THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 155 empire In this respect, the Gupta age particularly stands as a ' n:'< great landmark. Taken altogether, the abundance and quality of cultural achievement under the Guptas justify the appeUation CHAPTER VI 'Golden age of Indian Siatonj' applied to V. I ■ •> .. Sources The task of the Gupta historian is not.difficult as he THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS is not confronted with the paucity of historical raw materials. He has abundant and hiabl.t reliable materials made available by the aeholarlv labour of indologists both Oriental and Occidental. The (300—600 A.D.) indigenous literary and archaeological materials are happily supplemented and corroborated by the aecounts lett by the foreign ers By a careful analysis of these materials it would be possible to The history of ancient India enters upon a new epoch air reconstruct the history of the Guptas in its true perspective. epoch of spectacular achievements in all spheres of life, with' the' "jiidi<'enous literature throws welcome light on the history of foundation fif the Gupta dynasty .in the early part of the 4th century A.D7> <;The Gupta_ period,", writes L. D. Barnett, **is in- theh fJiintas whii Among 'trensmit the literary genuine sources historical mention tradition may be madeOf theof the annals of classical India almost what the periclean age is in eio-hteeii major Purantis. BrahnmniUi, Tayu, Matsya suA Yishmt. the history of Greece.".; To this R. N. Salctore adds : "What the ar°c important for this period. They provide information regarding Elizabethan and Stuaft periods were in the pages of British history,; the extent of the Gupta empire and its provinces. The Puran^ what the era of Augustus was to the Roman empire, what th& were aware of the two kinds of Gupta provinces viz. the directly period of Taitsung was to the liistory of China, what the days of administered provinces through- representatives ot the king and the Louis XIV were to the annals of France, the age of the Guptas Qtatps The Purauic evidence is also important to locate some- may be said to have been to the heritage of India." minor dynasties and their status. Vishnudharmottara. an appendix The Guptas reestablished political unity in the country which to Vishnupurania contains detailed rules regarding image making had been lost to pieces after the decline of the Mauryan dynasty and painting which must have been made use of during this period. This was due to the rise of a strong sense of nationalism. It is true Next in importance is the evidence of the Dharmosasfras and that the Gupta empire was far less in estent when compared tc Arthasastra treatises. The Dharmasastras of Vyasa, Harita Pita- the Mauryas, but they influenced the culture of the country more maha and Pulastya provide peeps into the procedure of law and than the Mauryas. The sound system of administration which they law suits. Pitamaha for the fir.st time refers to eighteen prah-itis and established to maintain their empire ensued an era of peace. It gave gives additional information regarding social life of the period. The tremendous impetus to an outburst of literary and artistic activity only work in the field of Arthasastra is Kamandakiya Nitiswa, an The period witnessed the great development of Sanskrit literature abridgement of the Arthasastra of Kautilya. The Kamandakiya in all its brauohes. In the sphere of secular literature 'Kalidasa throws li^'ht on the Gupta administrative institutions and the charac stands out prominently. His works embody the ideals of patriotism ter of the Gupta government. national unity, goodwill towards all. and high aesthetic sense. In The Eavyas and dramas of the period contain valuable historical the field of scientific literature we have such shining figures as materials. Tlie works of Kalidasa like Meghaduta help us to Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, and Brahmagupta. Sanskrit became the understand the poUtieal geography of India while his R' aglnivamsa U-)igua franca of India. is said to allude to the military exploits of Samiidragupta. An This was an age of great intellectual expansion. This was internal analysis of his works provides positive data to estimate the typified in the University of Nalanda, a great seat of learning which cultural attainments of the Guptas. attracted students from all parts of the world. Hinduism with its sectarian creeds like Saivism, Vaisnavism and Tantricism had fully The two works of Visakhadatta, Mudraraksasa and Bevichandra- emertred and Mahayana was an elaborately developed creed. Tlie gupiam, are other source works of the Gupta epoch. The age lias become memorable 'for the development of temple architec Mudraraksasa deals with the theme that relates more to the iMauryas than to the Guptas. But the description in it of the political strategy ture and from now onwards Brahmanic art comes into its own adopted by Kautilya may have a direct bearing on the Gupta dynasty. soon to become prolific and dominant'. The Dcvichandragiiptam is a political drama which is known only The age was a great period of expansion of Indian culture in through quotations made here and there by certain writers. The the Far Bast which resulted in the establishment of a cultural hero of the play is Kumara Chandragupta, the later Chandragvipta II Yikramaditya. The King, as seen in the play, was Earaagupta, an 154 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 157 156 THE AGE OI- THE GUPTAS A writer in Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XIV argues on imbecile and weakling. He was defeated by the Saka ruler and the same lines. He says the Gupta inscriptions from the time of agreed to an humiliating treaty, according to which he agreed to Samudragupta and the 'marriage type of coins' suggest that surrender his queen, Dhruvadevi. Young Chandragupta, who came ^7 Chandragupta I succeeded to the dominions of the petty kings, to know of this agreement, disguised himself as Dhruvadevi, entered 7 Gupta and Ghatotkacha. and became an emperor when he received the camp of the Saka ruler with a small following of his and killed considerable addition to his territory through the marriage with the him. Later he killed his brother, married his widow and became Lichchhavi princess. Chandrasena's rule on the other hand, was only King. The drama introduces the episode of Ramagupta in the Gupta through the usurpation of Sundaravarman's throne. If the Lichchhavis history. luid kept on the throne of Magadha, Kalyanavarman would have Another drama that has given rise to much controversy in the had to cross swords with them when he conquered Chandi^asena and Gupta history is Kaumi
164 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS examines coins No. 6 on plate II of Allan's catalogue, lie will find on THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 165 the obverse the name Kacha something like Kama. And if the • He had relations with the Vakatakas and his daughter Prabliavati- middle bar is inadvertently omitted as very often happens in gupta was married to the Vakataka King Rudrasena II. After the ^^cripts Kaeha can easily ran into Rama." This view seems to death of Rudrasena the Vakataka polities came directly under the he plausible though not decisive. But his name was Rama and not Gupta influence. Chandragupta II took a personal interest in the Deviehandraguptam and welfare of the Vakataka court and sent his great friend Kalidasa there, who reported back to the emperor on the luxurious life,at;the Recently some copper coins bearing the name Kamagupta have , court. been coUected by Sri Advani and others at Bhilsa. These coins are Thus by the conquest of the Sakas and by entering into presumed to be the issues of Ramagupta, the local ruler of the rei^ion matrimonial alliances with the ruling monarch of the Vakataka country, Chandragupta II raised the prestige of the Gupta empire by thTlar^r^Jer'.'' the humiliating subjugatrn Considerably. Under him the empire extended from the Bay of Bengal to the shores of the Arabian sea, besides the whole of Eama^XmtytLfblen a s™on rf'lLZ'pta famUy I'tf Hindustan reaching the farthest limits of the North-west npto the Bhilsa region and not the son and successor of Samudiagupta!" Baflvh. Just as in the days of Samudragupta, Dakshinapatha seems to have continued its allegiance to the Gupta emperor. CHAKDRAGUPTA II VIKEAMADITYA In the reign of Chandragupta II, Fa-hien travelled in North (380-415 A.D.) India, but he never mentions the emperor. He says that the Gupta Chandra^pta II who succeeded to the throne in qsn A n empire was flourishing. Buddhism was in a state of decline and also chosen by his father for his abilitv -mH fnno • S i there was perfect friendship between' the Brahmaiias and the looked upon the empire as a gloried heritage and " Buddhists. Fa-hien mentions many schools of Buddhism. The fully maintained it but also extended it by his own capital of Chandragupta II was the great centre of learning. him started the glorious tradition of Viki-amaditya. Like his father, Chandragupta II issued as many as five types After his accession to the throne, Chandra-'untn TT f-vii of coins. These were, the Archer type, the Couch type, the lAon father's policy of expansion. As has already been notLl T Slayer type, the Clihatm type and the Horseman type. These coins empire under Samudragupta was a confederation of 1 throw considerable light on the personality, imperial pomp and states. The allegiance of these states to th^ iZevi.l power of Chandragupta II. nominal tlian real. Further, the South-west nf Tr.V In conclusion. Chandragupta II, the third emperor of the dynasty, was an enlightened ruler. He was the first sovereign of his dynasty to assume the title of Vikramaditya. His reign ushered in un era of artistic effloi-escence whic-li earned the epithet 'the Golden age' for Gupta rule in India. His court is said to have graced by The greatest military achievement of Chandra-^nntfl TT .nr. Navaratna or nine gems. Tliese celebrities included among others, conquest of the Sakas, kuown_ to European scholars as WeZ -n Kalidasa, the greatest poet and dramatist, and Varahamihira, the Satraps who were ruling in Gujrat and Kathiawar neiiin^nln m i • greatest astronomer of the period. Vasubandhu, the Buddhist advantage of the internal trouble, he invaded their kiin^dom" " .scholar and saint was attached to his court. In short, as a conqueror powerful army and exterminated tlie Sakas. Later lie f,.a 'I a great general and a statesman Chandragupta II was unquestionably the capital from Pataliputra to Ujjain. "The annexation the paramount sovereign of India. tra and Malva", says V. A. Smith, "not only added to the p provinces of exceptional wealth and fertility, but opened nn^+i'^ ETJMARAGUPTA (415-455 A.D.) paramount power's free access to the Western coast- and tlmc^i I The glorious heritage of the vast and well administered Gunta Chandragupta II in direct touch Avith the seaborne' commevPo vu empire was inherited by Kumaragupta, son and successor of the Europe through Egypt". This conquest of Chaiidracrnntn ""11 , Chandragupta II, peacefuUy. His inscriptions in Benc^al shox^ an end to the last vestiges of the rule of the foreigners in'ind i he retained every ineh of the territory. It is further supported by now Gupta empire came to be extended to the shores of the ArabTan .his description in the Uanju SriMulakalpa as by no ineam 'a we»k ang' but an 'excellent and leading sovereign', the extensTve diawl, sea. tion of the inscri^ptions and the find spots of hL llkT eotrH; The success of Chandragupta II over the Sakas was largelv d celebrated the Ashvamedha sacrifice indicativp nf ! to the help that Chandragupta received from the Vakatakas of Berar TM. led T.i. ss- THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 167
166 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS Pura.'upta±'uia=,upid. Continuingo they arguePuragupta the Bhitari succeeded SUver Kumaragupta Copper seat I. added more territories to the empire. But: no inscriptions relating The"e iShdaguptraoS nrt appeL on the seal The statenrent to his -wars or conquests have come to light so far; +1 "Rkif«ri Pillar inscription that who when (his) father had If the first part of his reign was peaceful and prosperous, the "ttaattained ned hea^neave n^ , XSsLa (his)drifting enemies fortunes by the strength of his oJfamily (his) : second part began to show signs of deterioration. The peace of the arm, and .. . ^ yjetorv has been won' betook himself like empire was rudely shaken by. the invasion of an enemy, called ^?d then to his weeping mother Pusyamitraa, a tribe unknown to epigraphy, but known to the Purana^. Some have thought that they might have belonged to a branch of the ancient Pusyamitra Sunga :^amily which still retained De™S''Devaki ' rndicates Skandaguptathat Skandagupta 'had rescued no natural his mother claim after to thronekillmg . some amount of independent local sovereignty. Towards tlie close of the reign of Kumaragupta, they thought they had an ojiportunity S^ause he was not the son of Agramahisi (Chief Queen) aiid her to become independent. Unfortunately, their calculations went Miue is not mentioned. These factors show that Skandagupta did wrong and Skandagupta, the Yivvaraja,. dealt with them so severely not succeed to the throne peacefully. that they are no more heard of again in Indian liistory. Though The above views are ably controverted by scliolars who regard Kumaragupta was able to prevail upon the Pusyainitras. the distui"b- Skandagupta as thejimedte successor 'iJ'Tlhftari Sil^r anee left its scars on the economy of the state. Close on the heels of the Pusyamitras, he had to face possibly the fir.st incursions of the Copprs^ uot be viewed seriously because the find pots oi Huns. All these led him to debase the gold coins and issue silver the Ssseals indicateluuiedLc that the authorityBeiiaal. of Puragpota, Bihar and Npasimhagupta the eastern coins. iVfToTuttw Pradesh, whereas Skandagupta was the overlord of Thus when Kumaragupta died the internal conditions of the districts references to enemies in the Bhiiari Gupta empire were by no means sound and settled. This explains the inscriptionan are to internalmentioning enemies of andthe notname to DevakiPusyamitras. might statement that 'Kumaragupta ended (his reign) in disaster' To quote R. N. Dandekar, "Kumaragupta was not much of a heroic warrior like Samudragupta, not an intrepid leader of men like ~teUcoCSt U Biust havefnrth been the sS view "A possible.mother's explanation name. is H^C that Chandragupta II. The credit of having preserved the vast Gupta Koy Chowdhun her'^miserable plight suggested empire intact for a long time, if not of enlarging it. is certainly due \h""ou P ereXSn with Krishna and Devaki. Such a to him. to the "r""" 1, ,, appears tempting, but we must however remem- h" thit in no knowm Gupta inscription tlie name Skandagupia's SKANDAGUPTA (455467 A.D.) motherother has evever r been mentionedstrength and consequently of one simile to inferin the tbat Bhitari her "Of our progenitors whom we ought to have remembered with name was Devaki hazardous. The reason why the court gratitude," writes R. K. Mookerji, "but whom centuries of Musalman oppression, rapine and destruction of records have caused us to poet citedCftrname^f ..pguit of Caki his personal instead fancy of orParvati whim oror whatAditi is moremay forget, the empire of Skandp^pta stands in the foremost rank. When the great Magadhan nation forgot its glorious past, its sacred I R may be because Skandagupta was an avowed Vaishnava, duty of defending the gods and Brahmanas, women and children, f01 he is well known to have been Paramabhafjavata. Tt does not the'weak and helpless and above all the defence of the mother-land| , ninrmfiiral for the court poet to have evoked the name of he alone remembered it, tried his best to maintain the glorious record Sna's mother when he was relating how his emperor, who must of his ancestors from being tarnished and the rich fertile plains of S seemed to him a protector like Krishna was hastening home, to the Indus and Ganges from being trampled under the feet of countless lu his anxious mother the glad tidings of lus great yietory over the horses of barbarian Huns, who overturned the mighty empire of the wkPvians It is therefore not sate to conclude that the name of Romans and uprooted the civilizations of Central Europe." This is ^kinda'-upta's mother was Devaki". The noTi-meutioning of the indeed, an eloquent tribute paid to Skandagupta who is in many ^ame of Skandagupta's mother cannot be taken as a positive evidence The Guptas did not follow a inufovm practice in this ways a remarkable personality. respect Sometimes the names of even ordinary queens are mention Scholars are divided on the question of the accession of Skanda ed as in the ease of Kubheranaga, queen of Chandragupta TT and gupta. On the strength of the evidence of the Arya-Manjum Mnla- sometimes, the names of queens, mothers of kings are omitted. kalpa and inscriptions R. K. Mookerji and others came to tlie Moreover, it has to be remembered, it was not as if only the sons of conclusion that the immediate successor of Kumaragupta I was the Chief Queens could inherit the throne.. The Guptas replaced the Skandagupta. R. C. Majumdar and others disputing this view opine law of primogeniture by the law of ultimogeniture. The cases of +hflt there was a fratricidal war in which Skandagupta came out after defeating the rightful claimant to the throne. 168 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 169 Sanmdragupta and Chandragupta point in the samo direction The heroic deeds of Skandagupta suggest that since he -n-as a prince of departure made by the Gupta sovereigns in the rules of succession, proven ability he was selected as Yiivaraja by Kumaragupta I him- which was hereditary, did not work out satisfactorily. This system converted the royal palace into an arena of political intrigues and self and hence there was civil war after the death of Kumaragupta treachery in which princes and the queens freely took part led to appears doubtful. the weakness of the empire. The greatest achievement of Skandagupta was liis encounter The risings of the Pusyamitra during the reign of Kumaragupta with the Hunas. As Yuvaraja lie had dealt with the Pusyamitras I seriously threatened the stability of the Gupta empire considerably. completely and arrested the progress of tlie first incursions of the ,The crown prince, Skandagupta no doubt dealt with them severely Hunas. After his accc.ssion to tlie throne he had to meet another 'and we do not hear of them any more in history. But it clearly formidable Huna invasion under Toramana and liis son Mihirakula brought to the surface the vulnerability of the empire. Added to defeated them and united the empire. R. N; Danclekar says "Hio-hest this there was the invasion of the Huns who were knocking at the praise is due to Skandagupta. who was undoubtedly the first hero in doors of India. Skandagupta defeated them also and saved the Asia and Europe to vanquish the Hunas". He was the last great country from their ravages. But there was enormous strain on the hero of the Guptas who realised thai it was his dutv to defend thp royal exchequer and Skandagupta was compelled to debase his gold gates of India at the last drop of his blood. coinage. But the Huns did not give up their designs on India. They In religion, Skandagupta followed the traditional policy of repeated their invasion for a second time and Skandagupta must tolerance and catholicity. Though a Vaishnava. he gave encoura^'e- have lost his life in this encounter. Under weak successors of ment to Jainas and the Surya worshippers. Skandagupta, Toramana and Mihirakula became masters of the Skandagupta was. indeed, one of tlie most illustrious rulers of Punjab and eastern Malva. the Gupta empire. His Junagadli inscription shows that his power Tlie most important cause for the decline of the Gupta empire was intact in that region. His Bull type silver coins prove that he was the assertion of independence by the vassal rulers of the Guptas, was the ma.ster of the Oambay coa.st. "His wise administration his who freed themselves from the imperial yoke and assumed the titles of Maharaja and MaJiarajadhiraja signifying their independent status. Among these powers mention may be made of the Maitrakaa "of Vnllabhi, the Maukharis of Kanauj. the Vakatakas of Berar, assuming the4-1, two.1. ^ titles4.-41 otci'- Ivramaditya' T-. ando— ^'ikramaditva • .iustified in .'Yasodharman of Malva and the rulers of Bengal. The successors of Skandagupta were not strong enou-'h to bear It was during the reign of Buddhagupta that the Maitrakas rose the brunt of the empire. The reign of Puragiipta. suc^cessor of 'to power at Vallabhi, the east of the peninsula of Saurashtra under Skandagupta, was troublesome one. His successor, Buddhagupta •the leadership of Bhattaraka. Dhruvasena, the third king of this according to R. K. Mookerji, 'recovered its position and presti^re dynasty, acknowledged the overlord-ship of the Guptas. They after the dark age following the death of Skandagupta". Tliis view o-vadually assumed an independent position. The rulers of Bengal is disputed. It is probable lie had lost control over the western IMalva Tollowed' the suit and became independent. region, Saurashtra or Oambay. After him the Gupta dynasty'did The rise of the Maukharis of Kanauj in the 6th century A.D. not survive long and declined. further weakened the Gupta power. About 554 A.D. Isanavarman Decline of the Gupta Empire : Causes. It is well and truly Mauldiari drew his sword against his master and assumed imperial said that the rise and fall of the empire alternates like day and title of Maharajadhiraja indicative of his independent status. Later, night. The Gupta empire that was built up by the genius of they allied themselves with the Vardhamanas of Thanesvar in their Saniudragupta and Chandragupta II was heading towards disintegra attempt to dislodge the tyrannical rule of Mihirakula. tion towards the end of the 5tli century A.D. With the death*^ of The establishment of an independent Vakataka empire gave a Skandagupta in 467 A.D. a period of anarchy and misrule set in death blow to the Gupta empire. It is clearly seen that how Chandra the annals of the Guptas. Attempts were no doubt made by gupta's success over the Sakas depended largely on the help he Narasimhagupta and Buddhagupta to retrieve the fortunes of the received from the Vakataka rulers. "The Vakataka Maharaja" tottering Gupta empire, but the dissensions in the royal family observed V. A. Smith, "occupied a geographical position in which he coupled with the foreign invasions and the ambitions of the subordi could be of much service or disservice to the northern invader of the nate chiefs of the Guptas made their eiforts ineffective. The Gupta dominion of the Saka Satraps of Gujarat and Surashtra" To secure empire met its inevitable end. the alliance of the Vakatakas Chandragupta II entered into The dissensions in the royal household contributed not a little matrimonial alliance with them. But after the death of Chandra towards the weakness of the empire. As has already been noted, the Gupta, his successor, Kumaragupta I either did not continue his 17V 170 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS father's policy towards them or they wanted to become independent. important. He does not also make any effort to buttress the king'ff However, during the reign of Narasimhagupta, the Vakatakas \vere- position with analogies of divinity. He has indeed a rational argu advancing in their ambitious campaigns to regain their independence, ment • "A righteous king, protecting his subjects to the best of and they'were crowned with success in the reign of Narendrasena his sources and having the power of capturing hostile cities, should (445-1:65) who triumphantly entered Malva. he held in as high regard as the Lord Prajapati (Brahman) himself. Yasodharman, the viceroy of Mandasor, was on intimate rela It is evident from this the people respected the kma as he was then tions with the Gupta empire which served as a bond of unity to the righteous ruler, efficient administrator and above all the final arbiter ■whole of northern India. He helped his suzerain, Baladitya. m hi& of law'. ■victory over the Hunas. However, his part in this victory seems to The Gupta monarch was not an unbridled one. His authority have turned his head. He openly defied the Gupta power by erecting was circumscribed by the existence of nmairiijaris/mt/. Tbe lansr did two pillars of victory to commemorate the defeat of the foreigners. not attend the parishad meeting. He placed his proposal if This rebellious attitude of Yosadharman weakened Gupta power ■andthe Vision of the Parishad was-final. There was a so the sabha, considerably. an or-an of public opinion. Moreover, tlie kinir was no a law-giver Thus the rise of new independent states meant the partitioning ],e was only an administer of law. This be did without lU the least of the Gupta empire which proved fatal and that was the end of the violating the spirit underlying it. All tl.ese prove that the Govern Gupta empire. ment was constitutional in character. . • ADMINISTRATION The King ' Tlie king was the pivot of the government and an Its character. The government of the Gupta like their important limb in the body politic. He was to man the ship of the predecessors, the Mauryas, was constitutional in character. The state neaeefullv and efRciently. Smiee lie was anxious to earn the assumption of the high sounding titles such as Maharajadhiraja, ^latitude of the people, he bestowed great attention both on the rajadhiraja, paranwrajadhiraja, rajadhirajarahi, and rajarajadhi- SdsL liffand and means property The mostof the important people. Kamandakaduty of the kingsays was: ■•Tie to protect king raja, coupled with that of paramadaivata paraynahhattaraka maha- must furnish protection and. in return, liis subjee s wiU yield rajadkiraja has led some scholars to .surmise that tliese titles taMs" Among his other duties may be mentioned iiitroduetion of emphasise the divine nature of the monarchy. The reference to prompt measures to avert calamities, promotion of in-ts and educa Samudragupta in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription 'as a god dwelling tion and formulation of sound foreign policy. "The Gupta king did on earth, and a mortal only in celebrating tlie rites of the observaneea his duty to the state as a soldier, to the subjects by making thoiU' of mankind' and the description in the later genealogical account as 'equal to the gods Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna. Indra. and Antaka riov the arts of peace, to society by the obserimncc of religions and (yama) "who had no antagonist of equal power in the world" and S conventions and himself and his family by his good behaviour "who wa's the battle-axe of the god Kritanta (yama)'" point in and righteous mode of conduct. Gupta kings placed duties above the .same direction. But the actual working of tlie government rights enjoyed such privileges which came to them as the custo- BU<'gests that the Guptas were not autocrats, nor absolute monarchs diaus of the empire . and thev respected the established laws and customs of the hind. Generally■Fforeditary the ruling succession sovereign was thenoininated prevalent his practice successor of whomthe day. he They were cultured and observed virtuous conduct and self-restraint. rtoimht fit to shoulder the responsibility of the country. He need The kinc^s were venerated and respected by the people because Tint necessarily be the eldest son. Persons of royal birth were sent they considered the institution of kingship as wortliy of respect when the law givers of the period enjoined upon the people to as viceroys of the provinces in the empire. respect the kin'' it was only because of this. Kamandaka says t "The The mantriparishad or the CounoU of Ministers ; The Kamaii- monarchy coUapses with the collapse of the king : while it revives j 7 ■.,„«»! leaves us in no doubt regarding the existence of the with its revival, like the lotus reviving at the rising of the Sun." tSriS This Parishad was merely an advisory body and Continuing be declared, "The king is more necessary than the essential limb in the body pobtic. The posts of: the CounoAl of in for the failure of the rains can be survived, but the absence of mnisters were hereditary, because it was thought that the hereditary the ruler cannot The king is the lawful promoter of all these urinciple may bring with it the tradition of learning and genius. righteous practices, therefore, in the ahsense of a king all right The Mantrimukhya or the Prime Minister presided over the eousness is lost and at the loss of righteousness, this world also meets deliberations of the Council and informed its decision to the th destruction." In his discussion of the sapianga thereby Kaman sovereign. It appears that there was no clear cut division of daka makes it clear that all the elements of, sovereignty are equally military and civil offices. For instance, the composer of Allahabad P-348. pillar Inscription, Harisena, was. himself a Kumaramaiya, Maha- dandanayaka and Sandkivigrahika. It has been argued by soine- 172 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 175 scholars that this fact may indicate that either a minister was of arbitration of justice. It conferred two important advantages. (1) transferred from one portfolio to another or that one minister was the experts in law examined the cases and settled the disputes that in charge of more than one department. came up before the courts and (2) it reduced litigation. The duties of the mantriparishad were many. It examined the It is important to note that the tone of the Gupta criminal various aspects of an intricate subject, and arrived at a correct administration was not as rigorous as that of the Mauryas. Kaman decision. Kamandaka says : "A counsel should be again and a^ain daka says : ''The king can no longer hope to control his subjects discussed, before it is finally disposed of ; it should be strTcth- without punishment than a fisherman can hope to catch fish without preserved with scrupulous zeal. A counsel carelessly kept beine a rod. But punishment must be proportionate to the offence if the prematurely divulged, destroys the king even like fire itself' king is to be feared and yet respected". Again, "'Inflicting punish Therefore the king quickly acted on the decisions taken in thp ments heavier than the offences, a king terrifies his subjects, while council. dealing out lighter ones, he is held in contempt by them.. Therefore, Among the important officials of the Central Governmenl a monai'ch should impartially meet out punishments proportionate mention may be made of Baladhikarana or the army offieeT a to the offences." The Guptas gave up tlie use of ordeals. As Fa-hien moral like Aeoka's Dharmamahamairas called VinavasthW observes : "The king in his administration uses no corporal punish sthapaka. The chief of the Police was Dandapasadkikarma The ments; the criminals are merely fined according to the gravity of officer m charge of the military commissariat was called Ranalhan their offences. Even for a second attempt at rebellion, tlie punish There is a reference to the class of Xers ment is only the loss of right hand". The statement brings forth lipankas whose status, designation and functions are not oertai? the mild and benevolent character of the Gupta administration. Aceordmg to some tliey were higher government officials with the In matters of judicial administration Gupta period marks an designation of a minister. K. V. Rano-aswami AK-on,,.,. V Important phase especially in the growth of law. The growth of that he was the president of the coundl of ministers Thev^^al customary law and the formulation of law by interpretation are to ucted as provincial heads. "misters. Ihey also be assigned to this period. 'It is significant to note that the separation Revenne Administration ; Sound finance was the basis of the of judiciary ITom executive which is being tried today was already successful government. Treasury was, indeed the h^-rnr^ ^ ^ in vogue during the Gupta period'. administration and cultural development and'hence its Tn ^ ■ Military Organization ; The Guptas maintained a well equip among the seven elements of sovereignty. The Gupta ped and strong army. Tlic existence of separate war cabinet suggests ^t give much information regarding the administration of revenue that the Guptas were keen on the maintenance of efficiency in the The primary source of the revenue to the central exchcnnp^ « n ^ army organization. They also possessed a fleet. The war office looked was the land tax. The land tax was not uniform due to thp pvI f I after the limbs of the army in addition to tlie commissariat and different kinds of lands. We l^ow only of t™ tect kiSfoT^d admiralty. The Gupta records refer to a number of army officers. t^es, VIZ, bhaga a tax paid by the private land owner, and The Mahabaladhikrita wa.s the commander-in-ehiei' of the army; bhoga a ax paid on erown lands. Merchants, artisans, traders and Mahahaladhyaksa, the superintendent of the army, supervised and wealthy classes paid taxes. To these sources may be added incZ controlled the armed forces; Mahasarva-dandanayaka. the supreme from mint, booty from war and tribute paid by the feudatories ThT commander and controller of Sart^adhyaksas; Mahadn^idanayaka, was a department to collect the taxes regularly. The fact that ^ officer-in-charge of laud transactions; Mahascvdhi Vigrahika, the Gupta empire lasted for over two centuries suggests that the treasii^! chief officer for peace and war; Sandhivigrahika, an officer who took was swelling and this imparted stability to the fabric of the Gup^ part during the war period, and Baladhikarana, an army officer. The different limbs of the army had their own chiefs. Thus pulapati was Judicial Administration : Administration of iustice tii the commandant of the elephant corps; hatapati was in charge of most important duty of the king. The Gupta kin<^ were elephants; and asvapati was ineharge of cavalry. Probably the use of this vital function of theirs and administered the law withr! I of the chariots was on the decline. Ranahhandaraka was in char^^e -the least violating the spirit underlying it. There were a of war finances. The entire military establishment was his respons tion of courts from the chief court to the local courts A ® f " ibility. demarcation was made between the civil and criminal cnny-fc ^ Provincial Gkivemment : chief court was the Sabha presided over by PradviTZ \
180 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS there was not a new movement and the patronage of the king was 4. This hill has smoke "which is invariably associated "with not the main factor. Yet it has to be admitted that in no age that fire (JJpanaya). * ■ ' we come across such a outburst of literary activity in all its branches as was during the Gupta period. 5. Therefore this hill has fire {Nigam
first drama Malavikagnimitra deals with the material world of their literary merit. They are really a veritable link in the chain Kings and courts. The next drama Vikrama-Urvasiya in which the of India's intellectual, mental and literary development. What mythological King Pururava is identified with Vikrama and to show distinguishes his works from others are his inimitable style, his a higher spiritual evolution Urvasi is brought down, and the mortal poetic diction and his great mastery over the use of metaphors. His (man) and the immortal (spirit) are reconciled midway. Finally in description of nature and its beauties and the delineation of human A'bhij7iam Sakuntala the highest Advaita philosophy based on character was so superb and realistic that whoever read could not- Pratydbhijna system of Kashmir is taught in the uniting of Dusyanta- help bein«- fascinated by it. It is with the help of his rich imagina and Salmntala. According to this system recognition {Pratyabhij- tion and "poetic genius—he had made several observations about nana) of the reality is all that is needed for release. The bondage of human nature which would always remain as perennial truths. There ignorance is only overcome by this recognition. When the soul is no wonder therefore that in 1958 Soviet Russia went to the extent recognises itself as God, it rests in the mystic bliss of oneness with of honouring Kalidasa by issuing special commemorative stamp. God. The poet has shown how the union of Dusyanta and Sakuntala Another great dramatist of the period was Visakhadatta who in the First Act as mere loveffe is futile, their union in the wrote a purely political drama in Sanskrit viz., Mudraraksasa which last act as the parents of Bharata is true union. Prafi Abhijna deals with the incidents of Chandragupta Maurya and also Cliandra- means recognition and Abhijmna Sakuntala is the title of the drama. gupta II Vikramaditya. There is not a single major female character The drama Ahhijnana Sakuntala Kmts at the union of Siva and in this drama. He also wrote another drama, Devichandragupfam Sak'ti, matter and spirit in an mdiyidual iuiity^ which depends upon dealing with the early life of Chandragupta II and Ramagupta. This the Recognition of the individual soul or Jiva of its inherent divinity that is Siva . Goethe, a master poet of Europe, has summed is found only in fragments. up his criticism of Sakuntala as follows : A new form of literature in Sanskrit called the fables came into TO^ue during this period. The most illustrious work in this class is "Wouldst thou the Young Years blossoms, th? Panohatantra, 'a great treasure of stories'^ The word And the fruits of its decline, PMc/iafraira means the'Five Books'. 'Eaeh of tlie five books is And all by which the Soul is charmed, independent consisting of a framing story with numerous inserted enraptured, feasted fed, Stories told as fit circumstances arise, by one or another of the Wouldst thoii the earth and Heaven itself characters in the main narrative.' It is essentially a work on niti In one soul name combine ? and the main intention of the stories was to teach politics to princes. I name thee, 0 Sakuntala, and all at once The educative value of the stories can hardly be exaggerated. It is Is said". believed 'that an ounce of sense contained in the Panchafantra is He says expressly that Sakuntala contain^ the history of a better than a ton of scholarship (not contained). Panchatantra was development, the development of flower into fruit, of earth into theritv narentall over of the Hitopadcsa. world as it Panchatntra is the best collectionhad attained of stories,wide popula-in the Heaven, of matter into spirit. Finally in the ending of the drama world' Its wide popularity can be realised by the fact that it has been Kalidasa teaches the final aim of political as well as individual life. translated into many languages in the world. It is said that 'probably Kalidasa condemned imperialism and autocracy and advises no book except the Bible has been translated into so many languages, kings or rulers to act according to the best interests of the Praltritis certainly no secular book.' or ordinary people. All learning must be sub-ordinated to the Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya^ Dandin's Kavyadarsa and the spiritual truth taught intuitively in the Sriitis or the Vcdas. Finally Dasakumaracharita and Subaiidhu's Vasavadatta fall under the to show that his drama is not merely a social play for amusements but class of romances. In lexicography, Amarasimha's Namalinrjanu- a philosophic work, he appeals to Siva united with Sakti, but sasana popularly known as Anmrakosa 'is devoted to the synonyms existing alone as the goal of the whole world to free from the- of personal and common names in three chapters, divided into eternal circle of births and rebirths, (-S'amsora). sections and arranged, after careful analysis from the point of view If we analyse the works of Kalidasa it would be clear that he- of the intrinsic connection on words with other words. It gives the wrote with a definite purpose; wdth a national and philosophical gender of names by a skilful means conducive to brevity, and a idea. He was himself a Vedantic and worshipper of Siva. His section deals with hymonyms and another with indeclinables.'. writings show to a great extent a keen appreciation of high ideal The Smritis of Brihaepati, Narada, Katyayana, Yyasa and and lofty thought and thus there is a great dynamic force for parasara are assigned to this period.^ They help us to trace the moulding heroic character or noble or profound temperament. development of law and Legal institutions. The most important work It may be noted here that Kalidasa's plays have been translated in all the major languages of the world and have been recognised for 6. Macdonell, A.A., India's Past, p. 125.
1. M
THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 185 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 184 Altekar remarks, "Had he been foUowed by'a succession^of the on Artliasastra during this period is EamandalciyaniH, an abridge students and followers as keenly devoted to these Cerent Jl.auches ment of the Arthasastra of Kautilya by Kamandaka, who is believed as their master India would certainly not have lagged behind the to be a minister of the Guptas. Of the eighteen major Purmas Vaiju, WeS In Cr contribution to the progress in the different branches Brahmanda, Maisya, Yislinu and Bkagavata puranas' are assigned of science during the Medieval age and modern tunes. to this period. Bkagavata purana deals with hhakti in Krishna and was successful to a great extent in counteracting the influence of Another iUustrious name in the field of science was Aryahhatta. heterodox religion. Bhakti religion was found by foreigners most Onlv a few of his works have come down to ns and among them convenient for adoption. Aruabhattiya, Dasagitikasutra, and Aryashtasata may be mentioned. Brahmanical philosophy received the attention of Gupta TTil works deal both with mathematics and astronomy. He was the scholars. Of the six systems, works on Samkliya, Purvamimamsa, first to treat Mathematics as a distinct subject. Again he was the Nyaya and Yoga have come down to us. Isvarakrishna wrote first to discover that the earth rotates on its axis and moves round Samkhya-Karika which is rightly described as 'pearl of the whole ftrsun 'and that the ecUpses were not the work of Eahn but caused scholastic literature of India.' Sahara wrote Bkaskya on the Tthe shadow of the earth falling on the moon'. He found out the Miniamsa Suira of Jainism. This is the earliest extant Bhasya. functions and utilised them in astronomy. To measure the Vatsyayana was the expositor of the Nyayasuiras. The Yoga- dSerence in the duration of two consecutive days he worked out Bhashya of Vyasa, the earliest commentary on the Yoga sutra of precise formula and postulated an epieyclic theory to explain the Patanjali is dated about 500 A.D. variations in planetary motions.' His contribution to Mathematics, I^metrygeomeuy and» algebras are. indeedimportance very significant. of which He 'for invented the deve- the Among the writers on Buddhist philosophy in Sanskrit two deserve special mention, viz., Vasubandhu and Dinnaga; Vasuban- fomentlopment 'ofoi sscience in ,general ^ and onof theMathematics place-value insystem particular of the dhu, the younger brother of Aryasanga or Asanga flourished in the cannot be e^^ggerat^ ^ of the zero. His magnomopus, Arya- court of Samudragupta. He was the author of Alhidharmakosa and •its Bhashya. Dinnaga was a reputed logician and his logic is dea 'with, the evolutionidentities, and and involution, indeterminate area equationsand volume of comparable to that of Aristotle in its originality and in the fact that it spread over the whole of Eastern half of Asia'. S:fireTtne nrai deyaegxc e'.'llsXcription „p.^ptrv Algebra of the has properties been benefited of l^e circle by hashis Scientific Literature ; SSSiHS itlV.' to.- Apart from the secular and philosophic literature, there were Sta rCTolutioned mathematics in more ways than one. _ many works on the technical literature such as astronomy, mathe Tn medicine Vriddha Vagbhata, the third of the medical trios matics, medical and other sciences. Varahamihira, the astronomer of .nfl ourished anvmsdu g this period.acknowledged His wprk^ the indebtednessAshtanga'Sangraka, to Charaka in encyclopaedic interests, lived in about 550 A.D, In his astronomical prose mixea -offards the development of technical science we works Varahamihira mentions many previous writers of whom the and Susrnta.^ Meharanli, old Delhi, which in spite names of Paitamaha, Romaka, Paulisa, Vasista and Surya deserve to be mentioned. He divided Jyotisha sastra into three branches STts^ xposure to weather for the last about 1500 years, remains namely, Tantra (astronomy and mathematics), Eora (horoscope) without corrosion. and Samhita (astrology) and wrote six works on them. He eon-eeted The natronage that the Gupta rulers extended to men of letters ancient Hindu Calendars and wrote Panckasiddhantika, a great ^ lareelv to the development of Sanskrit literature in all astronomical work. His Brihatsamhita, in 106 chapters, is a monumental work in Sanskrit literature. It is a veritable encyclopae ^'^"fnrms thus justifying the appellation 'the classical Age' applied dia on all arts and sciences. It deals with subjects like the" 'Move to the Gupta period. In the history of Indian literature it was ments of heavenly bodies and their effect upon men, geography, really a golden age. architecture, construction of images, excavation of tanks,, laying AET out of gardens, special characteristics of the different classes of women and animals, jewellery, augury, marriage etc." His Brihat- Just as in the field of literature so in the domain of art, the vivahapatala and Svalpavivahapatala deal with auspicious times for a^e of the Guptas made tremendous progress. It is for this reason marriage. He wrote the Yogayatra on omens about wars of kings. that the age is called &8 the classical age of Indian arts. Kings and On horoscopy he wrote the Laghu and the Brihat Jatakas. But nobles liberally patronised art. The art of this period is known for Varahamihira could hardly find a school of his own. As A. S. 8. The Vakataka Gupja Age, p. 385. 7. The Classical Age; p. 323. 186 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 187 its sensitiveness, universalism and anthropomorphism, and stren^-tli- of the period.' In the Gupta sculpture are illustrated the as well as beauty. The notable qualities of the art of the Guptas are stories of the Bhagavata, Sarivmisa and Yishnupuraua. Tho beautifully summed up by A. K. Coomaras^vamy thus ; "Gupta art Varaha from the Vishnu was also very popular. The gigantic image is the flower of our established tradition, a polished and perfected of Varaha at Udayagiri is a monument of the genius of the Gupta medium, like the Sanskrit lan^age, for the establishment of tliought sculptors. The figure of Ananta Sesa resting on the cosmic serpent and feeling its character is self possessed, urbane, at onc& is beautifully carved. The Ardhanarisvara which has been executed exuberant and formal Philosophy and faith possess a common with a masterly skill is a triumph of Gupta plastic art. The images language in this art that is at once abstract and sensuous, reserved of Buddha found at Sarnath and other places are known for their and passionate." serenity of expression. Some of the Jaina images of the period 'are Architecture : The Gupta age constitutes a great landmark in crude, disproportionate, lacking in balance and a delicacy of outline'. the history of Indian architecture. This period saw the emergence of Among the monoliths of the Gupta period mention may be 'the earliest known conception of the Hindu "house God" and with made of the Vishnu pillar at Eran and the Iron pillar at Delhi. The the appearance of this type of building, architecture composed of Eran Pillar is 44 ft. in height and has a typical Gupta lion abacus. stone masonry made its beginning.' V. S. Agrawala listed the"Gupta The Iron pillar at Delhi is an outstanding example of the Gupta temples in the following order : craftsmansliip. Its total height inclusive of the capitol is 23 ft inches. The entire weight exceeds six tons. The pillar consists of a 1. Vishnu temple at Tigowa in Jubbalpore district. square abacus, a melon-shaped member and a companiform ca-pitol. 2. 'Siva temple at Bhumara. ' ' •'•li/ Percy B^o^vn considers this pillar as a remarkable tribute to the 3. Parvati temple at Nachna-kutara. /• genius and manipulative dexterity of the Indian worker." To this V A Smith adds, "It is not many years since the production of 4. The Buddhist shrine at Sanchi, such a pillar would have been an impossibility in the largest 5. The Dasavatara temple at Deogarh. .\! ' foundries of the world, and even now there are comparatively few 6. A temple of Siva at Khoh. " • •.< i where a similar mass of metal could be turned out. 7. The Buddhist shrine at Bodh Gaya, • Painting : The Paintings of the Gupta period are well and truly represented in the celebrated Ajanta Frescos, which has been 8. A temple in a ruined state but of great merit'' fbia'd af ri<'htly re<»arded as the 'cradle of Asian art.' This art represents the Dah-Parbatia m Tezpur district, Assam. traditions^ India from the beginning of our era to the Gupta Prom the point of view of workmanship and sculptural renr^^ period The caves, including the unfinished ones, are thirty in sentations, the temple at Deogarh, 'a little artistic masterpiece' Tg number and even as late as 1879 paintings of a greater or lesser of great merit. Its main attraction is-the doorway which has been extent remained in 16 caves. Since then, much of it has been exquisitely carved. As Percy Brown observes that "few monument® disappeared and what little that remains now is sufficient to indicate- can show such high level of workmanship, combined with the ripeness: the classical restraint, a highly developed taste and deep aesthetic and refinement in its sculptural effect as the Gupta temnle at feeling that characterise themselves to religious art alone but they Deogarh". ^ have depicted in a charming manner all phases of life. As Rotlien- A significant contribution of the Gupta temple architecture Ui Etein has put it; "on the hundred walls and pillars of these rock Indian architecture is the addition of a new member over the flat f carved temples, a vast drama moves before our eyes, a drama' played of the Garhhagriha, known as the Sikhara. In the early temnles^at by princes and sages and heroes, by men and women of every Bhumara and Nachana-kutara there is only a flat roof ov tl condition, against a marvellously varied scene, among forests and square Garhhagriha, but no sikhara. This is the basis for D Pleet^'^ gardens, in courts and cities, on wide plains and in deep jungles, remark that 'the original of the sikhara or spire in Indian t while above the messengers from heaven move swiftly in the sky. From all these emanates a great joy in the surpassing radiance of the architecture is much later than the period of domination of i face of the world the physical nobility of men and women, in the Gupta emperors in Northern India'. The year 473-74 is Lw v strength and grace of animals and the loveliness and purity of considered as the first year of the appearance of the A birds and flowers; and women into this fabric of material beauty we temple architecture of the Guptas. see the ordered pattern of the spiritual values of the universe "Some Sculpture. In the field of sculpture again the Gupta aee mar of the Jataka stories are illustrated in a masterlv fashion The scenes remarkable progress. Here we see a 'clear expression of like the 'mother and the child before Buddha' and the 'toilet' in cave synthesis of the earlier popular cults of Yaksha and tree w ti XVII, the great Bodhisat™ (p^mapani) in cave I and the paintings the Buddhist and Jaina heresies, and the Brahmanical rpnail^r!] on the ceilings of caves ll and XXIII are of great merit The Aianta which were welded together by the upsurge of the Bhagavatism spirit pervades the paintings at Bagh in Malva. 188 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS THE AGE'OF THE GUPTAS 189 Thus the keynote of the Gupta art is elegance and simplicity of expression. It 'represents the norms of metaphysical rather than went to the HeU of unceasing torment" These observations show corporeal human beauty. The humanistic note of Gupta art is ™w oppressive was the rule of Mihirakula and the people must have •embodied in the popular aphorism 'Beauty is never intended for sin'. heaved sigh of reUef at the news of his death. The norm that the beautiful is the true and the good dominates life, The causes for the faUnrc of the Hunas in India are not far to manners and art in the Gupta age.' seek By to oppressive poUcy Mihirakula alienated the sympathies Tf01 tnethe peoplepeop at large whichsoil didThe not greatest facilitate shock hem to theto strikeHunas their was THE BUNAS ?he£ loss of power in Persia. Persians allying with the Turks invaded The Hunas who invaded India in the middle of the fifth century SSr homfin Oxus Valley, defeated and killed its king and divided A.D. belonged to that branch which flowed towards the Oxus Valley ImTng themselves their territory. The kingdoms that rose to po^r and are known as Ephthalites or White Huns. They made simul of the Gupta empire stemmed the progress of the taneous raids on Persia and India. After crossing the Hindu Kush, V Huias The Hunas, like other foreign hordes before them, embraced they captured Gandhara and continued their march in India. They HMuism and in course of time became indistinguishable from tbe were, however, not destined to enjoy much success as they were indigenous population. utterly defeated at the hands of Skandagupta. Their success 'in Persia enhanced their political prestige. the later GUPTAS Undaunted by this defeat the Hunas made another successful When the Gupta empire was parcelled out, the home province of bid under Toramana. He conquered Malwa land styled himself +1.0^e PiiritLGuptM, Maga^a,, fellGuptas into hands of Magadha'. of a line Theof rulers rulers who of thisare Makarajadkiraja. His coins show that he ruled over parts of U.P., designated a second half of the 6th Bajaputana, Punjab and Kashmir. dynasty thriL century. AU monarchs of this line century to th ending in Gupta. This has given rise Toramana was succeeded by his son Mihirakula who ruled over excepting one liad their ^ connected with the his Indian possessions from Sakala or Sagala. "We iCarh from Rajatarangini that he was 'a king of violent disposition' and revelled to the PuDtas One thing is certain that the later Guptas himself in acts of great cruelty. He was very powerful and ruled n^^erafem to hL had any blood relationship wi^ the early Guptas over a vast domain which even induced the Chinese Emperor to send ?or simple reason that the first r^er or the founder of the line the embassy of Sung-yun. He records : "The disposition of this king ^is^agupta. is designated as king helongmg to a good (or dynasty) was cruel and vindictive, and he practised the most H is also argued that "in an age when we find a tendency of barbarous atrocities. He did not believe the law of Buddha, but loved t^court writers to exaggerate the importance of the royal famihes ■to worship demons. Entirely self-reliant on his own strength, he had evL t^ the extent of giving them pedi^ees reaching not only the entered on a war with the country of Ki'-pin (Kashmir), disputing Woes hut also the Sun and Moon, it must be regarded p very the boundaries of their kingdom, and his troops had been already that no aUusion should be made in their inscriptions to engaged in it for three years. The king has 700 war elephants rv"eton ^tb tbe imperial Guptas, if there were any remote The king continually abode with his troops on the frontier and never * f^it " It is just possible that they might have assumed the returned to his kingdom ' ■ . . i Sto fromPi'inta tt eto people command and theato sameto saverespect themselves as that offrom the beingearly Mihirakula, though powerful and strong, was not an undefeated ruler. He had to taste defeat twice in Malva and after his second called as a dynasty of usurpers. defeat his younger brother usurped the throne. Now Mihirakula Connecting this, there is another problem concerning their took refuge in Kashmir. He chose to repay his gratitude to the . . ai home Some scholars, including F.J. Fleet are of the opinion Kashmir king by seizing his throne. Then he invaded Gandhara, Mpffadha was the original home of the Later Guptas. The slaughtered the innocent people, persecuted the Buddhists and second view is that the Later Guptas originated from Malva. B.C. demolished their monuments. Cosmas Indicopleustes attests to his Sen and R. S- Tripathi hold the view that their original home was cruel acts. He says : "Higher up in India that is farther to the Malva, but towards the close of the 6th century they migrated to North, are the "White Huns. The one called Gollas when going to Magadha. The exploits of Jivitagupta on the seashore and Mahasena's war takes with him, it is said no fewer than two thousand elephants victory over Susthitavarman, a tog of Kamarupa belonging to and a great force of cavalry. He is the lord of India, and oppressing Pusyavarman family, as recorded in the Aphsad inscription leave us the people, forces them to pay tribute". Yuan Chwang observes in no doubt that the Later Guptas bad a strong hold over Magadha, that ''ills career was cut short by his sudden death, and the air was their original home. It may also he argued that had they lived in darkened, and the earth quaked, and fierce winds rushed forth as he Malva, they could have extended their sway in Eastern India only at THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 191 190 THE AGE OF THF GUPTAS consequence of these invasions utter disorder prevailed, confusion the cost of the Maukharis. But that is not the case. Therefore, the reigned supremely and the Later Gupta dynasty came to an end. original home of the Later Guptas was Magadha, and not Malva. Not much is known about the first three rulers—Krishnagupta REPUBLICS IN ANCIENT INDIA Harshagupta and Jivitagupta—of this dynasty who are mere names' The history of the republics in ancient India is an interestin'* Aphsad inscription just mentions that Jivitagupta carried his arms study. It shows the gradual evolution of pluralistic political dis° •as far as the Himalayas. The later Guptas appears to have begun cipline as opposed to the deification of authority vested in a single their political career as the subordinates of tlie Imperial Guptas and individual. It is not easy to determine whether republics were declared their independence when the Gupta empire fell on evil days evolved out of monarchies. 'The best and the most reasonable view The independent rule of the Later Guptas actually began from the would be perhaps to hold that tlie germs of the non-monarchical reign of its fourth king, Kumaragupta. He is said to have defeated form of government lay in the institutions of the past and as'time the Maukhari chief, Isanavarman, and went as far as Prayao- where went on these not only survived but were strengthened in certain he died. Damodaragupta, the next king, continued the war ^th the localities while in the central region, saeerdotalism strengthened the Maukharis and defeated them again. basis of the monistic political discipline.' The studv of the republics Damodaragupta was succeeded by Mahasenagupta. Tliat tlierC was shows that the generalisation about the Orient as the laud exclusively intimate relationship between the family of Mahasenagupta and the of despotism and as the only home of despotism must be abandoned. Vardhamanas of Thanesvar under its king Prabhakaravardhana is Wliat is required is a more intensive study of the Orient and a evidenced by the Madhuban grant and the. Sonapat'copper seal in more honest presentation of oriental laws and institutions. scription of Harsa. According to Aphsad inscription, Mahasena Republics with sovereign authority must have originated very entered into war with Maharajadhiraja Susthitavarraan. It is recorded -early in India. Some of them survived with complete or modified that Susthitavarman was defeated by Mahasenagupta 'whose mighty independence down to the time of Samudragupta. These are men fame, marked in the honour of victory over the illustrious Susthita tioned not only in Buddhist and Jaina records, but also in the varman, while as a full-blown jasmine flower or waterlily, or as a Greek and Latin literature on India and Alexander as weU as in pair of necklaces of pearls pounded into little bits, it is still the epics and treatises on polities. To a ,certain extent their existence constantly sung on the banks of Lauhitya.' Nidhanpur record makes can be attested by numismatic and epigraphie evidence. The people -a veiled reference to this defeat of Susthitavarman, where it is said of the Vedic age were familiar with Republican nationalities. Among that he 'gave way to the goddess of fortune, like the eartii to the Uttara Kurus and Uttara Madras, the "whole community was supplicants.' By these victories, Mahasenagupta retrieved the family ■consented to rulership" in the language of the Aiteraya Brahmana. fortunes of the Later Guptas. The career of Mahasenagupta is said to Republics are described in Saniiparva of the ^tahahharaia as have ended tragically, but the details are lacking. However, his two invincible states in which the rule of equality is obsen^ed. "Neither sons Kumaragupta and Madhavagupta took refuge at Thanesvar and prowess nor cleverness can overthrow them; they can be overturned became attendants to Harsha and Rajyavardhana. by the enemies only through the policy of divisions and subsidy." During the time of the Buddha the Sakyas and the Vajjians The last and perhaps the most notable member of the Later were the most important republican clans in the eastern provinces Gupta dynasty was Adityasena. He revived the Gupta sovereignty of India. The territory of the Sakya Republic covered about 50 over Magadha. A matrimonial alliance was concluded between the miles east to west and 30 or 40 miles southward from the foot of the Later Guptas and the Maulcharis, Bhogavarman Maukhari marrying Himalayas. The population numbered about one million. They had the daughter of Adityasena. He also renewed the contact with the their capital at Kapilavastu. rulers of Bengal thereby reversing the policy of his forefathers He The Videhas had at first been monarchical, with jurisdiction performed as many aa four Asvamedha sacrifices and assumed imperial over an area of 23 hundred miles in circumference. But they abolish titles like Paramahhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja. ed the regal polity and joined the Vaisali and six other tribes to form During the later part of his reign, there was an invasion of the the powerful confederacy of the Vajjians. The administrative and Western Chalukyas of Badami, who gave the last great blow to the judicial business of the Sakya republic was "carried out in -nnbli^ supremacy, influence and prestige of the later Gupta power. This assembly, at which young and old were alike nroRPni puoiic they could not survive, as Adityasena was followed by weak succes xnote-hall (like sabha). 1single chief was eiectTa ote = sors. Added to this, there was another invasion led by Tasovarman pi^sidmg over the sessions, and if no sessions were sitting over t^e of Kanauj who defeated and killed the Magadhan king The success of Yasovaman was, however, short-lived, for he was defeated In the Vajjian confederacy the "criminal law was administered by the Kashmirian Imperialist, Muktapida Lalitaditya. As a 192 THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS 193 by a succession of regularly appointed There were the 1 justices (Vimchchayamahamatias), 2. the Lawyer Judffp«? (Vnhn^si Magadha, had been contemplating the annihilation of the Vajjains kas), 3 The doctors of the law (Sudattas) "mighty and powerful though they be". But the Buddha rose to presentative of the 8 clans (Atthakulukas) 5. The general Lzl the heights of the occasion and confidently declared : "the Vajjians pah), 6. The yice-president (Uparaja), 7 The nresident cannot be overcome by tbe king of Magadha i.e. not in battle, The aeeused could he acquitted by ea'ch of the e offieeif ButIf he without diplomacy or breaking their alliance". was considered guilty, the case had to be referred W * The Greek writers and generals who accompanied Alexander the next in order above them The final award ef tn offii'srs to have left an account of the mighty military republics that flourished privilege of the president. in North-Western India. Megasthenes noticed the existence of Explaining this procedure K P Tavncwoi t, republics in his day. Alexander had to measure his strength with liberty of the citizen was most jealously guarded i? the T- rL - these republics in his march through the Punjab and Sind. The constitution. In the words of B.C. MaiiSr ?th most important of them were the Arattas arastraka (legless peoples), the Kshudrakas, the Kathaians and the Malvas. The mdividual was thus safeguarded maZnner Republic of the Arattas came to the help of Chandragupta Maurya, few parallels in the world.' probably when a few years later he commanded a successful crusade against The Buddha was a staunch renublicflTi >arrT-i- i . the Hellenists of the Indian borderline. may note here the foUowing illuminating conversSn bpr""'' r' The number of the Republican states during the second half of and his favourite disciple, Ananda in +\f ? between Inm the 4th century B.C. was large enough to draw the attention of Snatanta. "Have you heard Amndi + +u tr ^^^P^'-^^ni'b'bana- Kautilya, the Hindu Bismarck. Indeed, he has devoted a whole often, and freqnen? the public meett»s of thi chapter of his work, Arthasastra, for detailing these republics. He Master. meetings of their clans?" Asked the classes these republics under the sections, viz. Va'.'ia-sasiropajivin ^'^'Lord, so I have heard," he replied. and RajasaMopajivin. To the first category belonged the Kambojas, Surastras, Ksatriyas, Srenis and others who practised varta, viz.,' ^embUes : so ^ey^^meJ^toSer frequent agriculture, cattle breeding and trade. To the second category in concord and carry out VaiiaiuH' hnm-yia eoncotd and rise belonged the Lichehhavikas, Vrijikas, Mallakas, Madrakas, Kurus- as they enact nothing not Kukuras, Panchalas and others are King-consul republics. As these ing that has been already enacted Jnd abrogate notli- petty popular politics were a nuisance, obstructing the acliievements aneient institutions of the Vajjains as e^tahv accordance with the of all Indian nationalism, Kautilya advised Chandragupta, to use so long as they honour and esteem former days: the policy of blood and iron in order to anniliilate them. yajjain Elders, and hold it a point of dnw^^® ^ support the Kautilya as a realist and practical statesman realised the words; so long may the Vajjains be exnSS to hearken to their importance of the republics. He says : "The acquisition of the help prosper." xpected not to decline but to of the Republics (Gma) is better than the acquisition of an army _ .It was not in a quietiest manner tbflt -D an aUy or profits." Before undertaking to destroy them by the his ideals, a born democrat, he was an a t' Buddha tried to realize force of arms, the Sarvahhouma, the imperialist nation builder must Mahaparinihhana-sitttanta '-we mav organker. From the make it his duty to AVin them over to the cause of a united imperial Republican propaganda. He says • ^ glimpse of his state. He did not hesitate to recommend the free use of Avine and Vajjians three conditions of welfare" staying at th« women to undermine their poAver. It is worthy of mention in this ennr,n«+- Some mighty republics that survived Mauryaii imperialism conditions of welfai'e in the politicil nb^i« i " °f tbe seven attained highest pitch of greatness and glory. Among them mention are (1) Meeting together in concord (21 Buddha. "They may be made of the Yaudheyas, the Malavas, the Arjiinayanas. the in concord, (3) honouring, esteemino- rov^lnT^^ undertakings Oudumbaras, the Vrishnis and the Sibis. The Yaudheyas ruled over the Vajjain elders. ®' ^^icncing and supporting the rich and prosperous region. TJiey dealt the first blow to the As U. N. Ghoshal says "The as«!PTr.>>Tvr . « Kushanas. They enjoyed independence throughout and their coins on the business of government bv ^ f^'^qliently to carry bear the significant legend Jaya Yaudheya. The Malavas had a loiir^er attended by tbe bulk of the members generally history and their power reached its height in the middle of the Ith occupied a distinguished and honoured nhee fv® century A.D. Their coins bear the legend 'Victory of the Malavas' beration of policy by their advice " P guided tbe cleli- Next in importance were the Arjunayanas who allied themselvps The Buddha was militant enon«b ^ ■ j. ■ with the Yaudheyas in ousting the Kushanas. They loved independ ence more than their oivn life and were even ready to give un their creed evcu when pitted against monarchy. A]ateatr*Il,'%h'Sof 'paternal homes and lands to preserve their political self and soul m THE AGE OF THE GUPTAS
They would go to deserts but live in demoercatie glory. But these republics ^fe^e not destined to enjoy their independence long and • ! •' they were finally absorbed in the Gupta empire during the reign of -.1 Samudragupta. CHAPTER VII
CAUSES FOR THE DISAPPEARANCE OP THE REPUBLICS THE AGE OF HARSAVARDHANA Writing in his book 'Hindu Polity', K.P. Jayaswal attributed the causes for the decline of the Hindu republics to the militarist policy of Samudragupta. He writes : "Samudragupta, like Alexa SOURCES nder, killed the free spirit of the country. He destroyed the There is no paucity of sources for the reconstruction of the Malavas and the Yaudheyas, who, were the nursery of freedom and history of Harsa and his times. As V. A. Smith observes, "when many others of their class." But this view has been disputed by A. S. all the sources are utilised, our knowledge of the events of the reign Altekar. He says : "This does not seem to be true. The repubiics of Harsa far surpasses in precision that we possess respecting any of the Malavas and the Arjunayanas, the Yaudheyas and the Madras other Indian king, except Chandragupta Maurya and Asoka". It had only accepted in a general way the imperial position of has been shown by N. R. Ray that though a less gifted and less Samudragupta. They offered him tribute, but retained their auto qualified personality than Asoka or Akbar, Harsa was not less nomy The Gupta imperialism had not interfered with their fortunate than either of them in finding out a place in history in autonomy and it is, therefore, difficult to understand how it could equally brilliant relief that gives glorious distinctivenese to a have been fatal to their democratic institution." It is true that the character against a comparatively darker background. With a Guptas did not annex their territories, but the fact remains by poet historian like Bana in his court, with an envoy from China accepting the imperial suzerainty of Samudragupta the repuMics gifted with a keen religious fervour coupled with an historical circumscribed their independence for mere continued existence. outlook unequalled in that age, and with a series of coins and ins After the invasion of Alexander, the republics had to withstand criptions of his own and his contemporary monarchs like Sasanka the attacks of the Sakas and the Kushanas. Though they were and Pulakesin II, to speak in his favour, Harsa has left behind successful in retaining their independence against heavy odds the him a name uttered in the same breath with the best and the constant fights weakened them considerably. This coupled with that noblest monarchs of India.^ of their voluntary acceptance of Gupta suzerainty appears to have Ha«rsacharita : "In the long and varied annals of ancient encouraged dissensions in their rank and file. All these accounted Indian historical literature", observes U. N. Ghosal, "the chronicle for the decline and downfall of the republics. As K.P Jayaswal written by the great master of prose, Bana, in praise of his patron aptly remarks, 'from the fifth century onwards they ceased to be King Harsa of Thanesvar, occupies a unique place". Prom the point of view of form, Harsacharita may be reckoned as a unique important factors in Indian politics. The following century saw the work in our ancient literature. Bana had exceptional opportunities first exit of Hindu constitutionalism from the stage of history All that of having personal and intimate contact of Harsa and had a know was good, came down from the age of the Yedic forefathers^ all that ledge of the true course of events. The book divides itself into progress which had been achieved since the composition of the first eight chapters dealing with the history of Harsa's family from the Rik, aU that gave life to mechanism of state, bade good-bye to the foundation of the Pusyabhuti dynasty to the rescue of Raivasri land. Republicanism was the first begin the Great Departure to lead In the very first chapter Bana gives a brief note about his own -the dirge of political Nirvana. ' ancestors who were distinguished for their learning and nion^ observations. Incidentally he makes mention of a number nf works and authors earlier to him which helps us to have a oUl idea of the literary chronology. In the subsequent chapter 1. Indian Historical Qiiarterly, Vol. III. 195