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Governs the Making of Photocopies Or Other Reproductions of Copyrighted Materials Warning Concerning Copyright Restrictions The Copyright Law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproductions of copyrighted materials. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship, or research. If electronic transmission of reserve material is used for purposes in excess of what constitutes "fair use," that user may be liable for copyright infringement. University of Nevada, Reno Guardians of their Own Survival: Los Jóvenes Emprendedores de Centroamérica and their Interactions with the United States Immigration Regime, 1970-1995 A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in History and the Honors Program by Ivón Padilla-Rodríguez Dr. Emily Hobson, Thesis Advisor May, 2015 2 UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA THE HONORS PROGRAM RENO We recommend that the thesis prepared under our supervision by IVÓN PADILLA-RODRÍGUEZ entitled GUARDIANS OF THEIR OWN SURVIVAL: LOS JÓVENES EMPRENDEDORES DE CENTROAMÉRICA AND THEIR INTERACTIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES IMMIGRATION REGIME, 1970-1995 be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of BACHELOR OF ARTS, HISTORY _________________________________________ Emily Hobson, Ph.D., Thesis Advisor ________________________________________ Tamara Valentine, Ph.D., Director, Honors Program May, 2015 i Abstract Between 1970 and 1990, civil wars plagued Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala. This study explored the impact U.S. military intervention in the wars had on Central American migration, particularly that of young children, and U.S. immigration policies between 1970 and 1995. It (1) examined how immigration of Central American youth shaped U.S. immigration policies, (2) examined how states responded to their presence, and (3) used a child-centered approach to migration scholarship to analyze how youth interacted with the U.S. immigration system and law enforcement in their own countries. The central contention of this research is that migrant children fleeing the Central American civil wars acted as stand-alone, rights-bearing guardians of their own survival. These jóvenes emprendedores—incredibly resourceful, adaptive, resilient, and initiative-taking youth—were highly aware, independent decision-making agents. They are termed jóvenes emprendedores because of the significance of their dual points of view represented by their bilingualism and binationalism. ii Acknowledgements I must first thank Dr. Emily Hobson in the Department of History and the Gender, Race, and Identity program for spending the time to mentor me throughout my undergraduate career, senior thesis process, and graduate school decisions. Dr. Hobson played a crucial part in my success as an undergraduate student. Her resourcefulness and insistence on challenging the way I approached historical inquiry have made me a better scholar and activist. I could not have accomplished what I have without her unwavering commitment to my interests and ambitions. Her mentorship was invaluable. Secondly, I am extremely grateful to the individuals who allowed me to listen to, learn from, and document the stories of their childhood and immigration journeys for my research. Their generosity, humility, and openness deeply inspired me and reaffirmed my passion for the history and betterment of Latino immigrant communities. Without them, this project could not have come to fruition. Their stories and my newfound friendships with them are at the heart of this study. My expression of gratitude must also be extended to the staff of the Latino Research Center. Most notably, I give thanks to Dr. Emma Sepúlveda, the Center’s Director for having given me the opportunity to conduct research under her watchful eye before navigating the thesis process. Dr. Sepúlveda’s guidance also helped me confirm my passion for migration studies and my thesis topic. Lastly, I must thank the Department of History; the Gender, Race, and Identity program; the Office of Undergraduate and Interdisciplinary Research; the Honors Program; and the University of Nevada, Reno as a whole for giving me a space and the resources with which to pursue my interests, passions, and dreams without impediment. iii Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………... i Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………. ii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………... iii INTRODUCTION: EL JÓVEN EMPRENDEDOR (THE ENTERPRISING YOUTH) AS THE PRIMARY CASE STUDY………………………………………………………... 1 PART I: UNITED STATES INTERVENTION IN CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE AFTERMATH OF THE WARS, 1970-1995 Chapter One: The Civil Wars of Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala……………………………………………………...……………..… 4 Chapter Two: Displacement and Subsequent Migration……………………….. 20 Chapter Three: United States Immigration Policies and Reception of Central American Refugees in the Late Twentieth Century…………………………….. 30 PART II: CHILD MIGRATION AND INTERACTION BETWEEN THE STATE AND CENTRAL AMERICAN MIGRANT YOUTH Chapter Four: An Overview of Child Migration ………………………………. 39 Chapter Five: Young Central American Guardians of their Own Survival and their Perception as Accessories ………………………………….. 45 PART III: MOVING FORWARD……..……………………………………………...... 60 Interviews by Author & Works Cited……………………………….………………….. 62 1 INTRODUCTION: EL JÓVEN EMPRENDEDOR (THE ENTERPRISING YOUTH) AS THE PRIMARY CASE STUDY In the late 1970s, Central American migration to the United States began to increase dramatically in response to the civil wars and violence in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala. These events, which were fueled by United States intervention, pushed thousands of Central Americans—including children and their families—to leave their homes in search of refuge in the north. Consequently, refugee policy in the U.S. and international human rights laws began to change and develop quickly to address the migratory status quo of the time. Such policies profoundly impacted the experiences of child migrants and the complex legal and humanitarian dilemmas that resulted from their continued migration. This investigation delves into the following questions: How did immigration policies, legal officers, and the state as a whole view and interact with Central American migrant youth and their families who sought refuge and asylum between the 1970s and 1995? How did the immigration policies of the time impact how youth and their families (1) navigated the U.S. immigration system and (2) negotiated their conceptions of refuge, citizenship, and their futures? The central contention of this research is that migrant children fleeing the Central American civil wars of the late twentieth century acted as stand-alone, rights-bearing guardians of their own survival. These jóvenes emprendedores—incredibly resourceful, adaptive, resilient, and initiative- taking youth—were highly aware, independent decision-making agents. They are termed jóvenes emprendedores because the significance of their dual points of view— represented by their bilingualism and binationalism—must be mentioned to more accurately capture their experiences. Consequently, they should be perceived and treated 2 as such by migration scholarship and legal institutions in the United States rather than the reality they faced: being discerned as accessories to adults. A child-centered rights approach may better equip migration historians and current public policy leaders in dealing with these vulnerable youth and their protection needs. The methodology for this research consisted of three aspects: (1) literature reviews, (2) oral history interviews with Central American immigrants, and (3) primary source analyses. This investigation will add to existing scholarship by historicizing a significant contemporary issue of unaccompanied child migration to the U.S. and shifting the focus of migration and history scholarship to the experiences of children who are constantly viewed not as rights-bearers in themselves, but as accessories to immigrant adults. Migration studies research generally relegates the child to a mere accessory of their parents, the primary rights-bearers. So, while Central American immigration research is prevalent, scholarship that presents children as rights-bearing agents is a gap that must be filled. This research hopes to make a contribution to further bridge this gap in scholarship so that the child receives his and her due attention as a stand-alone rights-bearer. Currently, this topic is one of significance as the debate surrounding immigration carries widespread recognition on the national stage in 2015.1 Between 2003 and 2011, about 8,000 to 40,000 unaccompanied child migrants—most from Central America—were apprehended at the United States-Mexico border annually.2 Last summer, a huge influx of lone child migrants left their countries in Central America, escaping gang violence ______________________________________ 1 Krogstad, Manuel Jens; Ana Barrera-Gonzalez and Mark Hugo Lopez, “Children 12 and under are fastest growing group of unaccompanied minors at U.S. border,” Pew Research Center (2014), 1. 2 Ibid. 3 and extreme poverty, to reach the southern United States border in search of refuge and/or family reunification.3 Thousands of unaccompanied children caught at the United States-Mexico border are generally forced to face an immigration
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