Energy Futures Øresund: Bridging the Gaps to a Greener Tomorrow

Andronache, Veronica; Baumbach, Lea; Czunyi, Sarah; Figel, Tom; Firpo, Filipe; Hayes, Jordan; Kiryushin, Peter; Lopez, Mauricio; Mill, Adrian; Ross, Ian; Sipka, Stefan; Luka, Charlotte; Smith, Mary Ellen; Strenchock, Logan; Su, Meiling; Witter, Allison; Xin, Ouyang

2011

Link to publication

Citation for published version (APA): Andronache, V., Baumbach, L., Czunyi, S., Figel, T., Firpo, F., Hayes, J., Kiryushin, P., Lopez, M., Mill, A., Ross, I., Sipka, S., Luka, C., Smith, M. E., Strenchock, L., Su, M., Witter, A., & Xin, O. (2011). Energy Futures Øresund: Bridging the Gaps to a Greener Tomorrow. International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics, Lund University. Total number of authors: 17

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Download date: 08. Oct. 2021

Energy Futures Øresund Bridging the Gaps to a Greener Tomorrow

Veronica Andronache, Lea Baumbach, Sarah Czunyi, Tom Figel, Research Co-ordinators: Filipe Firpo, Jordan Hayes, Peter Kiryushin, Mauricio Lopez, Thomas Lindhqvist & Adrian Mill, Ian Ross, Stefan Sipka, Charlotte Luka, Mary Ellen Smith, Mikael Backman Logan Strenchock, Meiling Su, Allison Witter & Ouyang Xin

Prepared for the Energi Öresund Project by:

MESPOM Programme Master of Environmental Sciences, Policy and Management

The International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics at Lund University

Funded by:

“Energy Futures Øresund” is the final report on the energy system of the Øresund Region. It comprises a regional overview of the current state and trends of selected energy systems, discussions on potential technological solutions to overcome barriers and an analysis of the energy strategy of the island Bornholm. The report forms the basis for further strategic energy planning of Energi Öresund, a European Union INTERREG IV A funded cross-border co-operation between Danish and Swedish municipalities, energy companies and universities across the Øresund region. It is the outcome of intensive course work on Strategic Environmental Development at the International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics (IIIEE) at Lund University in Sweden. The authors are students in MESPOM, an Erasmus Mundus funded Masters programme, and come from 11 countries.

Photo Credit: “The Öresund Bridge from Underneath” by Marcus Bengtsson, taken July 2007. Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License 1.2. URL: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Öresund_bridge.JPG.

This publication should be cited as: International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics [IIIEE]. (2011). Energy Futures Øresund – Bridging the gaps to a greener tomorrow. Lund: IIIEE.

ISBN: 978-91-88902-85-6 ©Authors & IIIEE, 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

2 Introduction 7 The Øresund Region 11 Energy in Denmark 14 Sweden’s Energy Balance 17 Energy System in Region Hovedstaden 20 Region Zealand 23 Region Skåne 26 Copenhagen, Albertslund and Ballerup 30 Malmö Energy System 33 Lund’s Energy Strategy 37 Energy System of Kristianstad

CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

39 Heat Energy Use in Buildings 47 Seasonal Heat Storage 54 Hot Water Circuit Products 58 Legionella in Low-Temperature District Heating 65 Long-Term Storage of Household Waste 71 Large Batteries for Energy Storage 76 Wind Co-operatives in the Øresund Region 82 Nordhavnen and Hyllie 89 Energy-Efficient Buildings 95 Cleantech Clusters Analysis

CHAPTER 3: THE BORNHOLM EXPERIENCE

101 The Bornholm Experience

113 The International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics 115 The Authors

1 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION The Øresund Region, Its Energy System Context & Key Terminology

By Adrian Mill

candinavia has been at the forefront of numerous academic, governmental and indus- S European energy policy development for try partners from both Denmark and Sweden. many years. The trans-regional Øresund region This report aims to provide policy-makers with in particular is considered a showcase for the an analysis of the energy policy and systems in implementation of renewable energy systems the Øresund region. To achieve this, the report [1]. This is exemplified in the “Energi Øre- is structured in three chapters. The first pro- sund” project, a European Union (EU) part- vides an overview of the key energy policies at financed regional forum for strategic energy various governance levels that influence the planning commenced in 2011. Øresund region (Chapter 1). The second chap- Energi Øresund is an INTERREG IV A pro- ter analyses some of the key barriers identified ject based on the cooperation of 16 partners, by Energi Øresund project partners that im- including municipalities in both Denmark and pede progress towards energy goals (Chapter Sweden. Additional partners of the project 2). Finally, a case study of the energy system of include academic institutes and energy compa- Bornholm is examined (Chapter 3). The re- nies. The goal of the Energi Øresund project is mainder of this introduction will overview the to provide strategic energy planning across region and its energy context, and discuss some national boundaries, from both the supply and of the key terminology used. demand side. The project is divided into five activity areas [2]: Regional Overview 1. Integration of renewable energies into the ex- The Energi Øresund Project focusses on a isting energy portfolio, and connected needs number of key regions and municipalities in the for energy storage; 2. Energy demand of new urban areas and more Øresund region, located in the south of Scan- efficient energy use; dinavia (see figure on following page). For the 3. Creation of a cooperation platform and im- purposes of this paper, a number of national, proved communication between actors from regional and municipal distinctions are made to both sides of the Sound; highlight partners in the Energi Øresund pro- 4. Administration and coordination between ject that are the focus of this report. The Øre- connected projects; and sund Region contains parts of Denmark and 5. Networking and internal and external communication. Sweden. Within Denmark is the Sjælland Region (English: Zealand), where the capital The project is one of several focussed on en- Copenhagen and adjacent municipalities ergy transition in the Øresund region. As a Ballerup and Albertslund are located. These strategic forum, the project brings together municipalities, in addition to several others

2 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

THE ØRESUND REGION

KRISTIANSTAD REGION HOV- EDSTADEN SKÅNE

COPENHAGEN (SWEDEN)

BALLERUP LUND

ALBERTS - LUND MALMÖ SJÆLLAND (DENMARK)

BORNHOLM (REGION HOVEDSTADEN)

Constituent administrative boundaries within the Øresund region examined in this paper. (including Bornholm to the east), make up the Energy Context Region Hovedstaden (English: Danish Capi- tal Region). Across the strait in Sweden lies the Energy policy in the Øresund region is driven Skåne Region (English: Scania). Swedish mu- at four main levels: European, regional, na- nicipalities involved in the project include tional and municipal. At the European level, Malmö, Lund and Kristianstad. the EU has issued numerous directives, regulations and communications that pertain to en- The Øresund region has a long history involv- ergy, with commitments to reduce gas emis- ing both Denmark and Sweden. The Strait of sions by 20%, increase renewable energy share Øresund was used by Denmark as a source of to 20% and improve energy efficiency by 20% taxation in the Middle Ages, and the Skåne [4]. More influential on the Øresund region is region passed from Danish to Swedish control the EU-funded INTERREG programme, in 1658. Discussion regarding the construction aimed at facilitating closer integration and co- of a connection across the Strait of Øresund operation across borders in the region with a began around 1872, but it was not until June focus on sustainable development. The Energi 2000 that the current link between Denmark Øresund project falls under Priority 3 of the and Sweden was opened [3]. The Øresund programme. Bridge itself is indicative of the level of policy co-ordination between the two countries. Di- From the regional perspective, a committee verse policy instruments at various governance (Öresundskomiteen) was put in place in 1993 levels have been used to further integration and as a political initiative between Copenhagen regional development in the Øresund Region and Malmö in order to promote the interests of [3]. In this context, the Energi Øresund project the region. The main energy focus relates to emerges as a key driver in the alignment of sustainable development and biofuels. Other energy policy in the region. regional entities (i.e. Sjælland and Skåne) have climate strategies and energy commitments.

INTRODUCTION 3 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

The Energi Øresund project is another forum example, one municipality aims to become used by regional actors to discuss energy issues. ‘carbon neutral’ [7], while the EU’s objective is ‘decarbonisation’ [4]. Potential outcomes of National energy policy in both Denmark and this lack of harmonisation are misunderstand- Sweden has long been directed towards reduc- ings between stakeholders or, in the worst case, ing reliance on fossil fuels and increasing the failure to meet prescribed goals. share of renewables. However, the two countries have differed in their approach to achiev- The issue is further compounded by a lack of ing these aims, with Sweden focussing on hy- clear definitions for some of the terms em- dro-power and biogas, and Denmark develop- ployed. For example, is peat – a key biomass ing a world-leading wind industry [5]. Both used for heating in Scandinavia – considered a

have committed to cuts to CO2 emissions, al- renewable resource or a fossil fuel? Moreover, though recently Denmark declared its ambition terms such as ‘sustainable development’ or to achieve a 40% reduction by 2020 [6]. ‘green growth’, while related to energy issues and featuring prominently in many strategies, At the municipal level, many cities in the region are typically ill-defined by design and relate to have individual strategies or visions on climate multiple aspects of the environmental debate change and energy. Key areas of focus include rather than energy issues specifically (i.e. sus- upgrading energy efficiency in residential/ tainability [8]). This discussion is therefore lim- commercial sectors and reducing emissions ited to terminology referring directly to energy from transportation and power generation [7]. or a proxy, such as reduced emissions. Key Terminology The table below provides a summary of some common energy terms used in the Øresund One of the interesting issues arising from the region, categorised according to the key issue regional energy discourse is that there is some that each term addresses. The first is the source disparity between many of the terms used, with of energy. Renewable (or ‘green’) sources of multiple terms being used to describe similar or energy do not require the extraction of natural related goals. This is especially pronounced resources beyond that needed to construct between the various levels of governance. For

Common energy terms used administratively in the Øresund region.

TERM MEANING / GOAL

Renewable energy / Energy derived from renewable sources that are naturally replenished e.g. wind, Green energy tidal, geothermal, hydro, solar, biofuels. Energy produced using fuels derived from recently living biological sources e.g. Energy Bioenergy wood, straw, manure etc. Fossil-fuel free / No net use of fossil-derived fuels (e.g. diesel or natural gas from non-renewable Fossil-independent natural resources) within a defined area.

Fuel Biofuel / Fuels derived from renewable biomass sources, such as biogas and biodiesel. Renewable fuel CO neutral / 2 On balance there is no net contribution to overall CO / carbon emissions within Carbon-neutral / 2 a defined area; may include carbon offsetting. Carbon-free Removal and recovery of carbon (CO or elemental carbon) prior to combustion, Decarbonisation 2 or of CO2 post-combustion at power stations [9]. / Carbon / GHG 2 Reduce carbon emissions / Reach a set target reduction (usually percentage) in CO2 or GHG emissions in a

CO Greenhouse gases (GHG) set timeframe.

4 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

infrastructure, and are continually replenished The final category is the volume of carbon by nature. These terms imply that such sources emitted. The relationship between fossil fuel are more environmentally friendly than non- combustion for energy purposes with the phys- renewables. However, renewable sources in- ics and chemistry of atmospheric CO2 content clude biofuels such as biodiesel, that while less and energy absorption is well established in the polluting that conventional diesel, can contrib- literature [12]. A similar trend is evident with ute to health and climate change impacts as a ‘greenhouse gas’ (GHG) emissions. Carbon result of combustion processes [10]. and GHGs are therefore used as a proxy measurement for energy use. The use of these terms The second category is the type of fuel. The by the various Øresund stakeholders is ex- objective of several governance levels is to tremely varied, and sometimes used inter- become fossil-fuel free (or independent) within changeably. The difficulty arises from the a fixed time period. This is usually to be measurement of carbon and the validity of achieved using a combination of energy effi- achieving carbon-based goals. Not only can ciency, renewable energy and biofuels [11]. emissions be measured using different indica- Although the percentage of expenditure allo- tors at national to municipal level, but there are cated to each goal is determined through a top- different methods and approaches to meas- down approach, each governance level has a urement (i.e. CO vs CO equivalent) that can different idea of how the budget should be 2 2 make comparison difficult [13]. Additionally, partitioned. In the Øresund region, biofuels the validity of using carbon reductions is ques- receive a large portion of this money. Biofuels tionable as it encourages spurious carbon- are useful in that they can be used in existing offsetting practices [14] and does not guarantee technology without major redesign. Nonethe- the adoption of environmentally or socially- less, growing concern is directed toward bio- accepted energy sources (i.e. nuclear power is fuel production impacts on the environment carbon-free). (i.e. land clearance) and food security (through displacement of food crops) [11].

Biogas production facility located near Kristianstad, Skåne.

INTRODUCTION 5 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Towards a Common Vision [8] Vos, R.O. (2007). Defining sustainability: a conceptual orientation. Journal of Chemical Technology Despite a number of challenges relating to and Biotechnology, 82, 334–339. terminology, goal-setting and measurement, the [9] Steinberg, M. (2001). Decarbonization and overall renewable energy outlook in the Øre- Sequestration for Mtigating Global Warming. First sund region is positive. Clearly, the number of National Conference on Carbon Sequestration, Washington, D.C., 14-17 May. terms used in the discourse and the variety of stakeholders involved reflect a desire on the [10] Dincer, K. (2008). Lower emissions from biodiesel combustion. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, part of the authorities to address climate Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 30, 963-968. change and broader environmental issues. This is to be applauded. However, the disparity in [11] Klimakommisionen. (2010). Green Energy – The Road to a Danish Energy System Without Fossil Fuels. terminology indicates there is a need for im- Copenhagen, Denmark. proved co-ordination between stakeholders. [12] Smyth, B.M., Gallachóir, B.P.Ó., Korres, N.E. & This is one of the key goals of the Energi Øre- Murphy, J.D. (2010). Can we meet targets for sund project. To better understand the issue of biofuels and renewable energy in transport given co-ordination, the remainder of this Chapter of the constraints imposed by policy in agriculture and the report provides a more in-depth overview energy? Journal of Cleaner Production, 18: 1671-1685. of each of the energy systems in question. [13] Bader, N. & Bleischwitz, R. (2009). Measuring Urban Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The Challenge References of Comparability. SAPIENS - Cities and Climate Change, 2, 1-15. [1] Öresundskomiteen. (2009). Öresundsregionen – Ett [14] Murray, J. & Dey,C. (2008). The carbon neutral Center for Miljövänlig Teknologi [Oresund Region – A free for all. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas center for eco-friendly technology]. Copenhagen, Control, 3, 237-248. Denmark. ”Windmills at Middelgrunden” photo by Andreas Johannsen, [2] Interreg IV A. (2011). Energy Öresund. URL: taken on August 5, 2007 in Refshalevej, Copenhagen, http://www.interreg-oks.eu/ [Date accessed: 16 Hovedstaden, DK. Licensed under Creative Commons 2.0. October 2011]. URL: http://www.flickr.com/photos/30788482@N00/1022097482. [3] Schmidt, T.D. (2005). Cross-border regional enlargement in Øresund. GeoJournal, 64: 249–258. [4] European Union. (2010). Energy 2020 – A Strategy for Competitive, Sustainable and Secure Energy. COM (2010) 639, final of 10 November 2010. [5] Unander, F., Ettestøl, I., Ting, M. & Schipper, L. (2004). Residential energy use: an international perspective on long-term trends in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Energy Policy, 32, 1395-1404. [6] Sveriges Radio. (2011). Dansk minister: Vi måste skydda befolkningen [Danish Minister: We must protect the population]. URL: http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel .aspx?programid=406&artikel=4741993 [Date accessed: 12 October 2011]. [7] City of Copenhagen. (2009). Copenhagen Climate Plan – The Short Version. City of Copenhagen, Technical and Environmental Administration. Copenhagen, Denmark.

6 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

THE ØRESUND REGION Transboundary Co-operation Between Sweden & Denmark

By Lea Baumbach & Logan Strenchock

he energy sector is not strongly institution- and Landskrona, and the Municipality of T alised in a legal sense within the Øresund Lund [2]. Region. This is due to the highly voluntary The Øresund Committee sets the agenda of the nature of the trans-boundary cooperation ini- cooperation and it is understood as the “em- tiatives in their current form. Therefore the bassy” of the region in front of the national following chapter will give an overview of the parliaments [3]. The recently published Devel- cooperation between political, academic and opment Strategy of the committee provides a private actors to define what exactly the Øre- vision of the trans-boundary cooperation until sund Region is, and give insights into existing the year 2020. This strategy has four focus ar- projects related to the areas of Energy and En- eas; the first of which is knowledge and inno- ergy Efficiency. vation [2]. This includes cooperative research and education projects in future energy tech- Geography & Institutions nologies. Additionally, 420 Danish private and The geographic region on both sides of the public enterprises formed a “CleanTechClus- Sound between the east of Denmark and the ter” with the goal to promote technological south of Sweden is referred to as the Øresund innovations and exchange expertise in the field Region. Since the inauguration of the Øresund of wind-energy, bio-energy, electricity grids, e- Bridge in the year 2000, attempts have been mobility, ecological building technologies, fuel made to create a transnational, multi-centre cells and resource efficiency [4]. An extension metropolitan region between the City of Co- of this cluster towards the Swedish side is envi- penhagen and the cities of Malmö and Lund sioned by the Øresund Committee without a [1]. One of the results of these efforts is the so concrete timeline [3]. called Øresund Committee, a platform with representatives from different political levels of Projects the Danish Region of Sjaelland and the Swed- Besides these soft (non-legally binding) coop- ish Region of Skåne [2]. In the committee the erations, a number of research projects with following bodies are represented: On the Dan- concrete goals have evolved throughout the ish side these are the Capital Region Copenha- last years. These are mainly based on academic gen, the Region Sjaelland, the Municipalities of cooperation between universities on both sides Copenhagen, Frederiksberg and Bornholm, the of the Sound, but increasingly include partners Municipal Councils of Hovedstaden and Sjael- from the private and public sector as well. land; on the Swedish side these are the Region of Skåne the Cities of Malmö, Helsingborg,

THE ØRESUND REGION 7 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Biorefinery Øresund only to demonstrate technologies for the integration of wind power and Smart Grid tech- Biorefinery Øresund is a research project car- nology, but also to uncover policy instruments ried out by Lund University (LU), Lund Tech- that will be essential for reaching the area’s full nical University (LTH) and the Technical Uni- alternative energy potential [6]. versity of Denmark (DTU). Running from 2010 until 2013, the project aims at establishing Øresund Ecomobility a pilot-scale biorefinery for fuels, materials and chemicals and creating a broad foundation for The Øresund Ecomobility project is an addi- the development and implementation of bio- tional INTERREG IV A funded project which refinery in the Øresund Region. This should be deals with reducing greenhouse gas emissions achieved through the establishment of regional associated with transport activities, with a total cooperation of all relevant actors from the aca- project budget near EUR 4 million [5]. The demic, governmental and industrial sector. The three year study initiated in 2009 has been project is expected to cover total fuel life-cycle working to create a unified network of scholars from research over raw material extraction to and professionals from the DTU, Malmö Uni- production [5]. versity, Copenhagen Business School, Copen- hagen Municipality, Roskilde University, and Wind in Øresund Øresunds Logistics [5]. The INTERREG IV A funded Wind in Øre- The collaboration is seeking to utilise experts sund program was initiated in 2008 to promote within the fields of personal and goods trans- sustainable growth in the region by expanding portation, supply chain management, logistics, its capacity to produce and transmit wind based and biofuels to contrive transition mechanisms energy [5]. LTH was appointed to serve as the which will result in less carbon-intensive modes research facilitator for the project, in coopera- of transport [7]. The overall project has been tion with the DTU. The initiative was devel- built with three stages: Thematic Knowledge oped with expectations that experts within Exchange Network development, Knowledge each University’s faculty would be utilised as and Innovation Centre Development, along advisors in exploring the mechanisms for re- with Competence Building and Knowledge gional wind energy integration [5]. Specific Sharing [5]. Three “knowledge exchange” net- curriculum development within related engi- works were developed within stage one of the neering and mathematics departments in the project. These include: Green Logistics Hub, respective universities has been coordinated to City Transport and Logistics, and Biofuels and improve the area’s international image as an Energy Systems [7]. After each individual net- innovative centre for wind energy research [5]. work accumulate knowledge on a relevant subject, it is expected to be dispersed within the Research at DTU and LTH has focused on whole system by means of the Knowledge and statistical models of projected production ca- Innovation Centre. The role of the final stage pacity within the region, along with new meth- of the project is to build competence; most ods of adjusting consumption techniques to often by means of publications, websites, con- manage cyclical fluctuations in production [6]. ferences, and courses for professionals and The RISØ wind energy research centre at DTU students [7]. operates SYSLAB, a full scale experimental wind park on the island of Bornholm; which contributes wind power integration and safety strategies [5]. The aim of the research is not

8 ENERGY FUTURE ØRESUND

E-mission standing of sustainable construction represented by harmonised building codes and The project E-mission in the Øresund Region manuals within Sweden and Denmark [9]. aims at influencing as many citizens, public and private companies in the region as possible to The partnering institutions in this three year replace their petrol or diesel powered cars with study include: Lund University, The Technical electric vehicles in order to promote a sustain- University of Denmark, The Royal Danish able economic growth in the region. The pro- Academy of Fine Arts, Danish School of Ar- ject runs from 2010 to 2013 and has the sub- chitecture, and the Danish Building Research goals to provide the necessary infrastructure Institute [5]. It is expected that the assimilation for electric charging on both sides of the Øre- of building standards within the Øresund Re- sund Bridge. These improvements will be ac- gion will lead to a more uniform adoption of companied by the release of an electronic map sustainable building principles and best prac- of the charging points and a broad information tices in new constructions, along with ex- campaign. A summit for the mayors from the panded market opportunities for both Danish Øresund Region will help to reach the com- and Swedish construction stakeholders [9]. mitment of important political actors in the region. A rally with six different models of Øresund Sound Settlement electric vehicles took place in September 2011 The INTERREG IV A funded Øresund [8] and achieved broad media coverage. Sound Settlements project has been initiated to The project is lead by Copenhagen municipality observe and respond to the transformations in cooperation with the municipalities of taking place within Sweden and Denmark, as Malmö and Helsingborg, Region Skåne and both nations strive to develop their own best Öresundskraft AB. Further municipal authori- practices for a “sustainable society” [5]. The ties, energy companies and organisations from project has goals of designing strategies that the region are supporting the project. 50% of streamline the process for implementing na- the project costs are covered by the European tionally developed sustainable development INTERREG IV A [5]. policy at the regional and local levels. The project has highlighted the need to follow a Sustainable Building Processes holistic approach when attempting to transition to more sustainable societies, as opposed to the INTERREG IV A is also funding a research common practice of implementing isolated project that focuses on enhancing cooperation technical solutions with limited big picture within the building construction sector across perspective [5]. The project’s lead partner is the Øresund Region [5]. The project has been Lund University’s Department of Design initiated after observing the similarities in con- Sciences, and the partnership also includes struction demands within Sweden and Den- faculty from other universities in Sweden and mark [5]. Cross border cooperation in develop- Denmark along with multiple communes with- ing sustainable construction strategies has not in each nation. been common practice due to varying standards, traditions, and governing bodies [9]. The The Sound Settlement program concept has research project aims at developing strategies identified urban districts and housing struc- to remove the barriers that limit cooperation tures as areas of focus within the Øresund Re- which would otherwise be encouraged by gion. The project aims to bring together Da- common geography and proximity. The ap- nish and Swedish researchers, in cooperation proach has aimed to deliver a uniform under- with politicians, city officials and urban plan- ners to take a more innovative look at the deci-

THE ØRESUND REGION 9 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

sion making process behind dwellings, work places, service centres, and recreational spaces within communities [5]. The project also highlighted the importance of including citizens and local businesses within the decision making process for developing sustainable urban areas, as the local level input provided by such actors is necessary to contrive effective development strategies. Researchers hope to pass along knowledge regarding energy and water saving, sustainable building and transportation infrastructure and planning, along with green economic growth strategies. Aspirations are not to transfer knowledge along, but also to encourage dialogues between stakeholders that will encourage collaborations towards common sustainable development goals.

References [1] Falkheimer, J. (2005). Formation of a region: Source strategies and media images of the Sweden– Danish Øresund Region. In: Public Relations Review, 31: 293–295. [2] Øresund Committee [Øresundkomiteen]. (2010). Regional Development Strategy [UdviklingsStrategi Øre- sundsRegional]. [3] Øresund Committee [Øresundkomiteen]. (2009). The Øresund Region. A growth centre for environmental technology. [4] Clemens, P. (2010). Cluster Copenhagen/ Øresund Region. Retrieved from: http://www.kooperation- international.de. [5] Interreg IV A. (2011). Project List. Retrieved from: http://www.interreg-oks.eu/en. [6] Danish Technical University. (2011). Vind I Øre- sund. Retrieved from: http://www2.imm.dtu.dk. [7] Øresund Ecomobility. (2011). About Øresund Eco- mobility. Retrieved from: http://www.oresund ecomobility.org/about-us. [8] Oresund Rally. (2011). Oresund electric car rally. Re- trieved from: http://www.oresundrally.org/. [9] Øresund Environment. (2011). Sustainable Building Processes. Retrieved from: http://www.oresund.org. Photo taken by Malte Knaust on August 28 2010.

10 ENERGY FUTURE ØRESUND

ENERGY IN DENMARK Transitions for the Future

By Mary Ellen Smith, Allison Witter & Ouyang Xin

enmark covers an area of 43 075 km2, is panies to focus on improved energy savings, D home to 5.52 million people, and is char- the development of alternative energy sources, acterised by a generally flat landscape with nu- and overall energy self-sufficiency [5]. As a merous islands. While the Danish economy result, the gross energy consumption mix in grew 78% from 1980 to 2009, energy con- Denmark has changed markedly: by 2009, oil sumption remained more or less constant and consumption was 42% lower than in 1980, carbon emissions dropped during the same natural gas had increased its share of consump- period [1, 2]. This can be attributed to a focus tion to 20.47%, and renewable energy had within Danish energy policy on reduced fossil grown from 2.92% to 17.53% of total con- fuel use, the development of renewable energy sumption [4]. technologies, and energy efficiency improvements [3]. Energy Self-Sufficiency Denmark has been net energy self-sufficient The Danish Energy System since 1997. This is in part attributable to the During the late 1970s and early 1980s, im- discovery of oil and gas fields in the North Sea ported fossil fuels constituted more than 90% and to the subsequent shift from importing to of Denmark’s total energy consumption. Dis- exporting oil and gas [6]. However, most na- trict heating, electricity generation, and energy tional oil and gas fields are declining: the aver- supply to households, transportation, and in- age rate of decline at giant oil fields is between dustry depended upon these fossil fuels, which six and seven percent annually. Although new were for the most part imported [4]. fields continue to be discovered, it is possible that the amount found may not compensate This reliance on external non-renewable energy for these fast declines [7]. sources drove Danish policy makers and com- Growth in Renewable Energy In 2010, renewable energy had a 19% share in final energy consumption and accounted for 28% of electricity production [8]. Wind energy and biomass (wood, waste, straw, etc.) converted into fuel in combined heat and power (CHP)

Gross energy consumption in Denmark in 1980 and 2009 (Elaborated from [4]).

ENERGY IN DENMARK 11 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

plants are major contributors in this regard. Danish Energy Policy: Total installed capacity for wind power, for example, has reached 3 752 Megawatts (MW), Commitments and Goals accounting for 1.9% of the world total installed In 2011, the Danish government published its capacity and comprising a 20% share in total Energy Strategy for 2050, which includes the electricity production [8]. According to Den- following goals: mark’s Energy Strategy for 2050, 30% of energy shall be provided by renewable energy by • Complete independence from fossil fuels 2020 [9]. by 2050; • Ranking amongst the top three energy effi- Improved Energy Efficiency cient OECD countries by 2020; • Energy savings improvements of 85% Danish energy policy has additionally focused (from 2010 levels) by energy companies by on improving efficiency during both energy 2050; production and consumption. CHP plants • have become widely established and have con- Lowering of national primary energy contributed to the expansion of district heating sumption levels for the 2008-2011 period throughout the country, with the share of dis- to 4% lower than 2006 levels; trict heating from CHP increasing twofold • Decreasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emis- from 1980 to 2010, from 39% to 80% [4]. En- sions by 30% (from 1990 levels) by 2020; ergy efficiency at CHP plants can be impressive, and with one plant in Copenhagen demonstrating • Powering the transportation sector with 10% efficiency rates up to 90% [4]. In addition, renewable energy by 2020 [10]. there are voluntary agreements in place whereby Danish companies agreeing to chan- The above policy goals stem from Denmark’s nel investments into energy efficiency projects ambitious national energy strategy as well as its can receive a rebate from Green Taxes [9]. commitments to various European Union (EU) and international targets. With the election of On the consumption end, Danish buildings are Helle Thorning-Schmidt and the Social De- subject to stringent energy efficiency standards. mocrats in September 2011, there has been an As a result, buildings constructed in 2008 con- additional focus on energy and climate targets sume half as much energy per square metre as within Danish national policy. Some provi- houses built before 1977 [9]. Energy labelling is sions within the new common government required in buildings over 1 000 m2 and inspec- policy include decreasing GHG emissions by tions into unnecessary energy consumption 40% (from 1990 levels) by 2020 (a ten percent may be utilised [9]. The Finance Act of 2009 increase over the previous government’s additionally promotes energy efficiency in the amount, stated above) and sourcing half of public sector and sets targets for government Denmark’s energy from wind by 2020 [11]. buildings [9]. Houses for sale must include energy certificates, indicating energy status and Greenhouse Gas Emissions recommendations for improvements. Labelling schemes for electrical appliances as well as Following ratification of EU Directive public campaigns have also contributed to im- 2003/87/EC on GHG emissions trading, proved energy efficiency [4]. around 380 Danish production units partake in the carbon dioxide allowance-trading scheme [12]. Additionally, under the Kyoto Protocol, Denmark pledged to reduce GHG emissions

12 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

by 21% between 2008-2012 [9]. The Agree- the energy system presents a huge technical ment on Green Transport (January 2009) is a challenge, while the availability of biomass and long-term plan to invest in green transport and biofuels may become stressed [3]. Hopefully reduce GHG emissions. Up to DKK 150 bil- these and other challenges will be overcome so lion will be invested by 2020 in order to pro- that Denmark may achieve the increasingly mote railway and sustainable transport devel- ambitious energy and climate goals set out by opment, as well as to develop road pricing [9]. its previous and current government. Additionally, in 2008 Denmark established a Commission on Climate Change Policy, re- References sponsible for preparing proposals on how to [1] International Energy Agency. (2011). Oil and gas become a fossil fuel independent nation [3]. security: Emergency response of IEA countries: Denmark. Paris: OECD/IEA. Energy Security [2] Danish Energy Agency. (2009). Energy statistics 2009. Denmark’s Renewable Energy Act fosters en- Copenhagen: DEA. ergy security in Denmark via continued growth [3] Danish Commission on Climate Change Policy. of the renewable energy sector, through meas- (2010). Energy strategy 2050: Recommendations. Co- ures such as wind power subsidies, installation penhagen: Danish Commission on Climate Change Policy. of offshore wind turbines, funding for community development of local wind power sys- [4] Danish Energy Agency. (2010). Danish energy statistics 2009. Copenhagen: DEA. tems, and provision of discounted electricity for biogas plants. Overall, there will be an allo- [5] Energinet.dk. (2009). Wind power to combat climate cation of DKK 25 million for renewable en- change: How to integrate wind energy into the power system. Green Thinking in Denmark sSeries. Fredericia, ergy technologies and DKK 30 million over a Denmark: Energinet.dk. two-year period to encourage conversion from [6] Danish Energy Agency. (2008). Agreement between the oil burners to heat pumps. The Energy Agree- government (Liberals and Conservatives), Social Democrats, ment of 2008 includes provisions to create a Danish People’s Party, Socialist People’s Party, Social Lib- framework for using 40% of livestock manure erals and New Alliance on Danish energy policy for the years 2008-2011. Copenhagen: DEA. by 2020 to meet energy goals [12]. [7] Höök, M., Söderbergh, B. & Aleklett, K. (2009). Future Danish oil and gas export. Energy, 34 (11), Future Challenges 1826-1834. Some key challenges have been identified on [8] Global Wind Energy Council. (2011). Global wind the path to achieving Denmark’s stated energy report: Annual market update 2010. Brussels: GWEC. goals. In particular, shifting to an energy supply [9] Danish Energy Agency. (2011). Danish energy policy based on renewables presents supply security 1970-2010. Copenhagen: DEA. challenges. With ever decreasing production, [10] Danish Government. (2011). Energy strategy 2050— Denmark is unlikely to be self-sufficient in gas from coal, oil and gas to green energy. Copenhagen: The and oil in 2018. As a result, the Danish gov- Danish Government. ernment could lose a notable portion of its [11] Stanners, P. (2011). New cabinet, new policies, new income and there may be impacts on the prices government ready to roll. The Copenhagen Post Online. Retrieved from: www.cphpost.dk of renewable energy and other energy sources in the future. There is further concern that [12] Danish Energy Agency. (2009). Energy policy report 2009. Copenhagen : DEA. fossil supply sources will run short before fossil fuel independence is achieved. In addition, the incorporation of large amounts of fluctuat- ing electricity produced from wind power into

ENERGY IN DENMARK 13 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

SWEDEN’S ENERGY BALANCE Current Trends and Guiding Policies

By Charlotte Luka & Veronica Andronache

weden is the largest Scandinavian country, mentation of a coherent and active energy pol- S with a population of approximately nine icy over the past decades. Some of the main million people. Its temperature gradient varies trends that shaped the Swedish energy land- significantly, with a temperate environment in scape between 1970 and 2009 were identified the South that progresses to a subarctic climate by the Swedish Energy Agency as including: in the North. This exerts a decisive influence • A significant decrease of over 47% in oil on the country’s population distribution, and and oil products used, including a reduc- thus the infrastructure put into place to meet tion of about 90% in the residential and the energy demands of its different regions. services sectors; • Electricity remaining the main energy car- Sweden’s Energy Balance rier, with a net production increase of 126%, due to nuclear and hydropower de- According to the Swedish Energy Agency [1], velopment; and in 2009 the dominating energy sources were oil • A 195% increase in the supply of biofuels, and nuclear energy, closely followed by hydro- with biofuels now covering 38% of indus- power and biofuels. The energy usage for 2009 try energy needs. accounted for a total of 376 TWh, with the residential and services sectors being responsi- Energy Policies ble for the highest proportion of energy con- In order to reach its ambitious climate change sumption (149 TWh or 39%), a large part of targets, Sweden’s Government has enacted a which was used for heating purposes. The sec- series of policies concerning energy efficiency ond most significant consumer was the indus- and the use of energy from renewable re- try sector, accounting for about 36% of the sources. In 2009, a Joint Climate and Energy total energy used, either directly or through Policy was approved, which united two previ- providing power to processes such as pumps, ous bills in order to address these issues in an compressors, etc. [1]. The figure below displays Figure 1: Final use per sector the use distribution of energy carriers per each 100% 90% sector, emphasising the dominance of oil, elec- 80% tricity and biofuels. 70% 60% 50% With over 44%, Sweden showed the highest 40% level of renewable energy use in the EU in 30% 20% 2009. This was achieved through the imple- 10%

0% Industry Transport Residential Final energy use per sector [1] Oil Natural Gas Coal Biofuels, peat Electricity District heating

14 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

integrative manner. The policy aims at increas- • use at least 10% of renewable energy in ing the share of energy coming from renewable transport; and resources, improving energy efficiency and • realise energy efficiency gains of 20% [2]. reducing in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The government has come of up with three Furthermore, the Parliament has enacted concrete action plans aimed at implementing changes to several national bills, in order to these goals. Firstly, under the action plan for re- meet sustainability criteria provisioned in EU newable energy, 50% of the energy used nationally Directive No. 2009/28/EC, which promotes must originate from renewable resources by the use of energy from renewable resources. In 2020. Among others, the action plan provides particular, changes were instigated with regard for an improved electricity certificate system, a to the Electricity Act, the Act Concerning national planning framework for wind power, Electricity Certificates, the Act Concerning Tax and ways to better connect renewable energy on Energy and the Natural Gas Act. sources to the electricity grid [2]. Concrete measures put into place in order to Secondly, the “action plan for energy effi- reach EU’s targets include an Energy Effi- ciency” aims to increase energy efficiency by ciency Improvement Programme for energy- 20%. This scheme involves investments of intensive industries and the Green Electricity SEK 300 million per year from 2010 to 2014. Certificate system. The government further Planned measures include improving local and imposes taxes on electricity and fuels and on regional energy initiatives, ameliorating advi- carbon dioxide and sulphur emissions, as well sory and information services, setting an exam- as a levy system on nitrogen oxide emissions. ple through sustainable public sector utilisation, supporting companies in reducing energy Finally, Sweden actively participates in Joint consumption through an “energy audit Implementation projects and Clean Develop- cheque” system, improving choice in energy ment Mechanisms as part of its commitment to efficient consumer products, and requiring continue its work under and beyond the Kyoto individual hot water and electricity metering Protocol and the Marrakech Agreement. The [2]. total emission reductions under these programmes, together with Sweden’s contribution The third action plan involves the goal of cre- to multilateral funds, such as the Copenhagen ating a fossil-fuel independent vehicle fleet. The Swed- Green Climate Fund, reached 12-16 million ish government hopes to render its fleet independent of fossil fuels by 2030. It aims to tons of CO2 equivalents [1]. achieve this target by putting a price on GHG Sweden’s Energy Goals emissions by way of taxes, by encouraging investments in renewable fuels, as well as Sweden’s government has set itself a number through the development of alternative tech- of ambitious climate and energy targets for the nologies. Under this scheme, green cars will be future. By 2020, the government intends to: exempt from vehicle taxes for five years and • obtain half of Sweden’s energy demands subsidies will be provided to filling station for from renewable energy sources; renewable fuels [2]. • achieve a 40% reduction in GHG emissions, as compared to 1990 levels, in those sectors not covered by the EU’s Emission Challenges to Sweden’s Trading System (ETS); Energy Goals • reduce GHG emissions in sectors that are covered by the EU’s ETS by 21% (in ac- In the past, Sweden has been extremely effi- cordance with EU targets); cient at meeting or even surpassing its energy

THE ØRESUND REGION 15 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

targets and if it continues to implement its cur- as biomass constitutes a limited resource and it rent policies with the same rigour, it is likely to needs to be estimated where it can be em- achieve the transition to a sustainable energy ployed most effectively. Importantly, Sweden society relatively smoothly [3]. needs to ensure that all biomass feedstock originates from sustainable sources [4]. Nevertheless, a number of challenges remain. In order to achieve the 40% reduction in GHG A decision in 1980 to phase out nuclear energy emissions, the production of carbon dioxide was reversed in 2010, when provisional ap- equivalents will have to be decreased by 20 proval was given for the construction of a million tonnes. Since 1990, only a fifth of the maximum of ten new nuclear power reactors, required reductions have been realised. The provided that each new build replaces an exist- rest remains to be achieved over the next nine ing reactor [1]. The dangers inherent in nuclear years. The Swedish government hopes to reach power production, final waste disposal and the these goals through a mix of economic instru- risk of accidents should be closely examined by ments, such as the existing carbon dioxide tax the Swedish government, while bearing in and green investments, as well as through the mind that nuclear power constitutes a major complete phasing out of fossil fuels for heating enabling factor with regard to Sweden’s ambi- by 2020 [2]. tious GHG emission targets. The emission limits, under the EU’s ETS may Finally, the Swedish Energy Agency notes that constitute a burden on Sweden’s energy- its energy goals may negatively impact on the intensive, export-oriented industries, such as aesthetic value of the country’s “magnificent iron and steel. The reason for this is that Swe- mountain landscape” and may deteriorate its den already has the lowest emissions coming lakes and watercourses. It furthermore ac- from heat and electricity generation in the EU knowledges that, even if all its goals are imple- and therefore few opportunities exist to reduce mented, an overall reduced climate impact will emissions in export sectors which face global be difficult to achieve, due to the global nature competition [4]. of the climate problem [1]. Sweden’s focus on transport is commendable, References as this sector constitutes four-fifths of all GHG emissions. While consumer habits in this [1] Swedish Energy Agency (SEA). 2010. Energy in sector may be difficult to alter, Sweden has Sweden 2010. Stockholm, Sweden: Swedish Energy Agency. been comparatively successful at promoting biogas vehicles both for private consumers and [2] Regeringskansliet (Ministry of the Environment and Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communi- as part of the public fleet. In addition, a move cations). 2009. An integrated climate and energy policy. from road to electric rail for both freight and Stockholm, Sweden: Regeringskansliet. passenger transport needs to be encouraged, in [3] Dahlquist, E., Vassileva, I., Wallin, F. and Thorin, order to take advantage of the country’s practi- E. 2011. Optimization of the Energy System to

cally CO2-free electricity generation [4]. Achieve a National Balance Without Fossil Fuels. International Journal of Green Energy 8 (6): 684-704. The decision to massively increase the use of [4] International Energy Agency. 2008. Sweden: 2008 renewable energy implies increased exposure to Review. Paris, France: IEA. variable power generation, such as solar and [5] Widén, J. 2011. Correlations Between Large-Scale wind power [5]. Further investments into creat- Solar and Wind Power in a Future Scenario for ing means of energy storage will therefore have Sweden. IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy 2. to be made. Furthermore, plans to increase the Windmill. Photo by Veronica Andronache, taken on 10 use of bioenergy need to be evaluated carefully, September 2011 in Copenhagen , Denmark.

16 ENERGY FUTURE ØRESUND

ENERGY SYSTEM IN REGION HOVEDSTADEN Current Status & Future Trends

By Stefan Sipka

his section will comprise a presentation of garding regional development includes the T the energy system of Region Hovedstaden leadership in collaboration between the busi- (the Capital Region of Denmark). The analysis ness community, the municipalities and the will include five subsections: general overview universities in order to reach the regional de- of Region Hovedstaden, energy supply and velopment goals of which one is a sustainable consumption, energy–related commitments, development [1]. measures for meeting energy–related commitments, and identified energy challenges. Energy Supply and Consumption Overview of the Region The energy consumption is based on electricity Region Hovedstaden is one of the five regional with a share of 34%, heat 59% and industrial authorities in Denmark. It is located in the processes 7%. The major share of energy is North-eastern area of the island of Zealand sourced from fossil fuels (Figure 1). The total including the island of Bornholm (as shown in annual electricity consumption is estimated to the map). The region’s territorial extent is be 8 315 GWh. Electricity is supplied via the 2 561 km2 including 29 municipalities. The total national energy grid owned by Energy Network population of the region is 1.6 million [1]. to electricity companies and then sold to the Like other regional authorities the region’s re- consumers. The structure of energy supply sponsibility relates to its healthcare system, regarding electricity is shown in Figures 2 and including a number of social institutions, and 3. Fossil fuels constitute a major part of supply regional development. The responsibility re- with a significant share of coal. Renewable energy also contributes a share, with the largest REGION HOVEDSTADEN part consisting of wind power. A minor part of nuclear energy is imported from Sweden. The BORNHOLM total annual heat consumption is estimated to be 14 300 GWh for the area of 116 million m2 2 RONNE equalling 123 kWh/m . Structure of energy COPENHAGEN supply regarding heat is shown in Figures 4 and 5. Heat is mainly produced from fossil fuels BALLERUP with a major contribution from natural gas. ALBERTSLUND

Region Hovedstaden and the main towns of focus for this analysis. Inset: The island of Bornholm.

REGION HOVEDSTADEN 17 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Share of renewable energy is lower when com- related: energy supply goal and energy efficien- pared with electricity and it is mainly based on cy goal [5]. biomass and waste [2]. The energy supply goal is to optimise resource District heating comprises 61% of the total use and decrease fossil fuel consumption. The heating. Furthermore 84% of district heating is identified target for this goal is to increase the based on Combined Heat and Power (CHP). share of renewable energy to 50% out of a total The result is that less than half of energy fuel is energy supply by 2025 [5]. This target should actually needed for direct heat production in also be seen inside a context of a wider national

boilers [2]. target to achieve total independence of fossil fuels by 2050 [7]. Commitments The energy efficiency goal is to reduce energy Energy is recognised by the region as an air- consumption in buildings. Identified target for polluting and climate-related issue. Although this goal is to increase energy efficiency in ex- other energy issues, such as energy scarcity and isting buildings by 25% until 2025 compared to rising energy prices, are also identified, energy 2011 [5]. policies are nevertheless primarily recognised as a part of the Region’s air-pollution and climate- Measures related commitments [3,4,5,6,]. The climate strategy envisions three types of The region is currently developing a climate actions that could be taken in order to meet the strategy which should deliver more defined and stated goals: detailed energy commitments. Currently availa- • Strategic regional ventures between the ble climate strategy synopsis is capable of pro- Region and municipalities; viding basic information for an energy-related • Common areas – the voluntary participa- vision and targets [5]. tion in common platforms; The vision has been identified as follows: “In • Recommendations to the government, 2025 the metropolitan area should be recog- region, and municipalities which are to be nised as the most energy-efficient and climate- accomplished by individual planning [5]. prepared region in Denmark based on strong regional and inter-municipal cooperation, Furthermore, the climate strategy specific ac- where innovative public-private partnerships tions are further elaborated for each of the contribute to green growth at the highest inter- goals. national standard” [5]. Energy Supply Goals The climate strategy also identifies five major goals out of which two are directly energy- Under strategic regional venture type of action, a common strategic initiative is envisioned. The

Graphs of varying energy supply system [2].

18 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

Initiative further includes development of plans • Conversion to renewable energy; which should include regional and national • Energy efficiency; stakeholders in order to implement renewable • Behaviour changes in public, authori- energy solutions. More specifically, it is envi- ties, businesses and among citizens; and sioned that such strategic planning will be done • Improved waste recycling [5]. in coordination with the Danish Energy Agency and Local Government Denmark, Energy efficiency challenges are the following: which is a voluntary organisation consisting of • Realizing the huge potential for energy Danish municipalities [5]. and economic savings in renovation Under “Common areas”, it is envisioned that and new construction; the Region and municipalities develop com- • Energy renovations of regional and mon cross-cutting energy initiatives. An out- municipal buildings require massive come would be that the region and municipali- investment; ties will be able to acquire usually costly and • Sustainable hospital buildings; and complex tools and knowledge for implement- • Renovation and demolition [5]. ing energy planning [5]. Recommendations show a great variety and References basically relate to the use of the region’s and [1] The Capital Region of Denmark. (2009). Facts municipalities’ administrative, economic and About The Capital Region Of Denmark. Copenhagen: The informative instruments in order to stimulate Capital region of Denmark. the conversion to renewable energy [5]. [2] Region Hovedstaden. (2011). Tværgående Energiplan- lægning I Hovedstadsregionen - Kortlægning og Analyse, Energy Efficiency Goals Rambøll. The climate strategy identifies only “common [3] Region Hovedstaden. (2009). Handlingsplan For Bæredygtig Udvikling – Lokal Agenda 21 Handligsplan area” and “recommendations” for energy effi- For Virksomheden Region Hovedstaden. ciency goals. [4] Region Hovedstaden. (2009). Strategi For Bæredygtig Under “common area”, it asserts that common Udvikling, Lokal Agenda Strategi For Virksomheden tools, models and initiatives could be estab- Region Hovedstaden. lished. Furthermore, it is suggested that men- [5] Region Hovedstaden. (2011). Synopsis For Klima- tioned projects should include development of strategi For Hovedstadsregionen. energy retrofit packages, energy efficiency [6] The Capital Region Of Denmark. (2008) The Capi- packages and energy service companies (ES- tal Region of Denmark – an international metropolitan re- COs) [5]. gion with high quality of life and growth, regional development plan. Recommendations are related to different ad- [7] The Danish Government. (2011). Energy Strategy ministrative, economic and informative in- 2050 - from Coal, Oil and Gas To Green Energy. struments to be used in order to improve ener- Fire and Light-bulb Photo taken by Stefan Sipka and gy efficiency in buildings, especially in those Mauricio Lopez taken on November 5th 2011 in Lund, concerning healthcare [5]. Sweden. Challenges Challenges are identified for each of the specific goals. Energy supply challenges are the following:

REGION HOVEDSTADEN 19 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

REGION ZEALAND

By Mauricio Lopez

he Zealand Region (Region Sjælland in Dan- increase three percent by 2020, with a similar T ish) is an administrative unit in Denmark growth rate as the Capital Region. established in 2007 as a result of the Danish Municipal Reform. It is comprised of the for- Existing Energy System mer counties of Roskilde, West Zealand, and The energy system in the Zealand Region is the Storstrøm, and consists of several islands on largest source of greenhouse gases (GHG), as a the eastern part of Denmark including Zealand, result of the use of fossil fuels for transporta- Lolland, Falster and Møn. However, due to its tion, heating and to provide the regional elec- dissimilar characteristics and importance, the tricity supply. The energy supply is derived north eastern part of the Zealand Island be- from the following primary sources: coal and longs to a different administrative region. coke, oil, natural gas and renewables. At the Each region is appointed with three main tasks: regional level, these sources are transformed in management of health care, the operation of central power stations, combined heat and education institutions, and the creation and power (CHP) facilities, district heating plants, implementation of regional development plans. gasworks, and by private autoproducers [2]. The Zealand Region has allocated a budget of On the demand side, the largest energy con- around EUR 2 billion for these tasks, mostly sumption is derived from transport, which is used in health services related expenses [1]. mainly satisfied with oil products. As it is also The Zealand Region is one of the smallest in the fastest growing sector in terms of con- 2 Denmark (7 273 km ) while it is also second sumption, its already significant share in energy with the highest population density (112 in- consumption will increase over time [3]. habitants/km2). The population is expected to Possible Developments in the Energy System The expected development in fuel prices, based on projections by the International Energy Agency, establishes a stable and constant growth [4]. Based on this assumption, an increase in the investment in other energy

Train station at the Roskilde Festival in 2009 with a wind turbine next to the camping area.

20 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND.

Private biogas facility in Lolland, Denmark. Private investment in Denmark has been fundamental for the expansion of renewables as a share of the energy mix.

sources, particularly renewables, will probably take place in Denmark. Because of the geographical and economic activities of the Zeal- and region, the investment in renewable energy sources is centered on wind turbines (onshore and offshore) plant construction and retrofitting focused on the use of biomass for CHP production. The biomass potential of the region has recently been assessed in a mapping project and two main sources of biomass have been identified: waste products from agriculture, industry and aquatic environments and the production of energy crops [5]. Significant savings in efficiency can be made both on the demand side and on the transformation of primary energy sources, given that so ties. They also commit themselves to submit a far large CHP plants are responsible for two- Sustainable Energy Action Plan detailing time- thirds of the losses in energy before final con- lines and responsibilities related to the envi- sumption [3]. ronmental objectives. The Local Government However, the most interesting potential in the Regional Council (KKR Zealand) and Region region is related to the creation of energy and Zealand act as Covenant Coordinators for environmental economic clusters. According to them [7]. They coordinate the individual objec- a study made by Oxford Research, the poten- tives from the municipalities into one single tial for strategic cluster formation could boost regional strategy. the development of environmental and energy On an individual level municipalities have also solutions in the region [6]. made important commitments related to the reduction of GHG emissions. Kalundborg Regional Commitments municipality, for example, has signed a climate The Zealand Region has committed to reach is partnership agreement with DONG Energy (a the European Union’s general climate goal, private energy company owned by the Danish government and private shareholders) to in- focused on reaching a 20% reduction of CO2 emissions (relative to 1990 levels) by 2020. crease energy efficiency and create renewable energy infrastructure. As a result of this part- The municipalities have also made agreements nership, a large-scale ethanol demonstration of their own. In 2009 many of the region’s plant was conceived to showcase DONG En- mayors (14 out of 17) signed the Covenant of ergy’s second-generation ethanol production Mayors, a document in which they commit to technology called Inbicon process. The plant is develop a Baseline Emission Inventory, which designed to fit in the industrial symbiosis is a measurement of CO2 emissions derived model of Kalundborg Eco-industrial Park [5,8]. from energy consumption in their municipali-

CHAPTER 1, REGIONAL OVERVIEW 21 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Goals, Strategies & Instruments strategy that integrates these elements into a regional environmental solution. The Zealand Region has a particularly active role in devising strategies focused on environ- References mental and energy-related issues. The whole regional strategy can be summarized in its three [1] Danish Regions. (2007). The Danish Regions in Brief. driving forces: 3rd. edition. Copenhagen. [2] Dansk Energi. (2009). Danish Electricity Supply 2008. • Adaptation, regarding the effects of climate Statistical Survey. Brussels. change; [3] Danish Energy Agency. (2010). Danish Energy flows • Mitigation, focused on the reduction of 2009. CO emissions; and 2 [4] Ea Energy Analyses (2010). Paths Towards a Fossil- • Innovation, as a source of potential solu- free Energy Supply. Retrieved from: http://www.ea- tions. energianalyse.dk/projects- english/1010_Paths_to_a_fossil- The main document assessing these points is free_energy_system.html the Regional Climate Strategy, which was the [5] Rasmussen, B. et al. (2010). Regional Climate Strategy first one to be developed in Denmark. The – Region Sjælland. 2009 Annual Report. main objectives regarding the regional energy [6] Schou, S. (2006). Clusters of Region Sealand in Den- system are to increase the use of renewable mark. Oxford Research. energy and to promote a more effective use of energy in general [9]. [7] Covenant of Mayors Office. (2011). The Covenant of Mayors – Actions speak for themselves. Retrieved from: In order to reach these objectives, five fields of http://www.eumayors.eu/about/covenant-of- action have been established: mayors_en.html [8] DONG Energy. (2011). Kalundborg Demonstration • Use the biomass potential in the region; plant. Retrieved from: • Maintain and increase the use of regional http://www.inbicon.com/Projects/Kalundborg%2 wind power potential; 0Demonstration%20plant/Pages/Kalundborg%20 Demonstration%20plant.aspx • Distribute and integrate renewable energy facilities; [9] KKR Zealand & Region Zealand. (2009). Regional Climate Strategy. Denmark. • Promote energy savings in households and the public and private sector; and “The Green Wheel at Roskilde Festival 2009” photo by Stig Nygaard, taken on July 5, 2009 in Roskilde, Sjælland, • The preparation of heat and energy plants. Denmark. Licensed under Creative Commons 2.0. URL: http://www.flickr.com/photos/stignygaard/424088288 Challenges 6/. The main issues are related to the integration “Day 2 of the Roskilde Festival” photo by Hunter Des- portes taken on June 29, 2001 in Sjælland, Denmark. of existing energy plants into a broader system Licensed under Creative Commons 2.0. URL: as well as promoting the transition to from http://www.flickr.com/photos/hdport/4684963167/ non-renewables to renewable energy sources “Bio energy” photo by Lars Plougmann on February 5, while promoting technology shifts [9]. These 2007 in Lolland, Denmark. Licensed under Creative challenges require the development of aware- Commons 2.0. URL: ness among the population regarding the need http://www.flickr.com/photos/criminalintent/3835496 to develop more renewable energy alternatives, 82/ and the use of these resources. The resources available in the Zealand Region make it an ideal candidate for the development of a broad

22 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND.

REGION SKÅNE Energy Challenges in the South of Sweden

By Jordan Hayes & Ian Ross

he region of Skåne is the most southern Transportation accounts for the largest GHG T county of Sweden and differs from Re- emissions in the Skåne region with energy pro- gion Skåne (RS) which is a public organisation duction being the second largest contributor as that acts on behalf of the Regional Assembly. shown on the figure on the following page. RS is responsible for health care and public This figure can be somewhat misleading how- transport and employs around 32 000 individu- ever, as energy carrier imports are not included als. The region of Skåne is divided into 33 mu- in this estimation. Skåne imported 11 TWh nicipalities with Malmö being the largest fol- hours of energy carriers in 2007. These energy lowed by Helsingborg, then Lund. The total sources are mainly electricity, natural gas, oil, population of the region in 2010 was estimated and biomass. If these were included the total around 1 240 000 which is roughly 13% of the emissions for the energy category would in- total population of Sweden. Skåne is consid- crease by roughly 16% [2]. ered to be the fastest growing region in all of Skånetrafiken is the organisation that runs the Sweden with a steady population increase from region’s transportation system. They estimate year to year. The region has an area of 11 027 that the system facilitates 120 million journeys square kilometers, which is about three percent a year. While all of the trains in the region are of the total area of Sweden. About half the powered by renewable energy, only 24% of all land in Skåne is farming land which is well total transportation modes in the region were above the national average of eight percent and powered by renewable sources in 2009. Private 30% is covered by forest. In 2008 the gross cars accounted for two-thirds of GHG emis- regional product (GRP) of the region was measured to be SEK 338 billion [1]. Sources of electricity production in Skåne 2008 [2]. Situation ENERGY SOURCE % The RS is ambitiously trying to reduce their Bio gas and solar cells 2% energy use and associated greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In 2009 the region was us- Power plants (fossil fuel) 13% ing 326 GWh of energy for electricity, cooling Wind 39% and heating [3]. When combined with trans- Hydro 9% port, this amounted to 60 000 tonnes of carbon dioxide released per year. The table to the right Cogeneration plants 22% gives the relative percentages for electricity Industrial back pressure (renewable) 12% source of the region. Industrial back pressure (fossil fuel) 3%

REGION SKÅNE 23 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

sions released by transportation in 2007, with 2005. Over the past two decades final energy freight accounting for one-third [2,3]. consumption in the region has not changed although population growth has increased Skåne Regional Goals and which means that energy consumption per Strategies person has dropped. Part of the success has come from all sectors except transportation becoming less energy intensive. Reductions in Greenhouse Gas Emissions energy have also came from a shift away from By 2020 GHG emissions in the region will energy intensive sectors such as engineering need to be at least 30% lower than that of and chemical industries towards less energy 1990. In order to achieve the 30% reduction intensive businesses such as pharmaceuticals goal, it has been suggested to focus on three and telecommunications. Other ways energy sectors which have been identified as the main use has been reduced has been in logistics for emission sectors: transportation, energy and transportation and building efficiency, which agriculture. Some examples to reduce emis- can help reduce total energy consumption by sions from these sectors include energy effi- up to one third [2]. ciency in transportation, energy efficiency in industry, reduction of methane and nitrous Renewable Electricity oxide emissions from agriculture and increas- By 2020 the production of renewable electricity ing the use of renewable energy sources [2]. in the region will be six TWh higher than the In Skåne GHGs have been decreasing since figures from 2002 [2]. On and off shore wind 1990. Part of the success in this reduction of power is the renewable energy source that is GHGs has been due to private households expected to contribute the most to meeting the replacing their oil fired boilers with biomass goals for 2020 [2]. It is expected that future boilers or heat pumps. Other activities include offshore wind will contribute four TWh and reduction of heating with fossil fuels, reduced onshore wind is estimated to produce 1.4 TWh livestock in agriculture and reduced energy [2]. There will also be a gradual transition to consumption on a per person basis [2]. use additional renewable fuels such as biogas, waste and natural gas in power plants and in- Energy Use dustries [2]. There are plans to upgrade some By 2020 energy use in the region will be ten existing hydro power plants in the Skåne region percent lower than the average from 2001 to to assist in reaching renewable electricity goals, but these are not substantial. There will also be some development in small-scale renewable 6% projects such as solar, but long-term forecasting suggest that this will not contribute signifi- 18% cantly to reaching overall energy goals due to 39% the large areas of land required for solar elec-

Transport tricity production [2]. Energy Production 8% Industry Agriculture

Machinery Skåne region GHG emissions as percent of contribution. Note that this is a simplified estimation based on 29% data obtained from [3].

24 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

Transport Challenges By 2015 GHG emissions from transport in the While the Skåne region has taken great strides region will be ten percent lower than emissions in creating a cleaner energy system, some prac- from 2007 [2]. The regional commuter traffic tical challenges still remain. Some municipali- operator in Skåne, Skånetrafiken, has also set ties may be hesitant to invest into biogas plants targets to be fossil free by 2020 [1]. It aims to as they might own waste incineration plants, ensure that city busses are fossil free fueled by and are reluctant to have conflicting invest- 2015, regional busses by 2018 and other vehi- ments. Other challenges arise with the produc- cles by 2020. tion of additional wind turbines on land and in the sea. With the production of turbines on Partnerships land, the main conflict arises where buildings The region of Skåne is making large efforts to and different types of territorial protection may improve the energy system within the county. limit expansion. With respect to the develop- The Swedish Environmental Protection ment of offshore wind turbines comes the con- Agency awarded RS with SEK 45 million to flict with the protection of marine habitat, mili- invest in GHG reduction programmes for the tary defence, fisheries and coastal populations. period of 2006-2012. RS has in turn been in- These challenges and potential conflicts must volved with various organisations in develop- be given adequate consideration when aiming ing renewable energy markets in the Skåne to reach the energy goals of 2020 and beyond. region. References POLIS (identification and mobilisation of solar potential via local strategies) is a current project [1] Energy Planning Knowledge Base. (2008). that Malmö is taking part in, along with 5 other Case studies about European energy planning projects. Retrieved from: European cities, that promotes sustainable city http://casestudies.pepesec.eu/archives /127 planning, focusing on solar power integration [3]. Solar Region Skåne is another organisation [2] Eliasson, E., Persson, T., Arnell, H., Ehrnst, with a similar focus on increasing solar panel T., Westlin, K., Stenlo, A., & Nylander, A. use in the region. In 2005 a subsidy programme (2010). Climate Goals for Skåne. The County Ad- ministrative Board of Skåne. Elanders Sweden was introduced in Sweden, which covers 70% AB. of the cost for buildings to install PV solar panels [4]. [3] Region Skåne. (2009). Region Skåne’s Climate Projects - an overview. Retrieved from: Skåne has worked hard with industry and mu- www.Skane.se/miljo nicipalities to expand biogas production. The [4] Adamsson, P. (2008). City of Malmö - Solar City goal for biogas is to increase production to Malmö Brochure. Retrieved from: three TWh by 2020 [2]. Skåne has an aspiration www.solarregion.se to create five new biogas production facilities, along with biogas bus fleets, biogas car fleets, Cover photo taken by Veronica Andronache on September 28, 2011. fueling stations, and incorporated grids [3].

Skåne is also participating in the EU funded Renewable Energy Supply Chains Programme, which focuses on expanding markets for biogas, small-scale biomass, wind energy, solar energy, and hydropower [3].

REGION SKÅNE 25 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

COPENHAGEN, ALBERTSLUND AND BALLERUP City-Level Energy Strategies

By Sarah Czunyi & Tom Figel

he Danish cities of Copenhagen, Al- Copenhagen is currently dependent upon fossil T bertslund and Ballerup are all located in fuels – namely coal, natural gas and oil – for the larger Copenhagen metropolitan area. All 73% of its electricity needs [2]. three cities have ambitious goals to reduce their energy consumption and green energy supplies, Future Vision and Goals with overall commitments to achieve 20-25% In 2009, the city council passed the Copenha- carbon emission reductions by 2015 [1]. How- gen Climate Plan. This plan sets out a vision ever, each city has a different strategy for for the city to become carbon-neutral by 2025, reaching these goals. with a specific target to reduce carbon emis- Copenhagen sions by 20% between 2005 and 2015 – a reduction of approximately 500 000 tonnes of The city of Copenhagen is the capital of Den- carbon [3]. mark, with a core population of almost 700 000 The largest proportion of Copenhagen’s car- inhabitants. Copenhagen has been an interna- bon emissions arise from electricity/heating, tional forerunner in advancing environmental thus the energy supply is the priority interven- sustainability in practice, yet the city is still reli- tion area to reach the 2015 goals. 75% of the ant upon ‘dirty’ energy sources. Electricity and total carbon reductions are expected to arise heating make up the greatest proportion of the from changes in the energy supply mix. Specif- city’s energy use. Although 30% of the total ic measures to achieve this will include: use of energy mix comes from carbon-neutral energy biomass in power stations (largely replacing sources, and 98% of the city’s homes are con- coal); installation of greater wind generation nected to a district heating system based on co- capacity through the erection of wind turbines generation plants, there still remains a high or windmill parks (both on- and off-shore); dependency on non-renewable energy sources. increased use of geothermal power; and renovation of the district heating network to im- Coal prove efficiency and decrease leakage/losses. Natural gas Other targets in the Plan are directed at: trans- Oil port, buildings and overall urban development.

Biofuels Creating a greener transportation system is expected to achieve 10% of the total carbon Land-based wind turbines

Off-shore wind turbines Electricity consumption in Copenhagen municipality, Waste incineration 2005, by fuel type (Adapted from [2])

26 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

reductions. Although Copenhagen is currently within the local authority’s institution and op- seen as one of the world’s most bicycle-friendly erations, the transportation sector, and a prin- cities, current projections do not foresee a re- cipal focus on the housing and business sec- duction in car ownership. Carbon reductions in tors. This is driven by an overall goal to reduce the transport sector will therefore be focused carbon emissions by 25% by 2015 (an equiva- on: improving biking and walking infrastruc- lent of 52 000 tons of carbon). Albertslund has ture; extending public transportation; elec- begun aggressive residential housing climate tric/hydrogen powered vehicles (both public renovation supported by the Danish Energy and private); and congestion charging. Improv- Agency, with the hope of enacting an exem- ing energy efficiency combined with construc- plary model that will guide similar renovation tion/renovation of buildings is expected to projects in the future. Planned housing renova- lead to a 10% reduction in carbon emissions. tions will attain at least energy class 2, which This will be promoted through regulations on results in a 73% reduction of energy consump- building’s efficiency requirements, starting with tion. The renovation strategy includes further an overhaul of the municipality’s own build- use of alternative energy, conversion to low- ings. Lastly, education campaigns to encourage temperature district heating, ground source behavioural changes to reduce electricity con- heating and other technical solutions. Renova- sumption are expected to achieve a 1% reduction of existing public housing (approximately tion in total carbon emissions. All of these 1550 homes) will be partly financed by the measures are to be integrated into the cross- National Building Fund (Landsbyggefonden). sectoral work of the municipality. [2, 4] New, sustainable housing developments in the

city centre are also planned. Albertslund has a Albertslund multifaceted strategy to work with private businesses towards sustainable business devel- Albertslund is a suburb of Copenhagen, with a opment and the reduction of energy use. Al- population of about 30 000. It is a fairly young bertslund’s transportation strategy focuses on city, dating from the 1960s. Within the existing creating and encouraging alternatives to car energy system, the two main energy needs are traffic, especially cycling, and working with for heating and electricity. For heating, the businesses to reduce transport needs. The major sources are waste, biofuels/oil and coal, municipality also has strong commitments to and for electricity, coal and natural gas are pre- reduce its own institutional and operational dominant in the mix. energy use, including a climate renovation of its new buildings and incorporation of passive Future Vision and Goals design, increased green procurement, and ret- Albertslund’s 2015 energy strategy is mainly rofitting all public lighting with LED bulbs. focused on reduction of energy consumption

Albertslund existing energy system – heating and electricity energy mix (Adapted from [5])

COPENHAGEN, ALBERTSLUND AND BALLERUP 27 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Aside from reducing energy consumption in private institutions. Ballerup, along with Al- these four areas, the city is also investing in the bertslund, is part of the Green Cities partner- sustainable development and expansion of its ship, and has partnered with Aalborg Univer- district heating system, as well as the incorpo- sity and the Danish Department of Community ration of more renewable energy into its elec- Development. To develop renewables, Ballerup tricity supply. The district heating system, is working with DONG Energy. Primary in- which currently covers 95% of local heat de- vestment is in wind energy, which will cover all mand, will be converted to low temperature to of the municipality’s own buildings consump- allow for coupling with alternative energy. tion demands by 2015. The municipality is significantly expanding its district heating and Towards these goals, Albertslund has legislated researching possibilities to develop district commitments and invested resources within cooling a well as a biogas plant, which would the municipality, as well as formed strategic also produce organic biofertiliser. partnerships with regional and national governments, organizations, and networks such as Ballerup has made strong commitments to the Green Cities public-private network to help green its own energy supply and reduce con- municipalities support private companies with sumption, many of which are ahead of national climate strategy. Other networks that Al- legislation. Electricity consumption in munici- bertslund has joined include: Agenda 21; Inter- pal buildings is to be reduced by 10% by end of national Council for Local Environmental Ini- 2011 [6]. All new municipal buildings are re- tiatives; and the European Union’s Covenant quired to be built as a zero-energy, and from of Mayors. [5] 2015 as energy-plus buildings (i.e. producing extra energy which can be fed into the Ballerup grid). By 2015, the majority of municipal institutions, commercial properties and households Ballerup is located approximately 15 km will be converted to district heating. Also by northwest of Copenhagen and has about 2015, the European Eco-Management and 47 000 inhabitants. The existing energy system Audit Scheme (EMAS) standard will be intro- is predominately dependent on coal and natural duced across the municipal organisation. gas. Renewable energy, which is mostly waste- based, accounts for approximately 15% of the One of the municipality’s key strategies is energy supply. to inspire businesses, which account for 60% of the municipality’s total energy use, to adopt Future Vision and Goals clean energy practices. The municipality will lead through example, utilizing the develop- Ballerup’s energy strategy focuses on energy ment of a Climate Network for businesses, and conservation and increased use of renewable also ensure that municipal infrastructure pro- energy. By 2015, 25% of municipal energy con- motes clean energy options for companies. sumption will come from renewable en- One example is the Carbon 2.0 project, where ergy. Also by 2015, the majority of Ballerup’s 15 companies will reduce their CO emissions businesses, institutions, and households will be 2 by 20% before the end of 2013. converted to district heating, which will significantly improve consumption efficiency. Regarding transport, focus will be on investment and infrastructure development of public The city has a long-term goal of becoming transport and cycling, as well as behaviour- CO neutral in all of its energy consumption. 2 targeted campaigns for citizens. About 80% of Ballerup has made strategic partnerships to Ballerup’s citizens are currently commuting, so achieve its energy goals, both with public and this is a major area of focus for the city. The

28 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

municipality will procure clean technology in [4] City of Copenhagen (2011). Tremendous Growth in cars and buses, and investigate ways to develop Copenhagen. Retrieved October 29, 2011 from http://www.kk.dk/Nyheder/2011/Marts/Tremen more electric cars. dousGrowthInCopenhagen.aspx. For households, the promotion of best prac- [5] Municipality of Albertslund (2009). Albertslund Cli- tices for energy conservation and investment in mate Plan 2009-2015. Retrieved October 25, 2011 energy retrofits are the highest priorities. Two from citizen-oriented climate initiatives will be held http://flipflashpages.uniflip.com/2/15327/104997 /pub/. each year to increase knowledge and influence citizens’ climate-related behaviour. All new [6] Municipality of Ballerup (2010).Ballerup Climate Plan. buildings will be built as energy class 1 (a strict Retrieved October 28, 2011 from http://www.ballerup.dk/data/788378/26935/klima energy regulation set under Danish Building plan_ballerup_web.pdf. regulations) from 2010. [6] Bike photo by Jim Figel, taken on 6 May 2011. Overarching Challenges All three cities – Copenhagen, Albertslund and Ballerup – face similar challenges with respect to their energy goals. For example, a higher reliance on renewable energy sources such as wind will require an effective and large-scale energy storage system to cope with changing weather conditions as well as changes in electricity demand [2]. Changes in biomass volumes available (for incineration) and high fluctuations in electricity prices are also potential challenges that should be addressed at the planning stage [1]. Influencing industry and households requires significant investment and careful planning. Overcoming these challenges will require sustained leadership from each city.

References [1] EnergiÖresund (2011). Tværgående aktiviteter Energi- systemer og deres forventede udvikling –København [Hori- zontal activities, Energy systems and their evolution – Copenhagen]. European Union Regional Development Fund and Interreg IV A. [2] City of Copenhagen (2009a). Copenhagen Climate Plan – The Short Version. City of Copenhagen, Technical and Environmental Administration. Co- penhagen, Denmark. [3] City of Copenhagen (2009b). Climate and Environ- ment. Retrieved October 25, 2011 from http://www.kk.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/City OfCopenha- gen/SubsiteFrontpage/LivingInCopenhagen/Clim ateAndEnvironment.aspx.

COPENHAGEN, ALBERTSLUND AND BALLERUP 29 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Malmö Energy System

By Peter Kiryushin

almö is the capital of Skåne county, si- There were 2 600 GWh of heat was produced Mtuated in the south-west of Sweden. in 2006 from sources including, natural gas, Malmö in the center of the Øresund region by waste (incineration) and solid biofuels, with a the Øresund bridge, which connects Sweden minor contribution of oil. Between 1990 and and Denmark. With the population of 300 000 2006 there was an 80% decrease of oil con- inhabitants Malmö is the third largest city in sumption due to restructuring of the city’s in- the country after Stockholm and Gothenburg dustrial sector [3]. 5230 GWh of the overall [1]. Until the beginning of 1990’s Malmö was energy consumption in 2008 were used in non- an industrial zone. Now it is a fast developing transportation sectors. Service sector is the city, where sustainability, environmental and largest energy consumer, it followed by apart- energy issues are important parts of the devel- ments, industry and small houses. Between opment agenda. Malmö is ranked among the 1990-2008 per capita consumption in Malmö top green cities of the world, and has an ambi- felt by 12%, partially due to economic restruct- tious goal to become even more “greener” in ing and changes in the industrial sector [1]. the nearest future [2]. Vision and Goals Energy System The city has a vision to have 100% renewable According to the Malmö Municipal Statistics energy supply by 2030. Malmö has a strong the overall energy consumption for 2008 of the commitment and is developing numerous in- city was estimated as 7 520 GWh [1]. Malmö novations in order to achieve this vision. One has a district heating system that is typical for of the prominent examples is the carbon- Swedish cities. District heating system is usually neutral and fully renewable-based energy sys- better in efficiency and pollution control com- tem of Bo01 district in the Western Harbor. pared to individual boilers. About 1 400 m2 of solar panels have been installed in the district as well as powerful water pumps, which draw energy from natural warm water reservoirs during the summer to heat the district in winter time. Part of the electricity supply also comes from offshore Lillgrund Wind Park that is the third largest installation of off-shore wind energy in the world [1].

New Bo01 district with modern energy supply in Malmö

30 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

The main goal for energy development for electricity supply and consumption, typical 2020 is stipulated in the Malmö Energy Strate- measures include: encouraging citizens and gy: “Energy use in the city is characterised by organisations to use renewables and minimise efficiency, frugal use of natural resources, secu- fossil fuel consumption; developing heat pump rity and availability together with low impact projects, providing sport facilities with solar on the climate, environment and health”. There heating systems, etc [3]. are subsidiary goals, which can be categorised into three areas: increasing of energy efficiency; The key guidelines for the transport sector are: developing of renewables; and better planning, • municipal fleet should consist of 100% en- purchasing, security and knowledge [3]. vironmental vehicles in the future; • 75% of municipal fleet should use biogas by By the year 2020 the per capita energy con- 2015; sumption should be decreased by 20% com- • 20% refilling station should provide envi- pared to the average of 2000-2005. By the year ronmentally-friendly fuels; and 2020 the municipality’s departments and com- • Usage of electricity from renewable panies should decrease their energy use by 30% sources in the future. and develop 100% renewable energy supply. Planning, purchasing and the security of energy Key energy saving measures and guidelines for improvement areas also include different different sectors are presented in Table 1. Ac- measures. For example, prioritising walking, cording to research estimations the overall cycling and public transport; more dense, energy saving potential for Malmö is estimated mixed adjacent, extension of district heating, to 17-41% [5]. and prioritising social functions of the energy system [3]. Measures and Guidelines In 2020 renewable energy should comprise not Overall, three kinds of challenges for energy less than 50% of the total energy supply. development in Malmö could be identified. Malmö aims to be the leading biogas and hy- The first is negative environmental impact, drogen city in Sweden. There are a number of mostly associated with air pollution emissions measures stipulated in the Energy Strategy in from transport, waste incineration and oil con- order to achieve the target. For heating and sumption for energy needs. The second chal-

Key energy saving measures and guidelines. RESIDENCES, PRE- MISES & COMMER- INDUSTRIES OTHER SECTORS CIAL BUILDINGS • Detailed analysis of • Support the R&D for RESEARCHING potential LED based lamps • Measures in Municipali- • Influence citizens coice on PLANNING & ty’s building stock • Planning with regard to most economical vehicle ACTING • Compliance with energy use • Implement recommenda- energy requirements tions for sewage works • Information about best • Giving info during examples inspection visits COMMUNICATING • Communication with • Increase advice to small property owners & medium-size enterprises

MALMÖ ENERGY SYSTEM 31 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

lenge is unpredictability of deliveries and deli- Photo of Bo01 district in Malmö was taken July 27, very interruptions, which are possible for ex- 2008, by "Hauggen". It is licensed under Creative Commons 2.0. URL: ample, because of local power cuts. The third http://www.flickr.com/photos/hauggen/2876378926/ challenge is connected with high cost level in energy field. The reason is that E.ON, an energy company, is the major and most important actor in the city energy system [3].

Conclusion In conclusion, Malmö has an ambitious vision to become fossil-free in 2030. A number of the city’s achievements already proved the commitments to the vision, in particularly, development of 100% renewable energy supply in Bo01 district and significant reduction of oil consumption since 1990. However, in order to achieve the long-term vision and commitments, there are challenges to overcome related to negative environmental impact of some energy sources, interruptions of energy supply and high energy costs.

References [1] Malmö Stad. (2011). Malmö – a city in transition. Malmö City. Retrieved October 16, 2011, from http://www.Malmö.se/English.html [2] Grist Magazine. (2007). 15 Green Cities. Grist Magazine, July 19. Retrieved October 14, 2011, from http://www.grist.org/article/cities3

[3] Malmö Stadsbyggnadskontor. (2009). Energistrategi för Malmö. Malmö City. Retrieved October 16, 2011, from http://www.Malmö.se/

[4] City of Malmö. (2008). Potential for more efﬁcient energy use in the City of Malmö. Summary. SECURE Project. Retrieved October 14, 2011, from http://www.secureproject.org

[5] Carolyn Fry. (2009). City of the future. Engineering & Technology, 14 February - 27 February 2009, 48-51. Photo of Turning Torso, the tallest skyscraper in Malmö, Sweden and all Scandinavia, by Monika ”Urbanlegend”, taken February 26, 2006 Malmö, Sweden, using Fujifilm FinePix F450. It is licensed under Creative Commons 2.0. URL: http://www.flickr.com/photos/17989497@N00/10621 6768/

32 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

Lund’s Energy Strategy Achieving Zero GHG Emissions by 2050

By Filipe Firpo

unds Kommun (English: Lund Municipal- photo voltaic panels and 331.8 MWh from Lity) is strategically located in the southern solar heat) [3]. Wind power is harvested from part of Sweden, in Skåne County, less than an eight windmills ranging in power from 150 to hour by train from the Danish capital Copen- 660 kW, which has accounted for 5 839 MWh hagen. It holds nine urban areas, including the in 2010. In the same year, a new and more city of Lund, which seats its administration modern windmill of 2.3 MW was installed [3]. 2 over a total area of 442.87 km [1]. With a Since 1998, the Municipality has bought only population of 110 824 and a density of 246 per 2 eco-labelled electricity, mainly from certified km [1], it is one of the most important mu- hydroelectric power in Norway. Moreover, nicipalities in Sweden, headquarters of impor- energy use in the city’s stock property has tant and high tech companies and home of the fallen by 17% due to high investments in en- major Swedish and largest Scandinavian educa- ergy efficiency, under the Sustainable Energy tion and research institute, Lund University [2]. Action Plan for Lund. [6] Situated in Sweden’s largest agricultural area, the region is benefited by an oceanic, relatively Effective Heating System mild climate and with average annual temperature of 7.5°C [3], affecting its energy consump- A broad effective and efficient District Heating tion, GHG emissions and overall balance. (DH) network system reaches 85% of the Mu- nicipality and beyond, supplying 50 000 cus- Lund’s Energy Balance tomers in Lund, Lomma and Eslöv municipalities. The heat production of Kraftringen Pro- Green electricity duktion reached 1 280 GWh in 2010 [3]. Lund’s electric energy comes from a wide mix of both renewable and non-renewable sources. Lund’s District Heating Fuel Mix In the year 2010 Kraftringen Produktion AB, which is part of the Municipality owned Lunds Energi Koncernen, produced 107 GWh of electricity alone. The greatest part however, is imported from Norway (hydro sourced) [3]. Solar and wind power accounts slightly to the final amount: the total solar production was 391.8 MWh in 2010 (being 80 MWh from

Lund’s district heating fuel mix in 2010. Data from [3].

LUND’S ENERGY STRATEGY 33 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Since 1984 geothermal energy and heat pumps The association’s ultimate goal is to reduce have been used and now accounts for 22% of overall GHG emissions in Sweden [6]. Work- the DH production (about 250 GWh/year) [5]. ing cooperatively within the Municipalities is Another fraction of 29% comes from fossil the only way to achieve the national target. fuels (natural gas). The other remaining 49% By establishing wind and solar power, generat- comes from a mix of other renewables sources ing the conditions for sustainable transport and (pellets, wood chips and straw, sugar mill and designing energy-efficient buildings, the Mu- wastewater heat waste and also bio-oil) [3]. nicipality’s goals for 2020 is to reduce 127 000

As geothermal sources are cooling down and CO2 tons and save 48 GWh of energy. Fur- stagnating [6], geothermal energy has been re- thermore, additional renewable production is placed by others renewables. A new CHP aimed to reach further 942 GWh, which is power plant is planned for 2014, with a co- more than 90% of the total Municipality heat- fired boiler and afterwards a straw-fired boiler ing current demand [6]. (planned for 2019), producing 550 GWh/year of heat and 300 GWh/year of electricity [4]. Energy Goals: Challenges With these accomplishments, the heating en- Being part of Sweden’s and Skåne’s region energy matrix will be changed to a greener fuel- vironmental commitments, the Municipality mix of 90% coming from renewable sources faces great challenges and opportunities. Lund (from forest fuel and wastewater new inputs). has signed the Covenant of Mayors in 2010, For the mid term future there is also plans to pushing its climate obligations further than the connect Lund’s DH network to the cities of 20% EU goals by 2020. Lund’s aims are actu- Landskrona and Helsingborg [3]. ally 50% reduction in GHG emissions by that year (compared to 1990 and excluding agricul- In addition, the waste heat from the Max-Lab ture). By 2050, its ambition is to get even close IV, a world leading national facility for materi- down to zero. Moreover, by being included in als research (based on synchrotron radiation), the Skåne region administration, Lund also is also to be exploited. The recoverable energy aims to be fossil-fuel-free by 2020 [6]. available is predicted to be in order of 5 MW in the unit [3]. For the European Spallation Re- The Bicycle Friendly City source, a multidisciplinary research centre har- nessing the world’s most powerful neutron A smart way to phase out fossil fuels and resource, the energy recovery could be much duce emissions is investing in cycling. Lund is more. The selection of Lund as the location for one of the most bicycle-friendly places in Swe- these important facilities reflects the strength, den, with 5000 bike parks, 160 km cycle-paths, attractiveness and relevance of research there. and half of the population as commuters. Moreover, 43% of the city’s journeys are made Local Agenda 21 on two fossil-free wheels: riding bicycles [6]. The Climate Municipalities These figures are part of LundaMaTs, Lund’s strategy for sustainable transport system. It The Municipality of Lund itself hosts the secre- encompasses 42 projects to be implemented by tariat for Klimatkommunerna (English: The Cli- 2030, between 2010 and 2030. With a budget mate Municipalities), an association of Swedish of more than SEK 1 billion (EUR 100 million), municipalities working actively on local and the environmental benefit comes from a reduc- regional climate change mitigation strategies. tion of 25 240 tons of CO2/year from 2014 [6].

34 ENERGY FUTURE ØRESUND

Public Transportation Besides cycling incentives, LundaMaTs has con- Green lease agreements are also being pro- tributed to maintain the annual distance driven posed by the property sector, where specific in the Municipality by each of its citizen over environmental commitments are set between the last ten years [6]. the property-owner and tenants. Vasakronan AB, the Swedish company that was selected as The urban bus network holds 11 far-reaching climate model in 2009, aims to lessen energy lines served by a frequent fleet of 40 natural use by at least 3% per year, which by 2020 gas-fuelled buses. For the regional buses, gas is would represent an energy saving of 26% [6]. used in a mix of 40-50% with renewable fuels [6]. In addition, the well-served railway is con- Public Procurement: LundaEko nected to the main line since 1857. Further- more, there is a tramline planned to help com- Under the LundaEko, the environmental man- muters reach faster the suburban areas from agement programme implemented by the Mu- the city centre within the next following years. nicipality, only eco-labelled electricity shall be bought for its supply energy mix. Accordingly,

Good Housekeeping: Emissions 4 000 tonnes of CO2 per year are expected to be saved due to this programme [6].

Apart from the population increase of 24% in the period between 1990 and 2008, the Munici- Following the Action Plan for Clean Vehicles, pality’s good policy and planning has reduced when purchasing new automobiles, only those the overall GHG emissions by 2%, with a fol- that use green fuels such as biogas, biodiesel or lowing energy demand increase of only 9%. electricity should be chosen. Moreover, any Whereas the energy surge is due to transporta- existing vehicle that can use such fuels shall do tion needs – which has risen by 36%, the elec- it so. For this plan, an overall reduction of tricity and heating use per inhabitant was actu- 2000 CO2 tonnes per year will be achieved [6]. ally reduced by 11% and thus its emissions by 20% over the considered period above [6]. The City Where Ideas Are Heard: Active Citizenship Energy Efficiency: Buildings Considered the City of Ideas, Lund’s Adminis- With an extensive District Heating system cov- trative capital maintains a close dialogue with ering almost the whole inhabited area (85%), its citizens. Several projects have been so far Lund is striving to phase out all household oil implemented and given cooperation. Examples boilers and wood furnaces to the more energy of these include youth projects, such as the efficient and effective DH network. Ungdomsforum för Agenda 21 (English: Youth For the period 2010 - 2014, SEK 113 million Forum for Agenda 21) and the international (EUR 11.9 million) will be invested in energy Klimatting Ett (English: Climate Gathering) [6]. efficiency in buildings, hot water monitoring The international network and cutting edge and efficient production. This aims to an en- innovative knowledge of Lund University is ergy saving of 42 650 MWh and avoiding the also supported by the Municipality and often release of 9 825 tonnes of CO in the atmos- 2 implemented. Along with the Regional Centre phere. When building new homes, the city resi- of Expertise on Education for Sustainable De- dential property company LKF, for instance, velopment (RCE Skåne), they are cooperating “must ensure that an energy performance of to mitigate climate change. 100 kWh/m2 is achieved.”, accordingly [6].

LUND’S ENERGY STRATEGY 35 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

Another virtuous example is the behavioural It adds value in the energy production chain in change outcomes perceived in the local popula- benefit of the whole society, especially custom- tion. These eco-friendly social actions are ers and shareholders. This creates a win-win- driven by the Hållbart Universitet (English: Sus- win effective and smart business model for all tainable University), an engaged student or- stakeholders. ganisation from Lund University. The associa- Nevertheless, more efficient technologies, tion aims to strengthen and coordinate en- greener electricity sourced only from renew- gagement in environmental and sustainability ables and full citizen engagement will be crucial issues. to get emissions reduced by the further ambi- The business arena in Lund is likewise envi- tious challenge of 85% reductions [6] necessary ronmentally driven, accordingly to the front- to achieve the ultimate goal of zero emissions. runner Swedish values in sustainability. Under If this envisioned setup would be likely to hap- the Climate and Energy Alliance Commitment, pen by 2050, nowhere else it would have such a a covenant active within ten companies since more optimist scenario to become reality like in 2009, a great commitment to climate change Lund Municipality. mitigation and energy efficiency has been put in practice in roughly all sectors. So far, SEK 1 References 330 000 (EUR 146 000) has been invested in total on such cooperation among active citi- [1] Statistics Sweden. (2010). Statistiska centralbyrån den zens and others stakeholders and key players in 1 januari 2010 (in Swedish). Statistics Sweden. Re- trieved from: http://www.scb.se/Statistik/MI/ halting climate change [6]. MI0802/2010A01/mi0802tab3_2010.xls. Towards Zero Emissions: 2050 [2] Lund University. (2011). About Lund University. Retrieved from: http://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/ Apart from such ambitious goal of achieving o.o.i.s/24739. zero emissions by 2050, the relatively small [3] Lunds Energi AB. (2010). Presentation by Tomas Municipality of Lund takes benefit of being Nilsson. Lunds Energi Koncernen. part of the experienced frontrunner country in [4] Lunds Energi AB. (2010). Presentation by Martin sustainability: Sweden. Furthermore, by hosting Gierow. Lunds Energi Koncernen. Kraftringen Produktion. its greatest University, inspiring innovative solutions comes intuitively to hand. [5] Bjelm, L. & Alm, P. (2010) Reservoir Cooling After 25 Years of Heat Production in the Lund Geothermal Heat Great achievements in reducing emissions have Pump Project. Proceedings World Geothermal Con- been already accomplished on the transporta- gress, 2010. Bali, Indonesia. tion and energy sectors, and the greatest chal- [6] Birkedal, L. (2010). Sustainable Energy Action Plan for lenge now is agriculture, which is not part of Lund. City Office for environmental strategy, pub- the Covenant of Mayors signed in 2010. This lic health and safety. Lund. sector needs to be addressed if the Municipality Photo by Thomas Lindhqvist, IIIEE, December 16, wants to be carbon neutral by the next decades. 2011. Electrification and District Heating is a strategic way of achieving climate change goals and constitutes a successful business case: using a green energy labelling system for producing district heating and delivering electricity as an energy carrier is a very clever way of holding the energy supply by the Municipalities.

36 ENERGY FUTURE ØRESUND

ENERGY SYSTEM OF KRISTIANSTAD Description and Vision

By Su Meiling

ristianstad is a city founded in 1614 with and one hydroelectric plant. K80 000 inhabitants and 1 300 square kilo- Biogas components derive from three re- metres landscape. It is located in the southern sources (annual energy generation is given): part of Sweden belonging to Skåne province. Its area covers agricultural land, forests, plains • Landfill: Gas corresponding to 20 GWh of and a coastline. Administratively, Kristianstad energy are captured and further utilised; consists of 40 different towns and villages. It is • Sewage: Approximately 9 GWh energy are also part of the Øresund Region which is one produced from the biogas from the sewage of the most significantly expanding regions in treatment plant; and Northern Europe. There are 35 000 residents • Anaerobic digestion: 40 GWh are gener- in the city centre. As a pro-environmental city, ated per year at the Karpalund plant from Kristianstad has been awarded a series of envi- organic waste and expansion is in progress ronmental prizes. In 2005 it was ranked as the in order to increase the production. Best Climate Work in Swedish Municipalities by the Biogas from Karpalund substitutes around 16 Swedish Society for Nature Conservation [1]. million litres of fossil fuel annually in the Energy System transportation sector. The hydro power plant at Torsebro generates Overall energy supply in Kristianstad has re- 25 GWh per year. Wind power created 75 mained stable since 1995. Its electricity system, GWh in 2010 and it is further expected to in- as part of the Swedish electricity grid is tied crease to 500 GWh/year in the future. There together with neighbouring countries. The are also two solar plants at Österäng and Natu- main local energy production units are: a co- rum Visitor Centre, contributing to energy generation plant, a biogas plant, wind turbines input in Kristianstad [2]. The capacity of the biofuel-powered combined heating and power plant Allöverket is 75 MW. The main source of biofuel is wood chips, which produced 472 GWh of energy in 2010. Large parts of the city are served by district heating. District heating uses a variety of local energy sources such as biogas and wood fuel. It

Biogas Plant in Kristianstad.

ENERGY SYSTEM OF KRISTIANSTAD 37 CHAPTER 1: REGIONAL OVERVIEW

is supplied by a small scale plant ensuring a tricity generated from biogas. Forty three oil- stable heat price. 23% of energy demand in based boilers in public buildings have been Kristianstad, is satisfied by energy input from converted to pellets and straw-based boilers, local sources which was 607 GWh in 2008. and the municipality has the target to convert all other oil boilers in public buildings in the Commitments future. The city has signed the Covenant of European The municipality is encouraging cyclists and Cities committing to achieve more than 20% pedestrians to reduce transportation energy carbon emission reduction by 2020 through the consumption [1]. development of Sustainable Energy Action According to the municipality’s energy effi- Plans. As part of the Swedish National Climate ciency plan, new buildings should be close to Strategy, Kristianstad has committed itself to public transport, and city planner should con- achieve the following objectives: sider the solar and wind conditions at the site. • 40% greenhouse gas emission reductions The municipality also promotes the construc- by 2020 compared to 1990; and tion of energy-efficient buildings such as passive houses. Passive houses are buildings • Municipality administration and its services heated by solar energy and energy from internal to become fossil fuel free by 2020. resources such as people and electronic equip- The objectives and goals of the energy system ment in order to minimise energy loss that are in Kristianstad will be aiming to be achieved obliged to restrict standards [4]. through below mechanisms: • Increase energy efficiency; References • Increase renewable fuels and the propor- [1] Erfors, Lennart, Svensson, Katrine, & Branting, tion of local energy resource for electricity Staffan. (2010). Kristianstad Fossil Fuel Free Mu- and heat production with the target to in- nicipality. Sustainable Energy for Europe, March, 2010. crease renewable energy sources from 34% [2] The City Council. (2011-09-10). to 50% by 2020 and to generate 500 GWh [3] Kristianstad Municipality Energy Plan. Retrieved of electricity from wind power in 2025; October 13, 2011, from • Reduce the use of petrol/diesel by increas- http://www.kristianstad.se/sv/Kristianstadskomm un/Sprak/English/. ing efficiency and phase-in of renewable fuels; and [4] What is a passive house. Passive House Institute, USA. Retrieved October 13, 2011, from • Influence stakeholders’ energy choices to http://www.passivehouse.us/passiveHouse/Passiv shift their environmental behaviour and eHouseInfo.html. consumption patterns [3]. “Photos of station for recharging bio-fuels in Kristian- In order to achieve the wind energy increment stad and the biogas plant in Kristianstad” by Håkan target, another 85 wind turbines building pro- Rodhe, 12/10/2011. ject is launched on the basis of existing 31 wind turbines. The target of becoming a fossil fuel free municipality was declared in 1999 by the executive committee. The main solution would be to increase the use of bio-fuels. It is meant both to increase heat gained from biomass and elec-

38 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

HEAT ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS The Impact of Increasing Energy Efficiency on District and Individual Heating Systems

By Logan Strenchock & Adrian Mill

uildings account for around 30 to 40% of trict heating solutions are rendered obsolete B world primary energy use, and conse- over the medium- to long-term? In simple quently contribute significantly to greenhouse terms, the construction and renovation of gas emissions [1]. As a result, improving energy highly energy-efficient building stock over time efficiency in buildings is one of the key com- could, in theory, lower the heating demands ponents of European energy policy. One of the from DH infrastructure to a point where it is ways in which governments in colder climates and is no longer cost-effective to operate. This intend to meet emissions and climate change has important implications for policy-makers, commitments is by reducing the amount of as investment in DH systems in the near-term energy used in buildings for heating purposes. may end up becoming a considerable waste of taxpayer’s money in the long-term. In northern European countries, there are three main approaches towards more efficient To address this issue, this chapter focuses on energy use for heating in buildings. The first the influence that improving building energy approach, district heating (DH) systems, efficiency may have on the heating systems that aims to make efficiency gains by centralising policy-makers may choose to support, as well heating infrastructure and operating at peak as on defining a more appropriate decision- efficiency. Denmark and Sweden have widely making framework towards achieving this. The adopted these systems, which contribute sig- term “buildings” in this context is taken to nificantly to reductions in national energy con- refer primarily to residential, office and public sumption. In recent years, attention has shifted sector buildings, as other building types (i.e. towards the second key approach, individual industrial and historic buildings) are typically heating systems, of which heat pumps are a addressed separately in EU and national policy. leading example. In the background to these, energy efficient construction and renova- Energy Efficiency Policy tion has slowly become the norm in Danish The EU calculates that buildings are responsi- and Swedish building codes. This approach ble for around 40% of energy consumption puts in place efficient heat retention within and a third of CO emissions [2]. EU policy has buildings to reduce the overall energy demand. 2 therefore heavily encouraged the implementa- Assuming that building energy efficiency con- tion of energy efficiency measures in member tinues to improve over the coming decades, an states. This has occurred both at the strategic interesting question becomes apparent. As level (e.g. the “20 20 by 2020” decision of the buildings become more energy- and heat- European Council in March 2007) and at the efficient, will it lead to a situation whereby dis- supply side and end-use level (i.e. Directive

HEAT ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS 39 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

2009/28/EC specifying the percentage of re- research projects and conversion subsidies for newable technology to achieve 20-20-20 goals). individual households [6]. However, the use of heat pumps in Denmark is a relatively recent The use of DH and co-generation has been occurrence; Sweden has been actively pro- specifically supported in several directives (e.g. moted heat pump technology for several dec- 2004/8/EC, 2006/32/EC). With regard to ades. individual heating systems, heat pump and other systems using renewable energy are sup- With regard to end-use energy efficiency, both ported under Directive 2009/28/EC by label- countries have introduced policies that encour- ling these as suitable renewable technologies age energy efficient building construction and for fulfilling energy efficiency targets. Energy renovation. Denmark and Sweden have gradu- efficiency in buildings is covered under two key ally increased the level of energy efficiency in Directives, 2002/91/EC and 2010/31/EU. their building stock over the past 30 years These directives lay down a number of building through the introduction of more stringent energy performance requirements for member building codes. In Denmark, for example, the states to apply into national legislation. Danish Energy Agency found that the national heating bill was reduced some 20% between National Policies & Regulations 1975 and 2001 as a result of improving build- Both Denmark and Sweden have put in place ing codes, even though some 30% additional legislation to promote both supply-side and heated floor space was built in the interim [7]. end-use energy efficiency as per EU policy Today, building codes in both countries incor- requirements. The two countries have invested porate maximum permitted levels for energy heavily in DH and co-generation infrastructure. use per square meter, in addition to numerous Future policy intends to support further expan- other upper limits for heat and energy use. The sion, although in areas where the technology is use of upper limits, combined with subsidies cost-effective [3,4]. Indeed, Danish policy ex- and incentives for energy efficient systems, has plicitly notes that DH may not be appropriate encouraged the construction of a new wave of for low-density settlements, new low-energy passive and zero-energy buildings. housing and energy efficient renovations [5]. The market for heat pump technology in Low-Energy Buildings Denmark and Sweden has been supported Definitions of “low-energy” buildings (also within national energy strategies, and they have referred to as “passive” houses or buildings) also been favoured through state-subsidised vary worldwide, as well as between EU mem-

Table 1 – Low energy building concepts.

TERM DESCRIPTION

A new construction or retrofit measure that usually results in 25-50% less energy demand Low-Energy Building than what is standard technology in new buildings [8]. Varying national definitions in EU. Generally used to describe a low-energy construction that heats and cools its interior with- Passive Building out conventional heating systems. Standards and definitions based on geographical and climactic locations. A construction where thermal energy needs are created entirely by renewable or carbon Zero Energy / free energy sources. Can be autonomous from the traditional energy grid, or require Zero Carbon House minimal use of grid energy. Energy-Positive A construction which produces more energy from renewable sources than it imports from Building external sources.

40 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

ber states. The below table overviews some of unfavourable economic conditions for new the terms that exist to describe constructions construction, consumer avoidance of upfront with superior energy performance. The terms costs, political ignorance, weak policy initiative, most often refer to constructions that exceed perceived aesthetic or heritage impacts, and the energy efficiency or alternative energy stan- limited construction expertise [8]. dards set by national regulations. District Heating “Passive” buildings are generally characterised as mechanically-ventilated constructions that DH systems facilitate the economies of scale have highly-insulated building envelopes (to necessary to justify heat production from re- the point of being nearly airtight) which require newable energy fuel sources [11]. Benefits of minimal amounts of energy for heating and DH include flexibility on fuel sources (includ- cooling [8]. The key building components in ing renewables and functional use of waste heat passive structures are windows and ventilation from industry) which helps shield DH from systems, as building designs aim to avoid ther- price fluctuations, competitive pricing and cen- mal bridges; for example, entry or escape of tralisation of emissions. These efficiency gains heat / cold from the structure [8]. can be further bolstered through the use of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) co- No universally-agreed performance standards generation in unison with DH transmission exist for passive buildings, although Germany’s infrastructures [12]. CHP systems generate “Passivhaus” specifications are widely regarded electricity while capturing the functional heat as best-practice in the field. The term is rather by-product of power generation [12]. Inte- a design concept that aims to maintain indoor grated CHP and DH networks allow captured thermal comfort at low energy costs [8]. In heat to be transmitted and utilised in industrial Denmark and Sweden, passive house strategies and residential complexes, or stored for later based on German design standards have been use. devised to account for the unique geographic and climactic conditions [8]. DH networks are applicable in most dense Upfront costs for energy efficient buildings are urban areas. Networks can currently be built up higher than standard alternatives due to the to 30 km from heat generation sources [12]. expenses associated with superior insulation of The main hurdle in constructing new DH net- all components [9]. In Northern Europe, addi- works is the sizeable initial and long-term in- tional costs are estimated at about 4-6%, with a vestment required. Within Denmark and Swe- payback period of around 20 years [9]. How- den, municipalities often undertake the role of ever, cost differentials are expected to decrease initiating projects, and national regulatory sup- rapidly in the near future [9]. port initiatives have streamlined this process [12]. Public acceptance of large-scale heating Sweden has made expanding passive house and energy solutions has also proven to be high construction a priority in its strategy to reduce in Scandinavia, which contributes to the rapid energy demand in residential buildings 20% by growth of DH systems [11]. 2020 and 50% by 2050 [8,9]. In 2006, Denmark initiated progressively stricter standards (in five The main barriers associated with the imple- year intervals) for constructions, striving to mentation of DH systems are the steep initial attain 75% less energy intensive new building capital investments required to establish infra- stock by 2020 [10]. While a growing awareness structure, along with the responsibility of sys- of passive building design is apparent in both tem supervision by municipalities or private countries, they also possess similar barriers to owners. The prioritisation of efficient heat and widespread adoption. Shared obstacles include energy production has lessened resistance to

HEAT ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS 41 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

the upfront costs associated with DH systems, around 80 to 90% of their annual thermal de- as have national carbon reduction targets [12]. mand, obtaining a relatively-high 50 to 60% of the thermal power needs during peak load de- Beyond initial investment cost concerns, DH is mand periods [6]. also subject to competition from the electric heating market. In past decades, low electricity Sweden’s heat pump market is exemplary in costs often priced out DH schemes from the Europe, representing one-fifth of global market. Efficient electric heat pumps can pro- ground source heat pump capacity and with the vide approximately the same level of heating highest capacity per capita in all of Europe offered by DH at equal or lower prices [11]. [13]. Nationally, heat pumps are the most common space heating unit in new construc- Individual Heating Systems tions and retrofitted single family dwellings, to Individual heating systems for buildings are the the point that during the mid-to-late 2000s, main alternative to centralised heat delivery ground source heat pumps accounted for infrastructure. Within this sector, a competitive nearly three-quarters of implemented heating market for heat pumps in residential buildings solutions within the retrofitting sector [13]. has developed in Scandinavia. Heat pumps Denmark has placed heat pumps, in combina- function by absorbing and transferring energy tion with DH, at the forefront of their strategy from heat sources to sinks. Heat pumps have for reaching a “fossil-free future” [14]. They established a strong presence in Sweden and are currently looking to utilise the successful are a prioritised technology in Denmark. This strategies used in Sweden in order to improve makes heat pumps a significant competitor to upon the estimated 40,000 installed heat DH systems. The reasons behind this include pumps in Denmark that currently provide favourable market conditions (decreasing pay- 0.4% of national residential heat demand [14]. back period, pricing advantages vs. fossil alternatives) along with high level of compliance Looking to the Future: with national energy strategies promoting Declining Heat Demand “clean” energy futures. The economies of scale that make DH more Heat pumps can provide a majority of the heat competitively priced compared to individual required by detached residential buildings, but heating solutions can be degraded in areas of are most often used as efficient complimentary low heat demand [15]. Low heat demand is heat sources in structures with alternative pri- usually associated with areas of low population mary sources (i.e. boilers, electric heating, DH density and / or a sparse dispersion of single etc). This is because heat pumps are designed home units. DH investment has often been to service heat demand outside of peak load avoided in such areas on cost-effectiveness demand (i.e. during the one to two weeks of grounds. Recent debate has highlighted future coldest winter periods or hot summer periods). scenarios where widespread individual energy The complimentary aspect of heat pumps is efficiency solutions in densely populated areas most evident in retrofitted homes, as signifi- could result in similar reduced heat demand cant and costly renovations would be required that would jeopardise the economic justifica- to optimise the benefits accorded by a heat tion for DH infrastructure [15,16]. pump. Conversely, newly-built structures with A high heat demand per unit area is necessary robust heat pump ventilation can function with for DH to be competitively priced with local minimal reliance on supplementary systems. alternatives. Highly efficient buildings, poten- Such new build heat pump systems can satisfy tially in combination with a widespread switch

42 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

to individual heating systems (such as heat level heating networks or individual heating pumps), could theoretically produce a heat systems in increasingly energy efficient areas: demand reduction large enough to disrupt the 1. The heat demand density of the area competitiveness of DH services. However, the (dense urban vs sparsely populated areas); timeframe within which conditions would be- 2. Whether the area contains existing build- come unfavourable for DH is unclear. ing infrastructure or entirely new build; Few studies have examined the impacts that 3. Whether there is any existing DH infra- such a scenario might have on DH. Of the structure or potential for using waste heat limited research that is currently available, a from industry nearby. study by Persson and Werner at Halmstad Based on these factors, we have carried out a University in 2011 is of interest [15]. This study basic scenario-planning forecasting exercise modelled the impact of increasing energy effi- until 2020 to determine how energy efficiency ciency on the cost-effectiveness of DH heat requirements in Denmark and Sweden may distribution networks, which are the main in- affect the cost-effectiveness of DH systems for vestment cost of a DH system. The researchers various population densities and settlement found that the low capital costs and economic maturity, shown in the figure below. Data was competitiveness of DH in densely populated gathered from the literature and interviews urban areas would be unlikely to affect the with selected stakeholders. The year 2020 was market for DH systems, even taking into ac- chosen as it is a key date in Europe for deliver- count ambitious EU energy efficiency targets ing energy efficiency goals and because future (i.e. 20% by 2020 and 50% by 2050). However, predictions may be made less accurate by tech- this study relied on an economic analytical ap- nological improvements and changing regula- proach and did explore associated environ- tion. The main assumptions are: mental or social concerns in any significant • Building energy-efficiency in Denmark and depth. Sweden will achieve set reduction targets of How Declining Heat Demand 20% by 2020; Affects District Heating • Energy prices continue to steadily increase over time in line with previous increases; Given the above, there are three key factors to • Technological innovation does not dra- consider when deciding on the use of district- matically increase DH efficiency; and

High Heat Demand Density • DH technologies are not rendered obsolete. Figure 1 presents the results of the scenario- planning forecasting exercise which compares the level of heat demand density (x axis) with New building infrastructure maturity (y axis). The

Building key conclusions were that DH remains com-

Infrastructure petitive in dense urban areas despite declining

Grey Area Infrastructure heat demand, while there will be even less reason to use DH in sparsely-populated settings. Building However, there is a grey area for the cost-

Existing Scenario-planning exercise to 2020 on the effect of energy efficiency requirements on the use of district or individual heating systems for varying heat demand densities (x-axis) Low Heat Demand Density and building infrastructure maturity (y-axis).

HEAT ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS 43 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

effectiveness of DH that depends on the popu- and Sweden. A prime example exists in the city lation size and level of heat demand. of Aakirkaby on the Danish island of Born- holm. Spurred by progressive municipal goals DH is likely to remain competitive in dense for energy independence and renewable energy, metropolitan districts and large cities for sev- a stand-alone, heat-only DH plant utilising eral reasons. One is that a stable demand exists locally-grown wood chips has been established in urban areas from multi-storey residential in a rural area of around 1,300 households. As buildings, as well as large office blocks and little population expansion is expected, there industrial premises. Another is that the renova- will be a negligible increase in future heat de- tion of existing building stock in urban areas is mand density that will be further eroded by not mandated (i.e. property owners choose if gradual energy efficiency gains. While this ap- and when to renovate); consequently, there will proach may be cost-effective from economic be a slower uptake of energy efficiency meas- and environmental perspectives in the near- ures in existing buildings. In existing urban term, the long-term viability is unclear. areas, construction of new energy efficient building stock may decrease DH demand, but A Decision-Making Framework the number of new builds undertaken annually in these areas is typically quite low and there- for Heating Energy Efficiency fore unlikely to materially affect overall heat Clearly, decisions on the appropriateness of a demand. district-level or individual heating system are a Buildings in new build urban areas (i.e. new city function of the predominant decision-making districts such as Ørestad in Denmark) must framework that policy-makers use to determine conform to prevailing building regulations, and the most cost-effective system from a suite of therefore will become increasingly energy effi- available technologies. Any such framework cient as time progresses. However, DH in must take into account a number of important these areas is likely to be a sound investment to factors, including settlement characteristics, 2020 as planned energy efficiency reductions in prevailing policy directions and available tech- building codes by this date will not be suffi- nology types. However, as discussed previ- cient to negate the need for DH solutions. Fur- ously, in Denmark and Sweden there is some ther, many new build districts are built in close evidence of a divergence at various governance proximity to existing cities, some of which pos- levels in the strategic approaches employed to sess their own DH systems that can be utilised. implement energy efficiency, resulting in conflicting or competing policy decisions. This In sparsely-populated areas, it is already well- occurs due to a number of factors, including established that implementing standard DH insufficient consideration of policy directions systems are typically not a cost-effective option at the various governance levels, blanket sup- [14,15]. This would be especially true in new port for approaches that are in many instances build villages, where high energy efficiency only selectively appropriate, as well as failure to requirements in building codes make individual effectively communicate both within govern- solutions far more attractive. The most effi- ance structures and towards stakeholders. cient option would be to use heat pumps, as other options (wood pellets, gas or electric What is needed is a decision-making frame- boilers etc) can be less economical or emit work that aligns cost-effectiveness with other more carbon per unit of thermal energy. sustainability goals, as energy efficiency delivers numerous environmental and social benefits. Despite this, there exist a number of instances of DH plants servicing rural areas in Denmark

44 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

To this end, we have developed a decision- a review of technological options to deliver making framework for the selection of the energy efficiency that accounts for prevailing most appropriate energy efficiency measures site characteristics and policy directions. Here, for a given area. This framework can be used at any relevant examples of existing, best-practice any governance level to determine the most or newly-developed technology are identified, appropriate technological approach to deliver as well as combinations thereof. Based on the energy efficiency goals in combination with information derived from the previous three sustainability principles. The five-step process steps, as well as available data from industry, aims to facilitate communication and consid- the economic, environmental and social costs eration of both context and policy by providing and benefits are quantified for each techno- a logical information flow that informs and logical approach. The result of this step is a narrows the focus in ensuing steps. matrix of the functional criteria for a number of potential technological approaches. The The first step is a data-gathering exercise to final step, evaluation using sustainability determine the functional site characteristics criteria, involves the application of a weighting of a defined area from which cost-effectiveness system that more equally emphasises eco- can be established. Secondly, the overriding nomic, environmental and social impacts. policy directions of each governance level are considered. This entails a comparison of com- An important aspect of the framework is that it plimentary, divergent and conflicting policy must be aligned with policy objective time ho- goals to determine where synergies exist and rizons to ensure that the most appropriate op- potential conflicts arise. The third step involves tions are considered and selected. For example,

Decision-making framework for the selection of the most appropriate energy efficiency measures.

HEAT ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS 45 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

if energy efficiency goals to 2020 are adopted, References one or several technological approaches might [1] United Nations Environment Programme 2007. Buildings be appropriate, e.g. site-specific combinations and Climate Change: Status, Challenges and Opportunities [Lead of DH, heat pumps and increasingly strict authors: P. Huovila, M. Ala-Juusela, L. Melchert, and S. Pouffary]. Paris, France: UNEP Sustainable Buildings building codes. However, under 2050 goals it is and Climate Initiative. more likely that DH would be less favoured. [2] European Commission 2011. Energy Efficiency: Energy Efficiency in Buildings. Brussels, Belgium: EC. Key Conclusions [3] Danish Energy Agency 2010. Danish Energy Statistics 2009. Copenhagen, Denmark: DEA. Stricter energy efficiency measures for build- [4] Swedish Energy Agency 2010. Energy in Sweden 2010. ings, and competitively-priced individual heat- Stockholm, Sweden: SEA. ing solutions, are very likely to influence the [5] Danish Energy Agency 2010. Energy Policy Statement 2010. cost-effectiveness of DH in the long-term. Copenhagen, Denmark: DEA. [6] Nilsson, L.J., Åhman, M. & Nordqvist, J. 2005. Cygnet However, it is difficult to determine the ap- or ugly duckling – what makes the difference? A tale of proximate point in time that this will occur, as heat-pump market developments in Sweden. Conference numerous factors such as increasingly stricter Paper, Mandelieu, France, 30 May - 4 June 2005. Stockholm: European Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy. policy, improvements in technology and [7] Abboud, L. 2007. How Denmark Paved Way To Energy changes in behaviour are hard to predict. Independence. Wall Street Journal, April 16, 2007. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB117649781152169507.h This study found that energy efficiency im- tml [Date Accessed: 2 November 2011]. provements in existing urban areas are unlikely [8] Janson, U. 2008. Passive Houses in Sweden - Experiences from to jeopardise the attractiveness of DH in this design and construction phase. Licentiate Thesis, Lund Uni- versity. Lund, Sweden: Lund University. timescale. A similar situation is expected in [9] Tommerup, H., & Svendsun, S. 2006. Innovative Danish newly-built dense urban areas, as improving Building Envelope Components for Passive Houses. En- energy efficiency in building codes to 2020 is ergy and Buildings, 38: 618-626. unlikely to appreciably reduce heat demand in [10] European Commission 2009. Low Energy Buildings in Europe: Current State of Play, Definitions and Best Practice. urban areas. However, sparsely-populated areas Brussels, Belgium: EC. with low heat demand density will remain poor [11] Ericsson, K. 2009. Introduction and development of the Swedish candidates for DH unless site-specific and district heating systems: Critical factors and lessons learned. D5 of WP2 from the RES-H Policy project. Report prepared as cost-effective heat sources are nearby (i.e. exist- part of the IEE project "Policy development for improving DH infrastructure or industrial waste heat). ing RES-H/C penetration in European Member States (RES-H Policy)". Lund, Sweden: Lund University. What is clear is that site characteristics and [12] Combined Heat and Power Association 2010. Integrated prevailing policy directions impact heavily on Energy: The role of CHP and District Heating in our Energy Fu- whether DH is a viable option. The proposed ture. London, U.K.: CHPA. [13] Hughes, P.J. 2008. Geothermal (Ground Source) Heat Pumps: decision-making framework would go some Overview of Market Status, Barriers to Adoption, and Options way towards aligning energy efficiency goal at for Overcoming Barriers. Tennessee, U.S.: Oak Ridge Na- various governance levels whilst considering tional Laboratory. [14] Bøhm, B., Kristjansson, H., Ottosson, U. Rämä, M. & the site context and available technologies. It Sipilä, K. 2008. District heating distribution in areas with low also facilitates better communication through heat demand density [Ed: H. Zinko]. IEA DHC Annex information exchange and generates a stronger VIII. Paris, France: IEA. case for a selected technological approach. [15] Persson, U. & Werner, S. 2011. Heat Distribution and the future competitiveness of district heating. Applied En- Finally, given the lack of research in this area, ergy 88: 568-576. [16] Martensson, W., & Frederiksen, S. 2006. Competitive future studies should examine the point where district heating marketing to owners of Sweden single-family dwell- building stock in both existing and new build ings. Paper for the 10th International District Heating & urban areas reaches efficiency levels that make Cooling Symposium, Hanover, September 2006.

DH unfavourable under varying timeframes. Photo by Veronica Andronache (used with permission).

46 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

SEASONAL HEAT STORAGE Lessons from Germany and Denmark

By Lea Baumbach and Mauricio Lopez

limate change and peak-oil confront all The following paper aims to give an overview Ccountries with the necessity to reduce both of the existing seasonal heat storage technolo- their dependence on fossil fuels and CO2- gies and their application in selected case stud- emissions. Besides the trend to increase energy ies in Denmark and Germany. Furthermore it efficiency, the chosen strategy is the deploy- will derive practical and economic parameters ment of renewable energy sources. (success factors) from these case studies which will help to provide guidance for the Energi In northern countries, the main energy con- Öresund project to decide if and how to inte- sumption of private households is from spatial grate seasonal heat storage into their final en- heat demand during the cold season from Oc- ergy strategy. tober to April. However, the sun radiation is strongest in the summer months from May to September; two thirds of the annual radiation Overview of Technology can be collected during these months. In order For long-term heat storage a variety of tech- to make use of the sun’s thermal energy for nologies are being researched differentiated northern countries, the excess heat during according to the storage medium: underground summer months must be stored for several thermal storage uses the natural underground months. layer like rocks, sand and clay. More recently the research has been extended to phase- Furthermore, the use of combined heat and change materials (PCM) and chemical reac- power generation (CHP) is typically used as a tions. The following four concepts are the strategy in member states of the European most commonly used: Union where a district heating system exists. Denmark is one of the leading countries in Both borehole thermal energy storage (BTES) Europe with 60% of households being con- and aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) nected to district heating. This existing network require specific geological conditions to be and the pressure to increase the use of renew- applicable, due to the nature of the technolo- able energy sources, like solar heat, has led to a gies: BTES relies on drilled holes that provide growing interest to integrate seasonal heat stor- heat to the surrounding soil, which acts as the age, often, but not necessarily in combination storage medium consequently; it depends on with large-scale solar-thermal collectors. These the type of soil on which the BTES are built. technologies have been developed and tested in However, ATES consists of using wells to countries like Denmark, Germany, Austria and transfer heat to a natural aquifer; the aquifer also Sweden [1]. itself requires special thermal conductivity and

SEASONAL HEAT STORAGE 47 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

natural groundwater flow conditions to be a thermal capacity than gravel, sand, or soil pits good option for storage [3]. In both cases, it is because of the heat absorption properties of possible to build an effective and cheaper heat the water. This results in shorter charge and storage system when the conditions are pre- discharge times for the hot water storage. Hot sent, but if that is not the case, it is only possi- water also allows thermal stratification which ble to develop either the pit or tank energy increases the efficiency even more. Mainten- storages which we will focus on in the follow- ance and leakage issues can be addressed in a ing part. hot water pit, which in the gravel, sand, or soil pits is impossible due to the fact that once Novo et al. [4] define tank and pit storage as filled it is virtually impossible to repair the pit. man-made aquifers. In contrast to boreholes and natural aquifers hydro-geological condi- On the other hand, the advantages of the gra- tions at the specific site are not as relevant for vel, sand, or soil pits include higher stability of these concepts. The analysis of the solar district the surface of the pit, which can then be used heating plants combined with seasonal storage for other purposes, which is especially advan- in Europe shows that a higher number of tageous in urban areas where building area is plants have been built which use natural aqui- scarce and expensive. Safety concerns are sig- fers, while borehole-projects are not as com- nificantly lower. The lid itself is less expensive mon as tank and pit heat storages. in the gravel, sand, or soil pits and it is much less complex to build. Although less costly as a In contrast to aquifers and boreholes, man- whole, costs result from the interim buffer made aquifers are insulated both on the top which is necessary for charging the gravel, and along the walls. The insulation material sand, or soil pits and the provision of the pit must be sealed from water steam in order to filling. Even if it is more expensive, when the keep thermal conductivity to a minimum over thermal efficiency of the system is the ultimate the planned use period which is up to 30 years goal hot water pits are more convenient [6]. [5]. While tank thermal energy storage is based on either a concrete or a steel body filled with The storage size also plays an important role in water, pit thermal energy storage can also be the energy efficiency of the storage facility be- filled with a mix of water with gravel, sand or cause heat loss depends on the surface-to- soil and contain a water filled piping system. volume ratio. A small storage facility will have a much higher ratio than a bigger one, and thus The use of hot water or a mixture of water the overall heat loss will be greater in the with gravel, sand or soil can have different ef- smaller facility. For seasonal storage, the facility fects on the overall performance of the system, can be considered efficient from a minimum of with various advantages and disadvantages 1000 m³ of water [7]. concerning each. Hot water pits have a larger The heat storage is only one component of the system. The long-term heat storage is connected to a pipe-grid that connects the storage with the consumer, either a residential area with several houses or a single consumer like office complex. The energy source in most

Number of plants in Europe built until today by country. Data collected from: [9]

48 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

cases is a solar thermal collector field. Howev- tion plants after the mid-1980s [6]. Denmark er, excess heat from any other sources, e.g. continued the development of these technolo- industrial processes can be stored. In order to gies during the late 1980s, while Germany use the whole heat potential (below 35°C down started the research and construction of plants to 10°C) or use the storage also for storing in the early 1990s. Within a comprehensive cool, a heat pump can be added to the system national R&D program called Solarther- [4]. Most heat storages are only providing a mie2000, Germany co-financed the construc- part of the heat needed by the consumer dur- tion of eight heat storage plants in the country ing winter. The additional heat required is of which five were man-made aquifers [1, 5]. therefore usually provided by decentralized While in other countries the interest in seasonal boilers. storage ceased until the current day, Germany and Denmark are still active creating and re- The development of these technological fea- searching new plants [1]. tures has not been isolated. Both the solar col- In all countries the plants were first built in lectors and the storage facilities have been de- order to demonstrate that the concept of stor- veloped in the last decades, although the ing heat in huge aquifers actually works and to progress in storage technologies has been collect experiences and data about the con- slower than expected. struction process, building and insulation mate- History of Man-made rials, functional performance, and design. The Aquifers first plants were small-scale (less than 1000 m³). Due to the findings of this first wave Starting in the mid-1970s seasonal heat storage of demonstration plants, the research has was investigated in Europe. Sweden was one of moved further to improve the efficiency of the the first countries to build demonstration storage systems, with respect to heat-loss, cost plants in 1978 and 1979 in Lambohov and reductions and capacity use of the storages. Lyckebo [4]. However, after unacceptable high Often the charging systems have then been temperature losses due to leakages and moist extended over the following years in order to insulation, Lambohov ceased operation and use the storages to their full capacity. The case Sweden did not continue to build demonstra- study on Chemnitz (see below) is an example

The technology for solar heat collectors is being constantly updated; yet, the development of seasonal heat storage technologies has fallen behind.

SEASONAL HEAT STORAGE 49 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

of an initial development of storage facilities office building, the Business Center Solaris, and further development of the heat collection with heat. The project was based on collabora- system in following stages. tion between the University for Applied Science of Chemnitz, the University of Stutt- Since the end of the 1990s, the newly built gart and a private investor. The project was co- demonstration plants tended to increase in size financed by the federal program Solarther- and the design and material use became more mie2000. The project’s aim was to show-case a elaborated. The studies regarding the shape and larger scale pit heat storage than any storage thermal stratification of the pits and tanks was built before while proving the positive eco- also developed [3]. The combination of charg- nomic effects of this scaling up. ing sources and storage systems then came more into focus as can be seen both in the case The major share of the costs resulted from the study of Chemnitz and in the case study of construction of the water-gravel storage (29%), Marstal in Denmark. the collector field (28%) and supporting infrastructure (28%). Lower construction costs were Based on the evolution of 30 years of research, achieved thanks to synergenic effects with legal it becomes clear that there is still no standard circumstances: In 1996, contaminated soil had concept for man-made aquifers. The projects to be excavated from an industrial premise, in each country are developed due to the spe- creating the pit needed for the storage. cific circumstances on the spot within the Indeed the costs per kWh heat were below the framework of research projects and show-cases costs of the other storages in Germany during [8]. It is estimated that by 2020 seasonal heat that time. The overall construction costs of the storages will reach the stage of being conceptu- original plant were estimated in EUR 2.2 mil- alized and market applicable. lion, leading to heating costs of 0.24 EUR per Case studies kWh [9], which still is not competitive with heating costs from conventional sources. Chemnitz, Germany A solar thermal collector field was connected In Chemnitz, Germany an 8 000 m³ gravel- to the pit heat storage which supplies the water pit storage was built to provide a large 4 680 m² area of the Business Center Solaris

Construction timeline of man-made aquifers, most representative countries. Data collected from [9].

50 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

with energy. The storage is covered by a static Marstal, Denmark lid which is used as the basis for a parking lot Marstal is a project that began in 1994 when and a road thus not leaving the area above the Marstal District Heating initiated a project of a storage unused [5]. The storage was originally 75m2 thermal solar heating plant. The results planned for a temperature range from 45 to were good enough that a full-scale thermal 85 °C. After the first installation of 540 m² of solar heating plant was built two years later to solar collectors, the maximum storage tempera- further test the technologies and the conditions ture only reached 60°C, leading to a 45% utili- involved. The upscale included the extension zation degree. In 2000 a CHP plant was con- of the plant until it reached a 2 000 m3 volume nected to the storage system, leading to a fur- for the storage tank. ther increase of utilization [9]. In 2010 the collector area was extended to the originally After this the Marstal plant was subject to fur- planned 2 000 m² and reaches now a utilization ther expansions as a result of the SUNSTORE degree of 61% [4]. 2 project, extending the volume of the storage facility up to 10 000 m3; the last expansion was Important lessons which can be drawn from made when the SUNSTORE 4 project was the pit heat storage in Chemnitz: the concept launched in 2010, which will ultimately expand of the gravel-water filling helps to preserve the further the heat storage facilities up to functionality of the site under which the sto- 75 000 m3 in 2012. Financial support from the rage is located. However, it has the disadvan- Danish Energy Agency and the EU 5th Frame tage that leakages of the lining cannot easily be program allowed Marstal to realize these ex- fixed. The case study also proves that an in- pansions. At the current state of technology, crease of storage size leads to gains in perfor- public funding is still needed to finance the mance of heat storage. Significant cost reduc- construction of these systems. tions for a pit heat storage can be realised when the excavation of the pit has to be done any- The most interesting aspect of this project is ways due to legal regulations, for instance the the combination of the different technologies cleanup of brownfields. Despite the improved of a water tank, a sand-water pit and an insu- design, it was not possible to achieve competi- lated water pond; that converge into a single tive prices for the heat in comparison to con- system, besides the energy storage technologies ventional sources. used; the energy is provided by solar collectors and a CHP system, combined with bio-oil boilers. The heat is carried by heat pumps to and from the energy storage facilities, while the electricity is generated at the CHP biomass plant with an ORC (Organic Rankyne Cycle) unit, which can produce electricity with low- temperature heat. The whole system has been envisioned as a model of a community with a complete supply of energy through renewable sources. The project is expected to be completed by 2012 with very ambitious targets in terms of

Distribution of costs in Chemnitz. Data collected from: [9]

SEASONAL HEAT STORAGE 51 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

cost efficiency: the cost per kWh is expected to international field of sustainable solutions. For be between EUR 0.03-0.06, while the total this, the cooperation between local actors is energy production costs are expected to be of essential: When local city governments, utility

EUR 78 per MWhth, with an average invest- companies and manufacturers join forces, ment cost of EUR 33 per m3 for the pit storage prospectives for successful projects on the facility [10]. long-term increase.

Lessons Learned References If there is the objective to increase the use of [1] Dalenbäck, J. (2010). Success Factors in Solar solar-thermal energy, seasonal storage is District Heating. WP2 – Micro Analysis Report. needed when a mismatch between the radiation Gothenborg: CIT Energy Management AB. Re- period and the heat demand phase exists. A trieved from: http://www.solar-district-heating.eu/ number of conditions have to be fulfilled in LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=c6-K2BVa2hM%3d&tabi d=69. order to include a man-made aquifer into the heating system: [2] Drake Landing Solar Community. Borehole thermal energy storage (BTES). Retrieved from: • There are no underground caverns or aqui- http://www.dlsc.ca/borehole.htm. fers for BTES and ATES; [3] Pinel, P., et al. (2011). A review of available me- • National or international financial support thods for seasonal storage thermal energy in resi- schemes are in place; dential applications. In Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15, 3341-3359. • District heating grid exists or is planned; [4] Novo, A; Bayon, J.; Castro-Fresno, D. and Rodri- • High heat demand during winter; guez-Hernandez, J. (2010). Review of seasonal heat • Scientific/ technical knowhow is available; storage in large basins: Water tanks and gravel- • Sufficient building area is available. water pits. In: Applied Energy, 87, 390-397. [5] Ochs, F., Heidemann, W., & Müller-Steinhagen, H. Once the decision is made to build a man- (2008). Seasonal Heat storage. A challenge for made aquifer, it is possible to decrease invest- polymeres [Saisonale Wärmespeicherung. Eine Herausforderung für Polymere.] Contribution to ment costs and make the project more eco- 2nd LoebenerSymposium Polymeric Solar Mate- nomical with the combination of different heat rials. Retrieved from: sources (i.e. solar thermal and excess heat from http://www.itw.uni-stuttgart.de/abteilungen/ heat systems like CHP heat pump). The cost rationelleEnergie/pdfdateien/08-04.pdf. can also be reduced if the excavation of the pit [6] HIGH-COMBI. (2008). State of the Art of Similar is needed due to clean-up of brownfields. Applications. In Workpackage WP 2, Deliverable D6. Submitted on July 2008. The goals set by the Öresund region in terms [7] Mangold, D. (2007). Seasonal storage – a German of CO2 reduction and the share of renewables success story. In Sun & Wind Energy 1/2007. Re- in the energy mix (for both heating and elec- trieved from: http://www.solites.de/download/ tricity) make it necessary to think of solar heat- literatur/07-Mangold_Sun%20&%20Wind%20 ing as part of the equation. In that sense, the Energy%200701.pdf. authorities responsible for developing a strate- [8] Raab, S., Schmidt, T., Benner, M., Heidemann, W. gy have two options regarding the heat energy & Müller-Steinhagen, H. (2005). Seasonal heat storage needed for this kind of system: they storage. Current storage technologies and development of tank heat storage. [Saisonale Wärme- can wait until the technology is developed speicher. Aktuelle Speichertechnologien und Ent- enough to be market ready or they can devise a wicklung bei Heißwasser-Wärmespeicher.] strategy for the engagement in R&D that will Retrieved from: http://www.itw.uni-stuttgart.de/ allow them to regain a leading position in the

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abteilungen/rationelleEnergie/pdfdateien/05- 02.pdf. [9] Solar district heating. (2011). Ranking list of Euro- pean large scale solar heating plants. Retrieved from: http://www.solar-district-heating.eu/SDH/ LargeScaleSolarHeatingPlants.aspx [10] Urbaneck, T. & Schirmer, U. (2003). Research report. Solarthermie 2000. Partial program 3. Pilot plant Solaris Chemnitz. Retrieved from: http://d- nb.info/979514975/34. [10] CORDIS. (2010). Innovative, multi-applicable-cost effective hybrid solar and biomass energy large scale (district) heating system with long term heat storage and organic Rankine Cycle electricity production. Retrieved from: http://cordis.europa.eu/ fetch?CALLER=FP7_PROJ_EN&ACTION=D& DOC=1&CAT=PROJ&RCN=94908. “Heat – Solar panels” photo by Niels Linneberg, taken on September 3, 2010 in Oksbøl, Syddanmark, Den- mark. Licensed under Creative Commons 2.0. URL: http://www.flickr.com/ photos/linneberg/4954517822/ “Solar” photo by Ingrid Barrentine, taken on May 3, 2011. Licensed under Creative Commons 2.0. URL: http://www.flickr.com/photos/jblmpao/ 5815870009/

SEASONAL HEAT STORAGE 53 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

HOT WATER CIRCUIT PRODUCTS Hot Water Circuit Household Appliances

By Su Meiling

ot water circuit (HWC) products University, has developed HWC products Hpresented in this paper are currently allowing washing machines, dish washers and innovated by the ASKO company, which is a dryers to be directly connected to the hot water Sweden-based household appliance supply of the district heating network. The aim manufacturer. The HWC products innovation of this project is to develop techniques and is a result of the Remote Viewing Project, systems that function in an environmental which is a collaboration among the Swedish friendly way by saving electricity consumption District Heating Association Ltd, ASKO through the use of hot water to power Company, Dalarna University, Karlstad household appliances [3]. University and energy companies such as Gothenburg Energy and Mälarenergi. HWC Market Analysis products are expected to be brought into Dishwashers and washing machines with the market in 2012 at the time when the Remote function of connecting to hot water came into Viewing Project is completed [1]. existence on the market in the 1980s [4]. Yet Initiation household appliances with hot water feed have been phased out of the market gradually until The Remote Viewing Project is initiated by the now by the claim that cold water runned Swedish District Heating Association after machine are more efficient. identifying that the district heat supply in the Manufacturers claim that washing machines Nordic market is beyond demand, given the with only cold water feed are 40% more fact that district heat energy supply is just efficient than hot water runned machines [5]. under 30% in the Nordic region, which is Further, cold water filled washing machines much higher than the international standard. save money by avoiding the installation of a Thus new potential areas that could be hot fill hose, hot valve, wiring to the hot valve equipped by district heating need to be and hose from hot valve to the dispenser. In identified in order to create new markets for addition, it no longer takes much water for the district heat supply. washing, if higher temperature is needed, water The objective of the Remote Viewing Project is could be heated inside the machine by to demonstrate that district heating could be electricity at the amount needed. This saves used in Real Areas, which are areas with low energy compared to heating water previously in heat density that are previously neglected [2]. large volume. Further, there is a problem that The joint partner ASKO company, cooperating pre-heated hot water supplied by domestic with Dalarna University and Karlstad boilers normally becomes cold when it arrives

54 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

into the machine, and needs to be heated up water valve, and updated software are added to again. HWC products and the electricity heating-up system is still retained as backup system [7]. However, there is potential benefit for customers who have hot water supplied from One of the two new connections adds flows of renewable energy resources which allows hot hot water from the hot water supply circuit and water supply at a much lower cost [6]. Thus, the other one leads the water back to the there is an ongoing debate on using cold water heating plant after the heat exchange. These filled washing machine or hot and cold water two new connections substitute the filled washing machines in the market. conventional electricity heater. For dryers, especially, larger condenser and Working Mechanism circulation fan engines are needed to ensure working efficacy. Performance Hot water flowing into the machine to heat up HWC products manage to achieve an the process water has a minimum temperature accomplishment of hunting two birds with one requirement of 55°C. Normally, heating hot stone. On one hand, it saves electricity from water should be 10°C higher than process the heating process water in the machine which water requirement. For example, if the process is the main part of electricity consumption. water needs to be at a temperature of 60°C, Instead, the process water in the machine is heated up by hot water that runs into the machine via a heat exchanger. On the other hand, it enables a system technical advantage by creating a closed hot water loop which keeps temperature constant. It solves the typical problem of hot water fill machine that hot water supply from domestic boiler is energy-intensive. As mentioned before, hot water from a domestic boiler becomes cold when it reaches machine and needs to be heated up again which is inefficient [1].

Principle HWC products could be connected to the hot water circuit from renewable energy heat supply, such as district heating, solar energy and geothermal energy. New components of heat exchangers, new connections, heating

HWC dryer (above) and HWC washing machine below [7] Orange: heat exchanger Red: hot water included Blue: outgoing hot water Magnification: Heatwater (red) heats the process water (yellow to orange)

HOT WATER CIRCUIT PRODUCTS 55 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

then hot water supply at the temperature of Barriers 70°C is required in order to meet the heat demand. HWC washing machine and dish Even though there are successful cases to washer have high performance at the demonstrate HWC product efficiency and temperature of 60°C. environmental efficacy, there are several challenges for HWC products to overcome for Back-Up System its commercialisation at large scale based on current market analysis. As the heat exchange happening between hot water and process water, the temperature Cost of installation difference will decrease and the heat exchange efficiency goes down. When higher HWC products can only be installed primarily temperature is required, the electricity system with new construction of a building with new will be switched on automatically to heat up circuit built connected to district heating plant the process water [4]. It could of course also be or other renewable energy heat supply. It used in the situation when there is no hot water would be expensive to install HWC products supply. afterwards into single households [9].

Demonstration Projects Public acceptance As mentioned in the market analysis sector, hot Several demonstration projects were water-filled washing machines have been on implemented in different areas, such as the market for decades but their sales gradually Gothenburg and Västerås, to prove that more decreased. could be done to make use of district heating to replace electricity by ensuring energy The manufacturers are now more focusing on efficiency and increasing household only cold water filled washing machine comfortability. These projects are regarded production with the innovation of detergent with high environmental value, because technology. More attention is shifting to environmental impact is significantly reduced, increase cleaning efficiency of detergents that given the fact that electricity results in large could be used in cold water. For instance,

CO2 emissions [4]. HWC products are biological detergents could only be used in equipped in the building connected to a new water at temperatures below 40°C, otherwise circuit from a district heating plant in about the enzymes contained in the detergent would 200 households with new, non-conventional die off [5]. Thus it makes the hot water filled installations [8]. Sparse heat houses built in function unnecessary and connected to Gothenburg in 2006 equipped with HWC additional cost. products strikes a successful case by In addition, there is an argument that hot water demonstrating that HWC products achieved decreases washing efficiency by increasing 697 kWh electricity consumption reduction washing time, and it adds extra wear and tear to annually. It represents 80-90% of the electrical the washing machine. energy consumption for household appliances [1]. In other words, HWC products could help Large-scale commercialisation households save up to 90% of this consumption per year. Besides ASKO company which is the research leader on HWC products involved in the Remote Viewing Project, no other household appliance manufacturer seems interested in this

56 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

topic so far. There lies a challenging question how to convince the home appliance industry to make products with consideration of the interest of district heating and thus increase HWC product production and broaden its market?

References [1] Swedish District Heating Association, District heating-powered appliances and white goods with hot water connection. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://www.svenskfjarrvarme.se/Medlem/Fokuso mraden-/Fjarrvarldens- omvarld/Energieffektivistering/Energieffektiviseri ngsexempel/Bostader/vitvaror/. [2] Ingulf, Olof, Smith, Roger, & Göteborg Energi AB. (2006). Demonstration projects heating adapted house Gothenburg, Advanced district heating use in houses. Swedish District Heating Ltd. [3] ASKO, HWC Products Guide. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://www.asko.se/hwc/hwc-interaktiv-guide/. [4] Hof, Hans, J. (1996). The district Heating Kitchen. Assoc. of Energy Distribution Companies in the Netherlands, EnergieNed. [5] Run Washing Machines with Solar Hot Water. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://www.reuk.co.uk/Run-Washing-Machines- with-Solar-Hot-Water.htm. [6] Should I buy a cold fill washing machine or hot and cold fill? Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://www.washerhelp.co.uk/buying- related_2.html. [7] ASKO. How does HWC work. Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://www.asko.se/hwc/hwc-produkter/. [8] Swedish District Heating Association , Heat Sparse House Retrieved December 11, 2011, from http://www.svenskfjarrvarme.se/Medlem/Fokuso mraden-/Fjarrvarldens- omvarld/Energieffektivistering/Energieffektiviseri ngsexempel/Bostader/Varmeglsea-smahus/. [9] Martin Bang-Hansen. (2011). Interview with ASKO Company Marketing Manager. December 6, 2011. Pictures of ASKO products reprinted with permission from the company.

HOT WATER CIRCUIT PRODUCTS 57 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

LEGIONELLA IN LOW-TEMPERATURE DISTRICT HEATING

By Charlotte Luka & Veronica Andronache

istrict heating (DH) refers to a distribu- buildings. If a conventional DH system was to Dtion network of heat which is centrally supply low-energy-buildings, then a very sig- generated and serves the requirements of nificant part of the total heat demand of the commercial and residential units both in terms system would originate from network heat of space and water heating. losses in the pipes, rather than heat usefully employed within the houses [3]. Therefore the DH has the advantage of producing heat in an installation of a low-temperature district heat- efficient manner, in particular when waste heat ing (LTDH) network would be both sufficient from electricity production or industry is used. and less wasteful for low-energy buildings. In An effective DH system is considered to have particular, engineers have identified a system as low as possible supply temperature and a based on high-class insulated twin pipes of high difference between supply and return small dimensions to be extremely energy effi- temperatures. Traditional DH systems supply cient [4]. highly pressurised water at temperatures ranging from 80 to 150 °C and return temperatures The LTDH concept promises reduced heat between 40 and 70 °C [1]. By decreasing the losses, heat generation and distribution costs supply temperature in DH the potential per- (by allowing the use of low grade heat and plas- formance of combined heat and power stations tic pipes instead of copper pipes respectively). increases by allowing a higher electricity pro- It is also more efficient, due to reduced pipe duction, simultaneously with lowering fuel diameters and lower supply and return tem- consumption [2]. In addition, heat losses in the peratures of 50 °C and 20 °C respectively [1]. piping system are reduced and the possibility to According to Svendsen and Brand [1], the ad- use waste heat from other systems becomes vantages of LTDH include reliable and easy more viable. customer operation, the option for sustainable sourcing at community level, which can be ar- Many municipalities are becoming increasingly gued to apply to conventional DH as well. aware of the benefits of optimising their DH However, they offer the additional opportunity systems. For instance, Danish law requires the to use waste heat as a form of renewable en- energy use in new buildings to be gradually ergy and the possibility to use solar and geo- reduced by 25% by 2020. This poses the ques- thermal heat with higher efficiency. New tion whether conventional DH is still suitable LTDH facilities are currently tested in the city for areas consisting predominantly of these of Delft in the Netherlands and in Lystrup, new low-energy-buildings or in areas with a Denmark. low demand density. The problem stems from the reduced heating requirements of such

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Legionella in Drinking Wa- however, people with other risk factors deriving from age, illnesses, immunosuppression or ter Systems smoking may be particularly prone to be af- Legionella is a type of bacterium of which fected [5]. In the U.S. the number of reported more than 50 sub-species exist – a number cases of the disease reaches up to 1300 cases which is constantly rising [5]. The type that is per year, with a much higher estimated number most dangerous to humans is Legionella pneumo- of unreported cases [12]. phila. It triggers infections which can range Several studies have shown that the Legionella from mild fever, also known as Pontiac fever, risk is higher in old buildings with aged instal- to a potential fatal form of pneumonia - Le- lations than in new buildings [13,14,15]. How- gionnaires’ disease [5]. ever, new buildings are also exposed to con- The bacteria can occur in both fresh and salt- tamination risks, as the time lag between the water at temperatures between 25 and 50 °C, setup of the water piping system and in- with 32-42 °C constituting their ideal multi- habitation by residents may allow for the de- plying temperature range [6,7]. Legionella can velopment of a Legionella bacterial biofilm in be found in small numbers in natural water the ambient temperature stagnant water in the bodies, such as lakes, rivers or reservoirs, but pipes [16]. To prevent such risks, standard prefers warm stagnant waters. This renders cleaning procedures of the system are recom- installations such as swimming pools, water mended and the use of biocides could be con- tanks, cooling towers, air conditioning units sidered [16]. Rubber and plastic components and low temperature district heating systems have also been identified as a significant source particularly prone to them [8]. of Legionella [5]. Therefore the use of such materials should be avoided throughout the In order to prevent infections with Legionella, piping systems, but especially in the shower it is generally recommended that the tempera- heads. A potential solution applicable to the ture for storage and distribution of cold water shower outlets can come from a technical fix remain below 20 °C. However, it is worth not- that can drain the water out after each use. This ing that Legionella can resist low temperatures way the risk coming from stagnant water that for a long period of time and proliferate as the can allow the formation of a biofilm that can temperature rises [5]. In hot water systems, host Legionella will be eliminated. In conclu- Legionella was isolated even at temperatures of sion, a LTDH system needs thorough plan- up to 66 °C. At 70 °C, it is destroyed almost ning, together with continuous monitoring and instantly [9]. Besides temperature, other condi- regular maintenance works (e.g. flushing with tions favouring Legionella occurrence and mul- hot water in order to avoid stagnant water and tiplication include the type of piping material, low temperature, deposit removal etc). water being stagnant, the presence of a bacterial biofilm and amoebae [5,10]. Legionella and LTDH Human contact with Legionella infested water LTDH systems will not pose a problem in is not necessarily a health hazard and drinking residential houses where the hot water from contaminated water does not usually pose a the plant is only used to heat the house, while problem. Only deep inhalation of the water in the building’s tap water supply is generated the form of aerosols, as produced by showers, completely separately, for instance by a local sprinklers or whirlpools can cause an infection. boiler. However, massive energy savings could Contamination from person to person is not be achieved by combining the room and water possible [11]. Legionella can affect anyone; heating devices when designing new buildings.

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Four types of techniques are available to use However, since the storage tank can be quite the heat from the DH plant to heat the drink- large, parts of it might not be fully exposed to ing water in a building. These include: heat from the DH pipes. Some of the water in the tank may therefore remain below 50 °C, 1. storage systems; creating ideal breeding conditions for Le- 2. instantaneous heat exchangers – illustrated gionella. In LTDH systems, the incoming DH in Figure 1; temperature will be too low to avoid the pro- 3. storage-loading systems; and creation of Legionella in household storage tanks altogether. Storage devices are therefore 4. direct connection of the DH water to the unsuitable for the heating of drinking water in drinking water supply [17]. households unless additional disinfecting These will be dealt with in turn. As we will see, measures are taken [17]. the risk of Legionella renders instantaneous heat exchangers the only suitable device for Heat Exchangers LTDH systems. Instantaneous Heat Exchangers consist of a system of thin metal plates that allow the DH Storage Systems water and the drinking water to run in a Storage systems involve big tanks in which counter-current exchange. The DH water large quantities of drinking water are stored. therewith heats up the drinking water very The water in the tank is heated up directly by quickly and efficiently, allowing hot drinking the DH pipes, which run alongside it. The ad- water to be produced as it is needed. vantage of storage tanks is the availability of The advantage of instantaneous heat exchang- large quantities of hot drinking water all at ers is that, because the drinking water is heated once. only for a brief time period, the water does not However, the storage of warm water over po- remain stagnant in its heated state for as long tentially long time periods in the tank signifi- as it would in a storage tank. The heat ex- cantly increases the likelihood of Legionella changer should be located as closely to the tap development [3]. This is the case even for as possible, in order to avoid stagnant heated normal temperature DH systems, where the water in the pipes and it should not recirculate. incoming DH water will have a temperature of This minimises the possibility for Legionella to at least 60 °C. Legionella do not usually survive develop [3]. at this temperature and the water in the storage Additional benefits include the fact that the tank should theoretically reach the same tem- counter-current heat exchange is so efficient perature as the DH pipes surrounding it. that the water sent back to the LTDH plant is very cool, allowing for better operating conditions at the plant. The average heat exchanger further requires four times less space than an average storage device. However, one limiting factor is that this type of drinking water heating system is mainly suitable for customers with relatively steady consumption habits [17].

Example of an installed household heat exchanger

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Storage-loading Systems eliminating pre-existing Legionella colonies, even at distal points. The recommended cop- Storage-loading systems present a combination per and silver ion concentrations for Legionella of the two devices described above. However, eradication are 0.2–0.4 mg/l and 0.02–0.04 due to the fact that they also store warm water mg/l respectively, falling within the EU’s over long time periods, they appear equally allowed standards of 2 mg/l for copper. Oral unsuitable for LTDH systems. consumption is not a significant issue, as the Direct Connection ions are normally introduced in the hot water recirculation lines. This involves a direct connection of the DH water to a building’s water supply. While this Despite the benefits rendered by the long-term system is not very common, it is occasionally eradication and recolonisation suppression of used in industrial settings where large quantities the bacteria and low comparative costs and of warm water are needed. Here again, LTDH maintenance requirements, this method also seems unsuitable, as the temperature in the has its limitations. High pH values of water (eg. pipes of the system may well be low enough to 8.5 pH in hospitals in the U.S.), the addition of allow for the development of Legionella. This anti-corrosives like phosphates, or low ion is especially dangerous when the water is concentrations may negatively influence the needed to produce sprays or other aerosols that success of the method. Two hospitals in may then be breathed in by factory workers Germany were unable to apply copper-silver and surrounding residents. ionisation because of the stringent national drinking water requirement of 0.1 mg/l of Cu Focal & Systemic Disinfection [19]. It is also important to note that in some Focal disinfection methods are directed to- cases L. pneumophilia gained resistance to wards specific parts of the water distribution copper-silver ions after several years of system, whereas systemic disinfection targets implementation [20]. the entire water network, by providing residual Other possible disinfection methods include disinfectants that can have a bacteriostatic (in- point-of-use filtres with pore size of 0.2 μm hibiting) or bactericidal effect throughout the [19]. Alternatively, residential units could theo- system [18]. retically disinfect storage tanks by heating them The use of storage tanks may still be needed up to above 70 °C at least once a day [21]. for those consumers that need large quantities However, this would require a separate boiler of hot drinking water at once. Here, local disin- and thus defy the energy saving purpose of the fection of the storage tanks may provide a vi- LTDH system. However, in the case of an able alternative. Disinfection methods that will emergency need to disinfect a Legionella clus- destroy the Legionella bacteria include ultrafil- ter, the heat-and-flush treatment is the one that tration, UV radiation, chemical disinfection, is often recommended [19]. chlorination and the use of the antimicrobial properties of silver and copper. However, Case Studies some of these methods are costly, complicated, While suspected cases of Legionella have been and have serious limitations. They are therefore detected since the early 1900s, it was the fa- only feasible for use in industrial facilities. mous outbreak in 1976 in Philadelphia which According to Lin et al. [19], the copper-silver cost 29 American legionnaires their lives that ionisation is the most reliable and convenient earned the bacterium its name [12]. In Europe, method for long-term prevention of Legionella one of the largest outbreaks to date occurred in at the moment. This method is also effective in 2003 in Murcia, Spain with 449 confirmed

LEGIONELLA IN LOW-TEMPERATURE DISTRICT HEATING 61 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

cases and five fatalities. The outbreak was Units (DHSU) act as buffer tanks, which allow linked to a cooling tower belonging to a hospi- a reduction in the diameter of the DH network. tal [22]. This resembles a traditionally used DH substa- tion with a heat exchanger. The difference to Mathys, Stanke, Harmuth and Junge-Mathys conventional DH storage tanks is that the wa- (2008) [15] investigated the occurrence of Le- ter is stored in the DH system, rather than in gionella in hot water systems of single-family the household. Secondly, Instantaneous Heat residences in the suburbs of two German cities, Exchanger Units (IHEU) are being tested in Münster and Bielefeld. They found that private some buildings. Due to the reduction in supply houses that were supplied hot water from in- temperature to 50 °C, the heat exchanger stantaneous water heaters were completely free (Danfoss XB37H) needs to be highly efficient of Legionella. Meanwhile, a prevalence of 12% and be able to heat domestic hot water to tem- of Legionella was found in houses with storage peratures over 45 °C while keeping a low re- tanks and recirculating hot water systems. The turn temperature. In the experiment, the volume of the storage tank was found to have DHSU resulted in higher heat losses and costs, no influence on Legionella counts. Interest- while the IHEU needed a by-pass to keep tem- ingly, plumbing systems made of copper pipes peratures comfortable during the summer [1]. were more often contaminated than those consisting of galvanised steel or synthetic materials. Importantly, the project developers researched Systems constructed less than two years before the dangers associated with Legionella and were not colonised. came to the conclusion that, due to the supply temperatures of below 50 °C, it would not be What is significant for the present case study is possible to use traditional DH storage tank that the type of hot water preparation had a substations. marked influence. More than half of all houses

using conventional district heating systems Potential Barriers to were colonised by Legionella. The key factor leading to intensified growth of Legionella was Implementation thought to be a significantly lower hot water The installation of LTDH systems make sense temperature. Water with an average tempera- especially in areas where a lot of new low- ture below 46 °C was most frequently colo- energy-houses are built at once. In this case nised and contained the highest concentrations there will be a sufficient number of energy- of Legionellae. The study concluded water efficient houses in the region and therefore the temperature to be “the most important or perhaps municipality will be able to request the installa- the only determinant factor for multiplication of Le- tion of instantaneous heat exchangers. gionella”. As discussed above, the risk of Legionella This shows that even conventional DH sys- means that LTDH systems will be suitable in tems carry the risk of Legionella contamina- three situations: tion, despite their significantly elevated temperatures. An additional level of care must thus 1. Residential houses with separate heating be taken when installing LTDH systems. facilities for hot drinking water; One example of a currently existing LTDH 2. Residential houses with Instantaneous Heat system is the testing site in Lystrup, Denmark, Exchangers; and which was awarded the International District 3. Industrial facilities, hospitals and other Energy Climate Award 2011. It tests two types large institutions with access to appropriate of substations. Firstly, District Heating Storage disinfection measures.

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Due to the risks associated with drinking water • Because Legionella recolonisation has been quality, disinfection technologies supporting associated with periods of flow interrup- the copper-silver ionisation may require ap- tions due to construction or low usage (for proval from relevant bodies before being put instance in vacation periods), it is impor- on the market [19]. Not only can this delay tant to conduct maintenance flushes in or- their application, but also increase costs. der to make sure the any disinfectant agent Conclusion & reaches all outlets. Recommendations References The installation of a LTDH system is a costly [1] Svendsen S. & Brand M. (2010). Performance of Low‐Temperature District Heating Systems for and lengthy process, but one that could gener- Low‐Energy Houses Prof. Final conference An- ate large energy savings if implemented cor- nex 49 “Low Exergy Systems for High Perform- rectly. In order to promote the successful im- ance Building and Communities”. plementation of a low-temperature district [2] Andersen N.B. (N.D.). Low-temperature District heating system, a municipality should take the Heating. Centre for District Heating Technology following recommendations into account: Danish Technological Institute. URL: http://www.energy.rochester.edu/dk/dea/dh/low • Since LTDH is only suitable for new temp.htm [Consulted 4 December 2011]. houses of high energy efficiency, the mu- [3] Olsen P.K., Lambertsen H., Hummelshøj R, Bøhm nicipality should ensure that such houses B., Christiansen C.H., Svendsen S, Larsen C.T. & are built with the correct internal heating Worm J. (2008). A New Low-Temperature District appliances. In other words, regions for Heating System for low-Energy Buildings. The which an LTDH system is under serious 11th International Symposium on District Heating consideration should create a planning re- and cooling, August 31 to September 2, 2008, Reykjavik, Iceland. quirement for new houses that renders the installation of instantaneous heat exchang- [4] Svendsen S., Olsen P.K. & Ærenlund, T. (2005- 2006). Articles. ”Fjernvarme til lavenergihuse? – ers obligatory. Not only are such heat ex- Energiforbrug og effektbehov” [District heating changers more energy-efficient than con- for low energy houses? - Energy consumption and ventional water storage systems but they power demand], KraftvarmeNyt nr. 78, further reduce the risk of Legionella infec- 2005. ”Fjernvarme til lavenergihuse? – Udvikling tion to a minimum. og optimering af et lavenergifjernvarmenet”, KraftvarmeNyt nr. 79, 2006. • In order to avoid the warming up of the [5] World Health Organization (WHO). (2007). Le- cold water in the drinking water pipes, gionella and the prevention of leginellosis. Geneva: which can activate the bacteria, good insu- WHO; URL: http://www.who.int/water_ sanita- lation and safe distance between the pipes tion_health/emerging/legionella.pdf is recommended for the entire transporta- [6] Yee, RB, Wadowsky, RM. (1982). Multiplication of tion length of the water. Legionella pneumophila in unsterilized tap water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 43, 1330- • For industries that require large quantities 1334. of hot water, a connection to the LTDH [7] Heller, R. et al. (1998). Effect of salt concentration system may be unsuitable, unless appropri- and temperature on survival of Legionella pneu- ate disinfection measures are taken. mophila. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 26, 64-68. [8] Fields, B. S. et al. (2002): Legionella and Legion- • At macro level, it is recommended that naires´ Disease: 25 Years of Investigation; Clinical water supplies should undergo routine test- Microbiology Review, July, 506-526. ing for Legionella.

LEGIONELLA IN LOW-TEMPERATURE DISTRICT HEATING 63 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

[9] Dennis, P.J., Green, D. & Jones, B.P. (1984). A [19] Lin Y. E., , J. E. & Yu, V.L. (2011) Controlling note on the temperature tolerance of Legionella. Legionella in Hospital Drinking Water: An Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 56, 349–350. Evidence-Based Review of Disinfection Methods. Infection control and hospital epidemiology 32(2), 166-173. [10] Declerck, P., Behets, J., van Hoef, V. & Ollevier, F. Detection of Legionella spp. and some of their [20] Mietzner, M., Hangard, A., Stout, J.E., et al. amoeba hosts in floating biofilms from anthropo- Reduced susceptibility of Legionella pneumophila to genic and natural aquatic environments. Water Re- the antimicrobial effects of copper and silver ions. sources, 41(14), 3159-67. 45th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy December 16–19; [11] Arnott, G. (1997). Concerns about Legionella in Washington, DC. heating and cooling systems. Air Conditioning Heat- ing and Refrigeration News, 202(9), 23. [21] van der Kooij, D., Veenendaal, H. R., & Scheffer, W. H. (2005). Biofilm formation and multiplication [12] Behling, G. (2004). Legionellenproblematik im of Legionella in a model warm water system with Trinkwasser. Vorkommen, Infektion, pipes of copper, stainless steel and cross-linked Gefahrenpotenzial, Prävention und Sanierung. polyethylene. Water Research, 39(13), 2789-2798. [The problem with legionella in drinking water. Occurrence, infection, dangers, prevention and [22] García-Fulgueiras, A., Navarro, C., Fenoll, D., sanitation]. Helmholtz: GSF-Forschungszentrum. García, J., González-Diego, P., Jiménez-Buñuales, T., et al. (2003). Legionnaires’ disease outbreak in [13] Borella, P., Montagna, M. T., Romano-Spica, V., Murcia, Spain. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 9(8). Stampi, S., Stancanelli, G., Triassi, M., et al. (2004). URL: http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/9/8/03- Legionella infection risk from domestic hot water. 0337.htm [Consulted 4 December 2011]. Emerging Infectious Diseases; 10(3), 457-64.

[14] Borella, P., Montagna, M.T., Stampi, S., Stancanelli, “District heating station” photo taken by Veronica An- G., Romano-Spica, V., Triassi, M., et al. (2005). Le- dronache on December 4, 2011, in Lund, Sweden. gionella contamination in hot water of Italian Ho- tels. Applied Environmental Microbiology, 71(10), 5805- “Heat exchanger” photo taken by Thomas Lindhqvist in 13. Sweden. [15] Mathys, W., Stanke, J., Harmuth, M., & Junge- Mathys, E. (2008). Occurrence of Legionella in hot water systems of single-family residences in suburbs of two German cities with special reference to solar and district heating. International Journal Of Hy- giene And Environmental Health, 211(1-2), 179-185. [16] Krøjgaard, L.H., Krogfelt, K.A., Albrechtsen, H.J. & Uldum, S.A. 2011. Cluster of Legionnaires’ disease in a newly built block of flats, Denmark, De- cember 2008 – January 2009. Euro Surveillance, 16(1), pii=19759. URL: http://www.eurosurveillance.org /ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=19759 [Consulted 4 December 2011]. [17] Beier, C. (2001). Nahwärmeforum – das Informationsportal. [District heating – the information point.] Das Fraunhofer-Institut für Umwelt-, Sicherheits- und Energietechnik UMSICHT. [18] Lin, Y. E., Stout, J. E., Yu, V.L, & Vidic, R. V. (1998). Disinfection of Water Distribution Systems for Legionella. Seminars in Respiratory Infections, 13(2) 147-159.

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LONG-TERM STORAGE OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE: Enabling Waste-to-Energy Recovery

By Sarah Czunyi

he search for new, clean energy alterna- Nations’ implementation of the Directive has T tives, in combination with waste reduction led to the introduction of landfill taxes. The targets have led to a favourable environment aim of these taxes in conjunction with other for the expansion of waste-to-energy recovery instruments – such as banning landfilling for schemes, in particular, incineration facilities. specific waste streams, and recycling and en- However, some practical challenges remain. ergy recovery targets – is overall to reduce the The Energi Øresund group identified a knowl- amount of waste that goes to landfill and im- edge gap specifically with respect to the long- prove environmental performance with respect term storage of household wastes, and this to wastes. Denmark and Sweden currently have report identifies existing challenges as well as amongst the highest landfill tax rates in future potential in this area. Europe, and have concurrently also introduced landfill laws which ban the dumping of organic Drivers for Waste-to- and combustible materials, which are typically Energy Recovery directed towards waste-to-energy recovery schemes [2]. The current push towards waste-to-energy The EC Renewable Energy Directive sets out a incineration is driven largely by two European vision for 2020 to increase renewable energy by Comission (EC) Directives: Landfill 20% and cut greenhouse gas emissions by 20% (1999/31/EC) and Renewable Energy [3]. This will require significant changes to be (2009/28/EC). made in the energy mix, creating a high de- The EC Landfill Directive lays down strict mand for new ‘clean’ energy sources. From the requirements for landfilling, also including an onset, the use of biomass for energy has been aim to phase out the landfilling of biodegrad- identified as a major component of reaching able wastes. The overall objective of the Direc- these energy goals, thus creating high potential tive is to reduce both environmental and hu- for expanding waste-to-energy recovery man health impacts from landfilling, and en- schemes. courages a life-cycle perspective of wastes [1]. While Denmark and Sweden already have rela- Resultantly, landfilling is the least desirable tively high rates of waste recovery, these two option in the European waste hierarchy, but EC Directives in combination with increasingly this raises the challenge of how to deal with stringent national legislation for waste and en- wastes that are created, even after complying ergy performance are significant drivers behind with all prior levels of the hierarchy: reduc- waste-to-energy incineration schemes, and the ing/reusing/recycling. consequent higher demand for waste storage.

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Challenges hold wastes (vis a vis industrial wastes), there is a higher risk for spontaneous combustion of While there have been many advances of the wastes to occur due to the microbiological waste-to-energy incineration facilities, such as activity which takes place in the waste [4]. efficiency and environmental performance Moreover, fires are not only an immediate improvements, some challenges still remain. safety hazard, but also a long-term health threat Household wastes are unique in their ability to as spontaneous fires create much higher emis- be stored over long-term periods. sions of carcinogenic and mutagenic sub- Seasonal Fluctuations stances, when compared to controlled incineration with flue gas cleaning [4]. A major challenge faced by waste-to-energy facilities is due to the seasonal fluctuations in Energy Content energy demand, alongside the relatively con- The same process of biodegradation that may stant production of wastes year-round. In many lead to spontaneous combustion, also reduces cases, waste-to-energy is used for combined the energy content (i.e. calorific value) of the heat and power (CHP) generation, which in the waste over longer time-periods. The initial European context faces the highest demand composition of the waste also determines the during the winter period. In Denmark and waste’s calorific value over the short to long Sweden, these facilities are typically used for terms – higher rates of organic content can district heating [4]. Low demand for heat dur- lead to greater microbiological activity and thus ing the summer periods results in large vol- faster breakdown of calorific value. Water infil- umes of waste which do not need to be imme- tration can also impact upon energy content. diately incinerated – thus creating the need for Typically, the longer the waste is stored, the seasonal storage [5]. more the energy content decreases. For this Additionally, the aforementioned landfill regu- reason, old waste often needs to be mixed with lations are expected to increase the total newer waste to ensure adequate combustion amount of waste to be received by waste incin- when taken for incineration. erators [6]. Changes in the composition of these received wastes, such as increased organic Space/Cost content, alter the way these wastes need to be The storage of wastes generally imposes sig- handled. As such, the need to store wastes over nificant costs – both in terms of space and long periods to deal with seasonal fluctuations financially. Thus, facilities are looking at the in energy demand lead to further technical most cost-effective way to store their wastes challenges. For household wastes the major over longer time periods, while ensuring the challenges are: fire risk; energy content; and wastes remain of high enough quality to allow space/cost. appropriate combustion which meets the stan- Fire Risk dards for both energy and environmental requirements. Wastes that are stored for longer periods run the risk of self-ignition, which poses a safety Waste Storage Techniques hazard at the storage facility. Spontaneous combustion requires combustible material, an Generally, there are two broad methods for elevated temperature, and oxygen [4]. Due to storing wastes for incineration, to avoid spon- the relatively high organic content of house- taneous combustion and preserve energy content over long periods: ventilated storage and

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compacted storage. In the first, the waste is the compressed waste), thus ensuring mainten- dried and cooled by free air flow. However, ance of a high energy content and reduction of there are practical limitations to this approach the risk for spontaneous combustion [6]. as often there is a risk for incomplete drying, While plastic sheeting acts as a barrier to mois- leading to zones in the waste which can self- ture and oxygen infiltration, thus allowing these ignite in the presence of oxygen [4]. For this positive characteristics of baling, it should be reason, only compacted storage methods will noted that this plastic is a fossil-based raw ma- be explored. Within this category there are two terial that is energy- and resource-intensive to major techniques: baling and loose storage. produce, as well as potentially harmful to burn. Baling These characteristics may conflict with the overall environmental and human health goals The baling technique first requires the com- of the EC Landfill and Renewable Energy Di- pression of the combustible wastes, which are rectives. then wrapped in plastic sheeting. The bales can be stored outside without high risk of air or Loose Storage water infiltration/leachate due to the barriers The second technique also uses compaction created by the plastic cover [7]. However, the prior to storage of the waste. However, in this risk of spontaneous combustion is not com- method the wastes are stored without any fur- pletely eliminated thus it is recommended to ther wrapping. The “loose” waste can be kept store the bales in sections which can act as fire either in an enclosed facility (e.g. concrete silo), breaks. Prior to incineration, the bales must be or outdoors in a facility that resembles a landfill broken up again before feeding into the com- – however, the waste is cleared once it is bustion chamber. needed for incineration. Typically, the com- Numerous studies have identified baling as the pacted wastes are stored in sections (either ‘best’ method for long-term storage of house- outside or indoors) to serve the same purpose hold wastes [4,5,6]. The primary reasons for as above – as fire breaks. In some cases, an this are the features of: little to no environmen- impermeable layer is placed above the waste to tal contamination; reduced volume through reduce water infiltration. However, the primary compression; and easier transportation of the concern for outdoor storage is fire, thus often baled waste [7]. There is also a growing accep- there are soil piles placed above the waste piles, tance that baling is the most appropriate tech- which can be spread in the case of spontaneous nique to ensure lower biochemical activity of combustion (water is ineffective in such in- the waste (through minimal air flow through stances). Once waste is required for incinera-

Waste Storage Techniques: Baling (left) and Loose Storage (right)

LONG-TERM STORAGE OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE 67 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

tion, it is transported directly to the combus- small proportion which cannot be dealt with tion chamber. Typically, loose storage has low- on-site are directed to landfill. SYSAV has an er costs than baling as it is less resource- annual allowance of 550 000 tonnes of waste to intensive. use as fuel annually [8].

The major concerns with this technique, vis a Due to the characteristic of low energy de- vis baling, are the risks for leachate into the mands in the summer period, SYSAV has im- surrounding environment (water, soil) and plemented a system for seasonal and longer- greater microbiological activity (due to expo- term storage of wastes. The facility has under- sure to water and air in the case of outdoor taken both baled and loose storage of waste. storage), which may lead to fires and greater The predominant waste storage technique is loss of energy content. However, there are loose outdoor storage, where the waste is com- numerous facilities with this type of loose sto- pacted and then stacked in outdoor sections rage that do not suffer from these problems [8, on-site. The storage area rests upon compacted 9]. Appropriate design, monitoring and main- clay ground (fairly impermeable), which is be- tenance of the waste storage system can ensure low sea level. A series of channels ensures that that loose storage has as high value and is as any water leachate is run through a water effective as the baling technique to ensure ap- treatment system before being discharged out propriate combustion once the wastes are inci- of the site, thus combating against potential nerated. water or soil contamination. The top of the stacked waste piles are lined with soil (derived Case Studies: SYSAV and from SYSAV’s on-site composting facility), which can be easily spread to halt fire in case of BOFA spontaneous combustion. The waste piles are In mid-November, a site visit was made to monitored regularly, including at night when SYSAV in Malmö, Sweden. SYSAV is the most security personnel conduct regular checks of efficient waste-to-energy CHP in Sweden [8]. the waste piles to note for any strange distur- They receive both source-separated and mixed bance such as odour or fire. Excess wastes wastes, with the separated wastes from reliable which cannot fit in this outdoor storage area sources going straight for incineration, while have historically been baled (using an external mixed wastes are sorted on-site. The sorting contractor), and then either stored on-site or ensures that recyclable, compostable, and transported to another incineration facility. combustible wastes are all separated and di- The primary concern at the SYSAV facility rected towards their respective facilities. A with respect to the storage of household wastes

Composting

Long-term waste storage

Waste sorting and separation

SYSAV Waste Sorting, Treatment and Storage Site in Malmö, Sweden

68 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

has been the avoidance of fire. Previously, a pacted wastes (mixed household and wet in- differentiated tax system for household and dustrial waste) without baling, but in this case industrial wastes required these wastes to be the waste is stored in concrete silos, then cov- stored separately. Due to the high organic con- ered with lime and dry wastes to prevent pests tent of household wastes, this led to high in- such as rats. Fire is not a concern, and baling ternal temperatures due to enhanced microbi- has not been pursued largely because of high ological activity. However, a new tax regime machinery costs [9]. that has the same tax rates for both industrial Although BOFA has a different storage and household wastes has allowed the SYSAV mechanism than SYSAV (storing the waste in a facility to mix these wastes prior to long-term silo as opposed to outdoors), both facilities are storage. This enables a lower internal tempera- high performers and have wastes of high calo- ture of the waste by prolonging the time it rific value which can be used for incineration takes for microbiological activity to take place, after long-term storage. ensuring that fire is a minimal risk and energy content of the waste remains high [8]. These examples indicate that loose storage is as viable as the baling technique, although its ef- A secondary concern has been how to keep the fectiveness is dependent upon certain factors. wastes dry – as this helps to maintain the en- These factors include: legislative requirements ergy content and enhances the combustion with respect to waste handling techniques; the potential of the waste when it is brought for ability to mix different waste types; and having incineration. Some pilot experiments are being an effective monitoring/quality control system carried out at the SYSAV facility, such as sim- in place to ensure early detection of risks such ple coverage of the waste with paper sheeting. as fire. From a cost perspective, loose storage Despite the concerns about fire risk and main- may also prove cheaper than baling, and a life- tenance of energy content of the waste, SYSAV cycle perspective of resource use and environ- have chosen not to conduct baling as their mental impact may show baling using plastics primary long-term waste storage technique. as having unforeseen negative environmental The main barrier to bailing in this case is cost: and health consequences. SYSAV lacks the in-house expertise and equipment needed, and thus baling needs to be Conclusions out-sourced, requiring significant costs includ- Both baling and loose storage are effective ing labour, raw material and transport. More- techniques, and have been proven for longer- over, the current system of loose outdoor stor- term storage of household waste in Denmark age has proven to be very successful, with no and Sweden. However, there are differences in major incidences of fire reported, and the terms of both performance and cost which waste quality has been maintained to ensure must be taken into consideration when choos- enough energy potential for incineration [8]. ing which technique to implement. In-house However, it should be noted that the ability to knowledge and equipment have a role to play, mix household with industrial wastes seems a as well as legislative and policy influences. Both key component to ensure loose storage can be techniques are appropriate in reaching final an effective mechanism for long-term outdoor energy goals, the need to reduce landfilling of storage of household wastes. waste, as well as overall environmental and A Danish waste-to-energy facility – BOFA – human health goals which are driving both located in Rønne, Bornholm, was also con- waste handling and energy changes Europe- sulted in late November 2011 about their waste wide. Therefore, caution should be taken when storage techniques. BOFA also stores com-

LONG-TERM STORAGE OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE 69 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

advocating one method over another – as is the the facilities that are carrying out long-term case with the current push towards baling. waste storage. On a more general note, the handling and processing of household wastes may also face References changing pressures in the near future. As the [1] European Comission. (1999). Council Directive demand for alternative energy sources in- 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste. creases, competing uses for different waste Retrieved from: http://eur- lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CE streams and types are likely to arise. For exam- LEX:31999L0031:EN:NOT [consulted November ple, the organic content of household wastes 3 2011]. may be desired for biogas plants – which can [2] University College Dublin. (2010). Economic direct potential waste sources away from waste- instruments – charges and taxes: EU Landfill tax. to-energy incineration facilities. This may lead Retrieved from: to challenges with acquiring the waste volumes http://www.economicinstruments.com/index.php necessary for full production capacity, and also /solid-waste/article/280- [consulted November 8 may change the waste handling and storage 2011]. techniques necessary to deal with differential [3] European Comission. (2009). Council Directive waste compositions in waste-to-energy incin- 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of eration facilities. energy from renewable sources. Retrieved from: A final pressure is the changing legislative envi- http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUri Serv.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:140:0016:01:EN:HTML ronment: as requirements for waste handling [consulted November 3 2011]. and energy production become more stringent to reach both national and regional targets, the [4] Hogland, W. and Marques, M. (2003). Physical, biological and chemical processes during storage technical requirements for waste-to-energy and spontaneous combustion of waste fuel. Re- facilities may also be altered. Some municipali- sources, Conservation and Recycling, 40, 53-69. ties have already introduced strict legislation [5] Hogland, W. et al. (1999). Baling Storage Method: Past, only allowing baling for long-term waste stor- Present and Swedish Experience. In Ecological Tech- age, for example [6]. Waste handling and en- nology and Management – University of Kalmar. ergy recovery facilities must keep abreast of [6] Svenska Renhållningsverksföreningen (Swedish changing regulations, and what this means for Association of Waste Management). (2006). Er- their procedural techniques. The waste man- farenheter från lagring av avfallsbränsle (Experience agement sector should also advocate for ap- from the storage of waste fuel). RVF, Malmö, Re- propriate information exchange – such as with port nr 1 2006. respect to the benefits of both baling and loose [7] Hogland, W. et al. (2001). Seasonal and long-term storage techniques – and ensure their experi- storage of waste fuels with baling technique. University of Kalmar, Department of Technology, Report nr ences and expertise are taken into account 112. within the changing regulatory environment. [8] Staffan Salö (16 November 2011). Project Manager It is recommended that further research be (PhD) at Sysav Development Inc. Personal com- carried out, including life cycle analyses of bal- munication during site visit at the Sysav, Malmö ing and loose storage techniques. Caution waste-to-energy incineration plant. should be taken when deriving recommenda- [9] Steffen Gerdes (01 December 2011). Waste Con- tions from the existing academic literature on sultant at BOFA (Bornholm Waste Treatment plant), Rønne. Personal communication for the the topic, which is fairly limited. Finally, an Strategic Environmental Development course. invaluable information source will come from Photos taken by Sarah Czunyi on November 17, 2011.

70 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

LARGE BATTERIES FOR ENERGY STORAGE Possibilities in the Øresund Region

By Stefan Sipka

n this paper an analysis of possible usage of ing it for use during other periods when the use or cost is ILarge batteries for energy storage in the Øre- more beneficial [1]. sund Region will be conducted. In order to do In addition to the stated definition comes the so a definition of the concept as well as expla- further clarification of battery storage as a large nation of larger shifts in current electricity sys- electrochemical stationary device. tems will be addressed. Furthermore the analysis will follow an analytical division of policy, Shift in the System technology and business sector in order to fully address drivers and barriers in introducing large In order to understand the future capabilities batteries for energy storage. Finally conclusions of battery storage, it is important to understand with further recommendations will be given the features of traditional electric systems and regarding application of large battery storage in the paradigm shift that is currently happening. the Øresund. Modern electricity systems are developing towards a new functional paradigm. Previously Definition the system was one-directional: beginning at electricity generation and ending with final Relevant studies point to a useful definition of consumers. This direction included generation electric energy storage: of energy and information from one source Electric energy storage (EES) is the capability of stor- ending with mainly passive end-users (except ing electricity or energy to produce electricity and releas- for some bigger consumers). Moreover, the

A new paradigm in the electricity system. Figure developed based on IBM’s model [2].

LARGE BATTERIES FOR ENERGY STORAGE 71 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

traditional system was based on a belief that in transition processes. These sectors include building capacity and consuming more energy policy, business, and technology. was a positive trend due to the logic of economy of scale. Furthermore, it was expected that Policy supply should primarily be adjusted to meet the It is recognised that the influence of storage need of the growing demand. However, re- systems within electricity grids is higher in a cently there has been a trend to change men- deregulated market because different actors in tioned perceptions (Figure 1). First instead of a the market have incentives to use resources one flow activity an interaction was expected to more rationally instead of relying on centraly occur between different energy actors regard- (usually state - owned) systems to cover costs. ing both energy and information flows. Sec- Development of renewable energy production, ond, a new approach envisions saving meas- such as wind and solar, may also be useful for ures and greater reliance on efficient use of introducing new electrical storage technology resources instead of constant expansion. Fi- since associated daily and seasonal variations nally a new model includes mutual balance stimulate the demand to store surplus energy between supply and demand. This is especially and provide support when having less energy. important when energy generation varies in Furthermore, there is a space for direct incen- time as is the case with some renewable energy tives through application of different kinds of (wind and solar). Therefore energy storage can administrative, economic and informative in- be seen as innovative option that ensures instruments (feed-in tariffs, tax breaks etc.) [3]. formation/energy interaction, energy savings and mutual supply-demand balancing [2]. Technology Analytical Framework There are various storage technologies that are already introduced in the market or in the de- In order to address the emergence of electrical velopment process. In general there is a huge energy storage applications and especially bat- tendency towards investing in R&D regarding teries it is important to address different sec- electrical and battery storage. Except for im- tors that contain possible drivers and barriers proving efficiency an important motivation is

Review of relevant battery technologies [4]

CONVENTIONAL BATTERIES

Sodium-sulfur Mature, stability concerns (high temperature)

Lead-acid Mature, lower capacity, environmental concerns

Lithium-ion Under development, maintenance cost, useless high power density

FLOW BATTERIES

Vanadium-redox Immature

Polysulfide-bromine Immature

Zinc-bromine technologies Immature

72 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

to cut high investment costs. Research shows managed by New York Power Authority and a solid ground for sourcing important electrical 6 MW ×4h NaS based in Japan and managed energy storage which could be applicable for by Tokyo Electric Power Company [5]. The Øresund Region. Several relevant technologies are grouped as follows while details Business are provided in Table 1: There are three primary applications for elec- 1. Conventional batteries; and trical storage that might be relevant for The Øresund region: 2. Flow Batteries. 1. Arbitration, Flow batteries are currently considered to be 2. Regulation, and immature technologies. Lithium-ion is more 3. Ancillary services. developed but is still under research. Further- more, such batteries require high maintenance Arbitration basically means buying and selling and feature of high energy density which might surplus energy on the spot market in a certain not be relevant in the case of stationary large timeframe. The possibility to acquire profit battery storage. Lead-acid batteries are the depends upon the storage capacity, efficiency most mature technology, however, with lower of transmission and storage cost. Energy is capacity when compared to other conventional bought during high supply and low demand batteries and with significant environmental and afterwards sold at higher price when de- concerns. Sodium sulphur (NaS) is also consid- mand is high. Regulation is a process of adjust- ered to be a mature technology with major ing a dynamic energy supply and demand in concerns being stability due to high tempera- real time. This process is especially important tures required for this battery to function. in shorter timeframes since it is hard to predict However, when compared with other alterna- electricity oscillations and it is therefore neces- tives, NaS seems to be the most applicable sary to have a certain amount of energy ready battery technology currently available [4]. for balancing. Ancillary services rapidly provide needed energy to keep the stability of the grid. NaS consists of a positive electrode made of Furthermore, these services could be used to molten sulphur, a negative electrode made of provide black start which relates to a capability molten sodium and an electrolyte which is solid to restoring a power station in operation with- beta alumina ceramic. Efficiency is estimated to out using an external power transmission sys- be 70-75%. The lifetime is estimated to be ten tem. Rapid energy deployment is especially years with a maximum storage of eight hours. important when introducing wind and solar A high temperature of 300°C is required for energy due to daily and seasonal variations of electrochemical reaction to occur. Examples of these energy sources [4]. already implemented NaS include a 1.2 MW × Research shows that in the case of Denmark 6h NaS installed in US State of New York (with possible general assumptions) battery

Comparative costs of conventional batteries and underground pumped hydro regarding energy storage capacity [4]

TECHNOLOGY Capacity cost (Euro per kW/h)

Conventional battery 250-500

Underground pumped hydro 25-45

LARGE BATTERIES FOR ENERGY STORAGE 73 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

storage is the most applicable in the case of case-specific analysis is needed in order to de- ancillary services, particularly for rapid determine the exact size of costs and benefits. In ployment of energy. Studies show that the an- addition, possible storage services would not nual cost of having a conventional battery can be artificially separated. The buyer would sim- vary between from EUR 92 to 348 (for 2h ply get the right to use auctioned storage capac- storage capacity) while annual revenues could ity for whatever service he intends given the go up to EUR 160 depending on specific cir- condition that he returns the amount of energy cumstances. Alternatively, for arbitration and taken by the end of certain time period. There- regulation applications, high storage capacity is fore storage may become cost-effective and required. It can be seen in Table 2 that batter- used more rationally. The analysis of a Belgian ies prove to be very costly regarding energy electrical storage system using this model gave storage when compared to other technologies promising results although each conclusion is such as underground pumped hydro. Further- case-specific and must take into account the more studies show that even in the case of local physical and social environment when underground pumped hydro there is still no drawing conclusions [6]. economic argumentation for using it for arbitration and regulation. Alternatively, batteries Conclusions due to their high speed of energy deployment Battery energy storage could be practically ap- could be more efficient than underground plied to the Øresund region especially on the pumped hydro hence providing a guarantee Danish side. Main function could be rapid en- that neither excess nor lack of wind energy ergy load into the grid in order to keep its sta- would pose a threat to the stability of the grid. bility. Main mature battery technologies are Moreover, batteries can prove to be unaccept- recognised as lead-acid and sodium sulphur able to black start applications due to the batteries with an emphasis on NaS due to its higher storage capacity that is required from lower environmental impact and higher life the black start provider [4]. expectancy and capacity. They are concurrently An issue of lacking business models for battery time the only technologies capable of providing energy storage deserves attention. It seems that cost-effective (ancillary) service due to high or the biggest reliance on further battery imple- uncertain costs associated with arbitration and mentation lies in further technological ad- regulation. New business models such as the vancement. Alternatively, inventions in the concept of the aggregated value, should be business sector are lacking, although they could addressed as well in order to bridge the still potentially help to bridge the gap between existing gap between high cost-related risks and promising opportunities and high associated technical potential of the batteries. Finally poli- costs. Except for usual business models which cies have to adjust to the recent shifts in the have limited application capabilities, there is electricity system through further market de- also another business model that deserves at- regulation policy incentives and renewable en- tention. This model introduces an aggregated ergy development in order to reach the full value concept of used storage capacity based potential of battery energy storage. on consequential time series of auctioning. In this process a week auction would happen first, References followed by day and hour auction. Each new [1] Walawalkar R., Apt J. & Mancini R. (2007), Eco- phase would take into account the prices being nomics of Electric Energy Storage for Energy Ar- established in previous phases. The result could bitration and Regulation in New York, Energy Policy, be raising the profitability of storage, although 35, 2558 – 2568.

74 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

[2] IBM Institute for Business Value, (2010), Switching Perspectives, Creating New Business Models for a Changing World of Energy. IBM. [3] Krajacic G., Duic N., Tsakalakis A., Zoulias M., Caralis G., Panteri E. & Carvalho M., (2011), Feed- in Tariffs for the Promotion of Energy Storage Technologies., Energy Policy, 39, 1410-1425. [4] Ekman C. K. & Jensen S. H, (2010), Prospects for Large Scale Electricity Storage in Denmark, Energy Conservation and Management, 51, 1140 – 1147. [5] Ecogrid, (2007), WP4: New Measures for Integration of Large Scale Renewable Energy. www.ecogrid.dk. [6] He X., Delarue E., D’Haeseleer W. & Glachant J. (2011), A Novel Business Model for Aggregating the Values of Electricity Storage, Energy Policy, 39, 1575-1585. ‘Large Battery’ photo by Michael Harris on May 10 2011.

LARGE BATTERIES FOR ENERGY STORAGE 75 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

WIND CO-OPERATIVES IN THE ØRESUND REGION

By Tom Figel & Ouyang Xin

ind co-operatives play an important role tant asset in overcoming local resistance to W in wind energy development within the wind development. The first wind co- Øresund Region. Co-operatives helped to operatives in Sweden were formed in the early overcome some of the initial barriers to wind 1990s in Gotland, by a group of environmen- energy development in Sweden and Denmark. tally concerned citizens. These individuals ad- In a wind cooperative, all or part of the wind vertised shares for sale within their community turbine or farm is controlled equally by mem- – and sold them all within two days, demon- bers of the local community, who share in the strating strong interest of Swedish citizens for profits or electricity produced. The ownership renewable energy investment [2]. of wind turbines belongs to communities and Presently in Sweden distributed wind owner- individuals, instead of large developers or utili- ship is now the norm: individual, community, ties alone. Co-operatives are beneficial for the and other private investors own 72% of in- Øresund region because they tend to increase stalled wind capacity [3]. Co-operatives make local acceptance of wind projects, they provide up a significant part of this ownership: more an alternative, more resilient finance strategy, than 25 000 Swedes are now members of wind they benefit local communities, contribute to cooperatives. There are currently 86 total co- more distributed economies, and empower operatives, which generate around 10% of total individuals to invest in their own clean energy. wind power in Sweden. There are also two Today co-operatives own 15% of installed national cooperatives, Swedish Wind Energy wind capacity in Denmark, and 10% in Swe- Cooperative and O2 Cooperative [2]. While den. While the fundamentals of wind co- over 80% of wind turbines are locally owned operatives in these two countries are similar, [3], these national co-operatives demonstrate there are significant differences in organisation that wind co-operatives can also take on a larg- and policies. This analysis will assess wind co- er scale. Wind co-operatives are expanding operatives in Øresund, providing comparative rapidly in Sweden; over the past two years analysis and case studies, with the aim of illus- membership has increased by more than 31% trating the state and significance of wind farms [4]. in the region. Most co-operatives in Sweden are onshore, and distributed throughout the country. As off- Co-operatives in Sweden shore wind continues to develop, co-operatives Compared with other countries, Sweden has could play an important role. Currently, two faced relatively high resistance to wind projects wind co-operatives have shares in three off- [1]. Wind co-operatives have been an impor-

76 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

shore projects in Vänern, Gässlingen and of electricity per year [7], to a utility, which Kyrkvinden [5]. then sells it back to members at cost [8]. A share in a cooperative provides about 1000 Organisation & Policy kWh a year for 20 years, and usually costs be- Sweden’s local governance structures are con- tween SEK 6000-7000 [6]. Individual profits ducive to wind cooperatives, because a great for wind farms will depend on electricity price deal of the authority relevant to wind project fluctuations and the production of the turbine development, such as siting and permitting, lies (which determines the price of the shares), as with the municipality. Windfarms in Sweden well as whether or not they take a loan. There are typically started by developers and munici- are some banks, including Swedbank and Nor- palities. Co-operatives can then be initiated dea, who will offer special loans to people who during the planning phase of projects, by the want to buy shares in cooperatives, with an municipality, or through the expansion of other interest rate of just under 4%. Generally, existing cooperatives. Co-operatives are orga- members can expect to make a profit of nized as economic associations, which handle around SEK 3000 over 20 years (around 40- administration and finances, as well as tax and 50% return on investment); and save between legal requirements. In Sweden, renewables SEK 400-600 on their electricity bills/year produced for household consumption are not (Swedish Wind Energy Cooperative 2011). If subject to electricity tax. Therefore co- there is a rise in electricity rates, they can ex- operatives are organized so that members’ pect even more savings [6]. shares do not exceed their household con- The main drivers for wind co-operatives in sumption. Usually, a cooperative’s economic Sweden are municipal utilities and developers, association will sell all electricity to a utility existing cooperatives, environmental and eco- company, and members will purchase the elec- nomic motivation of investors, and policy in- tricity at cost from the utility [6]. If there is a centives. Renewable quotas in Sweden require surplus in production, proceeds go to the asso- electricity producers to purchase about 18% ciation which then distributes an economic locally produced renewable energy, which in- bonus to members once a year. This model cludes energy from cooperatives. Wind co- incentivizes cooperative members to reduce operatives have been able to maintain an ex- their electricity consumption because a de- emption from income tax. However, since crease will lead to higher surpluses, which 2009, there has been uncertainty from regula- means higher profits. tors regarding this designation. Officially, the Cooperative members usually cover the in- tax authorities state that co-operatives should vestment for wind turbines up front. This be subject to taxes on the profit they make (the means that cooperative-financed wind projects difference between their prices and the market are normally independent of financial institu- price of electricity), because the price for elec- tions, making them less exposed to market tricity they offer is lower than the market price fluctuations or changes in interest rates that of electricity. The co-operatives contend that may otherwise jeopardize financing [6]. If the members first have to buy a share to get enough shares are not sold the remainder may this lower price. No co-operatives have been be financed by bank loan, or covered by the taxed with this electricity tax so far, but the utility or developer until the rest of the shares subject has been debated, creating uncertainty are sold. that has negatively impacted the growth of some co-operatives [9]. Typically, a wind cooperative will sell membership shares, based on a unit of 1000 kWh per

WIND CO-OPERATIVES IN THE ØRESUND REGION 77 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

Case Study: Lundavind No.1 Co-operatives in Denmark Lund is home to one of the first co-operatives Danish wind energy has a total installed capac- in Sweden, called Lundavind No.1, which was ity of 3752 GW as of 2010, comprising more formed in 1996 [10]. The project was initiated than 22% of the country’s electricity consump- by Lunds Energi, and shares were then sold to tion. [12] Cooperative wind turbines account its customers [11]. The association has 215 for 15% of total installed wind capacity in members, owning a total of 900 shares. Most Denmark, around 560 GW installed capacity. members own 2-3 shares each. The association Co-operatives are highly active in Denmark operates one 600 kW Vestas turbine [10], due to high public awareness of promotion of which is one of the original six wind turbines in green energy, profitability of the investment, Sweden. and historical significance with Danish culture. Lundavind cooperative is typical of the coop- Co-operatives have existed in Denmark since erative model in Sweden, in which a single tur- 1882, when the first was formed in a dairy. In bine is initiated by a utility, shares are sold to a the 1970s, most established co-operatives dis- cooperative, and electricity is sent back to the appeared or merged into big companies. How- utility’s costumers. ever the concept of co-operatives survived, and Wind co-operatives have helped Sweden de- is still widely used to start new businesses in velop a distributed, more dynamic electricity Denmark. Cooperative ownership was essential grid, which incorporates locally produced re- to the first wind energy projects in Demark. newable energy. The Swedish case demon- Many of the wind turbines erected in 1980s or strates that it is much easier for people to ac- 1990s were and still are owned by locals or cept windpower plants if they have the possi- cooperatives. Turbines owned by wind co- bility to own them [9]. Co-operatives allow a operatives are connected to the grid, providing more distributed ownership of power plants, not only the electricity to the local community, and their development takes place on a wide but the whole country. [13] scale, delivering power where it is needed. They Big utilities and large energy companies are the are an effective, and often more resilient way to main drivers of large-scale wind energy devel- raise capital for projects. Finally, they represent opment. By engaging the local communities, a movement by the Swedish people to take public acceptance of wind projects increases control over their energy production by making greatly, and encourages dialogue with local a personal investment in clean energy. authorities. There are around 50,000 cooperative owners, down from over 100,000 ten years ago, mainly because utilities tend to buy up shares. In order to encourage community participation, the Danish government issued new legislation in 2009, obligating all new wind energy projects to offer 20 percent ownership to local people, e.g. cooperatives, in order to stimulate local engagement and ownership in new projects [12].

Lundavind Cooperative’s turbine.

78 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

Organisation & Policy The guarantee scheme offers a total fund of DKK 10 million to co-operatives or associa- Co-operatives are organized in partnerships tions to initiate preliminary study of wind pro- with joint liabilities. Often this partnership is jects initiate. The fund can keep the initiators also called single purpose vehicle. The reason financially indemnified if the project cannot be for forming partnerships instead of cooperative realised. The money for the guarantee fund is it that according to Danish Law, the interest recouped from electricity consumers as a con- from loans for wind turbines is tax deductible tribution. A cooperative can apply for a maxi- from the private income of the individuals in a mum loan of DKK 500 000. partnership, but not in a cooperative. In the law, the partnership cannot contract debts; The two schemes are both administered by which minimizes the risk for cooperative wind transmission system energinet.dk. projects. Adequate insurances are applied as well. Case Study: Middelgrunden Offshore Wind Farm Normally each share a partner buys corresponds to the yearly production of 1000 kWh Co-operatives are often seen in scattered small- from that particular wind turbine or wind farm. scale wind farms or single turbines. However, Partners can trade their shares, and shares can two offshore projects also show that they can be mortgaged. work on large scale. The first is Middelgrunden Offshore Wind Farm (40 MW) and the other is The Danish Promotion of Renewable Energy Samsø project (23 MW). Middelgrunden is half Act, which entered into force in January 2009, owned by a cooperative, and half owned by has four schemes to promote local acceptance Dong Energy, and Samsø offshore is 50% and involvement of development of wind owned by the municipality, 30% by individuals farms. Two of them focus on promotion of from the island and 20% by a cooperative. cooperatives, called the ‘option-to-purchase’ Outsiders own 15% of the cooperative shares. scheme and the ‘guarantee scheme’. In this paper, Middelgrunden as the first and The first one regulates: erectors of wind turbines largest offshore large-scale cooperative wind with a total height of at least 25 metres, including off- farm, will be studied. shore wind turbines erected without a governmental tender, shall offer for sale at least 20% of the wind The project was initiated by Copenhagen Elec- turbine project to the local population. Anyone over 18 tricity Service (KB) and Middelgaden Wind years of age with his/her permanent residence according Turbine Co-operatives I/S (MV) in 1997. The to the national register of persons at a distance of application was processed by the Danish En- maximum 4.5 kilometres from the site of installation ergy Authority. The first round of evaluation or in the municipality where the wind turbine is erected was held among interested organisations, and has the option to purchase. If there is local interest in the proposal was modified accordingly. Based purchasing more than 20%, people who live closer than on the revised proposal a public hearing was 4.5 kilometres from the project have first priority on a held. Finally the proposal was approved with share of ownership, but the distribution of shares should several conditions, one of which was to consult ensure the broadest possible ownership base. [14] Swedish Authorities in relation to the Espoo convention, and later authorities also joined the In practice, if the shares sold are less than 20%, Environment Impact Assessment Procedure then the utility or energy company is allowed to (EIA). The revised proposal with EIA were own the rest shares, may it be 90% or more. evaluated and published for comments, and final documents were assessed and registered in

WIND CO-OPERATIVES IN THE ØRESUND REGION 79 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

the Municipality of Copenhagen in September prior approval from the management. Partners 1999. [15] are jointly liable to the partnership’s creditor, while the partnership’s assets cannot be made In the application and pre-study installed ca- the subject of legal proceedings by creditor pacity of 20 turbines was 40 MW, with a total regarding debts. output of 85 000 MWh, located between 1.4- 3.5 km from the coast of Copenhagen. It also The profit (if any after subtraction of partner- includes the layout of 20 turbines, parameter of ship’s expense, allocations) is equally distrib- turbines, electricity connections, EIA and fi- uted according to the numbers of shares. It is nancial implications. The total investment is distributed at least once a year. The financial about DKK 364 million, of which 334 million year follows the calendar year. was allocated for the farm and 30 million was Concerning management, a team of five people used for grid connection. Consultancies were is elected on a two-year basis. They are respon- formed as well to help to draft the study. sible for securing adequate liability insurance In this application, KB (later merged with on turbines and contracting a certified mainte- Dong Energy) and MV agreed to own ten tur- nance service company [16]. bines each, with a flexibility to MV to own less if it failed to sell sufficient shares. KB was re- Discussion & Conclusion sponsible for the construction, and each party Cooperative windfarms offer many positive had financial liability for their own part, while benefits to wind development in the Øresund each was held responsible for the operation. region. Experience in Sweden and Denmark After that, the project continued with tender, shows that individuals are eager to invest in co- contracting, construction and commencement. operatives when given the chance, and that co- The cooperative was formed in a partnership operatives can be very useful to achieving local called Middelgaden Wind Turbine Co- acceptance for projects. Co-operatives provide operatives I/S (MV). MV was responsible for not only an additional source of capital for financing, operation, secure insurance, and wind projects, but also support a social invest- management of wind turbines. It cannot con- ment in wind development. They have many tract debts, and carries joint liabilities. The distributed benefits, including keeping revenues Partnership Assembly is the supreme decision in the hands of local communities. Municipali- body, and is held once a year. It reports on ties can continue to encourage co-operatives by audited accounts, provides recommendation on including incentives for co-operatives and local the use of profit or cover of loss, and budget energy generation in their energy strategies. As for the next year. It also decides on issues re- large-scale, offshore wind projects move for- lated to change of bylaws, and sale of shares. ward in the Øresund region, local acceptance Specific rules regarding approval of change are will be a key issue. Offering cooperative own- adopted. ership can be one strategy to overcoming this The shareowners are all considered partners. barrier. Large projects like Middelgrunden, and Partners are listed in partnership file by name, the national co-operatives in Sweden, show address, number of shares, and other informa- that projects can encourage both local and nation demanded by the authorities. The list is tional investment from individuals. By encour- updated frequently. The share size is not indi- aging wind cooperatives, Øresund can support vidual specific, but corresponds to 1000 kWh a social movement for renewable, low-carbon per year. A share is tradable and the price is set energy development that keeps profits in the on a free market. The trade is only valid with hands of locals.

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References [13] Danish Energy Agency, (2009). Wind Turbines in Denmark. Copenhagen, Denmark, DEA. [1] Klintman, M. and Waldo, Å. (2008) Experience of [14] Danish Energy Agency. (2010). Wind Turbines in windpower: anchor, acceptance, and resistance. Denmark. Copenhagen, Denmark: DEA. Naturvårdsverket. Retrieved December 5, 2011 from [15] Global Wind Energy Council. (2011). Global wind http://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/publ report: Annual market update 2010. Brussels, Belgium: ikationer/978-91-620-5866-1.pdf. GWEC. [2] Wizelius, T. (2009a) Wind energy – a popular movement. [16] Mildelgrunden Wind Turbine Cooperative I/S. Network for Windfarms. Retrieved December 5, (2003). Final approval of the turbine park at Mildelgrun- 2011 from den. Copenhagen, Denmark: MV. http://www.natverketforvindbruk.se/Global/Plan [17] Mildelgrunden Wind Turbine Cooperative I/S. ering_tillstand/Vindkraft%20- (2003). Bylaws of Mildelgrunden wind turbine cooperative. %20en%20folkr%C3%B6relse.pdf. Copenhagen, Denmark: MV. [3] Wizelius, T. (2008). Ownership models for community “Lundavind Windmill” photo taken by Lundavind No.1 windpower in Sweden. Gotland University, Sweden. Cooperative. Permission granted for use. URL: [4] Swedish Network for Windfarms (2011). Cooperative http://lundavind.se/ windfarms. Retrieved December 5, 2011 from http://www.natverketforvindbruk.se/TillstandPlan ering/Agande-avtalsformer/Kooperativ- vindkraft/. [5] Wizelius, T (2011). Gotland University. Personal communication for Strategic Environmental Development course. 5 December, 2011. Lund University, Swe- den. [6] Wizelius, T. (2009b). Wind together. Vindform, Visby 2009. [7] Swedish Wind Energy Cooperative (2011). Falken- berg, Sweden. http://www.svef.nu/ [8] Wizelius, T. (2010). Handbook for windcooperative. Network for Windfarms. Retrieved December 6, 2011 from http://www.natverketforvindbruk.se/Global/Plan er- ing_tillstand/Vindkraft%20tillsammans%20f%C3 %B6r%20web%20pdf.pdf. [9] Olsson, K. Network on Energy Authority. Personal communication for Strategic Environmental De- velopment course. 30 November, 2011. Lund Uni- versity, Sweden. [10] Lundavind no. 1. (2011). Lundavind Wind Coopera- tive. Lund Sweden. lundavind.se [11] Johansson, H. Lunds Energi. Personal communication for Strategic Environmental Development course. 6 De- cember, 2011. Lund University, Sweden. [12] Danish Wind Turbine Owners’ Association. (2009) Cooperatives- A Local and Democratic Ownership to Wind Turbines. Copenhagen, Denmark.

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NORDHAVNEN AND HYLLIE A Comparative Analysis

By Ian Ross & Allison Witter

uildings constitute around 40% of energy Presently the location of harbour-related and B consumption in Sweden and in Denmark industrial activities, it is to be converted during [1,2]. This, in combination with growing urban a three-phase redevelopment into a carbon- populations and ambitious national and mu- neutral housing and business district. nicipal climate strategies, has led to targeted The first phase of the Nordhavnen project will urban densification projects with strong energy entail the creation of 2 000 private dwellings sustainability profiles in both countries. In the out of existing buildings, along with 200 000 Øresund region, two case studies in particular 2 m of commercial property [3]. The project is stand out, due to their large scales, ambitious being designed in order to provide the devel- use of cutting edge technologies, and promi- opment with a steady supply of renewable en- nent roles in municipal climate and energy ergy that is mostly hidden and unobtrusive. planning. These are the Nordhavnen develop- Through this renewable energy usage, as well ment in Copenhagen and the Hyllie extension as efficient design, developers estimate that in area in Malmö. It is useful to analyse these pro- the period up to 2040, greenhouse gas (GHG) jects, as well as similar developments from emissions will be 17 000 tonnes less than they abroad, in order to draw lessons on how sus- would be under minimum standards [4]. These tainable urban development may be carried out project goals fit within Copenhagen’s broader in order to contribute to minimising energy use climate and energy goals. and mitigating climate change. Nordhavnen Phase 1 Copenhagen Climate Strategy Copenhagen identifies itself as a progressive Nordhavnen is a 200-hectare brownfield site city in terms of sustainable development. Since (or underused industrial property available for 1990, the city has restricted its GHG emissions re-use) in Copenhagen. by 20%, meaning that Copenhagen residents emit 30% less than the Danish average per capita. The city plans to reduce emissions another 20% in the period 2005-2015 as part of the Copenhagen Climate Action plan, which seeks to balance mitigation and adaptation by focusing on renewable energy, sustainable transport, building efficiency, and an increase

Nordhavnen Phase 1.

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in green spaces. Through this plan, the city to around 16 000 MWh per year in Phase 1 and intends to become the first carbon-neutral expanding to 112 000 MWh per year by 2040. capital by 2025 [5]. Nordhavnen is a perfect The table below shows how the project devel- example of the city’s intentions regarding sus- opers plan to source this energy. tainable urban growth. Four wind turbines will be built on the dike Key Project Features offshore from the harbour and photovoltaic solar panels will be built on the appropriate The cityscape will be made up of three- to six- roofs. It is expected that central solar district story compact houses mixed with businesses. heating and storage can provide all of the nec- There will be a large effort to preserve many of essary heating in Phase 1. This will require the existing historic buildings, creating a blend 2 115 000 m of space, which will be garnered of modern new buildings and older refitted through utilisation of an undeveloped floating energy-efficient buildings. In order to imple- dock and the surrounding land. This will in- ment the EU Directive on Energy Perform- 2 clude a 37 000 m heat storage tank, which will ance of Buildings, Denmark introduced in 2006 be connected to the greater Copenhagen sys- more strict building standards along with an tem. This is expected to provide financial gains energy classification scheme. The scheme in- of DKK 11 million per year, by increasing the cludes a Class 1 (50% of minimum require- city’s district heating capacity by 16 000 tonnes ments) and Class 2 (75% of requirements) rat- and allowing for greater production at times ing [5]. All of Nordhavnen’s buildings are ex- when costs are low. The heating system in pected to acquire a Class 1 rating. Nordhavnen should have a low heat flow of So-called “pocket parks”, or small parks scat- around 55 degrees Celsius so as to provide the tered throughout the development’s urban greatest potential for recycling cooling water. areas, will be introduced along with larger rec- Instances requiring hot water services, such as reational parks and natural habitat reserves. sanitation or industrial needs, will be accom- Water is fundamental to project design and is modated by heat pumps. meant to facilitate recreation, good aesthetics, Cooling will be achieved by using a mixture of and climate comfort. Excavated channels will groundwater, seawater, and absorption cooling. be used to bring water closer to urban areas. The district cooling system will require six to These “blue areas” will include open-air twelve wells in Phase 1, depending on whether swimming zones and boat docks [3]. or not absorption cooling is used in the heat Access to sustainable transport will be another storage warehouse. This will entail extracting major feature at Nordhavnen. A “green route” water from 13 metres below the harbour level, traffic artery will eventually contain a metro where 10 degrees Celcius water can be re- line and connection to a network of bicycle moved 200 days a year. Unfortunately, the re- paths. It is critical that the sale of properties in maining 165 days are when cooling is at its Nordhavnen is highly profitable, since it is ex- highest demand [4]. pected that the development shall pay for the metro connection [6]. Nordhavnen electricity sources by 2040 [4]. SOURCE AMOUNT Energy Technologies Solar cells 10% Nordhavnen will have an estimated standard Micro wind turbines 5% consumption of 22 kWh per m2 for housing Onshore wind 33% and 48 kWh per m2 for businesses, equivalent Offshore wind 52%

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Overall, while the Nordhavnen development the heart of the development lies the Station has to yet commence construction, detailed Square, which links the development to the rest plans already exist regarding how specific en- of the Øresund region and beyond by way of ergy and other sustainability measures are to be the City Tunnel. Completed in 2010, this 17 integrated into the project. kilometre long railway cost around SEK 8.5 billion (in 2001 monetary value) to construct Hyllie Extension Area and was actually the key justifying factor for going ahead with the broader Hyllie develop- The Hyllie Extension Area is a multi-purpose ment project. Adjacent to the Station Square development in southern Malmö. It aims to lies the Malmö arena. A shopping centre, exhi- offer an urban environment representing sus- bition facility, four-star hotel, office buildings, tainable growth – ecologically, economically, and the Point Hyllie project (meant to feature and socially. The development is taking place Sweden’s second tallest building) are currently in a primarily unbuilt area of around 200 hec- under construction nearby. Once fully ex- tares outside of the city. Being located in such tended, Hyllie is meant to additionally include a rural-urban transition area is in fact a central around 8 000 residences. feature of the Hyllie development, which aims to offer both proximity to nature as well as The project is advertised as having a green convenient access to both Copenhagen and building profile, which will include energy- Malmö through the recently completed City efficient lighting and insulation, wastewater Tunnel, one of Sweden’s largest infrastructure heat re-use, green roofs, electricity from wind, projects [7]. Several developers are involved in and heating from solar. Transportation access the project – which aims to build around 8 000 via train and new cycle and bus lines, as well as homes plus other types of buildings – under the construction of the Hyllie Water Park and the leadership of the City of Malmö. Beech Forest, are additionally highlighted as green features of the development [8]. Malmö Energy Strategy Energy Objectives Like Copenhagen, Malmö aims to be a world leading climate city. Its long-term energy strat- Sweden’s energy objective for homes and egy states that energy shall be safe and efficient premises is that energy consumption in 2020 and supplied by renewable sources by 2030. shall be 20 % lower than 1995 levels. Along The Hyllie project is a targeted expansion these lines, the Swedish National Board of meant to densify a specific district of the city, Housing, Building, and Planning now requires much like the Western Harbour development energy performance certification of most build- did, following rapid population growth in ings, including those within the Hyllie devel- Malmö [8]. As the city’s largest development opment [1,7]. area, it is envisioned that Hyllie shall be a lead- Moreover, buildings within the extension area ing force in the transition to urban sustainabil- will go beyond these basic requirements by ity in Malmö [9]. It is interesting to consider following the Miljöbyggprogram Syd measures the specific project development measures for sustainable building. Under this program- being taken so that this might occur. me, developers demonstrate their level of performance (Class A, B, or C) under four core Key Project Features areas: energy, indoor environment (health and Numerous buildings with different functions comfort), moisture protection, and urban bio- will characterise the Hyllie Extension Area. At diversity. The Hyllie project intends to perform

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at a Class A (best option) level for energy and ing energy measures to be taken at Hyllie, given at Class C (the basal level required for building that the project is still in its early stages [12]. It on municipal lands) for the other three areas will be interesting to see, then, how the various [10]. Methods for reaching this Class A energy project partners decide to implement different status are laid out in the Hyllie Sustainability building strategies and innovative technologies Agreement. They include requirements for in order to fit within the overarching sustain- accurate measurement and communication of ability visions of the extension area and of the overall energy balances and insulation levels City of Malmö. (i.e. thermal bridges, U-values for windows, and building envelope air tightness) during the Comparative Analysis: design and construction stages. Nordhavnen & Hyllie Additional energy measures laid out in the Sus- Both Nordhavnen and Hyllie are being con- tainability Agreement include obligations for structed with the targeted aim of populating contractors to investigate opportunities for specific areas – a brownfield site in Copenha- renewable energies on their properties and to gen and a semi-rural location in Malmö. En- minimise energy use during the construction ergy and other sustainability measures taken at phase. Measures for the latter include the use each project are meant to not only foster but to of energy efficient building sheds, containers, also lead the ambitious climate strategies of the and lighting; high-grade energy use only where two cities. The projects have potential for am- absolutely necessary; eco-driving training re- ple support from municipal, national, and EU quirements for machine and vehicle operators; level funding. At Hyllie, for example, five pro- and 25% environmental car usage. Buildings jects are already receiving funding from the EU must also be designed and constructed to fit via the BuildSmart project, while the Swedish within Hyllie’s eventual smart energy system. Energy Agency will help fund development of In other words, they should strive to provide a large-scale energy system as well as specific individual metering for occupants, integrate energy projects on different properties [12]. At electric vehicle charging stations, move energy Nordhavnen, funding primarily comes from loads from electricity to district heating, pro- the developing company made for the project, duce local energy that is measurable and easily which is 55% owned by the City and Port of integrated into the grid, and erect information Copenhagen and 45% owned by the Danish centres on decreasing energy use, among other state. However, while the City Tunnel in Hyllie measures [11]. was built through ample government funding This smart energy system is the primary objec- and was actually an instigator for the project, tive highlighted by the Hyllie Climate Contract. the construction of a connecting metro line at The contract states that energy at the develop- Nordhavnen will rely upon the development ment is to come from 100% local renewable proving itself to be profitable. and reused sources, although it does not ex- Each project should be able to draw on experi- plain in detail which steps shall be taken for ences at the pioneering Western Harbour ex- this to occur, or by which date. A steering tension project in Malmö. Two key lessons group made up of representatives from the garnered from that development include ensur- City of Malmö and the utility companies E.ON ing that project developers implement uniform and VA SYD are in charge of implementing energy measurement methodologies and that the contract’s objectives [9,12]. information on eco-friendly behavioural There is little information other than that laid changes is conveyed to the public in a useful out in the aforementioned agreements regard-

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and effective manner [13]. There are virtually tures rooftop gardens, on-site renewable energy no cars present at the Western Harbour, as is production (through biomass gasification), to be the case at Nordhavnen. Hyllie, on the improved linkages to bike paths, and a waste- other hand, emphasises a good infrastructure water treatment plant, among other features. for cars as well as a multitude of parking In 2008, the site was awarded the highest places, marking a key difference in the realm of LEED Platinum ranking in the world. It is also transportation between it and its Danish coun- aiming to become one of the first recipients of terpart. Other such distinctions are evident in the LEED for Neighbourhood Development the branding of each project. As an example, designation. while Nordhavnen emphasises small buildings Dockside Green features an integrated energy of a few storeys, Hyllie boasts high-rise edi- system, including on-site biomass gasification fices, one of which will be the second tallest in utilising waste wood as well as sewage inputs Sweden once constructed. It will be interesting from the project’s wastewater treatment plant. to see how these distinctions, coupled with a A district energy system, run by the develop- focus during the early stages of development ment’s own energy utility, provides all heat on specific energy measures in Nordhavnen energy and hot water for the site, and there are versus more generalised requirements in Hyllie, plans to eventually integrate sewer waste heat will influence the profiles and actual impacts of recovery technology as well. The system is each project. capable of becoming a net energy provider by supplying thermal energy for clients both on- Lessons from Abroad and off-site. Additional energy saving meas- Two further examples of sustainable urbanism, ures include high performance building insula- which are external to the Øresund region, will tion (i.e. glazing and shading), exhaust air en- be explored here. These are the Dockside ergy heat recovery, minimized lighting power Green in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada densities through energy efficient fixtures and and Brewer’s Block 4 in Portland, Oregon, occupancy sensors, and individual energy me- USA. These cases are useful to explore when tres that include a calibration of household deriving lessons on how energy measures can carbon footprints. Buildings are built 50% be successfully implemented in development more energy efficient than municipal codes projects. Victoria and Portland are considered require. to be two of the more sustainable cities in Although it has received some federal funding North America, and both have similar climatic to offset capital costs, this development project conditions to the Øresund region, making con- has also clearly been able to compete finan- sideration of the pioneering green building cially with its less innovative condominium cases there particularly relevant. neighbours, even in a tough real estate market. Sales were likely boosted for two main reasons. The Dockside Green First, the minimised household costs achieved In Victoria, the Dockside Green provides an through substantial energy savings at the prop- example of a successful brownfield develop- erty were clearly communicated to potential ment that has integrated innovative energy buyers. Second, developers were keenly tuned measures. The mixed-purpose site comprises into local surroundings. Strong commitments 26 buildings and 2 500 residents and is located were made to community consultation, local on an abandoned, brownfield dockyard site. partnerships for heating and sewage facilities, The mixed commercial-residential space fea- First Nations peoples’ employment support programmes, and other social measures. These

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and other facets have helped to create an save money and make an office building more award-winning climate-friendly community that attractive [15]. feels rooted in its context [14]. Conclusions Portland Brewer’s Block 4 It is becoming increasingly clear that energy The brewery blocks of Portland, Oregon are an savings and climate change mitigation will re- interesting example of how industrial buildings quire densified urban living, with access to can be retrofitted and sold as environmentally alternative transportation modes, innovative friendly business property. The Weinhard technologies for energy production, and en- brewery district consists of five blocks, located ergy-efficient methods for reducing energy in the most upscale area of the city, and has demand [14]. The aforementioned case studies been redeveloped in a way that combines the provide examples of how such qualities are preservation of historic buildings with the in- being integrated into large-scale urban devel- troduction of modern sustainable design. Block opment projects. Several lessons may be gar- 4 of the development is of particular signifi- nered from these experiences. cance because of its “green” design based on For example, during the preliminary stages of LEED energy efficiency and storm water project design, performance-based measure- standards. ments regarding energy intensity should be A high-efficiency, low-temperature central favoured over specific facets of building de- cooling plant serves all of the brewery block sign. This helps to emphasise energy consump- buildings. This is an on-site rooftop plant tion and building performance, and allows for based on evaporative cooling and featuring the most efficient, context-specific combina- outside air economisers and variable speed tions of proactive energy saving measures (i.e. pumps. This cooling system is calculated to passive design) and reactive measures (i.e. me- have energy savings of around 540 000 kWh chanical systems) to be designed. While finan- per year when compared to baseline code- cial support from local municipalities as well as compliant buildings, which calculates to sav- national government bodies is extremely help- ings of USD 37 450 and 242 tonnes in reduc- ful for the success of project development, tions of carbon emitted per year. properties must still be sold in the end. Useful The lighting system of Block 4 incorporates a in this regard is the effective communication of maximisation of natural lighting, daylight dim- energy cost savings to be reaped by potential mers, and improved window glazing, which buyers. Comfort and efficiency can be turned combined yield 417 000 kWh in energy savings, into a marketing advantage in order to create equalling 189 tonnes of carbon [4]. An innova- new markets for such large-scale “green” urban tive garage ventilation system allows for the use projects. Once they buy, residents must subse- of smaller fans and thus runs at half the rate of quently be educated on how their energy con- standard systems. Photovoltaic panels on the sumption behaviour can be shifted in order to roof provide an annual output of 21 600 kWh, add to the efficiency gains fostered by such yielding USD 1 500 in yearly savings. developments. What is crucial is to strongly integrate a project’s energy goals from the de- All of these technologies have combined to signer through to the resident in order to de- give Block 4 an annual energy savings of liver on a development’s full potential [16]. 23.5%. This case thereby serves as an interesting example of how efficient design can both One of the largest opportunities for profiting from the energy technologies used in these development projects is through the connec-

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tion of onsite district heating or cooling plants [9] Malmö Stad. (2011). Klimatkontrakt för Hyllie. to larger municipal systems in order to help Malmö: Malmö Stad. expand their capacities. The heat storage tank [10] Miljöbyggprogram Syd. (2011). Hyllie. Retrieved at at Nordhavnen and the district cooling plant at http://www.miljobyggprogramsyd.se/ Brewery Block 4 are two examples of such [11] Malmö Stad. (2011). Utkast hållbarhetsöverenskommelse potential profitability. At the same time, how- v9.. Malmö: Malmö Stad. ever, young technologies may take time before [12] Fossum, T. (2011). Malmö Stad. Personal commu- living up to this potential: the solar district nication, December 2, 2011. heating system in Nordhavnen, for example, is [13] Dale, A. (2011). Malmö, Sweden: Integrating policy not expected to be profitable before 2025 [4]. development for climate change and sustainable development. Victoria, Canada: Royal Roads University. Overall, while the steps to actually rendering a sustainable city are complex and multidimen- [14] Pirie, K. (2010). Dockside Green: Unsprawl case study. Journal of the Built and Natural Environments, sional, and while the actual results of the 25, Retrieved from Nordhavnen and Hyllie projects remain to be http://www.terrain.org/unsprawl/25/ seen, the development measures presently be- [15] Bureau of Planning and Sustainability. (2011). ing undertaken appear to be steps in the right Brewery Block 4. Retrieved from direction towards contributing to the achieve- http://www.portlandonline.com/bps/index.cfm?& ment of the climate and energy goals of each a=112566&c=41948 respective municipality. [16] The Challenge Series. (2009). Energy. Retrieved at http://www.thechallengeseries.ca/chapter-05/ References “Hyllie City Tunnel Photo” taken by Allison Witter on 12/11/2011. [1] BOVERKET. (2010). Energy performance certificate – three steps towards benefits. Stockholm: BOVERKET. “Nordhavnen phase 1” created by Ian Ross, on 12/8/2012. Created with Google Earth™ mapping [2] Danish Energy Agency. (2011). Consumption and service. savings: Buildings. Retrieved from: http://www.ens.dk/en- US/ConsumptionAndSavings/Buildings/Sider/For side.aspx [3] City and Port of Copenhagen. (2011). Norhavnen fact sheet. Retrieved from: http://www.nordhavnen.dk/ [4] City and Port of Copenhagen. (2010). Nordhavnen energy phase 3: Analysis of energy supply alternatives. Co- penhagen: City and Port of Copenhagen. [5] City of Copenhagen. (2011). Copenhagen climate adaptation plan. Retrieved from: http://kk.sites.itera.dk/apps/kk_publikationer/pdf /794_kZEjcvbgJt.pdf [6] Christensen, H. (2011). City and Port of Copenha- gen. Personal communication, November 29, 2011. [7] Malmö Stad. (2011). Current plans and projects in the extension area Hyllie.. Malmö: Malmö Stad. [8] Institute for Civil Engineers. (2011). Malmö: Sustain- able city development. Retrieved from: http://www.ice.org.uk/topics/community/Sustaina ble-Community-Development/Malmo

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ENERGY-EFFICIENT BUILDINGS Case Studies: Passive Houses & Retrofitting

By Mary Ellen Smith & Jordan Hayes

round the world buildings use on average EU member states to double the annual reno- Abetween 30-40% of primary energy and vation rate of public buildings up to three per- are a major contributor to the amount of cent. Under this plan, retrofits to buildings greenhouse gases being emitted into the at- should bring the building within ten percent of mosphere [1]. Over the past several years, im- comparable buildings in the nation with respect proving the energy-efficiency buildings has to energy performance [2]. The European been cited as a potentially cost- effective way to Commission also suggests that EPC and energy create jobs, increase energy security, and reduce services companies be integrated as an effort to carbon emissions [2]. In Europe, the public reach the retrofit target of three percent. Both sector is being called upon to help realise the retrofitting and passive home construction potential to become a leader in aiding the have the potential to aid the EU in reaching its transformation of existing buildings into more energy efficiency goals for buildings. energy-efficient structures [2]. One suggestion that has been put forward to Passive Houses promote public leadership towards energy- In Germany, roughly one quarter of primary efficient buildings is energy performance con- energy consumption is used to heat buildings, tracting (EPC). EPC is a performance based and yet 90% of these heat losses could be purchasing method and financial mechanism saved using modern concepts and technology for making upgrades to buildings in which the [4]. Passive house building concepts provide a savings from utility bills outweigh the costs of cost-effective and energy-efficient solution to upgrades or equipment installed in an existing unnecessary energy loss in buildings and building [3]. homes. According to the Passive House Insti- Building efficiency plays an important role in tute, a passive house “is a building for which Europe’s most recent version of the Energy thermal comfort can be achieved solely by post Efficiency Action Plan (EEAP) that describes heating or post cooling of the fresh air mass, the importance of buildings shifting away from which is required to fulfil sufficient indoor air a high carbon economic model. The EEAP quality conditions – without a need for re- further reinforces that Europe’s public sector circulated air” [4]. Thus passive house design is should play a leading role in making energy- a concept that can be applied in planning and efficient improvements to buildings across the construction of a building. EU [2]. It also propositions an obligation for

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The Kronsberg Passive House Each home has its independent ventilation Estate system, using a heat exchanger to recover heat and the supplied air and exhaust air moves The city of Kronsberg, Germany wants to be a through ducts located in the roof. The ventila- model for sustainable development; they have tion system was designed based on the number energy efficiency goals to reduce carbon diox- of occupants and rooms, with three ventilation ide emissions by at least 60% compared to flow options to prevent ‘dead zones’ and al- conventional residential building standards that lows excellent indoor air quality. Outflow and were benchmarked in 1995. Additionally, the inflow vents located in the rooms ensure pas- city invested in two wind turbines and pro- sive airflow when doors are closed. motes solar thermal heating and passive home Hot water and heat is supplied by district heat- construction. The Kronsberg Passive House ing but also supplemented by a solar thermal residential estate in Germany is an interesting system. During summer months, under suffi- example of the city’s efforts and provides a cient solar radiation, a control unit activates the model of passive house construction and suc- pump allowing district heating to be used only cess, with 32 terraced houses with an effective- as a supplement. In order to reduce electricity ness ratio of energy savings of 80% under real demands, highly energy efficient appliances like working conditions [4]. The number of passive dishwashers, washing machine, dryer, refrigera- homes constructed in this estate provides a tor, freezer, and lighting were installed in the wealth of data and information regarding real homes. electricity and heating efficiency, as well as the cost-benefit and applicability of passive home Cost Savings design in cooler climates. Added costs to building passive homes are Construction Details always a consideration in construction, and Each home façade and foundation is built of without careful planning construction cost can concrete, a versatile material that reduces air add up quickly. In this case extra insulation leakage, absorbs sounds, and increases energy costs beyond typical insulation were approxi- savings. The floor and walls were insulated mately EUR 69 per m2, with the actual cost with 60 mm of mineral wool and enclosed with depending on the component being insulated particleboard while the floor was sealed with and to what degree. The heating load is only 300 mm of mineral wool. In order to arrive at 2.5 kW compared to typical 6 kW. Overall, air-tightness and a thermal-bridge-free façade construction costs of the living area were about envelope, polyethylene foils were used to per- EUR 987 per m2, which is similar to the cost of manently seal the roof components. The three- a typical home of the same size. The table be- paned windows have considerable insulation low illustrates energy and cost savings from surrounding the frame and into the floor to different infrastructure components, demon- arrive at the lowest thermal bridge possible. strating the true value of passive house construction added-costs.

Energy savings from different forms of insulation at Kronsberg Estate [4].

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Efficiency system design, building documents, construction planning, working methods, quality con- The total electric energy consumption of the trol, leadership, and attitude [5]. Passive House estate is roughly 33 kWh/m2a, which is similar to consumption in German Passive houses have efficiency standards com- homes for supplying only household electricity posed of lower electricity consumption [4]. The energy consumption of the estate is so through building design and energy-efficient small that the remaining energy needs for the appliances, lighting and heat recovery. Howev- estate are generated from renewable wind er, comfort is a key aspect in design thus op- energy in Kronsberg. Indoor air temperature in timal air quality, humidity, and temperature are the winter averages around 21 °C, with average important requiring a balance in efficiency annual heating energy consumption at 16 measure with comfortability. Indoor air tem- kWh/m2a, meaning that the savings in compar- peratures were measured at a comfortable level ison to a typical German home are over 90% most days of the year, and collected data shows [4]. The 3-paned windows keep heat from be- there is a strong correlation between occupant ing lost during the coldest winter months, with activity and indoor air temperature swings. Yet, an average indoors window temperature above behaviour does not have the strongest effect 17°C, exemplifying stable indoor air tempera- on energy savings, it is rather technical and tures despite reduced heating [4]. construction standards that have the greatest The estate was the first to use a fresh air heat- effect on a home energy profile [4]. The ing system; the high quality ventilation system Kronsberg Passive House estate displays the uses less than 2.3 kWh/m2a annually and with fact that energy consumption can be reduced sufficient heating output, has proven that in- so much that homes can be powered by renew- door temperatures are independent of outside able energy without compromising comfort or temperatures regardless of season. The use of cost, and that passive home design is both en- district heating for space heating and hot water vironmentally practical and economical. for the first year measured 34.6 kWh/m2a, a savings of 75% compared to average homes. Retrofitting Electric appliances can offset the indoor tem- The term retrofit refers to the process of modi- perature balance, thus high quality energy- fying something after it has been constructed. efficient appliances were installed in all houses For the purpose of building retrofits this of the estate. Total primary energy consump- means making changes to the systems within tion is 82.6 kWh/m2a for all energy sources the building or the structure after its initial used in the estate, roughly 66% less consump- construction and occupancy [6]. The purpose tion than similar homes in Germany [4]. of implementing such measures come with the expectation of improving amenities for build- Balancing Quality ing owners and improving the performance of The case study also highlights the importance existing buildings to adopt to new efficiency of designing a passive house based on occu- opportunities. pants, climate, geography and comfort. There is no single model passive house construction Retrofit Criteria plan that can apply to all situations without To date there is no one set of criteria to define inadvertently reducing efficiency standards and a retrofit building. Instead there are several comfort. Studies have shown that successful different energy rating procedures to rank per- passive house projects have special focus on formance and efficiency of buildings. The most

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common building environment assessment long-term investment. Some of the measures schemes to date are Leadership in Energy and identified included: Environmental Design (LEED), Building Re- • Replace single-glazed metal-framed win- search Establishment Environmental Assess- dows with low emission double-glazed ment Method (BREEAM) and Green Star windows. schemes [7]. These three schemes are all based • Replace boiler controls and steam traps. on a rating system that applies to both new and • Insulate the attic. existing buildings. All schemes look at a wide • Replace all toilets with low flush models. range of environmental factors that includes • Replace all faucets and showerheads with materials, energy, water, pollution, indoor envi- low flow aerators. ronmental quality and building site [7]. Credits • Replace common area lighting with com- derived from meeting criteria within the pact fluorescents. schemes determine the level of certification that a building receives. For example the Retrofit Details LEED scheme offers four different levels of In the spring of 2003 the boiler and windows certification that range from certified, silver, were replaced. The single glazed windows were gold, and platinum, while Green Star uses a replaced with low emission double glazed win- five star award system which requires more dows and took under two weeks to complete. than three stars to have formal certification. The boiler swap took three weeks to complete. Although all these schemes are performance- In the summer of 2003 the attic, which previ- based credit rating assessment schemes, they ously had no insulation, was insulated and took vastly differ in assessment method, scope and one week to finish. In November 2006, all toi- criteria. lets were replaced with low flush models while faucets and showerheads were replaced with Broadview Avenue Retrofit low flow aerators. This project was completed Upper Broadview Suites is located in Toronto, in within one week. In February 2006, all Canada and was built in 1930. The building is common area lighting was replaced. This re- home to a four story 32 unit rental property. sulted in removing all existing F40-T12 fluo- Two locals purchased the building in 2002, rescent bulbs and replacing them with 13W aware that there had been no major retrofits compact fluorescents. This resulted in re- done to the property since it was originally placement of 192 existing fixtures. constructed. The owners noted that everything was functional but the building itself was not Cost Savings operating efficiently. The building needed a The retrofit projects that were carried out on number of improvements to the envelope and this property resulted in annual savings of the mechanical system. The high maintenance CAD 14 000 (EUR 10 288). The total cost of costs and regular breakdowns inspired building the retrofit was CAD 74 200 (EUR 54 531), owners to make improvements to the property. which were slightly above the owners estimated Since the building was over 70 years old the costs of CAD 71 500 (EUR 52 544). The pay- owners were able to identify a number of areas back period for the entire project was just un- that would conserve energy and add value to der six years.

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The most costly measure was reducing natural while the remaining savings came from insulat- gas use. The projects that were completed to ing the attic. The replacement of toilets and reduce natural gas use included replacing boiler showerheads with the addition of aerators re- controls, replacing all the windows and insulat- sulted in a 50% reduction in water use. The ing the attic. The total costs of these measures retrofit of replacing existing light fixtures in the were CAD 65 000 (EUR 47 775) and had a common areas with compact fluorescents re- payback period of six years. sulted in a 86% reduction in electricity consumption. In order to reduce electricity consumption all common area lights were replaced which had a In addition to reducing utility bills, reducing total cost of CAD 3 200 (EUR 2 352). The number of breakdowns and increasing comfort payback period was just over one year. for tenants, the process of retrofitting this

building also helps avoid CO2 emissions. The Lastly measures to reduce water consumption total amount of annual CO2 reduction from included replacement of all toilets, shower- this retrofit was estimated to be 48 tonnes. The heads and the addition of aerators. At the time natural gas savings resulted in a reduction of 40 of the retrofit there was an incentive pro- tonnes of CO2, water savings resulted in a half gramme for replacement of old toilets, The tonne reduction and electricity savings resulted City of Toronto’s Water Saver Program, which in seven tonnes of CO2 avoidance as seen in provided a rebate of CAD 125 (EUR 92) for the figure below. each toilet. The total cost was CAD 6 000 (EUR 4 410) with a payback period of just over Looking Forward one and a half years. In many countries around the world there are Efficiency several old buildings that are highly inefficient. There is not a single solution that can be ap- The upgrades to the building essentially cov- plied to all buildings to make them more effi- ered three areas where performance was lack- cient as each building is a separate case with ing which resulted in high utility bills. These unique issues. General barriers that can be as- areas were natural gas, water and electricity. sociated with old buildings and owners is insuf- The process of replacing windows, insulating ficient capital to implement retrofit projects the attic and replacing boiler controls resulted and extended payback periods. in a reduction of natural gas use from 50 000 m3 in 2002 to 30 000 m3 in 2007. The majority of the 87.5% energy savings came from chang- Upper Broadview Suites is a prime example ing the boiler controls and replacing widows showing how implementing retrofit projects can greatly reduce costs, reduce CO2 emissions and add long-term value to an investment. Many of the projects implemented in this re- 15% trofit had payback periods within one year that

1% resulted in efficiency gains up to 86%. On top Natural Gas Saving of efficiency gains, owners and tenants noted Measures Water Saving Measures that the building was much more quiet and

Electricity Saving comfortable to live in. Measures

84% Impact of resource saving measures on CO2 emissions [8].

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There are many global companies specialising [4] Feist, W., Peper, S. Kah, O. & von Oesen, K. in retrofitting, providing a vast array of services (2005). Climate neutral passive house estate in Hannover- Kronsberg: construction and measurement results. CEP that can help homeowners decide on imple- HEUS. Prokilma, Stadwerke Hannover. menting retrofit projects to their properties. To begin with, a simple energy audit can help iden- [5] Boqvist, A., Claeson-Jonsson, C. & Thelanderrsson, tify problematic areas. Once these areas are S. (2010). Passive house construction—what is the identified, owners can discuss with contractors difference compared to traditional construction? The Open Construction and Building Technology Journal., different options that best suit their financial 4, 9-16. situation. [6] City of Melbourne. (2011). 1200 Buildings. What is a Conclusion building retrofit? Retrieved from: http://www. melbourne.vic.gov.au/1200buildings/what/Pages/Wha Both case studies display the energy efficiency tIsRetrofit.aspx. potential for buildings and the practicality and [7] Roderick, Y., McEwan, D., Wheatley, C., & Alonso, applicability of implementing energy-efficient C. (2009). Comparison of energy performance assessment be- design. The passive housing and retrofit cases tween LEED, BREEAM and Green Star. Building prove that proper planning and careful consid- Simulation. Eleventh International IBPSA Confe- eration of project details are essential for a suc- rence. Retrieved from: cessful project. Retrofitting and constructing http://www.greenbuildingcommunity.com/print_ar ticle.php?cpfeatureid=45346. passive homes are by no means a cheap alter-

native, yet both are cases where investments do [8] Towerwise. (2011). Toronto atmospheric fund. pay off compared to conventional counter- Energy retrofit case studies. Retrieved from: parts. As energy prices rise these energy effi- http://www.towerwise.ca/case_studies. cient building alternatives will become com- “Passive House Bornholm” Photo by Jordan Hayes, monplace, not only due to energy savings, but taken on November 27, 2011 in Bornholm, Denmark. also for the lasting value of efficiency investments and their ability to connect with infrastructure of the future.

References [1] Huovila, P. (2007). Buildings and climate change: Status, challenges and opportunities. United Nations Environ- ment Programme. Sustainable Building and Con- struction Initiative.

[2] Mayer, A., & Ghiran, A. (2011). EU Public-sector experiences with building efficiency: Exploring barriers to performance contracting and deep energy retrofits. Institute for Building Efficiency. Retrieved from: http://www.institutebe.com/InstituteBE/media/Li brary/Resources/Existing%20Building%20Retrofits /IB_EU-EPC_r2.pdf.

[3] Energy Performance Contracting (EPC) Watch. 2011. Watching the world of energy performance contracting. Retrieved from: http://energyperformancecontracting.org/index.ht ml.

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CLEANTECH CLUSTERS ANALYSIS Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster and Sustainable Business Hub in Malmö

By Peter Kiryushin

ntegration of cleantech companies into the with the provision of better performance at IØresund Energy is beneficial for several rea- lower cost, including promotion of productive sons. It can contribute to the achievement of and responsible use of natural resources. Many better practical outcomes, increase the efficien- cleantech solutions are energy-related and rele- cy of collaborations between project stakehold- vant to energy development of Øresund Re- ers and help to include new solutions. To dem- gion [1]. onstrate these benefits results of two cleantech centres analysis are presented in this paper: Cleantech Involvement Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster (CCC) and Sus- One of the purposes of Øresund Energy tainable Business Hub (SBH) in Malmö. project is to support achievement of regional Cleantech is an abbreviation that stands for and municipal energy goals. Examples of such “clean technologies” and refers to energy and goals are presented in the table below. Because environment-related technologies developed these goals are quite ambitious, effective coop- with the objective of reducing harmful effects eration with business will be essential. Clean- on the environment. Cleantech also associates tech companies possess knowledge, experience

Energy targets in the Øresund region (own compilation). AREA 2015 2020 2025 2050 Denmark -30% GHG* 100% RES Hovedstaden 50% RES København carbon-neutral Albertslund -25% GHG Ballerup 25% RES Sweden 50% RES, Skåne -30% GHG* Malmö 100% RES Lund -50% GHG* Kristianstad -20% GHG*

XX% GHG refers to XX% decrease greenhouse gases emissions. YY% RES stands for achieving YY% share of renewables in energy supply. * Сompared to 1990 level.

CLEANTECH CLUSTERS ANALYSIS 95 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

and technology, which can help. Although transition and become a green growth econo- different solutions might be already imple- my entirely independent of fossil fuels by mented on the local level within the Øresund 2050” [3]. Cleantech has been the fastest- Region, large-scale implementation can provide growing sector of the country exports for the region-wide effect. 2008-2010 period and exports of clean tech-

The integration of cleantech companies from nologies are expected to quadruple by the year Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster and Sustainable 2015 [4]. Energy technologies are an important Business Hub in Malmö could as well contri- part of the cleantech development in Denmark bute to the realisation of the Activity Three of - its export increased more than three times the Øresund Energy project: “Idea develop- since 1989. ment and cooperation forum”, which has the Many of cleantech initiatives supported by target of “Strategically energy planning and CCC could be relevant to effective energy de- establishing a cooperation forum to continue velopment for the whole Øresund Region. For the cross border cooperation after Energy Øre- example, Denmark is going to be one of the sund will come to an end”. There are several first countries to promote electric vehicles deliverables, which should result from the (EV) in a large-scale. There are at least two work connected to Activity 3: notable EV-projects, where CCC acts as a partner. The first one is developed by Better • An established regional forum for anal- Place. The company provides electric car net- ysis, collaboration / coordination and works for mass adoption of electric vehicles idea development of energy planning; through an innovative battery switch model. • A conference that addresses the chal- The other one is called EDISON, a multilateral lenges and opportunities associated initiative that promotes smart integration of with strategic energy planning in the re- electric cars in a power system, with the em- gion; and phasis on utilisation of renewable energy and • A strategy for continued cooperation in wind power in particular. each of the thematic areas. Sustainable Business Hub (SBH) in Malmö is a The Clusters non-profit organisation, with the purpose to Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster (CCC) was or- help companies with products and services ganised by Danish cleantech businesses, re- with high environmental profile. To achieve search and public organisations with govern- this SBH develops networks between business- mental support. The mission of CCC is to es, administrations, researchers and NGOs in create continuous growth for existing cleantech order to market sustainable products and ideas. companies, to support and assist development SBH is considered to be a key player in envi- of the new ones and to attract more foreign ronmental business development in southern companies to the region. There are five focus Sweden [5]. areas, where the cluster carries out its activities: Sweden is prominent for its cleantech export test and demonstration, matchmaking, interna- and Skåne is one of the leading regions in this tional outreach, innovation and entrepreneur- field. In 2009 51% of Swedish cleantech export ship and facilitation [2]. was accounted for energy-related technology:

Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster is official agent biofuels, solar, wind, hydro, sustainable build- of cleantech development in Denmark. The ings and energy efficiency. Denmark is in fact country has recently adopted the “State of the 5th largest importer of Swedish environ- Green” concept with the purpose “to lead the

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mental technologies, with the turnover of SEK solution. Moreover they could be used as en- 2.12 billion (EUR 230 million) in 2009 [1]. ergy storage and protect electricity grids from fluctuations. SBH constitutes of companies, including those that could contribute to the energy develop- Multilateral agreements could be one of the ment of the region. For example, SweHeat & instruments for intraregional cooperation. For Cooling, the association of Swedish organisa- instance, Malmö, Lund and Kristianstad mu- tions that develop district heating and district nicipalities, could sign an agreement for bulk cooling products and services. SweHeat & buying of EDISON cars with a discount for Cooling proved to be effective in Skåne and municipal organisation usage. Additionally, could help to achieve better results in Øresund Copenhagen, Albertslund and Ballerup could region. order products and services of SweHeat & Cooling companies under similar conditions. Both clusters represent the platforms for communication and integration with business. Export Opportunities Its managers are experienced in working with Business in both Skåne and Sjælland are inter- different types of stakeholders, not only clean- ested in exporting their clean technologies. tech innovation companies, but R&D organisa- Developing mutual cooperation could also be tion, consulting, incubators, etc. The clusters contribute to these activities. International have connections and brand-name, so their markets for cleantech provides many opportu- participation could help for progress of the nities, driven by the interests of both devel- project. Successful development could make oped economies like the United States and the clusters business gates for the energy de- developing ones like China. In 2007 overall velopment in the Øresund region. volume of investments was 2.75 billion US Opportunities for dollars [6]. The Øresund companies could Business promote themselves under a “Low-Carbon Øresund” umbrella brand. The following three types of opportunities for Clean technologies in Sweden and Denmark cleantech businesses were identified to be inte- are complementary to some degree. Collabora- grated in the project. tion between specialists from both sides could Intraregional Co-operation result in solutions for foreign organisations. The unique situation when two separate states Regions and municipalities have ambitious low- mutually create environment for energy col- carbon development goals that require intro- laboration could be a model for other interre- duction of high-efficient technologies in order gional cooperation within and outside EU. to achieve them. It creates market potential for Cleantech tours for foreign investors, admini- the companies. At the present many of the strations or even interested tourists could be cleantech companies are active on the local organised, so “Low-carbon Øresund” could level and a new market provides opportunities become an international touristic destination. to promote their products in the region. Some Or business exhibitions and conferences could of the municipalities plan to increase the share be organised abroad for the Øresund Region of non-fossil fuel based transport in order to companies and administrations. meet low-carbon development requirements. For example, EDISON cars, a project on New Markets Bornholm island, which utilises electricity pro- Undiscovered market opportunities for clean- duced from wind and biomass could be a good tech companies are available with collaboration

CLEANTECH CLUSTERS ANALYSIS 97 CHAPTER 2: OVERCOMING BARRIERS

with local NGOs, environmental entrepreneurs Inventory of Cleantech and grass-roots initiatives. Nowadays, citizens are becoming more involved in promotion of Companies low-carbon development by realisation of their A screening of the clusters companies show own projects. Examples of such activities are that at least half of the partners of CCC and 25 local wind cooperatives, sustainable university members of SBH promote energy-related ac- initiatives, urban gardening movements. There tivities. Therefore they potentially could be- are a number of cases from of such collabora- come project participants. Their names with tions in New-York, for example [7]. description are presented below where they are Cleantech organisations can establish collabo- grouped under several categories. ration with such stakeholders, provide them Manufacturers and solution providers within with technologies and have the opportunities SBH consist of three international companies for testing and promotion of the production. with Swedish origins whereas others are me- These groups could help companies with ideas dium and small-sized enterprises solely focused for innovations, which is known as open inno- on innovative technologies. ABB is one of the vation approach. According to recent research leading in power and automation technologies, grassroots activities could be helpful for devel- with the purpose to improve energy efficiency oping new ideas and promote innovations [7]. and lower environmental impact. Vestas provides wind energy systems and complementary Forms of Co-operation services. One of the primary area of Alfa-Laval Here are some of the examples of how clean- is heating and cooling processes. A group of tech companies could cooperate: smaller companies include Heatex, which deals with air-to-air heat exchangers, AB that manu- 1. Develop information package about the factures specific groundwater heat pumps and Øresund Energy, web-site and newsletters; Elgocell AB that developed a heat pipe with 2. Select the companies, which are interested extremely thick insulation that has superior and could contribute to the project; properties. Osby Parca produces electric boil- 3. Organize seminars for broad audience: mu- ers, oil/gas boilers and solid fuel boilers for nicipalities, business, researchers, eco- industrial customers and district heating plants. preneurs; Multichannel is manufacturers of brazed plate heat exchangers. Ripasso CSP system devel- 4. Organize special workshops: best practices oped an innovative technology for utilisation on district heating, wind energy solutions, of solar energy, combining stirling power con- biofuels; verter with a parabolic mirror. 5. Develop cleantech tours, knowhow classes There are three representatives in this category for the broad audience, trainings to promote from CCC. First one is Confederation of Dan- entrepreneurship; ish Industry that is responsible for market- 6. Promote of Øresund Energy. Promotion in related activities in the cluster, including Ex- the media, on public events, in social net- port promotion and market fact finding, build- works; and ing knowledge of international markets, fact 7. Organize conference and cooperation fo- finding tours, building international partner- rum for future development. ship. Novozymes is the world leader in bioin- novation organisation, including biofuel pro-

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ductions. Siemens in Denmark is a part of the Laboratory for Sustainable Energy at the international Siemens Group. Technical University of Denmark, University of Copenhagen and Aalborg University. Service providers in SBH are next. E.ON Sverige, one of the world largest energy ser- Krinova’s Science Park is the large venture vices provider, E.ON Sverige has large area of mutually owned by Municipality of Kristianstad activities including traditional areas as well as and Kristianstad University. Handelskammaren climate and renewables. Schneider Electric (Chamber of Commerce) is a private enter- supplies a wide range of technologies and solu- prise, which supports business development in tions for energy usage and optimization in en- the southern Sweden. The mission of the TEM ergy, infrastructure and industry sectors. Cata- Foundation is to help companies and other tor develops high-tech catalysis and a custom- organisations develop sustainability issues. ised catalytic process for improvement of emis- Minc promotes entrepreneurship of network- sion problems and energy saving. Thermofloc based environment, and developing platform support services for cellulose insulation and multilateral meetings. Hügoth Business Advi- complex structures in all buildings insulation sory is focusing on generation of the grounds attics, sloping ceiling, walls and floors. BioSep for successful international business agree- provides food waste treatment systems, that ments. Information Rapidus is a news service allows to convert organic waste into “green company, which covers the development of energy”. Energy Opticon is a software devel- industries in Sealand and Scania. oper for load and optimization forecasting for CCC is represented by Scion DTU, providing energy-related organisations. Malmberg devel- access to facilities, services, consultancy and ops biogas and geothermal energy solutions. networks of the 180 research-based companies, Sysav is a large waste-management company, Symbion which consists of four science parks, which also recovers waste in the form of en- services facility and hosts more than 90 high ergy. Lunds Energi deals with electricity and tech companies. Business Link Startvækst is a district heating in Lund and Lomma. DONG portal for entrepreneurs and growth busi- Energy is one representative organisation from nesses. Copenhagen Capacity is an official in- CCC in this category. It is the leading energy ward investment agency and maintaining for- group in Northern Europe with business is eign companies it promotes the region interna- based on procuring, producing, distributing tionally. and trading in energy and related products. Another group consists of technical and busi- Conclusion ness cleantech consultants: The ÅF Group is a Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster and Sustainable leading in technical consulting, BioMil AB is a Business Hub can contribute to the energy consultancy company engaged in sustainable development of the Øresund region and solutions for biogas and the environment. En- achievement of the project goals. These clus- erChem AB works with biogas and environ- ters have the capacity to become business driv- mental solutions. WSP Consultancy promotes ers for the energy development in the region. solutions on energy supply, clean energy pro- There is a sufficient number of cleantech com- duction and climate change. panies, which could also benefit from collabo- SBH is represented in the Research and NGO ration. This may include benefits from promo- caterogy by IIIEE, Malmö University, Global tion of products within the region and over- Energy Transformation Institute and Sustain- sees, organising joint ventures and cooperation able Mobility Skåne. CCC is represented by with grass-roots initiatives. The Copenhagen Resource Institute, National

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References [1] Swedish Energy Agency. (2010). Swedish Cleantech opportunities. A market overview from the Swed- ish Energy Agency. Intellecta Publicisterna, Eskilstuna, Sweden. [2] Copenhagen Cleantech Cluster. (2011). Copenha- gen Cleantech Cluster web-site. About Us. Re- trieved December 10, 2011, from http://www.cphcleantech.com/about-ccc [3] State of Green. (2011) Join the Future. Think Denmark. Retrieved December 10, 2011, from http://www.stateofgreen.com/ [4] Invest in Denmark. (2010). Denmark – a global cleantech hot spot. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark. Retrieved December 10, 2011 http://www.investindk.com [5] Sustainable Business Hub. (2011). Sustainable Business Hub. - about us. Retrieved December 10, 2011 http://www.sbhub.se/ [6] Cleantech Group. (2008). Cleantech investments reach new apex of $5.18 billion over 2007 and sixth consecutive year of growth. News release. [7] Horwitch, M. and Mulloth, B. (2008). The inter- linking of entrepreneurs, grassroots movements, public policy and hubs of innovation: The rise of cleantech in New York City. Journal of High Technology Management Research 21 (2010): 23- 30. Photo of the Rubik's Cube at Bornholm, by Tristan Nitot, was taken on September 2, 2006 using a Canon EOS 20D. It is licensed under Creative Commons 2.0. URL: http://www.flickr.com/photos/nitot/262351090/sizes/ l/in/photostream/

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THE BORNHOLM EXPERIENCE A Case Study of the Energy Strategy & Systems on Bornholm Island

By Veronica Andronache, Lea Baumbach, Sarah Czunyi, Tom Figel, Filipe Firpo, Jordan Hayes, Peter Kiryushin, Mauricio Lopez, Adrian Mill, Ian Ross, Stefan Sipka, Charlotte Luka, Mary Ellen Smith, Logan Strenchock, Meiling Su, Allison Witter & Ouyang Xin

ue to its geographic distance from the components. In order to phase out the use of D Danish mainland, the island of Bornholm fossil fuels and achieve a carbon-neutral soci- is easily overlooked. As a major tourist destina- ety, Bornholm aims to make its energy supply tion during the summer months of July and independent and more sustainable through the August, the island’s economy relies heavily on use of local renewable resources [1]. the tourism sector, yet historically has lacked Bornholm is an ideal place to test these innova- other economic sectors that could provide the tions because of its capacity to exemplify a majority of residents with an income during the closed energy system and its relatively high rest of the year. As a consequence, the island share of renewables compared with the rest of has faced the challenge of population decline Denmark [2]. To kick-start the process of for decades. Many young people have moved changing its energy system, Bornholm con- to the mainland, while at the same time it has ducted an initial assessment of its energy con- proven difficult to attract new residents to the sumption as part of the European project island. The overall population of Bornholm is “Transplan” (Transparent Energy Planning and predicted to shrink further in the coming years. Implementation). This resulted in an energy To counteract these challenges, the Danish balance sheet for 2005 that provided an over- government incorporated a Regional Growth view of energy potential and demand. Starting Forum on Bornholm in 2006. This Forum em- from this assessment, two scenarios for the ployed an enterprise ambassador with the task year 2025 were drawn: a “Business-as-Usual” to develop a growth strategy for the island. scenario and a “Vision-Achieved” scenario [3]. This strategy, named “The Path to an Even Bornholm’s Energy Strategy 2025 is based on More Sustainable Bornholm”, has been devel- the latter. oped under the EU-financed B7 political- The following sections provide more in-depth action group, an international collaborative information on the key aspects and implemen- framework involving seven islands in the Baltic tation areas of the Bornholm Energy Strategy. Sea, including Bornholm. The strategy fol- The first section highlights some of the key lowed an assessment of the island, both of its strategic challenges and opportunities in striv- challenges and opportunities, which identified a ing for an ambitious green energy future. The major untapped resource on Bornholm: wind second section covers smart grids and how power. From this discovery, a new branding of they have been implemented on the island. the island was conceived: Bornholm – the Following this, the increasing energy efficiency “Bright Green Island” – is to become a global of buildings is addressed. Finally, the use of model in sustainable societies, of which clean biomass as an energy source is examined. energy sources and infrastructure are major

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Energy Strategy 3) More electricity from more wind turbines; 4) More biogas; Bornholm’s Energy Strategy aims not only to 5) More electric cars; secure affordable energy for the island’s resi- 6) More local biofuel sources (deemed dents in the future, but also to revitalise Born- “BornBioFuel”); holm’s green image and to contribute to local 7) Bioethanol for transport; employment using only economically viable 8) Electricity savings; technologies. Its ultimate goal is to render the 9) Reduced heating bills; island carbon-neutral by 2025. 10) Improved information and consultancy; An important challenge in Bornholm’s Energy and Strategy is to move away from imported fossil 11) More co-ordination and co-operation. fuels, which are currently still used in the Bornholm’s energy strategy envisions using the Østkraft power utility and indirectly (through island as an in-site experience field where in- purchase of heat) by the Rønne Vand og ternational enterprises are encouraged to de- Varme heat and water utility, as well as by sea, velop new technologies along with leading vehicle, and air traffic. Bornholm’s energy vi- knowledge institutions. The strategy is used as sion combines plans for reducing energy con- a branding tool for the island of Bornholm, sumption with measures for rendering energy with a defined target group of new residents, production more environmentally friendly. entrepreneurs, tourists, knowledge pioneers, and business tourists [4]. The 2025 Energy Strategy It can be seen from the above that a main way The vision of the strategy is stated as follows: that these goals will be achieved is through the “Bornholm is a carbon-neutral community development and use of renewable energy based on sustainable and renewable energy by sources. A high share of production and con- 2025” [1]. This vision aims at the following sumption from renewables is already observed achievements: on the island. In 2011, more than 60% of • To improve the security of supply; power produced and more than 40% of power consumed on Bornholm was sourced from • To contribute to local employment and value creation; renewables. This is a marked improvement from 2005, when renewables constituted just • To reduce Bornholm’s dependence on fos- over 25% of the overall energy production and sil fuels; consumption. For the 2025 vision, the share of • To minimise carbon emissions generated renewables in the energy mix is intended to be by the Bornholm community; and almost 75%. The biggest contributor to this • To reinforce the island’s green image. goal is to be wind power, which is meant to Correspondent to this overall vision, the strat- increase from 3% in 2005 to 22% in the envi- egy bridges the gap between the island’s green sioned 2025 scenario. growth aspirations and the Danish government’s climate change commitments, under the Implementation following twelve proposed action areas [1]: Since the publication of the Energy Strategy, 1) More and cleaner district heating in towns numerous projects have been launched. These and villages; projects are based on collaborations between 2) More renewable energy used outside of local and external companies and the Born- district heating areas; holm Business Centre. To encourage invest-

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ment in projects, the Centre adopted an ap- efforts to improve education of and special proach whereby international companies are training for local carpenters with respect to the invited to try out and showcase their technolo- construction of passive houses. gies on the island, thus forwarding their tech- A focus more co-ordination and co-operation nological know-how to the local population under Action 11 has also been implemented. In while at the same time contributing to the goal 2011 alone, around 40 groups visited the island of becoming carbon-neutral. in order to take part in “energy tours”, with the During a study visit to Bornholm, the research aim of learning more about the comprehensive team noted several implementation achieve- energy system on Bornholm. These tours in- ments that fit into the aforementioned pro- tend to create an international communication posed action areas. For example, the use of platform and to attract new business partners. biomass from straw and woodchips as a main They also help to raise off-season tourist in- fuel for Bornholm’s district heating systems fits come for local residents. In addition to these within Action 1 (cleaner district heating). tours, the Bornholm Business Centre directly approaches embassies in countries with poten- Work within Action 2 (more renewable ener- tial partners who would like to try out new gies) and Action 3 (more electricity from wind technologies. Engineers from Bornholm also turbines) is evidenced by Bornholm having travel regularly to spread and share technology, successfully increased its share of renewable knowledge, and concepts with the outside energy sources during recent years. This in- world and to bring new business opportunities cludes not only offshore wind power but also back to Bornholm [5]. photovoltaics and biomass. Bornholm is also conducting drill tests of potential geothermal Supporting Structure energy supply. An eco-grid project has been launched, with 2 000 participants developing a A wide range of political and private actors, new energy trading market. organisations, and programmes were involved in the development of the Bornholm Energy The import of electric vehicles (EV) from Strategy. The process was led by the Bornholm Hong Kong for testing on the island fits within Business Centre, which was initially headed by Action 5 (electric cars). Both tourists and resi- Lene Grønning. The Danish government has dents can use the cars for a limited period of offered support by providing EUR 2 million to time and provide feedback on the technology. the Centre through Bornholm’s Regional This has created a new business model on Growth Forum, a guiding council of 20 per- Bornholm, while helping the EV manufacturer sonalities from politics and business [2]. to collect data and information about its product. A result has been the EDISON project, Projects are only fostered when they can be which combines EVs with smart grids. proven to be economically viable. To date, 18 project managers associated with the Business The Green Solution House is an important Centre are financed through the cooperation infrastructure project to be realised in the com- with private companies [4]. As there is no local ing years on Bornholm that is relevant to Ac- university, external research institutions con- tion 9 (reduced heating bills). It is based on the tribute information and knowledge to Born- cradle-to-cradle concept of a closed loop sys- holm’s strategy. An important driving force for tem, as well as adopting new international the preliminary research and benchmarking of products and using a decentralized mix of en- energy consumption in comparison to other ergy from wind, solar, and ground heat islands was the Transplan project (2007-2010) sources. Also relevant to Action 9 have been mentioned above [3].

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Smart Grids savings that they offer, as shown in the figure below. Advancements in renewable energy-based elec- Expansion of wind power is one of the key tricity production bring challenges regarding actions proposed under Bornholm’s 2025 En- the relationship between energy supply and ergy Strategy. In 2011, 12 wind turbines were demand. Renewables are often subject to daily under operation by Østkraft, the local power and seasonal variations in energy production, utility [6]. Total installed wind power capacity such as occurs with solar and wind energy pro- on the island is approximately 31 MW from 40 duction. Consequently, there is a risk of diver- wind turbines [4]. The goal for 2025 is 90 MW gence between peak rates of supply and de- (15 MW land-based and 75 MW sea-based), mand, potentially resulting in blackouts or sim- representing a total production of 294 GWh ply inefficient use of resources. and a saving of 33 000 tonnes of carbon emis- In order to respond to this new challenge, the sions [1]. To achieve this vision, the local concept of a “smart grid” was introduced. transmission grid is to be further developed, Smart grids aim to connect electricity con- while more focus will be placed on implement- sumption with production by using informa- ing policies for land-based wind turbine devel- tion technology systems that automatically bal- opment and improving dialogues between the ance energy supply and demand. Furthermore, key players on the island [1]. consumers receive price signals based on the prevailing energy conditions. As a result, con- Current Smart Grid Projects sumers can time their energy use or program There are several projects in Bornholm related their electrical appliances to use electricity only to smart grid development [4], some of which when the electricity supply is high and prices are briefly outlined here. Bornholm has ac- are low. Adjusting consumption according to cepted to participate as a unique smart grid price would lead to further balancing of elec- island laboratory within the EU-funded Eco- tricity supply and demand. Smart grids are Grid Project. The aim is to equip 2 000 small gaining popularity due to the potential cost households and businesses with remotely-read

Projected increase of financial savings in Denmark due to improved smart grid penetration [3].

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meters that provide information on electricity process. Co-operation between partners and supply, demand, and price. These advanced the integration of their work has been funda- meters would enable consumers to regulate mental for the success of the project. Funding their consumption according to price signals, has been allocated by Energinet.dk and other thus adjusting the energy consumption to partners include Østkraft, the Technological match production in the grid. Research will University of Denmark, Risø National Labora- also include issues such as data management, tory, DONG, IBM, Siemens, and the Danish reliability, and security. The testing phase of Energy Association [10]. this project is due to end in 2015 [7,8]. Each partner contributes to a fundamental In addition, Demand as Frequency Controlled project component according to its expertise. Reserve (DFR) is an ongoing two-year project Siemens, for example, is focusing on the devel- that aims to test the possibility of automatically opment of battery replacement systems and switching off electrical appliances when the fast charging technology. Fast charging has grid frequency drops, hence allowing for the been achieved by increasing the voltage and energy system to recover. This shutdown current used during charging via plugs already would last for a short time of a few minutes. available in most households in Europe [11]. Currently, around 200 energy consumers have IBM Denmark and IBM Research-Zurich are been involved in the trial. However, further responsible for developing synchronization research is needed into how to implement such technology for the charge and potential dis- measures for keeping the grid stable while at charge of the vehicles according to the avail- the same time meeting consumer needs [7,8]. ability of wind-generated electricity [12]. This Lastly, information and education of future technology balances electricity supply and de- power consumers is an ongoing priority for mand by distributing car charging times evenly. smart grid development. This priority area in- When available electricity from wind turbines is cludes the development of public campaigns to higher, cars can be charged accordingly, and inform consumers about energy market dy- when available wind energy is low, cars can namics such as price fluctuations [8]. discharge and contribute to the grid, thereby allowing the customer to be compensated for The EDISON Project providing energy to the grid. Although con- A unique experiment into the use of novel en- sumers could charge their vehicles at any given ergy storage solutions is embodied in the time without restrictions, a higher cost would EDISON (Electric vehicles in a Distributed be charged during expensive peak hours [13]. and Integrated market using Sustainable energy Results from the EDISON testing phase dem- and Open Networks) project. This project in- onstrate the great potential for these technolo- volves the testing of EVs, charging stations, gies as well as the interoperability between EV and intelligent battery charging controls in infrastructures from different operators [14]. Bornholm during 2011, with aim of investigat- Overall, he new identity of Bornholm as a “test ing the possibility of combining these tech- island” is embodied in the crosscutting work nologies [9]. If successful, such technology being conducted on smart grid technologies. could provide a solution to even the imbal- With greater experience in this area, it is ex- ances between electricity supply and demand pected that Bornholm can not only enhance while reducing fossil fuel consumption. the viability of its renewable energy supply to The project involves the integration of strategic meet the energy demands of the population, partnerships in the development and testing but also export the knowledge gained to help others implement similar smart grid systems.

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Energy Efficient Buildings Remodelling and renovation projects have great potential on the island, where old housing The proliferation of energy efficiency measures infrastructure would greatly benefit from the in residential buildings has been prioritised in reduced utility bills and improved living envi- Denmark’s national building standards. 40% of ronment delivered by such updates. The reduc- Danish energy demand is for residential heat- tion in greenhouse gas emissions from the ing, and progressive standards encourage a housing block resulting from widespread retro- smooth transition to less intensive dwellings fitting would bring Bornholm closer to reach- [15]. Building codes that regulate energy con- ing its ambitious environmental targets. Born- sumption have been used since the 1960’s, with holm’s construction sector has the capacity to multiple updates occurring per decade [16]. undertake projects at a high rate, as currently, Denmark has created a certification system that 80 out of 500 domestic construction workers classifies buildings based on level of decreased have received the highest level of Green Build- energy demand compared to the minimum ing supplementary training in Denmark, with requirements for similar structures [17]. This more expected in the future [19]. Realistically classification system, combined with incentives the widespread instigation of such projects for improved energy efficiency, has helped would need to be encouraged with supporting Denmark increase efficiency in buildings by policy in the form of rebates and subsidies for 15% in the past two decades [18]. housing updates, along with an aggressive ad- vertising campaign touting the economic and Energy Efficiency in Bornholm environmental benefits of retrofitting. Bornholm made the strategic decision to become a leader in energy efficient housing de- Passive Houses sign. The propagation of homes that require A company in Bornholm supporting energy less energy for heating, cooling, and operation efficient visions is Steenbergs Tegnestue. Ar- is also in line with the island’s target of reduc- chitectural engineers in Steenbergs Tegnestue ing heat consumption by 10% by 2025 [19]. have focused on energy efficient building de- Bornholm has also taken aggressive measures sign for the past 20 years. Their business model to re-educate construction labourers on the made an aggressive shift in focus to include most advanced energy efficiency technologies energy efficiency measures in homes after re- in construction. They have committed to this sponding to the sharp increase in fuel prices in knowledge transfer by establishing a construc- Denmark in the 1990s. The company has de- tion education centre with the goal of mobiliz- veloped a prefabricated house design that ing a highly skilled working class. Their strategy complies with Denmark’s 2015 targets for Low is to produce an educated workforce well Energy Buildings. The design uses principles versed in advanced energy efficiency construc- established in German passive house standards tion, along with the technical knowledge re- that limit the total input energy required for quired to retrofit Denmark’s existing building heating, cooling, and ventilation per area of footprint, of which 93% has been identified as heated surface [20]. Steenbergs has developed a requiring renovation [19]. Bornholm expects prefabricated model that delivers superior en- this centre to produce a workforce with a dif- ergy performance, while focusing on aesthetics, ferentiated skill set that would be lucrative in functionality, craftsmanship, and economy. mainland Denmark, where energy efficient The results of the firm’s efforts are exemplified building capacity is limited [19]. in a house design that exceeds Denmark’s standards for building performance, while

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complying with Bornholm’s targets to reduce for decades [15]. This project has been de- energy demand from its housing infrastructure. signed as a promotional model of the revolu- Although this design exists, the company has tionary technology that will be featured in en- not yet been able to sell their model to an in- ergy efficient design in the future. terested buyer. Their ingenuity has faced the reality of today’s housing market, and Born- Smart Grids & Smarter Houses holm’s strategic dilemma: encouraging the pur- As already mentioned, Bornholm has placed chase of new homes in a stagnated market, itself in a position to be a demonstration site while also encouraging a population influx for smart grid technology. The isolated test within an isolated island region. This dilemma network made possible by Bornholm’s unique will continue to challenge the island of Born- island setting has made it more attractive as a holm’s ambitious efforts to establish itself as a test ground for state-of-the-art grid technology. “Bright Green Island,” along with its domestic The premise behind such systems is to readjust companies’ endeavours to expand their eco- consumption patterns in households to com- conscious businesses. pensate for the fluctuations in energy supply that are a natural occurrence within renewable An Example: “Green Solutions” energy systems. A necessary inclusion in any Conference Centre smart grid system would be a network of living A major example of Bornholm’s commitment spaces that could “communicate” and “react” to resource-efficient buildings is the planned to energy delivery systems, by means of intelli- construction of the Green Solutions Confer- gent appliances, and heating and cooling sys- ence Centre. Along with a conference centre, tems. This enhanced communication network the site will include a hotel, science centre and would be accompanied by a dynamic energy apartments. The construction is being overseen pricing regime that would encourage more by William McDonough and his design team. balanced and, therefore, more economic con- McDonough is the creator of the cradle-to- sumption of electricity. cradle concept, meaning that all aspects of the To facilitate this process, a shorter time-based building are recyclable and do not contribute to regulation of the electricity market is suggested. negative environmental impacts [15]. Within this context, electricity prices would be The building site of 7 184 square metres plans regulated more frequently (five minutes inter- to be one of the largest structures designed vals) and a dynamic grid tariff responding to according to cradle-to-cradle principles. The current load would be established. This would development, located in Rønne, is expected to allow smaller renewable energy production cost DKK 150 million, not including land ac- units to be able to participate in the greater quisition as the property was donated [19]. The market (the entire smart grid) directly. As a site is projected to be energy independent, by result, consumer demand would be influenced utilizing solar panels, windmills, and geother- to produce a balanced load and demand rela- mal energy [15]. Natural lighting will be fea- tionship, due to higher consumption costs dur- tured heavily in the design. This concept moves ing peak demand hours. Behavioural change beyond energy efficiency, as it hopes to grow would be probable, made possible by house- food, treat its own water, and provide a habitat hold appliance redesign to acknowledge the for endangered species [15]. As many of the changes in energy pricing. A pricing mecha- technologies proposed for this site are not nism of this type would direct appliances to available, the building will be continually up- participate in the smart grid directly, which dated and not boast full cradle-to-cradle status would help to save energy, bring balance to the

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system, and lead to more economical con- increasingly as a biofuel. The primary sources sumption patterns. of biomass on the island are straw, woodchips, agricultural wastes, and animal manure. Ac- The output of this concept is personified in the cording to the Energy Strategy, it is envisioned “Smart Home” model. While the concept is that by 2025 straw, fertiliser, and organic mostly theoretical at present, the technology is household waste will represent 8%, 6%, and developing at a fast enough rate to transfer 5% of the island’s energy balance, respectively ideas into functional test implementations [1]. The two major biomass operations on within homes. Bornholm has already tested this Bornholm – district heating and biogas electric- process with experimental automated houses ity generation – are described below. and businesses. Automated houses are able to adjust the use of energy according to different District Heating electricity price signals received. Bornholm’s 2007 Heating Plan aims to eventu- The buildings are controlled by automated ally supply 60% of all houses with district heat- centres in a community or within individual ing generated primarily from local resources, households. The automation centre controls such as straw and wood. Because local sources flexible loads in the house by switching off or will be insufficient to cover all villages, addi- turning on different appliances when prices are tional heat will be gained from solar heating high or low. Automated houses are highly pos- systems and imported wood chips. An example sible with the backbone of a robust grid sys- of how Bornholm has approached district heat- tem. Bornholm will continue to test this ex- ing is embodied in a recently completed plant perimental system, with the hopes of develop- in Aakirkeby. ing a stable network model that could be trans- ferable to other locations. The Aakirkeby district heating plant is operated with woodchips derived mainly from surplus Biomass for Energy wood felled through management of the island’s coniferous forests (around 75% of total As a supplementation to Smart Home technol- inputs) as well as surplus sawmill wood ogy, the type and form of energy supplied is (around 25% of inputs). Additional woody equally as important. The use of biomass has mass (e.g. holiday trees) may also be burned at been identified in the various action areas of the plant. However, wood scrap such as old Bornholm’s Energy Strategy. Presently, bio- furniture is not suitable to be burned at the mass on the island is used for the production plant, and is instead incinerated along with of biogas to fuel combined heat and power other waste. plants, as a feedstock for district heating, and Having started operations in March 2011, the plant currently provides heating to approximately 1 300 households, as well to schools and small-scale industry in the vicinity, therewith replacing a large number of individual oil burning stoves. Owned by the municipality, the plant is operated in the manner of a private business and was built with special

Woody biomass storage at the Aakirkeby District Heating Plant on Bornholm.

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loans under 25 years payback period with a produced at straw plants as agricultural fertil- 2.8% fixed interest rate. Construction of the izer, disposal in special landfills is necessary plant and the corresponding distribution sys- when the cadmium content is in excess of tem (i.e. pipes and household radiators) took permissible levels. around three years. Each household paid DKK 15 000, approximately Euro 2 000, for Biokraft Biogas Plant the initial connection, which was subsidised by Bornholm’s Biokraft plant in Aakirkeby is the company, and are to pay another owned by the energy company Østkraft A/S, a DKK 15 000 in heating costs each year. part municipal and private owned joint enter- The 8 MW plant burns 30 tonnes of wood per prise. The 2 MW plant creates energy from day. The ovens are engineered to burn wet biomass, such as animal manure and organic woody mass, so no pre-drying is required. Ac- waste. The biomass is mixed in three reactors, cording to the operators, the plant was built in thus generating biogas, which is then converted order to usefully employ leftovers from for- into electricity and district heating. Farmers estry operations on the island, and its location may use the degassed slurry as fertiliser. selected to serve the approximately 1 300 fami- In full operation, the plant could process over lies in the surrounding area. The plant has no 40% of Bornholm’s slurry and could produce specific sustainability requirements for wood 48 MWh of electricity per day. At the moment, sourcing, and it is uncertain whether or not the however, the operators have trouble sourcing operator’s suppliers have any either. It would sufficient organic waste and manure, and thus be interesting to see if any efficiency gains the plant only produces 25-30 MWh/day. Ide- could be made by additionally producing elec- ally, the fuel input would include a mixture of tricity, and not just heat, at the plant. 25% separated and organic waste, and not ex- In addition to this plant, three straw-fired dis- ceed 35%. While waste from fishing and trict heating plants of a similar scale also exist chicken slaughter was previously available, the on Bornholm, with the construction of a island’s fishing industry has largely collapsed fourth one currently in progress. Such plants and leftovers from local chicken farms are now require more complicated burning procedures, fed to minks, which are bred on Bornholm for yet straw is cheaper than wood as an input their fur. The waste from local breweries is biomass. While it is possible to use the ash sold to pig farms, while that from cheese production is fed to cows, creating a fierce competition for organic waste. This sourcing problem is aggravated, in that organic household waste is not collected separately on Bornholm (creating a potential source of future fuel input if legislation changes). In addition, Danish waste regulation has emphasized waste liberalization, making it more profitable for waste to be transported off the island and incinerated else- where. As such, corn silage is presently used as the organic addition to the biogas plant. This in itself constitutes a controversial choice, given the potential for corn to be used in food pro-

Scrubber and biogas reactors at Biokraft, Aakirkeby.

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duction as a feedstock for cows. Overall, how- Biomass: A Partial Solution? ever, a stable supply of a consistent type of Biomass plays an important role in the energy organic biomass is required to keep the plant strategy of Bornholm, contributing to the de- operating efficiently; frequent changes to the velopment of district heating, biofuels, a type of biomass fed into the reactor can be cleaner electricity grid, and opportunities for problematic, as the microorganisms need time industrial symbiosis with other sectors on the to adjust to new types of feeds. island. However, Bornholm faces constraints in These sourcing deficits, which currently force finding dependable biomass fuel inputs, which the plant to run below capacity, were unfortu- will limit the island’s biomass capacity in the nately not uncovered in the feasibility study for future. the plant. In fact, some have said that the plant As a result, the island is taking steps to avoid was actually built primarily for political reasons. dependency on any single fuel, and looking for Biokraft, like many other Danish biogas plants, opportunities to increase fuel availability is now struggling to break even and the Danish through more advanced processes and collabo- government has recently announced subsidies ration with other sectors on the island. Bio- for further operations. mass use on Bornholm demonstrates the im- Despite these challenges, the operators at Biok- portance of planning for a resilient fuel supply raft do foresee potential opportunities for fur- chain and the difficulties of achieving cost- ther biogas development, for example through effective biomass production, as well as the the construction of a second generation bio- potential for biomass as a renewable, locally ethanol plant, as well as via an expansion of sourced fuel. production through industrial symbiosis. The latter could be achieved through the use of an Challenges and Lessons ultrafiltration process for digested slurry. This was originally designed and operated at Biok- The case studies examined in Bornholm reveal raft’s Aakirkeby plant but ceased operation due that there are a number of key challenges in to technical challenges and input shortages. In implementing new systems, both technically such a process, digested slurry is separated and strategically. As a test island, the improve- through a combination of ultrafiltration and ments and development of technical systems in reverse osmosis. The outputs are clean, con- Bornholm can have great value for future im- sisting of ionized water and a concentrate of plementations of the same or similar technolo- organic particles and phosphorous. This con- gies. Beyond technical expertise, however, the centrate can significantly benefit farmers, be- Bornholm experience is also a societal experi- cause it makes an excellent fertilizer. Ultrafiltra- ment: the move towards becoming a sustain- tion renders the nutrients more easily available able society is no simple feat, and many lessons for the agricultural process and also reduces can be drawn from this experience. odour during crop fertilisation [21]. If all farmers were encouraged to put their organic Strategic Challenges wastes through this process, the biogas and Though Bornholm has chosen an experimental agricultural industries of Bornholm would mu- strategy with regard to innovation and energy tually benefit. efficiency, it still faces challenges associated with acceptance and developing a suitable implementation framework. There are three key

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strategic challenges that Bornholm has needed 5. The coherence of the strategy was achieved to take into account, as follows: through one “central brain” who coordinated and connected political and private 1. Public scepticism: In the beginning stages actors; of developing the strategy, the driving actors 6. The strategy was based on a shared vision, were confronted with a high degree of scepti- includes measurable objectives, and states cism and mistrust from the general public as responsibilities within a time frame; well as from businesses on the island. 7. As local resources were limited, interna- 2. High expectations: Parallel to the scepti- tional cooperation was sought by creating cism, the main strategist had to live up to the an international communication platform; high expectations that decision-makers had for and the strategy. This meant ensuring financial 8. Enhancing internal communication helped support and creating employment, while at the to change attitudes and behaviour. same time implementing economically viable projects in the area of renewable energy and Conclusions energy efficiency. The “Bright Green Island” is a necessary ex- 3. Short vs. long-term challenges: The em- periment in moving towards the sustainable ployment created by short-term projects needs society that we require. It is fuelled by clean to be channelled into long-term contracts, and energy sources that are able to meet demands this has not happened within all existing pro- for energy and the desired quality of life this jects. In addition, in order to achieve the goal energy can provide. The fact that Bornholm is of becoming carbon-neutral, transportation to a closed system – an island – makes this ex- the island by ferries and airplanes needs to be perimentation more feasible, while also raising considered and taken into account within the the question as to what extent the Bornholm longer term. experiences can be transplanted or replicated to Lessons Learned other contexts. Hence, while lessons and best practices can (and should) be drawn from There are a number of specific lessons to be Bornholm, the specific context within which drawn from Bornholm’s experiences in imple- these successes have taken place should not be menting a green energy framework, as follows: forgotten. 1. The strategy resulted from the need to de- As with any innovative project, unexpected velop unique features for a municipality in results and negative consequences are never order to attract new residents, investors, completely avoidable. Bornholm’s “Bright and tourists; Green Island” project has experienced techni- 2. The strategy is based on a preliminary as- cal, economic, and social hurdles. Though a sessment of the situation and the identifica- “closed system”, Bornholm can lend itself as tion of the main strengths of the location; an example of energy efficiency and innova- 3. In order to reduce costs for such an as- tion; the challenges faced are sound forewarn- sessment, municipalities can join forces to ing to cities or communities wanting to imple- develop a common assessment framework; ment a project of similar ambition. The infor- 4. Projects were only implemented when they mation and knowledge gained from such a proved to be economically viable. This re- project is invaluable to future developers, pol- duced financial burdens for the municipali- icy makers, and communities. Thus the out- ties and helped to overcome public mis- comes of various project components can be trust and scepticism; used as supplemental information if not a

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model for developers. Bornholm’s “Bright [12] Binding, C., Gantenbein, D., Jansen, B., Sundström, Green Island” is not representation of perfect O.,Andersen, P.B., Marra, F., Poulsen, B. & Træholt, C. (2010). Electric Vehicle Fleet Integration in sustainable development and energy efficient the Danish EDISON Project – A Virtual Power Plant on technological integration; it is a flexible and the Island of Bornholm. Zurich: IBM Research. adaptable project in a constant state of obser- [13] Gantenbein, D., Jansen, B., Binding, C. et al. (2010). vation, analysis, and improvement, and there- EDISON Demo A: Fleet operation for mutual benefit. fore a valuable centre of knowledge for actors Presentation at the EDISON Workshop, August 18, in all sectors of society. 2010. [14] Rasmussen, J. (2011). EDISON. Presentation at the References EDISON Conference, September 26, 2011. [15] Business Center Bornholm. (2011). Green Building. [1] Business Centre Bornholm. (2008). The Path to an Retrieved December 10, 2011, from Even More Sustainable Bornholm. Retrieved December http://www.brk.dk/bornholm/site.aspx?p=1244. 4, 2011, from [16] European Comission. (2009). Low Energy Buildings in http://www.brk.dk/bornholm/site.aspx?p=807. Europe: Current State of Play, Definitions and Best Prac- [2] Johnson, R. (2009). Edison Project Marries Wind Power tice. Retrieved December 10, 2011, from to Electric Vehicles. Smarter Technology. Retrieved http://ec.europa.eu/energy/efficiency/doc/buildin December 6, 2011, from gs/info_note.pdf. http://www.smartertechnology.com/c/a/Technolo [17] International Energy Agency. (2008). Energy Effi- gy-For-Change/Edison-Project-Marries-Wind- ciency Requirements in Building Codes, Energy Efficiency Power-to-Electric-Vehicles/. Policies for New Buildings. Retrieved December 10, [3] Transparent Energy Planning and Implementation. 2011, from (2011). TRANSPLAN - The Project. Retrieved, De- http://www.iea.org/g8/2008/Building_Codes.pdf. cember 6, 2011, from [18] European Commission. (2011). Energy Efficiency http://www.transplanproject.eu/?secid=2. Profile: Denmark. Intelligent Energy for Europe Pro- [4] Bendsten, M. F. (2011). Bornholm - An Energy Ex- gramme, MURE Project. Retrieved December 10, periment, 2011. Oskraft Energy, presentation. 2011, from [5] Business Center Bornholm. (2008). Branding Strategy. http://stateofgreen.com/Cache/ef/ef9281a6-c88b- Retrieved December 4, 2011, from 4967-b8dc-56fa7459ce32.pdf. http://www.bornholm.dk/cms/site.aspx?p=805. [19] Gronning, L. (2011). Visit to Bornholm Business Center [6] Gronning, L. (2011). Bright Green Island Bornholm. [Interview] (Personal Communication, November Business Center Bornholm, presentation. 25, 2011). [7] Bendsten, M. F. (2011). EcoGrid EU - A Prototype for [20] Steenburg, H. (2011). Visit to Steenberg Tegnestue European Smart Grid. Oskraft Energy, presentation. Offices [Interview] (Personal Communication, No- [8] Energinet. (2011). Denmark Opts for Smart Grid, vember 25, 2011). Intelligent Power System with more Renewable Energy. [21] Bendtsen, M. (2011). Visit to Oskraft Energy. (Per- Retrieved December 10, 2011, from sonal Communication, November, 25, 2011). http://energinet.dk/SiteCollectionDocuments/Eng Photo of lighthouse by Tom Figel, taken November 25, elske dokumenter/Forskning/SmartGrid in 2011. English.pdf. Photos of Aakirkeby District Heating Plant and Biokraft [9] Camilla, H., Togeby, M., Bang, N.C., Søndergren, Biogas Plant by Charlotte Luka on November 25, 2011. C.& Hansen, L.H. (2010). Introducing Electric Vehicles into the Current Electricity Markets. EDISON Corpora- tion. [10] Business Centre Bornholm. (2008). Wind turbines love the electric car. Retrieved December 10, 2011, from http://www.bornholm.dk/cms/site.aspx?p=845. [11] Schröder, T. (2009). From Wind to Wheels - In Pictures of the Future. Fall 2009, 44-46.

112 ENERGY FUTURES ØRESUND

THE INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS

he International Institute for Industrial T Environmental Economics (IIIEE), part of Lund University, was established in 1994 by the Swedish Parliament. The IIIEE’s vision is to transform technical and management structures, as well as public and private sector policies, in such a manner that advances sustainable consumption and production systems. As such, the IIIEE engages in a combination of education and research activities with the aim of bridging academia and practice.

While the debate in society is to a large extent focused on environmental and climate-related problems, the Institute emphasises solutions and pathways towards achieving them. This is exemplified in the IIIEE’s motto: “advancing sustainable solutions”. Along these lines, the Institute explores and advances knowledge in the design, application, and evaluation of strategies, policies, and tools for a transition towards these sustainable solutions.

The Institute now operates two international Master’s programmes, as well as independent courses, a wide range of pioneering research projects, and numerous outreach activities. Researchers and teachers have backgrounds in natural sciences, technology, law, economics, and other social sciences. The IIIEE cooper- ates closely in its education and research with other departments at Lund University and with other universities worldwide.

THE INSTITUTE 113 THE INSTITUTE

Insofar as securing a sustainable future has become a common, global concern, the IIIEE strives to bring together researchers from all parts of the world. Lectures include a wide range of interdisciplinary topics, such as environmental law, extended producer responsibility, sustainable consumption, design for the environment, energy efficiency and renewable energies, and various aspects of corporate environmental management as well as product, energy, and climate policy. Research is organised to encourage crosscutting actions and to Educational effort at the IIIEE is primarily allow for activities that address topical chal- focused on two Masters’ level courses: the MSc lenges and incorporate new approaches. Special in Environmental Management and Policy attention is given to research that identifies and (EMP) and the MSc in Environmental Sci- supports strategies and approaches for more ences, Policy, and Management (MESPOM). sustainable business practices. Students in these programmes have academic

backgrounds in subjects relevant for working with sustainable consumption and production issues, such as law, business, and engineering, and frequently have several years of work experience. Many IIIEE staff members have gone through these Master’s programmes themselves. The Institute also runs educational programmes at the PhD level, participates in teaching at the undergraduate level, and is involved in executive training.

Alumni are found within consulting, industry, research, NGOs, international and national governments, and other fields. The IIIEE has a strong alumni network that regularly organises events such as alumni conferences. Overall, the IIIEE offers an international and multidisciplinary environment for relevant environmental research and the education of tomorrow’s decision makers.

For more information, please visit:

www.iiiee.lu.se

114 ENERGY FUTURES ÖRESUND

THE AUTHORS

his report was compiled as part of the region. Mikael Backman and Thomas Tinternational Master’s degree in Environ- Lindhqvist are IIIEE professors who led the mental Sciences, Policy and Management SED course as well as this project. Mikael fo- (MESPOM). The degree is a two-year Erasmus cuses on sustainable tourism, while Thomas Mundus course that is supported by the Euro- specialises in environmental product policy. pean Commission and is operated by four European and two North American universities. MESPOM students study in at least three out of the following six consortium universities: Lund University in Lund, Sweden; Central European University in Budapest, Hungary; Manchester University in Manchester, UK; the University of the Aegean in Lesvos, Greece; the Monterey Institute for International Stud- ies in Monterey, United States; and the Univer- sity of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, Canada.

In addition to writing about the energy systems of different sub-regions within Øresund and analysing the energy system of the island of Bornholm’s, the authors researched the following specific case studies: Adrian Mill and Logan Strenchock analysed declining heat demand and its effect on the future attractiveness of district heating. Adrian is Australian/British dual national and has worked in environmental management and

research. Logan comes from the United States The authors are presently studying at the Inter- and has a background in civil engineering and national Institute for Industrial Environmental historic preservation. Economics (IIIEE) at Lund University. This publication is part of the IIIEE Strategic Envi- Charlotte Luka and Veronica Andronache ronmental Development (SED) course, which wrote about the risk of legionella contamina- this year analysed the present state of, as well tion in low temperature district heating sys- as potential futures for, energy in the Øresund tems. Charlotte is a lawyer from Germany and

THE AUTHORS 115 THE AUTHORS

Veronica previously worked as a project man- Tom Figel and Ouyang Xin looked into co- ager for an environmental NGO in her home operative wind farms. Tom has a background

country of Romania. in international relations and policy and Ouy- Mauricio Lopez and Lea Baumbach ad- ang worked in the wind energy sector. dressed seasonal heat storage in man-made Allison Witter and Ian Ross did a compara- aquifers for solar district heating. Mauricio is tive analysis of four new energy-saving residen- Mexican with a background in economics and tial areas in the Øresund region and in their Lea comes from Germany, where she studied North American hometowns (Victoria, British environmental policy and communication. Columbia and Portland, Oregon). Allison has a Sarah Czunyi investigated storage systems for background in international development and household waste. She is Tanzanian and British Ian previously studied sociology. and has a degree in public affairs and policy Mary Ellen Smith and Jordan Hayes focused management. on two energy efficient building cases in Ger- Meiling Su wrote about hot water circuits in many and Canada. Mary Ellen comes from the household appliances. She previously studied US and has a background in biochemistry. Jor- business in her home country of China. dan is Canadian and worked in forestry. Stefan Sipka carried out research on large Peter Kiryushin did a comparative study of batteries for energy storage. He comes from two cleantech clusters. Originally from Russia, Serbia, where he studied political science and Peter focused on public administration and international relations. environmental economics in prior studies.

116 ENERGY FUTURES ÖRESUND

International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics at Lund University P.O. Box 196, Tegnersplatsen 4, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden Tel: +46 46 222 0200 [email protected] www.iiiee.lu.se