Dvaravati and Sriksetra | Four Noble Truths | Indian Religions

1 Dvāravati and Śri-Ksetra: A Cultural Relation Phasook Indrawooth Faculty of Archaeology Silpakorn University, Bangkok It is noticed that Dvāravati people seem to have close cultural relation with the Pyu people in Śri-Ksetra kingdom, referred to by the Chinese historians and pilgrims as a contemporary kingdom. Therefore, this study will provide information on Dvaravati culture as related to Pyu culture by using the archaeological evidence as well as Buddhist remains in the Dvaravati and Śri-Ksetra kingdoms. The paper will concentrate on some items of material culture such as cooking pots, marked bricks and uninscribed silver coins. Moreover, the characteristics of Buddhist beliefs will be discussed. Dvaravati, the earliest Buddhist Kingdom in Thailand Literary and archaeological evidence has confirmed that Central Thailand, the Chao Phraya Basin area, between the late sixth and eleventh centuries, was the homeland of an early Buddhist kingdom, referred to in inscriptions as ‘Dvāravati’. In the 7th century, Chinese historians and pilgrims to India spoke of the existence of a kingdom that they called To-lo-po-ti, situated to the west of Isānapura (Cambodia) and to the east of Śri-Ksetra (Burma) (Beal 1969 ; Takakusu 1982).The Chinese name for this civilization was interpreted as representing the Sanskrit word Dvāravati, meaning ‘which has gates’. But it was not until 1964 that this interpretation was confirmed by two inscribed silver coins found at Nakhon Pathom. (Boeles 1964) Our knowledge of this civilization was expanded when Paul Pelliot suggested that the people of Dvāravati were Mons ( Pelliot 1904). Coedès attributed the ‘Hindu non-Cambodian’ images around the Gulf of Siam described by Lajonquière to the Mons of Dvāravati. He also identified some of the contemporary inscriptions found in the area as being in the Mon language (Coedès 1929), In 1959, Pierre Dupont convinced most scholars that Dvāravati was indeed a great Mon kingdom whose culture extended widely and came to embrace virtually the whole area of modern Thailand. (Dupont 1959) Not long after that came the supposition that Dvāravati formed part of a Mon confederacy centered at Thaton in lower Burma (Coedès 1966). However, this supposition had no support beyond vague legendary and linguistic evidence (Guillon 1989; 2 Nai Pan Hla 1991 ; 13-21). Scholars have long been troubled by the absence of early Buddhist remains in the Mon country of Lower Burma (Temple 1893; Aung Thaw 1972) as compared with their abundance in Central Thailand. Even though an amount of first millennium A.D. walled sites have recently been identified in Lower Burma (Mon area), such as Kyaikkatha. But many questions still remain about how long sites were occupied and the overall deposition of cultural material ( Moore 2007:145-153). Based on archaeological evidence, we may conclude with a fair degree of certainty that the Dvāravati did not form part of the Mon Confederacy centred at Thaton in lower Burma, as previously suggested by some scholars, but developed out of the earlier Austroasiatic-speaking chiefdoms of prehistoric Central Thailand. During that time, local rulers accepted the superiority of Indian concepts in order to give divine legitimacy to their secular rule. They therefore brought to their courts the priests and literati who introduced many elements of Indian culture to the Dvāravati people, such as the system of coinage, seals and sealings, the Pāli and Sanskrit languages, religious beliefs, town plans, art and architecture, ceramics, concepts of state and kingship and a variety of musical instruments and dances (Indrawooth 1999 and 2004). The seventh century AD saw a large number of moated sites in occupation located along the margins of the Central Plain of Thailand. According to Vanasin and Supajanya, sea level was higher at that time and so these settlements were accessible by boat. Most sites were also located near rivers that supplied water to the moats. Large religious buildings were constructed within the moats, and major moated sites have been found in the Meklong–Ta Chin valleys, in the Lopburi–Pasak valleys and in the Bang Pakong valley. Sites in these regions include a number of important Dvāravati towns, such as U-Thong, Nakhon Pathom and Ku Bua in the Meklong-Ta Chin valleys; Sab Champa, Brahmatin, Chansen and Śri Thep in the Lopburi-Pasak valleys; Dong Lakhon, Mang Phra Rot and Śri Mahosot in the Bang Pakong valley. Some sites, such as Dong Khon, Muang Bon, U Ta Pao and Thap Chumphon, are located near the Chao Phraya River. (Indrawooth 1983,1999 and 2004). Analysis of the chronology of U-Thong, the oldest Dvaravati city suggests that U-Thong had participated in trading networks since prehistoric times as shown by nephrite ornaments, products of the Sa Huynh Culture (c. 600 B.C-200A.D.) of Central Vietnam (Le and Vu 1996; Boisselier 1968). Besides being an important port during Dvāravati period, U-thong was also regarded as the earliest Buddhist center. The discovery of stucco and terracotta architectural decorations in Amaravati style indicated that Buddhist monuments already existed at U-Thong in the 3rd or 4th centuries. Most scholars agree that Buddhist beliefs were 3 introduced here from Nāgārjunakonฺda, the great Buddhist center in the Krishna-Godavari region of South India, when it was under Ikshavaku rule between AD 200 and 350. (Boisselier 1965 and 1968) The greatest Dvaravati city is Nakhon Pathom which covers an area of 3,700 by 2000 meters (7.4 sq.km). The most important small finds from Nakhon Pathom are two inscribed silver coins found in a small earthen jar beneath a ruined sanctuary at Nern Hin, west of Pra Praton Chedi On the reverse of each coin are engraved the Sanskrit words śridvāravati śvarapun ฺya, meaning ‘meritorious deed of the King of Dvāravati’. On the obverse of one coin is a purn ฺaghata (vase of plenty), from which two creepers are sprouting. On the other is a cow with its calf, symbols of fertility and prosperity (Boeles 1964). Apart from being regarded as a capital of the Dvāravati kingdom, ancient Nakhon Pathom had an important role as one of the trading centers of Dvāravati. A large number of terracotta seals and sealings and some amulets used by merchants have been found. Other important finds include over 30 pieces of stone Dharmacakra (Wheels of the Law), one with two figures of crouching deer to symbolize the First Sermon in the Deer Park at Sarnath, as well as images of the Buddha made of stone and bronze. Thus, the Buddhist monuments at Nakhon Pathom, including Pra Pathon Chedi, emphasise its importance as a Buddhist center during Dvāravati times. In addition, the Pāli texts engraved on some stone Dharmacakra votive stupas and terracotta tablets, mostly with the Buddhist creed Ye Dhamma and the Patฺ iccasamuppada-sutta, provide evidence of familiarity with the Pāli canon. While Buddhism was the dominant religion of the Dvāravati elite, we should not lose sight of the Hindu elements in Dvāravati religion, especially at U-Thong, where a stone Mukhalinํ ga in the Pre-Angkorian style of the 7th – 8th centuries was unearthed to the south of the city, which indicated the existence of Śaivism at U Thong. Not only Śaivism, but traces of Vaisฺ navism are also evident in two steles with rough figures of Vishnu in high relief, probably in Pallava style, kept in the U-Thong San Chao or spirit shrine. They seem to belong to the same group as the Pallava-derived mitred Vishnฺ us found at Muang Si Mahosot in Prachinburi Province (Coedès 1958; Lajonquiere 1909; Fine Arts Department 1992). Dvāravati coinage suggests that some of the Indian concepts of state and kingship were accepted by Dvāravati rulers. Inscribed silver coins from sites such as Nakhon Pathom, U-Thong, Ku Bua, Ku Muang, Brahmatin, Dong Khon and U Ta-Pao indicate the reality of Dvāravati kingship. On the obverse sides of these coins are engraved Indian symbols of fertility and prosperity, such as purnฺ aghata (vase of plenty) 4 or an animal – cow or deer – with its offspring. On the reverse sides occur the words śridvāravatiśvarapunฺ ya, meaning “meritorious deeds of the King of Dvāravati”. A large number of uninscribed silver coins bear Indian symbols of kingship and prosperity such as the rising sun or san ํkha (conch shell) and śrivatsa (indicating the abode of Śri, goddess of fertility). These have been found throughout the Dvāravati region and in contemporary cities influenced by Indian civilization, from Burma to the lower Mekong Valley (Gutman 1978:8-21; Robinson and Pollard 1983 : 11-12; Luce 1985 : Pl.2; Wicks 1985 : 195-215). The Dvāravati culture was not restricted to the Central Plains but extended also to the Khorat Plateau of northeastern Thailand. A large number of moated sites have been investigated by the Fine Arts Department, such as Muang Semā in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Muang Fa Daed in Kalasin Province and Muang Nadune in Mahasarakham Province (Diskul 1956; Wales 1969; Indrawooth 1991). Lamphun Province in northern Thailand is the site of the capital of the ancient kingdom of Haripunjaya which, according to the 15th century Camādevivamํś a–a chronicle of considerable historical value–was founded in the 8th century by Queen Camadevi from Lopburi, an important Dvaravati town. (Coedès 1964; Indrawooth 1994). In the southern region, on account of their artistic remains, the sites of Chaiya, Nakhon Si Thammarat and Yarang were the most important Buddhist centers in the Peninsula during Dvaravati period. (Krairiksh 1980; Pantukovit 1897 Fine Arts Department 1992b). Śri Ksetra, the earliest Buddhist kingdom in Burma In Burma during the first millennium, ancient civilizations are known to have arisen in the three distinct areas : the Pyus in Central Burma whose territory covered the Irrawaddy and Mu River Valleys; the Mons, who lived in the south of Burma, on the coastal alluvia of Sittang and Salween River Valleys; the Arakanese in the northwest on the coastal alluvium.

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