThe samesame was thethe casecase inin thethe NetherNether- lands,lands, where inin particUlarparticular thethe SpanishSpanish influenceinfluence was highlyhighly perceptipercepti- ble.ble. (fig.(fig. 21).21). InIn conjunctionconjunction withwith thethe GermanicGermanic elements elements specialspecial formsforms emergeemerge justjust here, here, asas waswas thethe casecase inin England.England. OneOne separateseparate developmentdevelopment occurredoccurred inin thethe EastEast cornercorner ofof CentralCentral Europa,Europa, wherewhere thethe muchmuch enclosedenclosed basketbasket hilts hilts thatthat areare familiarfamiliar fromfrom thethe schiavones,schiavones, dusagg,~dusaggr: sa'bres, sa~bres, etc.,etc., becomebecome characteristic.characteristic, HoweverHowever thisthis extremeextreme handhand protection,protection, intended intended mainlymainly asas aa guard guard against against thethe cuttingcutting blow,blow, alsoalso become become thethe recipientrecipient ofof LatinLatin elements, elements, receives receives aa kindkind afaf I::as-d'ane,pas d'kne, obliqueoblique bows,bows, etc.,etc., onon thethe counter-guardcounter-guard oror quitequite aa littlelittle crosscross ofof bowsbows Onon thatthat side.side. InIn thisthis respectrespect NorthNorth ItalyItaly displaysdisplays aa curiouscurious formform withwith thethe Latin,Latin, veryvery longlong quillons,quillons, oftenoften slightly slightly S-shaped,S-shaped, withwith aa closedclosed basket-hilt,basket-hilt, sometimessometimes quitequite devoiddevoid ofof pas-d'anepas-d'hne andand obliqueoblique guards,guards, anan Halo-SlavItalo-Slav typetype ofof sword,sword, mainly mainly intended intended forfor cutting.cutting. InIn SwitzerlandSwitxerland thethe combinationcombination ofof LatinLatin andand GermanicGermanic isis clearlyclearly visible.visible. Around Around thethe 1520's15210's therethere areare stillstill largelarge cutting cutting swordsswords toto bebe seen,seen, almostalmost hand-and-halfhand-and-half swordsswords withwith aa cruciform cruciform hilt,hilt, pas-d'anepas-d'be andand obliqueoblique bows,bows, sideside ringsrings whichwhich connectconnect thethe pas-d'ane-ends,pas-d'hne-ends, pitonspitons andand halfhalf oror wholewhole knuckle-bows knuckle-bows (fig.(fig. 25).25). TheThe SwissSwiss sabressabres alsoalso havehave curiouscurious combinationscombinations ofof bows.bows. OnOn thethe wholewhole Switzerland Switzerland isis remarremar- kablekable forfor herher differentdifferent locallocal types-swordstypes-swords asas wellwe11 asas rapiers,rapiers, hangershangers andand daggers.daggers. OneOne ofof thethe locallocal groupsgroups observableobservable especially especially inin the the GermanicGermanic developmentdevelopment isis to to bebe foundfound inin Saxony.Saxony. AA numbernumber ofof excellentexcellent andand veryvery characteristiccharacteristic rapiersrapiers are are preservedpreserved inin thethe ElectorialElectorial ArmouryArmoury inin Dresden,Dresden, whilewhile othersothers havehave beenbeen spreadspread aboutabout museumsmuseums andand collectionscollections inin thethe coursecourse ofof time. time. CharacteristicCharacteristic isis anotheranother large large and and simplesimple cruciformcruciform type,type, one one thatthat waswas easy easy to to imitateimitate andand thereforetherefore gavegave riserise toto aa multitudemultitude ofof copiescopies andand falsifications.falsifications. TheThe characteristiccharacteristic featurefeature ofof thesethese swords swords isis thethe oftenoften short,short, plumpplump formform ofof thethe gripgrip withwith an an almostalmost serratedserrated collarcollar aboveabove andand belowbelow asas wellwell asas verticalvertical bandsbands ofof ironiron fromfrom thethe oneone toto thethe other,other, andand alsoalso aa biconicalbiconical pommel, pommel, oftenoften withwith sixsix sides sides onon eacheach half. half. OneOne alsoalso encountersencounters thethe long,long, divided divided

i I I

Fig.Fig.25. 25.Swiss Swissone-and-a-half one-and-a-halfsword, sword,early early 16th16thcentury. century.(Coli. (Coll.E. E.A. A.Christen Christen- .~I'Il,sen,Ell). E 11).

grip,grip,a areminiscence reminiscenceof of thethelate-mediaeval late-mediaevalsword. sword. TheThequillons, quillons,which which oftenoftenwiden widentowards towardsthe theends, ends,are areeither eitherhorizontal horizontalor orfaintly faintlycurved. curved. InIn thethecross crosson onthe theguard guardis isa a horizontal horizontal bow.bow.Some Somehave havetwo two paspas- d'ane,d'kne, connectedconnected byby aa smallsmall ringring whereaswhereas thethe counterguarctcounterguard: hashas ananoblique obliquebow bowfrom fromthe theend endof of oneonepas-d'ane pas-d'heto tothe thecross crossor orthere there areare twotwo crossedcrossed oblique oblique guards,guards, oneone fromfrom eacheach pas-d'ane.pas-d'he. OthersOthers havehave onlyonly oneone pas-d'a.ne pas-d'8neand anda a single singleoblique obliquebow. bow. BelowBelolw thethe crosscross therethere isis sometimessometimes aa k;nd kind ofof muffmuff ofof silver.silver.The Theblades blades areareoften often

heavyheavy withwith oneone oror moremore grooves. grooves. InIn aa fewfew casescases they they areare MilaneseMilanese blades,blades, inin othersothers Solingen.Solingen. TheThe mountingsmountings onon hilthilt andand scabbardscabbard areare oftenoften silver,silver, decorateddecorated with with ornamentsornaments (engraved(engraved oror chased)chased) inin aa stylestyle recalling recalling i.i. a.a. HeinrichHeinrich AldegreverAldegrever andand hishis circle.circle. InIn thisthis typetype wewe seesee thethe oldold mediaeval mediaeval swordsword ofof cross-formcross-form survivingsurviving underunder thetheinfluence influenceof of thethenew new LatinLatin currents,currents,the the shortshort gripgrip andand thethe variousvarious bowsbows underunder thethe quillonsquillons andand thethe pas-d'ane.pas-d'ane. ThisThis transitional transitional typetype waswas veryvery popularpopular inin thethe ScandinavianScandinavian cOlUltries, countries, where where not not lUlcomuncom- monlymonlyit it appearsappearswith with aa longlongtwo-piece two-piecegrip, grip,pas-d'ane, pas-d'ane,oblique oblique branchesbranches andand thethelike. like. ThereThere areare examplesexamples inin Sweden.Sweden. ItIt waswas popularpopular inin DenDen- markmark andand isis representedrepresented byby thethe silver-adornedsilver-adorned swordsword ofof thethe DanishDanish noblemannobleman Herluf Herluf TrolleTrolle 0516-1565)(1516-1565)in in HerlufsholmHerlufsholm ChurchChurch inin Sealand.Sealand. . AA SaxonianSaxonian type,type, influenced influenced byby thethe NorthNorth ItalianItalian rapiersrapiers oror strisciasstriscias isis i.i. a.a. thethe burialburial swordsword ofof ChristophChristoph RosengaardRosengaard (ob.(ob. 1596)1596) inin thethe CathedralCathedral ofof RoskildeRoskilde (fig.(fig. 26).26). TheThe heavyheavy SaxonianSaxonian typestypes areare oftenoften depicteddepictedon onthe thetombstones tombstones ofof DanishDanishnobles. nobles.This ThisSaxon Saxontype type achievedachieved suchsuch aa widewide distributiondistribution inin DenmarkDenmark becausebecause ofof thethe latter'slatter's intimateintimate relat:onshiprelationship withwith SaxonySaxony throughthrough royalroyal marriagesmarriages andand thethe culturalcultural influenceinfluencefrom fromthe theLutheran Lutheran Electorate.Eilectorate. Saxon Saxon craftmencraftmen camecame toto Den-Den-

., ....=;r-....

......

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FiR.Fig. 26.26. SilvennounledSilvermounted rapierrapier fromfrom Ihethe IOmhtombof ofChdsloph Christoph Rosengaard,Rosengaard,·.)h. oh.1596. 1596. SaxonSuxon Iypetype wilhwith ltalianItalian influence.influence.On On Ihethe broadbroad silverplalesilverplate Ihethe coal coat ofof armsarms andand namename ofofIhe the owner.owner. (Roskilde(RoskildeCathedral, Carhedral, Denmark).Denmark).

mark, sword-makers among them. Sidearms were imported from there or imitated. Swords of Saxon ~ypetype are rEproducedreproduced in Danish portrait paintings of the period. Another characteristic Saxon type with its appurtenant left-hand dagger is in the DresdenDlresden Armoury. The hilt has not quite lost its mediaeval form, though it has got the modern accessories such as pas-d'ane, side rings and counterguard. The material is iron ch:selledchkelled in a basketry pattern. There are other sword-rapiers inin Dresden with hilts in the same basketry pattern and with knuckleknuckle- bow and curved parade quillon. Some of the specimens preserved in the Dresden Armoury have Milanese blades others have SolinSollin- gen blades bearing the name of Peter Munsten. Possibly there was some question of a series of swords, made for the Electoral life-life-

Fig. 27. Sl1xoniallSaxonian rapiers, ahoutabout 1600. Silver incrusl(/(ionsincrustations illin hilt and grip. IIIIn thethe blades: HermanHermall SlofStof me fecit Solillgell,Solingen, alldand stamps.stumps. Blade I\)PO thethe left dateddared 1619. (Nat.(Nar. Mus. Copellhal!ell,Copenhagen, 10128 alldand 10127, mus.muy. fot.).fat.).

guards under Christian I (1586-91) and Christian IlI1 (1601-1611). Some elegant rapiers are now in the Danish naLonalnat-onal museum (fig. 27-28). In connection with the Saxon swords mention must be made of one of the period's most distinguished German chisellers, OttmarOttma~ Wetter, who was attached to the Elector's court at the close of the 16th century.oentury. Actually he was from Munich, whence as a Protestant he had had to flee to Saxony, where he found protection under the Lutheran Elector. For the prince he made a number of sword hilts besides other iron work. One of his most characteristic swords, entirely in black, now in the Royal Arsenal Museum Museunl in Copenhagen, is both signed and dated (1594). And other works from his hand and his school are to be seen in several museums in Germany, EngEng- land, U.U, S. A. CJ.(J. Hayward, Studies on Ottmar Wetter, LivrustkammaLivrustkamma- ren V. Stockh. 1949).

Fig. 28. SaxonSmon rapier with wheelwheel- lock pistol. To it helongsbelongs the da/?gerdagger fig. 14. (Nat,(Nar. Mus. Copenhagen.Copenhagen, I0115IO/ /5 and 10163, mus.nlI/S. rot,).fot.).

TheThe most distinguished ofof thethe GermanGerman groups isis undoubtedly thatthat belonging toto MunichMunich atat thethe BavarianBavarian court.court. The The formsforms ofof thesethese swordsswords and and theirtheir left-hand left-hand daggersdaggers areare particularly goodgood andand survisurvi- ceable,ceable, ofof thethe latestlatest fashion;fashion; butbut what makes themthem remarkableremarkable is thethe decoration,decoration, thethe masterly ch:selling-work,ch-selling-work, inin which figures,figures, leavesleaves and flowersflowers standstand well inin finelyfinely cut andand bluedblued reliefrelief against thethe giltgilt background. TheyThey are chieflychiefly thethe work ofof thethe twotwo brothers DanielDanieJ andand Emanuel Emanuel Sadel'er.Sadeler. SlightlySlightly younger younger isis thethe similarlysimilarly fine, fine, but ~~rhapspshaps somewhatsomewhat lessless thoroughthorough workwork ofof Caspa'1"Caspaa Spiith.Spath. TheThe SadelersSadelers werewere summonedsummoned to to PraguePrague by thethe GermanGerman emperoremperor Rudol/Rudolf II,11, where theythey made severalseveral ceremonialcerem~nialweapons, specimens specimens ofof which areare now toto be seenseen inin Vienna. The motifs inin theirtheir chiselled hilts areare t~icaltypical ofof thethe period: antiqueantique godsgods andand goddesses,goddesses, herms, fauns,fauns, masks, etc., amongamong leaves leaves andand flowerflower garlands. garlands. ManyMany ofof thethe Sadelers'Sadelers' work was donodono inin collaborationcollaboration with FrenchFrench artistsartists andand designersdesigners and allall their products bearbear aa light light andand elegantelegant stampstamp thatthat suggestssuggests French protoproto- types.types. Very remarkableremarkable are thethe hilts onon some some ofof thesethese swordsswords now inin thethe Victoria andand Albert Museum andand inin thethe WallWallaceace CollectionCollection inin London, othersothers inin Munich andand Vienna. Among otherother thingsthings there there areare thethe drawings ofof EtienneEtierzne Delaune, which were patterns. TheThe blades in many ofof thethe Sadelers'Sadelers' works areare Milanese.Milanese. Round about thethe year 17001700 andand in thethe firstfirst half ofof thethe 18th18th centurycentury drawingsdrawings were published onon hilts forfor dress-swords,dress-swords, especiallyespecially by Augsburg andand NurembergNuremberg a,r·air- tists.tists. TheThe simplificationsimplification ofof thesethese sword sword hilts in thethe 17th17th centurycentury was not confined confined to to SouthSouth andand WestWest Europe.Europe. OneOne particular formform dede- velopedveloped. inin North GermanyGermany about thethe middle of that century, thethe so-calledso-called Brandenburg sword,sword, wholly devoid of bows and hhandguard,andguard, having a cruciform hilt but more slenderslender and of other proportions thanthan thethe oldold mediaeval swords. A typicaltypical andand unusually fine fine exampleexample ofof itit isis thethe oneone inin thethe Victoria andand Albert Museum, signed signed by thethe chisellerchiseller Gott/TiedGottfried Leygebe,Leygebe, dated toto 1660-70.16601-70. Others by thethe samesame andand otherother artistsartists reposerepose in in the museums of EuropeEbrope andand America,AmeTica, oror areare depicteddepicted in thethe portraitportrait painting ofof thethe time.time. With hilts such as as thethe laterlater French, EnglishQnglish andand Brandenburg we areare now onon thethe way toto sidearmssidearms ofof anan entirely different different fonn.form. InIn realityreality they they formform a a connectingconnecting link link with thethe characteristiccharacteristic small small- sword5swords ofof thethe 18th18th century,century, thethe fine,fine, oftenoften elegant andand slenderslender dress dress- swordsswords whose smallsmall hilts bear survivalssurvivals ofof thethe oldold pas-d'ane pas-d'sne and whose blades areare slender,slender, sharJrPointedsharp-pointed and stiff.stiff. With thethe sidearmssidearms of thethe baroque we have arrived at the transitionaltransitional stage stage toto the lastlast phase of these weapons. This is thethe lastlast independentindependent epoch before theythey becom2becorn2 shornshorn ofof theirtheir artist:cartistic significance-tosignificant-to somesome extent

65 5

their usefulness too, and become simply brazier work, more or less in mass production. Individual swords are made only in special cases. In its best style the sidearm becomes an accessory to the gala uni-uni form of officers or civil servants, or swords of honour like the French swords from Boutet in Versailles, sabres presented on special W-oc casions to persons of merit, from generals to N. C. 0s.Os. As mass arc.arti' cles they become the regulation military swords, sabres, etc,etc., bearing the impress of the particular services who are to wear them and, to some extent, of the style and fashion of the period. Their interest and importanceimportance lie elsewhereelsewhere. Their value as art and their cost - with few exceptions - are slight compared with the sidearms of former periods, from the mediaeval sword to the rapiers of the renaissance and thence toto the dress-swords of the rococo.

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