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Home , Democratic Party (Libya), Muammar Gaddafi

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Letter from the Chair Letter from the Crisis Director Format of the Committee Awards Information Character List Topic 1: Terror in - Origins of the Libyan Civil War Introduction History ’s First and Last King- Gaddafi’s Rise to Power Libya Under Colonel Gaddafi’s Revolutionary Message Relevance to Time Period- Leading to the 2011 Civil War Libya Takes a Radical Route Political Repression The Questions to Consider Topic 2: “The Mad Dog of the Middle East:” Gaddafi’s International Legacy Introduction Background Relations with the World The West Russia The Middle East & Pan Arabism Africa Non State Actors Questions to Consider Final Thoughts Works Cited

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LETTER FROM THE CHAIR

Dear Delegates,

My name is Sathvika, and I’ll be your Chair this coming BosMUN weekend. I’m a senior studying Psychology & International Relations, and I’m excited to spend the weekend with you for what promises to be a nuanced and challenging committee.

“, Benghazi!” We’ve heard this word over and over on TV during the recent U.S. Presidential campaign, in reference to ’s role as Secretary of State. What actually IS Benghazi? We’re going to explore the intricate history of the Libyan Civil War, concentrating our critical examination on the whims and woes of a very unique, dynamic dictator—Colonel Muammar Gaddafi.

Take yourself to back to a time and place where humanity’s pivotal questions have unraveled themselves- how do you ensure your nation and people’s success? Which political philosophy works the best? Where do you derive your legitimacy- In other words, why do you have power and I don’t?

Joining me is my Vice Chair, Hafzat Akanni. Hafzat is a freshman majoring in Journalism and minoring in International Relations. She was born in Nigeria and lived there until she was 4. She then moved to Ireland, spending the next 12 years in . She moved to the United States in 2013.

I strongly encourage you to research this committee beyond the background guide, and push yourself to truly examine different points of view- one as you are- Gaddafi’s loyal cabinet member, one of a Libyan citizen, and one from the eyes of the outside world, looking in on your every move. Remember, everyone thinks their own version of history is right.

Matt, your Crisis Director, and I are immensely looking forward to the thought-provoking debate, sophisticated crises, and the research and opinions that you bring to this committee. At the risk of a sizeable promise, I assure you that if you come prepared, it’ll be one of the most memorable and challenging committees of your high school Model UN career. If you have any questions, please reach out to me at my email listed below. Take care, Comrades!

Best regards, Sathvika Ramachandran Chair, [email protected]

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LETTER FROM THE CRISIS DIRECTOR

Hello Delegates,

My name is Matt Manarchy and I will be your Crisis Director for Muammar Gaddafi’s Cabinet. I am a junior at Boston University, studying International Relations, Middle East-North Africa Studies, and . Outside of class, I am involved in BU’s International Affairs Association, the Model UN Travel Team, BosMUN’s senior staff, and the Secretariat of BU’s collegiate conference, BarMUN X. Before moving to Boston for my studies, I grew up in Los Angeles, and have been involved in competitive debate since high school. When not in school, I enjoy hiking, camping, and backpacking as well as practicing photography back home in LA.

The reign of Muammar Gaddafi is an interesting time in Libya’s History, and is part of my favorite areas of study in the Middle East; authoritarian regimes. Sathvika and I have been hard at work creating this committee for you all and we are very excited that it is finally coming to life. We are very excited to meet you all in February and I am certain that you all will be fantastic delegates. Something to remember when things get heated in committee; we participate in Model UN because it is fun. So let’s make this the best committee any of us have participated in so far.

Best of luck, Matt Manarchy Crisis Director, [email protected]

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FORMAT OF COMMITTEE

This committee will be run as cabinet gatherings of Muammar Gaddafi’s cabinet. The goal of this committee is to advance Gaddafi’s efforts towards maintaining power and legitimacy against rebel forces. Our first meeting will be held on Tuesday, February 15, 2011. As the chair, I’m ​ going to be Colonel Muammar Gaddafi. ​

Debate

This committee will run by default as a perpetual moderated caucus. The following are my parliamentary procedure rules for debate. If the committee wants to change them at any time in an effort to improve debate, simply motion for it and I’ll entertain it.

Chair’s Discretion: I will abstain from voting, but if I feel as if debate has stagnated, I retain the right to use chair’s discretion. I also hold veto powers that cannot be overridden.

Documents

Our committee will use 4 different types of documents. ​ ​

1. Directive: A document that orders the Cabinet of Muammar Gaddafi to take an official, concrete action. This is similar to a resolution, but more direct, less formal, and should be written and passed much more often than in a General Assembly. 2. Press Release: A document that outlines a public statement the committee wishes to express. ​ 3. Communiqué: An official communication to another organization or individual. It can be sent to another delegate. It may also be sent to another individual or organization not represented in the simulation, which will then be played by the crisis room. 4. Individual Action Order: Delegates should use this to secretly order something that is fully within their purview and would not require committee-wife approval for implementation. This is the document you would write to utilize the portfolio powers outlined in your character’s dossier. Individual Action Orders should be sent to the Crisis Room, and may or may not be approved at the discretion of the crisis team.

Crisis Room

At BosMUN, we strive to offer an opportunity for every delegate to shape their simulated world, and so we will make the best possible attempt to implement your Individual Action Orders. When sending a note to the crisis room however, please be creative in whom you address it to, and remain within the realistic purview of your character’s power. Please remember to sign all notes, and be respectful to the Crisis Room as well as your fellow committee members.

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AWARDS INFORMATION

Delegates are encouraged to promote the best possible solutions to the committee’s substantive problems. Awards will specifically be given to the individuals who shape the debate and results of the committee the most throughout the conference. In other words, those who best influence the content of the committee’s proceedings will be considered for awards. This can be accomplished through all means available, including utilization of the Crisis Room, speaking, writing, and caucusing. The opinions of the Crisis Director, Vice Chair, and Crisis Staff will play heavily into awards decisions. Please do not disrespect your fellow delegates and/or committee staff, or you will automatically be disqualified for an award.

Specific to this committee, the committee staff will be looking closely for strong commitment to your character, mastery of the fine balance between being a team player and a leader, the ability to intelligently maneuver the course of committee, and some genuine revolutionary spirit.

CHARACTER LIST

1. Prime Minister of the General People’s Committee 2. Deputy Prime Minister of the General People’s Committee 3. Minister of Defense 4. Minister of Foreign Affairs 5. Minister of Intelligence/Director of the External Security Organization 6. Minister of Health 7. Minister of Planning 8. Minister of the Economy, Trade, and Investment 9. Governor of The 10. Minister of Culture and Information 11. Minister of Justice 12. Minister of Finance 13. Minister of Public Security 14. Minister of Education 15. Minister of Industry and Mines 16. Minister of Agriculture, Animal Wealth, and Marine Resources 17. Minister of Social Affairs 18. Minister of Health and the Environment 19. Minister of Telecommunications and Transport 20. Minister of Electricity, Water Resources, and Gas 21. Minister of Manpower, Training, and Operation 22. Minister of Oil 23. Minister of the Interior 24. Commanding General of the Revolutionary Guard Corps 25. General Chief of Staff 26. Commanding General of the Army

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27. Commanding Admiral of the Navy 28. Commanding General of the Air Force 29. Commanding General of the Air Defense Forces

30. Minister of Tourism, Sports, and Youth

TOPIC 1: TERROR IN TRIPOLI …Origins of the Libyan Civil War

INTRODUCTION

How do you kill a man?

With the vestiges of Tripoli’s fall on the world’s mind, during the month of October 2011 airstrikes unapologetically and indiscriminately blasted everything in sight. One man by the name of Muammar Gaddafi cozied himself up in a large sewage pipe with a few of his bodyguards.

What happened next gets a little hazy. From one account, a group of rebel fighters opened fire, wounding Gaddafi in the back and legs. Rebels ran to the drainage pipe that Gaddafi was hiding in and ordered him to crawl out. He was allegedly dragged to his feet, and the rebels screamed, 8

“Muammar, Muammar!” But a UN report released in 2012 revealed a different story. One of Gaddafi’s own men threw a grenade at the wall, which ricocheted and fell in front of Gaddafi, killing him shortly after.

When they found Gaddafi, fighters claim he was on the floor, crying and begging, “Please don’t ​ shoot!” and “What did I do to you?” Videos were circulated through the Internet, showing ​ footage of Gaddafi being dragged around the streets, whilst army militants chanted, “God is great” in Arabic. Other videos show rebel fighters posing for pictures next to Gaddafi’s lifeless corpse, as they yanked his hair and stripped him naked.

Who is this man? What did he do to you? ​ HISTORY

Libya’s First and Last King- Gaddafi’s Coup

The story of the Libyan Civil War begins with Libya’s first and last king- King Idris, who ruled Libya during the early 20tth century. King Idris came to power in 1951 when the United 1 was created under UN negotiation. The King had the majority influence over the Parliament and army. Under his control, Libya’s central government was comprised of wealthy townsmen and powerful leaders, all faithful to the king.

While his direct subordinates appreciated him, many scrappy young army officials and a growing urban middle class came to

1 "Idris I." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed November 20, 2016. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Idris-I-king-of-Libya. 9

2 resent King Idris’ socially conservative policies. Other Arab countries saw the King as an unsympathetic leader, as he displayed detachment from the growing currents of Arab . The King was cruel toward his enemies, even once stripping the rights of 30 3 members of his own royal family. As a result of his cold governance, revolutionaries deemed it necessary to depose him.

In 1969, King Idris travelled to Turkey for medical treatment. While he was in Turkey, a group of military officers led by the then 27-year-old Colonel Muammar Gaddafi declared Libya a republic. Gaddafi had patiently waited until the King was out of the country before he seized power. King Idris, seemingly unconcerned with the situation at hand, dismissed the coup as 4 rather unimportant.

A fatal mistake.

While the King was in Turkey, troops and tanks had converged on Tripoli, Libya’s capital, and revolutionaries surrounded the royal palace, as well as military and security headquarters. Gaddafi and his men imposed an embargo, and suddenly Libya’s communication with the 5 outside world was completely cut off. ​ Gaddafi met no serious threat or resistance, and the coup was virtually bloodless.

King Idris was now aware of Libya’s perilous situation, and fled to Greece before later being given political asylum in . He was found guilty on charges of corruption, and he remained 6 in exile until he died in in 1983.

Libya Under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi

The man, the myth, the dictator- Colonel Gaddafi was born near the city to the son of an impoverished goat herder. His motivation and steadfast determination enabled him to 7 succeed despite his humble beginnings. He became involved in politics whilst in school, and later graduated from the Libyan Military Academy in 1956 before eventually earning the rank of colonel in 1969. After overthrowing King Indris, Gaddafi declared himself the Commander in 8 Chief of the Armed Forces of the Libyan state. He adhered to the needs of the people, his actions underlined with the tones of dictatorship, revolutionary , and .

Social Reforms

2 "Idris I." 3 "KING​ IDRIS, OUSTED IN '69 BY QADDAFI, DIES IN CAIRO." . 1983. http://www.nytimes.com/1983/05/26/obituaries/king-idris-ousted-in-69-by-qaddafi-dies-in-cairo.html 4 "KING IDRIS, OUSTED IN '69 BY QADDAFI, DIES IN CAIRO." 5 "BBC​ On This Day." BBC News. 1969. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/1/newsid_3911000/3911587.stm. 6 “Who Was King Idris? And Who Was Gaddafi Of Libya?” Foreign Affairs - Nigeria. Accessed November 20, 2016. http://www.nairaland.com/862859/king-idris-gaddafi-libya. 7 "BBC On This Day." 8 "BBC On This Day." 10

Gaddafi believed strongly in the development of Libya. In an effort to do this, he restored traditional Islamic law, and enforced the prohibition of alcohol, nightclubs, and gambling. At the same time, he liberated women and launched social programs that improved the standard of 9 living throughout Libya. Per capita income in the country rose to $11.000 USD, making it the 10 fifth highest in Africa. Gaddafi made free medical care available to the public, and made primary education mandatory for both boys and girls. However, with these ongoing reforms, the wealth of the country was highly concentrated amongst the elite who were loyal to Gaddafi.

Economy

In 1953, an organized search to find oil in southern Libya instead led to the discovery of massive amounts of fresh underground water. As a result, the Great Man-Made River Project was conceived in the , funded by the Gaddafi government. Networks of pipes were created to supply water to the Sahara in Libya, constituting the largest irrigation project in the entire world. It supplies 6,500,000 m3 of fresh water every day to Tripoli, Benghazi, Sirte, and other cities. ​ 11 Gaddafi described this project as the “Eighth Wonder of the World.” Oil

The basis for Libya’s revolution has been its oil revenue. With Gaddafi in control, profits started raking in, and Libya transformed from one of the poorest lands in Africa into a country 12 tremendously affluent in economic prosperity. Gaddafi wanted to improve the oil sector. In 1969, Gaddafi claimed that foreign private corporations were benefiting more than Libya itself, so Gaddafi’s government managed to increase the world price of oil. Gaddafi’s complains didn’t stop there however. In 1973, the Libyan government nationalized oil companies throughout the 13 country, giving Gaddafi’s government 70% of control over its domestic oil production.

Oil money was used to fund the above social welfare programs, healthcare, education, and housing projects. Additionally, the Egyptian President, suggested that the Arab states create a political federation. As a result, countries like Syria, Sudan, and Egypt received huge grants of Libyan oil money. Oil has, and continues today in 2017, to be a massive factor in Libyan economics.

Gaddafi’s Revolutionary Message

Who was Gaddafi the man? What political philosophy did he believe in? On March 2, 1977, after King Idris’ monarchy dissolved, Libya became The Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab

9 "BBC On This Day." 10 ​ Pal, Go. "Libya's Destiny." Google Books. Accessed August 17, 2016. https://books.google.com/books?id=1Ls6QS2u1K8C. 11 "GMR (Great Man-Made River) Water Supply Project, Libya." Water-Technology. http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/. 12 Asser, Martin. "The Muammar Gaddafi Story." BBC, October 21, 2011. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12688033. 13 Asser, Martin. “The Muammar Gaddafi Story.” 11

Jamahiriya, or a “state of the masses.” Gaddafi had a strong vision in which the people ruled themselves, and for which all Libyan (adults) could vote on big national decisions. Officially, the ​ ​ Jamahiriya was a . But did this play out? Historian Dirk Vanderwalle said that despite the Jamahariya’s claims to being a direct democracy, Libya remained “an exclusionary political system whose decision-making process” was “restricted to a small cadre of advisors ad 14 confidantes” surrounding Gaddafi.

Debate was mostly advised against, and decisions about the economy and defense were largely dealt with in the shadows, away from the public’s eyes. Gaddafi published the Green Book, which is a short book outlining Gaddafi’s political philosophy. The book rejects modern liberal democracy and , and proposes direct political participation. It states that freedom of expression is a natural right, even if people choose to say 15 irrational things. Gaddafi sought a - he rejected the United States’ capitalism, and he also rejected the ’s communist atheism. Gaddafi praised nationalism, and believed Islam played a significant role in this ideology.

Gaddafi wanted to remove foreign imperial influence from Libya, and strengthen ties with other Arab nationalistic governments, especially Egypt. He wanted Libya to pursue , and did this by introducing law, nationalizing the oil industry, and by increasing military funding. Gaddafi dominated Libya’s politics and gained a . On April 16, 1973, Gaddafi started a “Popular Revolution,” in which he dissolved all existing laws, replacing them 16 with revolutionary enactments.

RELEVANCE TO TIME PERIOD- LEADING TO 2011 CIVIL WAR

Libya Takes a Radical Route

Libya was taking a radical direction, consequently earning the government many enemies. In February of 1978, Gaddafi discovered that his head of military intelligence was plotting to kill him. He quickly set out to squash dissidents and counter-revolutionary activity through

14 Vanderwalle, Dirk. Libya since 1969: Qadhafi's Revolution Revisited. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008. https://books.google.com/books?id=HmEYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=. ​ 15 Metz, Helen Chapin. 1989. Libya: a country study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of ​ ​ ​ Congress. 16 Metz, Helen Chapin. 1989. Libya: a country study. ​ ​ ​ 12 , and reportedly 10-20% of Libyans actually worked in surveillance to watch out 17 for dissidents. Much to the awe of the world, he publically bragged about his administration’s use of hit squads. Gaddafi became so concerned with maintaining his idealistic version of power, that in 1979 the U.S. put Libya on its list of State Sponsors of 18 .

Gaddafi was frustrated that this sense of Pan-Arab ideals never panned out, so he rejected Arab nationalism and tried to 19 emphasize Libya’s African identity. He made numerous agreements with African countries, and even visited in South Africa, asking for greater politician and economic integration across the continent. He wanted to see a , and became a founder of the . Gaddafi strongly supported anti-imperialist and anti-colonial movements around the 20 world. He supported anti-Zionist, pan-Africanist, and black civil rights movements.

Political Repression

Throughout Gaddafi’s rule, Gaddafi had to defend himself against any of his opposition, attempts and coup attempts from both his own military and the whole Libyan population. He resisted threats by brutal repression, purging military officers who showed even the slightest sign of opposition. He weakened the by rotating officers, so no one would stay in power for too long.

Libya’s “Green Terror” refers to the campaigns of violence and intimidation against Gaddafi’s 21 opponents. Gaddafi held highly publicized executions of his enemies, and according to the 2009 Freedom of Press Index, Libya was listed as the most censored country in the Middle East and North Africa. listed at least 25

17 Pal, Go. "Gaddafi Up-Close." Google Books. Accessed August 21, 2016. https://books.google.com/books?id=ax0EpcZqeMkC. 18 Blundy, David; Lycett, Andrew (1987). Qaddafi and the Libyan Revolution. Boston and Toronto: Little Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0-316-10042-7. 19 Kawczynski, Daniel. Seeking Gaddafi: Libya, the West and the Arab Spring. London: Biteback, 2011. 20 Kawczynski, Daniel. Seeking Gaddafi: Libya, the West and the Arab Spring. ​ 21 Blundy, David, Lycett, Andrew. 1987. Qaddafi & the Libyan Revolution. Boston & Toronto: Little Brown & Co. ​ 13

22 assassinations between 1980 and 1987. Even Libyans abroad were not protected. In 1980, a Libyan agent attempted to assassinate a Libyan doctoral student at the University of Colorado at 23 Boulder, and the student was left partially blinded.

The Arab Spring

The Arab Spring launched with a wave of violent and non-violent protests in Tunisia during the later half of 2010. These uprisings lasted until 2012, but in the interim influenced numerous other countries, among which were Egypt, Yemen, Syria, and of course, Libya, to conduct protests of their own.

Inspired by the Arab Spring protests, the Libyan citizens revolted against a dictator’s regime. The factors influencing the rise of protests were dictatorship, abuses, political 24 corruption, and economic decline. From January 13-16, 2011, protestors were upset at the delay in building housing units. They clashed with police and attacked government offices. By January th 27 ,​ the Gaddafi government responded by providing 20 billion euros towards housing and ​ 25 development funding. Gaddafi, frustrated by the political upheaval, met with activists and journalists, warning them that they would be held responsible if they broke peace in Libya.

Social media played a significant role in the proceedings of protests, as tweets, YouTube videos, and other mediums circulated images of violent backlash against the Gaddafi regime.

In February 2011, security forces in Libya opened fire on a protest. Anti-government ​ ​ demonstrations exploded across towns in Libya, eventually penetrating Tripoli, the capital. This 26 became an armed revolt and violent, as the protestors aimed to topple Gaddafi.

What will be the course of action that Gaddafi takes to suppress the dissident? It is now far too widespread to simply detain in via assassinations or executions. Large scale plans and measures must be put in place in order to curb this. And remember, the entire world will be watching your every move.

It’s your move now.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

22 Pal, Go. "Gaddafi Up-Close." 23 Pal, Go. "Gaddafi Up-Close." 24 "The Rule of Libya's Colonel Gaddafi - Photo Essays." Time. Accessed November 23, 2016. http://content.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1920998,00.html. 25 "Libyans Protest over Delayed Subsidized Housing Units". Almasry Alyoum. 16 January 2011. ​ ​ ​ ​ 26 Bates, Stephen. "Muammar Gaddafi Timeline." , , 2011. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/20/muammar-gaddafi-timeline. 14

1. What drove the Libyan uprising? Was it Gaddafi’s own paranoia, lack of satisfaction with the way the Libyan government treated its people, piggy backing off of the Arab Spring, or something else entirely?

2. What effect did the conflict have on the people in Libya, and why did it continue to escalate?

3. Put yourself in the shoes of the Libyan government. What are you doing correctly and incorrectly to defend the legitimacy of your government and protect your citizens in this Civil ​ ​ War?

4. Which countries would help you as cabinet members retain your power? Which countries would look down on you for using force on the protestors?

5. What are all the different methods you could use to quell the protestors’ discontent? Is violent suppression the only answer, or are there alternatives?

6. How will these protests affect the nationalized oil industry, social reforms, and the Libyan economy?

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TOPIC 2: “THE MAD DOG OF THE MIDDLE EAST” …Gaddafi’s International Legacy

INTRODUCTION

“WE KNOW THAT THIS MAD DOG OF THE MIDDLE EAST HAS A GOAL OF A WORLD REVOLUTION, AND MUSLIM FUNDAMENTALIST REVOLUTION, WHICH IS TARGETED ON MANY OF HIS OWN ARAB COMPATRIOTS.”

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-President

With Libya’s domestic affairs in turmoil, Gaddafi’s reaction to the Benghazi protests was as expected- brutal and violent. His security and armed forces took direct shots at demonstrators, and Gaddafi did everything he could possibly do to retain his power at the wake of such events- even if that meant killing his own Libyan citizens.

On March 19th of 2011, the international community could no longer turn a blind eye. They were ​ obliged to intervene, and tried to drive back Gaddafi’s huge military force. Almost every Western country cut its diplomatic relations with Gaddafi’s government, and in the same month, the UN Security Council declared Libya a no fly zone. Even the and African Union, of which Gaddafi was a founding member, began recognizing the anti-Gaddafi rebels’ National Transitional council as Libya’s legal interim government during the civil war, which means they failed to recognize Gaddafi’s regime any longer.

In this topic, we’ll explore the tumultuous, contradictory, and unique relations Gaddafi held with the rest of the world in an attempt to understand just how influential this man was. BACKGROUND

Gaddafi began his long career by loudly supporting anti-colonial movements and rebellions around the world. He was known to have dedicated his life to reinvent his revolution. He supported numerous resistant movements. Unlikely forces banded together in an attempt to overthrow Gaddafi, resulting in a complex matrix of allies and enemies.

Gaddafi’s widespread influence around the world created dynamic interactions between different nations, as they fought valiantly to put an end to Gaddafi’s regime, but also praised Gaddafi for his revolutionary efforts. Understanding the international impact of the civil war is crucial to understand how we as a cabinet can manipulate the war to go our way.

RELATIONS WITH THE WORLD

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The West

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

After Gaddafi’s 1969 coup, the United States’ relations with Libya became On August 19, 1981, two Libyan jets fired increasingly difficult, largely due to Libya’s on a U.S. aircraft that was participating in a foreign policies that supported international routine exercise over international waters. terrorism. This moment of strain was The U.S. planes retaliated and shot down the tangible when Gaddafi nationalized the oil Libyan jets. industry, thereby removing American oil companies from Libya. In 1972, the United In , the U.S. State States recalled its ambassador, and started Department completely banned travel to imposing export controls on the military and Libya. The United States adopted economic civil aircrafts. U.S. embassy members were sanctions against Libya, banning direct taken out of Tripoli after a mob set fire to imports, trade, and contracts. Even Libyan the embassy in December of 1979. The U.S. assets in the U.S. were frozen. then designated Libya on the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism.

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In April of 1986 the famous Berlin discotheque bombing occurred. Three people were killed and around 230 were injured when La Belle, a popular club in West Berlin frequented by U.S. ​ ​ 27 soldiers, had a bomb placed under the DJ’s booth. Libya was accused of sponsoring the bombing when a Telex message was intercepted from Libya to Libya’s East Berlin embassy, which congratulated them on a job well done. Struck with fury, President Reagan ordered the U.S. to strike Tripoli and Benghazi in retaliation. Because of Libya’s continued support for terrorism by funding groups with its enormous oil wealth, the U.S. had adopted additional 28 sanctions against Libya in 1986.

Relations thawed between the U.S. and Libya in the early 2000s, when Libya announced that it would rid itself of missile programs and began cooperating with the U.S., the U.K., the International Atomic Energy Agency, and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. In recognition of these actions, U.S. President George W. Bush signed an executive order to end certain sanctions and restrictions on Libya. However, relations were again severely strained when the 2011 Libyan Civil War broke out. Gaddafi tried crushing the first protests with violence, and the U.S. subsequently severed ties with the Gaddafi regime. The White House 29 Press Secretary had said that the legitimacy of Gaddafi’s regime had been “reduced to zero.” The U.S. called on the UN to allow military intervention in the civil war. The United States military helped suppressed Libyan forces in the initial stage of the intervention, severely weakening the Gaddafi regime.

UNITED KINGDOM

After Gaddafi’s 1969 coup, Great Britain and Gaddafi’s relationship was quite poor. Gaddafi took an anti-Western stance on most things, particularly on the issue of developing weapons of mass destruction. Direct confrontations like terrorist attacks reinforced poor relations between the U.K. and Gaddafi’s government.

However, in the 1990s relations improved and peaked in 2003, when Gaddafi ensured that they would abandon their weapons of mass destruction programs. The Prime Minister, , 30 met with Gaddafi, and then declared a new relationship between both countries. Soon after this newfound relationship, Libyan police offers were trained in British security procedures.

While relations improved under PM Tony Blair, the 2011 civil war was detrimental to this newfound Libyan-U.K. relationship. The next UK Prime Minister, , called the violence Gaddafi used to quell the 31 protestors “appalling and unacceptable.” Soon after

27 Malinarich , Nathalie. "Flashback: The Berlin Disco Bombing." BBC News Online, November 13, 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1653848.stm. 28 "Libya (02/01/10)." 29 "Libya​ (02/01/10)." 30 "Blair hails new Libyan relations". BBC News. 25 March 2004. 31 "Libya unrest: David Cameron condemns violence". BBC News. 21 February 2011. 20

these remarks, anti-Gaddafi protests began breaking out at the Libyan embassy in London, as the British people wanted Gaddafi removed.

THE

In 2003, Libya tried to creative an atmosphere conducive to a Western-Libyan détente, meaning ​ ​ the relaxation of strained relations. Libya did this by abandoning its weapons of mass destruction program and restoring ties with the European Union.

On 31 October 2008, Libya paid around $1.5 billion to fund victims of the 1988 Pam Am flight 32 bombing, and the bombing of the La Belle disco in Germany. ​ On August 30, 2008, Italian Prime Minister Berlusconi and Gaddafi both signed a cooperation in Benghazi, in which Italy agreed to pay $5 billion to Libya for its former military occupation (before Libya became independent), and in return, Libya would help alleviate on its shores and help boost investments in Italian companies. In 2009, Gaddafi traveled to Rome to visit the Prime Minister, but the of Italy strongly opposed Gaddafi’s visits, and human rights 33 groups began protesting all over Italy.

Italy had exported arms to Libya, including military aircrafts and missiles. However, during the Libyan Civil War, Italy ended its relations with Gaddafi’s government and recognized the rebel 34 authority as the legitimate government of Libya.

In fact, France was one of the first countries to recognize the transitional rebel government as Libya’s legitimate government, thereby disengaging with Gaddafi. The French Air Force was the first military coalition to actually fight Gaddafi’s forces on the ground in March 2011. During March of the Civil War, NATO, a western intergovernmental military alliance, agreed to enforce 35 a no-fly zone and an arms embargo against Libya.

Russia

Russia and Libya have held close diplomatic ties throughout time, with both countries having experienced volatile relations with the United States and western powers. In 1976, Gaddafi perceived tensions and distaste against him, so he approached the Soviet Union. Libya already bought humongous quantitates of industry purchases, and Gaddafi also signed contracts to bring thousands of Soviet engineers and military instructors to Libya to help build more modern 36 missile bases. Over the next decade, over 11K Russian solders arrived in Libya.

32 Marcus, Jonathan. "Washington's Libyan Fairy Tale" 2006. BBC News. 33 "Italy's Bad Romance: How Berlusconi Went Gaga for Gaddafi." Time Magazine, February 23, 2011. http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2045328_2045333_2053363,00.html. 34 "Italy's Bad Romance: How Berlusconi Went Gaga for Gaddafi." Time Magazine, February 23, 2011. http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2045328_2045333_2053363,00.html. 35 Elliott, Michael. "Viewpoint: How Libya Became a French and British War." Time Magazine, , 2011. http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2060412,00.html. 36 Fasanotti, Federica Saini. "Russia and Libya: A brief history of an on-again-off-again friendship." Brookings. September 01, 2016. 21

In the later half of the 1980s, Gaddafi’s visits to Moscow reduced, particularly due to Libya’s reclusiveness from the international arena due to all the western sanctions and embargos. But in 2008, Libya returned to Russia. Prime Minister would cancel $4.5 billion in debts 37 that Libya owed the Soviet Union in exchange for more favorable trade agreements. ​ Russia wanted to gain access to a port in Benghazi, Libya, and Gaddafi allowed Moscow this access on the pretense that having Russia on Libya’s soil would help keep the United States away from meddling in Gaddafi’s affairs.

During the 2011 Civil War, Russia critiqued NATO’s intervention in Libya. Russia never vetoed the UN Security Council Resolution that allowed the intervention to happen in the first place; however, it took Russia many weeks to actually side in favor of the rebels (only after the rebel 38 leaders promised they would respect all previous Gaddafi-era contracts with Russia).

Figure 6: Gaddafi and Putin from Brookings

The Middle East & Pan Arabism

Nasser, the Egyptian President, held a tremendous influence on Gaddafi. Gaddafi drew the concept of Arab nationalism from Nasser, and Gaddafi’s new administration after overthrowing the monarchy was more or less instantly recognized as legitimate by neighboring Arab 39 nationalist regimes within Iraq, Syria, Egypt, and Sudan.

Gaddafi was outspoken about Pan-Arab ideals, or an Arab identity, and loudly and frequently appealed for a single Arab state, which would stretch across North Africa and the Middle East. Libya signed the Tripoli Charter in 1969 establishing the Arab Revolutionary Front, which was a https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2016/09/01/russia-and-libya-a-brief-history-of-an-on-again-off-a gain-friendship/. 37 Fasanotti, Federica Saini. ​ 38 Fasanotti, Federica Saini. ​ 39 Asser, Martin. "The Muammar Gaddafi Story." BBC, October 21, 2011. http://www.bbc.com/news/wor​ ld-africa-12688033. 22 pan-national union between Libya, Sudan, Syria, and Egypt in an attempt to eventually 40 politically unify.

However, in 1970 Nasser died unexpectedly. His successor was President Anwar Sadat, who unlike Nasser, believed that a unified state was not the answer, but rather that the Arab states create a political federation. The other three countries agreed, and when this political federation was implemented in April of 1971, Syria, Sudan, and Egypt were fueled by massive grants generated by Libya’s oil revenue. In February of 1972, Gaddafi and Sadat signed an unofficial document stating their intent to merge countries, but it was never actualized. Sadat started growing wary when he noticed Gaddafi’s increasing radicalism, and the deadline for actually 41 implementing the Federation ended up passing without any action being taken.

Gaddafi was critical of the United States’ support for Israel. Gaddafi, the staunch revolutionary, naturally supported the . Gaddafi viewed the 1948 creation of Israel as a scheme of Western colonial occupation thrust without consent on the . Gaddafi believed Palestinian violence against Israel was completely justified, and he called upon the rest of the Arab states to wage a continuous war against Israel. Gaddafi had also created a Fund so he 42 could finance anti-Israeli militants, and he trained anti-Israeli guerrilla fighters.

Just like Nasser, Gaddafi favored the Palestinian leader and , but as years went on and Gaddafi’s radicalism increased, Gaddafi started dismissing Arafat as too moderate, saying that Arafat needed to guide Palestinians to take more a dramatic, violent approach against Israel. Gaddafi ended up supporting the for the Liberation of Palestine and other militia groups, and funded the Organization, which perpetrated the 1972 43 Munich Olympics massacre where Israeli athletes were killed.

Libya’s relations with Egypt began deteriorating when Nasser had Anwar Sadat was in office. Egyptian migrants working in Libya would frequently be deported, and Sadat was on edge regarding Gaddafi’s increasing unpredictability and meddling in Egyptian affairs.

Relations between Gaddafi and the original pan-Arab states became rocky. In 1973, Israeli forces shot down a Libyan airplane, which accidentally strayed from Egypt airspace into 44 Israeli territory during a sandstorm. Gaddafi

40 Asser, Martin. 41 Asser,​ Martin. 42 "Libya's Leader Urges Other Arab Countries to Expel Palestinians." The New York Times, October 5, 1995. http://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/05/world/libya-s-leader-urges-other-arab-countries-to-expel-palestinians.html. 43 Kawczynski, Daniel. Seeking Gaddafi: Libya, the West and the Arab Spring. London: Biteback, 2011. 44 Kawczynski, Daniel. Seeking Gaddafi: Libya, the West and the Arab Spring. 23 was furious that Egypt did not do more to prevent the incident. Gaddafi again was angered when Egypt and Syria planned a war against Israel without talking to Gaddafi about it first.

Gaddafi started becoming openly hostile towards Sadat, trying to rally support for his overthrow. Sudanese President Nimeiry took Sadat’s side, which provoked Gaddafi in 1975 to sponsor the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army to overthrow President Nimeiry. Due to these souring 45 relations, Gaddafi began looking to Africa to form a more unified, pan-African concept.

45 Kawczynski, Daniel. 24

Africa elected as the African Union’s chairman for a year. This era saw a once reclusive Libya PAN-AFRICANISM slowly return to the international arena, but Gaddafi still stepped up on his soapbox to Gaddafi increasingly rejected Arab discuss the injustices committed by the nationalism for Pan-Africanism, Western imperialist powers. In 2009, emphasizing Libya’s African identity, since Gaddafi and Venezuelan President Hugo Libya is after all an African state. Libya Chávez called for an anti-imperialist front involved itself in and agreements throughout Africa and Latin America, and with 10 African states. In 1999, Libya joined Gaddafi even proposed a SOUTH Atlantic Treaty Alliance, rivaling the western NATO. the community of Sahel-Saharan States and 48 the Organization of African Unity, asking Gaddafi also spoke at the UN General for more political and economic integration Assembly in New York, condemning across the continent. Gaddafi advocated for Western aggression. As you can tell, much the United States of Africa, and become a of Gaddafi’s political career was devoted to founder of the African Union, which replaced the Organization of African Unity. He strongly urged African states to reject aid 46 from the .

The third African Union summit was held in Libya on July 2005, in which Gaddafi advocated for a single AU passport, a common defense system, and a single currency called the Afro in order to create a robust economy that would challenge 49 Western dominance. African leaders rivaling western powers. rejected the United States of Africa project proposed by Gaddafi, since they felt it was When opposition rebelled against Gaddafi in 47 far too utopian. In June of 2005, Libya 2011, the African Union tried (albeit joined the common Market for Eastern and unsuccessfully) to mediate an agreement Southern Africa, which is a free trade area that would have left Gaddafi in power. With with twenty African states stretching from Gaddafi and his cabinet primarily occupied the top of Africa (Libya) to its bottom tip with the 2011 civil war, how will this impact (Swaziland). the African Union? Gaddafi was one of the largest patrons and an outspoken advocate of A committee of traditional African leaders the African Union- losing his patronage may proclaimed Gaddafi the “” in significantly diminish the African Union’s 2008 in , Ethiopia. He was also influence in North Africa, especially since Gaddafi lavishly helped regional 46 Sinden, John. "The African Union After Gaddafi." Journal of Diplomacy. 2011. Accessed December 26, 48 Sinden, John. 2016. 49 Pike, John. "Libya- Foreign Relations." Global http://blogs.shu.edu/diplomacy/2011/12/the-african-u Security. Accessed December 26, 2016. nion-after-gaddafi/. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/libya/fo 47 Sinden, John. "The African Union After Gaddafi." rrel.htm. 25 governments in Mali, Niger, Chad, and Liberia air base in Sudan to counter Libyan power. Gaddafi felt threatened by this, and tried to ❖ form an alliance with Ethiopia and Yemen, Libya and Morocco have largely been both of which were closely aligned to the 53 unfriendly, particularly since Morocco is a Soviet Union. very moderate, pro-Western, compared to 50 the Soviet supporting Jamahiriya. ❖ CHAD In 1975, Libya occupied a region of northern ❖ TUNISIA Chad, because Gaddafi was motivated by In 1972, Gaddafi visited Tunisia and territorial ambitions, and wanted the area’s publically called for Libya’s merger with uranium deposits for his atomic energy Tunisia. The President of Tunisia rejected programs. However, when Gaddafi took this idea. The Tunisian President only over this area of Chad, he became entangled agreed to the concept of a North African in rivalries amongst different Chadian tribal unification- not to any specific two-state groups. Nevertheless, tensions began to union. Relations between the countries calm down when Gaddafi helped get the subsequently deteriorated, and in 1976, Chad President elected. However, this Libya began deporting thousands of President was overthrown, and Chad was 51 Tunisian workers. left in turmoil. Gaddafi’s position was weakened, and the long term fighting and ❖ skirmishes in Chad have made the Chad Libya’s closest north-African relationship people angry and discontent with the Libyan 54 has been with its neighbor Algeria. Both army. share similar revolutionary Arab ideologies and oil policies. However, relations became ❖ SOUTH AFRICA strained after Libya pushed for unification From the start of Gaddafi’s reign in Libya with Tunisia, since Algeria prefers to be until the end of in South Africa, surrounded by weaker states to minimize Gaddafi and the South African government threats- not states strengthened by shared hostile relations. Libya provided 52 unification. funding to the African National Congress and anti-apartheid movements, and Nelson ❖ SUDAN Mandela even visited Gaddafi in 1990 to 55 Libya’s relations with Sudan (like its thank Gaddafi for Libya’s assistance. As relations with virtually everyone else) soon as apartheid ended and South Africa fluctuated. Libya supported President had its first democratic elections in 1994, Nimeiry through his political ventures, but Gaddafi and South Africa’s relationship became annoyed at the improving relations changed overnight. They became great between Sudan and Egypt, which eventually friends, allowing bilateral trade and culminated into a charter that gave Egypt an 53 "Libya - Sub-Saharan Africa." Libya - Sub-Saharan Africa. http://countrystudies.us/libya/85.htm. 50 "Libya - Maghrib Relations." Libya - Maghrib 54 "Libya - Sub-Saharan Africa." Relations. http://countrystudies.us/libya/84.htm. 55 United Press International. "Mandela Visits Libya, 51 "Libya - Maghrib Relations." Thanks Kadafi for Helping Train ANC.” 1990. Los 52 "Libya - Maghrib Relations." Angeles Times. 26 investments to increase. During the 2011 against the NATO bombings, and the ANC Civil War, South Africa’s position has been has been sympathetic to Gaddafi’s regime.

Nelson Mandela famously spoke out against Western criticism against the Libyan-African National Congress friendship, saying “Those who feel irritated by our friendship with President 56 Gaddafi can go jump in the pool.” ​ Yikes!

Non State Actors

AL-QAEDA

Libya condemned the by the terrorist group al-Qaeda, and expressed sympathy for the victims of the attack. During the Civil War, Gaddafi accused the rebels of being linked to al-Qaeda, and claimed that he would rather die a than leave Libya. He said in a speech on February 2011 that, “It is obvious now that this issue is run by al-Qaeda,” and that the protesters were young people manipulated by Osama bin Laden. Somewhat strangely, after Gaddafi resorted to using brutality and violence to calm the initial protests in February, al-Qaeda spoke out against Gaddafi, saying they “were pained by the carnage and the cowardly massacres carried out by the killer of innocents Gaddafi against our people and our unarmed Muslim 57 brothers who only came to lift his oppression, his disbelief, his tyranny and his might."

THE

The UN has kept a watchful eye on Gaddafi. On February 26, 2011, the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted a resolution that condemned the use of lethal force by Gaddafi

56 Meldrum, Andrew "South Africa Sticks by Gaddafi.” 2011. Global Post. 57 "Al Qaeda Backs Libyan Protesters and Condemns Gaddafi." Reuters. 2011. Accessed August 21, 2016. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-alqaeda-idUSTRE71N12B20110224. 27 against the protestors in the Libyan Civil War. Not even Russia voted against this resolution, and the UN imposed international sanctions against Gaddafi’s government as a response. Following the passage of this resolution, members of Gaddafi’s family and government were on a travel ban, their assets were frozen, and an arms embargo was imposed, preventing weapons from flowing in or out of Libya. The UN has urged Gaddafi’s government to act in accordance with 58 human rights and ensure the safety of its people.

AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, , AND OTHER HUMAN RIGHTS GROUPS

The outbreak of the Libyan Civil War led to numerous accusations of human rights violations directed towards Gaddafi, the rebels opposed to Gaddafi, and NATO. Groups like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have kept watchful, persistent eyes on all groups, and have launched detailed investigations of abuses and allegations of mass rape, shelling of civilian areas, and murder and torture. Gaddafi forces have been accused of indiscriminately killing 59 civilian lives and using land mines during the conflict.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

1. Why is the conflict in Libya a problem for countries outside that region?

2. How are the media and social media playing a role in portraying and even influencing the outcome of the civil war?

3. Gaddafi, a controversial leader, is the champion of a revolution. While one of the most notorious dictators, he has also been praised by figures like Nelson Mandela for his efforts in ending the South African Apartheid. Assess Gaddafi’s role as a revolutionary figure. Did he go too far in his efforts, or did he stick to his initial values that created the new Libyan government in the first place?

4. How can Gaddafi’s cabinet members work to regain the trust of countries that have severed ties with Libya?

5. Which countries (or groups of countries) would provide strategic and beneficial alliances for Gaddafi’s regime moving forward?

58 "In Swift, Decisive Action, Security Council Imposes Tough Measures on Libyan Regime, Adopting Resolution 1970​ in Wake of Crackdown on Protesters | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases." United Nations. Accessed December 26, 2016. http://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10187.doc.htm. 59 "Factbox: Gaddafi Rule Marked by Abuses, Rights Groups Say." Reuters. 2011. Accessed December 26, 2016. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-libya-protest-abuses-idUSTRE71L1NH20110222. 28

FINAL THOUGHTS…

Gaddafi was the symbol of extremes.

His followers showed him utmost loyalty, and his enemies bitterly despised him, dismissing him as “erratic, unpredictable, and a fool.” Gaddafi had turned Libya 180 degrees with his creation of an almost classless society through reform: both boys and girls were required to attend free primary school, leading to a dramatic rise in literacy rates after Gaddafi came to power. Free medical care reduced diseases like typhoid and , thereby increasing life expectancy. Wealth improved, and Libya’s standard of living was noticeably higher. Nationalizing the oil industry and raising oil prices helped Libya. Gaddafi’s Jamahiriya may have been called a utopia. His opposition to western powers was applauded by near and far, earning him tremendous respect.

Critics on the other hand called Gaddafi “despotic, cruel, arrogant, vain, and stupid.” He became the public enemy of Western governments, and gave off the image of a crazed, vicious dictator who oppressed his people. Human rights abuses were rampant in Gaddafi’s Libya, and hundreds of political opponents were arrested. Any dissidents were threatened with death. He had tumultuous relations with numerous states.

Where do you fit in this picture?

You are Gaddafi’s most loyal men. You bear the future of Libya on your own shoulders. How important are these protests? What are the protestors asking for? And what does it mean for your own power? Tread carefully and cautiously. You have worked far too hard in trying to mold Libya into a perfect state. In the process and sacrifice of getting so close to Muammar, you have gained much wealth, power, and recognition- you cannot afford to lose any of it. How are you going to balance the needs of your people with the needs of yourself and your loved ones?

I wish you luck. You’ll need it.

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