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Aythya Ferina -- (Linnaeus, 1758)

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Aythya Ferina -- (Linnaeus, 1758) Aythya ferina -- (Linnaeus, 1758) ANIMALIA -- CHORDATA -- AVES -- ANSERIFORMES -- ANATIDAE Common names: Common Pochard; Fuligule milouin; Northern Pochard; Pochard European Red List Assessment European Red List Status VU -- Vulnerable, (IUCN version 3.1) Assessment Information Year published: 2015 Date assessed: 2015-03-31 Assessor(s): BirdLife International Reviewer(s): Symes, A. Compiler(s): Ashpole, J., Burfield, I., Ieronymidou, C., Pople, R., Wheatley, H. & Wright, L. Assessment Rationale European regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) EU27 regional assessment: Vulnerable (VU) This widespread diving duck is undergoing rapid population declines across Europe. It is therefore classified as Vulnerable (A2abcd+3bcd+4abcd) in both Europe and the EU27. Occurrence Countries/Territories of Occurrence Native: Albania; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Greece; Hungary; Iceland; Ireland, Rep. of; Italy; Latvia; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Moldova; Montenegro; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Canary Is. (to ES); Sweden; Switzerland; Turkey; Ukraine; United Kingdom Vagrant: Faroe Islands (to DK) Population The European population is estimated at 198,000-285,000 pairs, which equates to 397,000-570,000 mature individuals. The population in the EU27 is estimated at 85,400-127,000 pairs, which equates to 171,000-254,000 mature individuals. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Trend In Europe and the EU27 the population size is estimated to be decreasing by 30-49% in 22.8 years (three generations). In winter, the population size in Europe is estimateed to be decreasing at the same rate. For details of national estimates, see Supplementary PDF. Habitats and Ecology This species requires well-vegetated eutrophic to neutral swamps, marshes, lakes and slow-flowing rivers with areas of open water and abundant emergent fringing vegetation. It also breeds on saline, brackish and soda lakes and occasionally even in sheltered coastal bays (Kear 2005). The breeding grounds are reoccupied from early March (in the south) to early May (in Siberia) (Scott and Rose 1996) with breeding starting from April-May. The nest is a depression or shallow cup in a thick heap of vegetation positioned on the ground or over water and concealed in thick waterside vegetation (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), or on floating mats of reeds or other vegetation (Johnsgard 1978). Clutches are usually eight to ten eggs. The species is omnivorous, its diet consisting of seeds, roots (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), rhizomes (Kear 2005) and the vegetative parts of grasses, sedges and aquatic plants, as well as aquatic insects and larvae, molluscs, crustaceans, worms, amphibians and small fish (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014). Northern populations of this species are highly migratory, with those breeding in the milder parts of western or southern Europe being sedentary or only making short-distance dispersal movements (Snow and Perrins 1998) governed by harsh weather conditions (Scott and Rose 1996). Habitats & Altitude Habitat (level 1 - level 2) Importance Occurrence Artificial/Aquatic - Excavations (open) suitable non-breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Wastewater Treatment Areas suitable non-breeding Artificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over ha) suitable non-breeding Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Estuaries suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged) suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Loose Rock/pebble/gravel suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Rock and Rocky Reefs suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy suitable non-breeding Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over ha) suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under ha) suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes suitable non-breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools suitable breeding Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools suitable non-breeding Altitude Occasional altitudinal limits Threats The species is threatened by disturbance from hunting (Evans and Day 2002, Kear 2005, Carboneras and Kirwan 2014), water-based recreation (Fox et al. 1994, Kear 2005) and from machinery noise from urban development (Marsden 2000). It is also threatened by habitat destruction (Carboneras and Kirwan 2014) on its wintering grounds due to eutrophication (partially as a result of nutrient run-off from agricultural land) (Kear 2005). The species suffers from nest predation by American Mink (Neovison vison) in Poland (Bartoszewicz and Zalewski 2003), and adults are poisoned by ingesting lead shot (Spain) (Mateo et al. 1998). The species is also susceptible to avian influenza, so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the disease (Melville and Shortridge 2006). This species is hunted in Northern Ireland (Evans and Day 2002), Spain (Mateo et al. 1998) and Italy (Sorrenti et al. 2006), and the eggs of this species used to be (and possibly still are) harvested in Iceland (Gudmundsson 1979). Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Biological resource Fishing & harvesting Timing Scope Severity Impact use aquatic resources Ongoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact (unintentional effects: Stresses (subsistence/small Species mortality scale) [harvest]) Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial animals Ongoing Minority (<50%) No decline Low Impact (intentional use - species is the target) Stresses Species mortality; Species disturbance Biological resource Hunting & trapping Timing Scope Severity Impact use terrestrial animals Ongoing Majority (50-90%) Causing/Could Medium Impact (unintentional cause fluctuations effects - species is not the target) Stresses Species mortality Threats & Impacts Threat (level 1) Threat (level 2) Impact and Stresses Human intrusions & Recreational Timing Scope Severity Impact disturbance activities Ongoing Majority (50-90%) No decline Low Impact Stresses Species disturbance Invasive and other American Mink Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic (Neovison vison) Ongoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact species, genes & diseases Stresses Species mortality Invasive and other Avian Influenza Timing Scope Severity Impact problematic Virus (H subtype) Future Majority (50-90%) Rapid Declines Low Impact species, genes & diseases Stresses Species mortality Pollution Agricultural & Timing Scope Severity Impact forestry effluents Ongoing Minority (<50%) Negligible declines Low Impact (nutrient loads) Stresses Ecosystem degradation Residential & Housing & urban Timing Scope Severity Impact commercial areas Ongoing Minority (<50%) No decline Low Impact development Stresses Species disturbance Conservation Conservation Actions Underway EU Birds Directive Annex II. CMS Appendix II. The cyclical removal of adult fish from an artificial waterbody (gravel pit) in the U.K. attracted nesting pairs to the area by causing an increase in invertebrate food availability and an increase in the growth of submerged aquatic macrophytes. The removed fish (dead or alive) were sold to generate funds (Giles 1994). In the Trebon Basin Biosphere Reserve, Czech Republic, it was found that artificial islands and wide strips of littoral vegetation are the most secure breeding habitats that can be created for the species (nest survival in littoral habitats was improved by reduced nest visibility, increased water depth, and increased distance from the nest to the habitat edge, and nest survival on islands was improved with increased distance to open water) (Albrecht et al. 2006). The use of lead shot in Europe is being phased out. Conservation Actions Proposed This species would benefit from the protection and maintenance of wetland habitat. Lead shot use should continue to be prohibited and legislation properly enforced. Accurate monitoring of bag numbers in countries where this species is hunted should be implemented and maintained. Bibliography Albrecht, T., Horák, D., Kreisinger, J., Weidinger, K., Klvana, P. and Michot, T.C. 2006. Factors Determining Pochard Nest Predation Along a Wetland Gradient. Journal of Wildlife Management 70(3): 784-791. Bartoszewicz, M. and Zalewski, A. 2003. American mink, Mustela vison diet and predation on waterfowl in the Slonsk Reserve, western Poland. Folia Zoologica 52(3): 225-238. Carboneras, C. and Kirwan, G.M. 2014. Common Pochard (Aythya ferina). In: del Hoyo, J.,
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