NATHAN SPARKES, HACKED OFF CAMPAIGN Table of Contents LEVESON AND THE GOVERNMENT’S FAILURE TO KEEP ITS PROMISES TO THE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 3 VICTIMS OF PRESS ABUSE ...... 72 FOREWORD ...... 8 PART III: THE SOCIO-POLITICAL AND PERSONAL CONSEQUENCES OF EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 9 ISLAMOPHOBIA ...... 82 PART I: INTRODUCING MEND’S DEFINITION OF ISLAMOPHOBIA ...... 16 Racial and Religious Hate Crime ...... 83 A Call for a Definition of “Islamophobia” .... 17 NAZIR AFZAL, OBE CHALLENGING TIMES TO BE A MUSLIM ...... 83 A Message from our CEO ...... 19 DR SHAZAD AMIN, CONSULTANT MEND’s Definition of Islamophobia ...... 20 PHSYCHIATRIST ISLAMOPHOBIA AND MENTAL HEALTH ...... 90 Understanding MEND’s Definition of Islamophobia ...... 22 Youth and Education...... 92 Diversity of Terminology: Why use SHEREEN FERNANDEZ, QUEEN MARY “Islamophobia”? ...... 24 UNIVERSITY ISLAMOPHOBIA AND EDUCATION ...... 93 Understanding British Muslim Communities ...... 27 DR SADIA HABIB BRITISHNESS, BELONGING AND ISLAMOPHOBIA: PROFESSOR SOPHIE GILLIAT-RAY, CARDIFF REFLECTION AND DIALOGUE...... 95 UNIVERSITY THE DEMOGRAPHICS OF IN BRITAIN ...... 29 PROFESSOR JOHN HOLMWOOD, UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM THE PART II: THE MANIFESTATIONS, TROJAN HORSE AFFAIR ...... 97 LOGICS, AND MECHANISMS THAT FUEL ISLAMOPHOBIA ...... 32 Economic Exclusion: Islamophobia and the Labour Market...... 101 The Assumptions of Islamophobia ...... 33 Securitising Muslim Identities: Security and DR AURELIEN MONDON, UNIVERSITY OF BATH Counter-Terror ...... 104 AND DR AARON WINTER, UNIVERSITY OF EAST LIBERAL AND ILLIBERAL PROFESSOR TODD GREEN, LUTHER COLLEGE ISLAMOPHOBIAS ...... 36 USA ISLAMOPHOBIA AND THE PRESUMPTION OF MUSLIM GUILT IN Islamophobia, Xenophobia, Racism, and TERRORISM ...... 106 Anti-Semitism ...... 38 HAREEM GHANI AND ILYAS NAGDEE, NUS PROFESSOR TARIQ MODOOD, UNIVERSITY ISLAMOPHOBIA, PREVENT AND OF BRISTOL ISLAMOPHOBIA: A FORM OF UNIVERSITY ...... 117 CULTURAL RACISM ...... 38 ROB FAURE WALKER, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE DR YULIA EGOROVA, DURHAM UNIVERSITY LONDON INSTEAD OF BEING CAST AS A ISLAMOPHOBIA IN ITS RELATION TO THREAT, MUSLIM SOLIDARITY COULD ANTI-SEMITISM ...... 45 SHOW US ALL HOW TO LIVE TOGETHER PROFESSOR NASAR MEER FACSS, UNIVERSITY ...... 123 OF EDINBURGH WHAT IS THE Crime, Policing and the Criminal Justice RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ISLAMOPHOBIA System ...... 127 AND ANTISEMITISM? ...... 46 Political Representation and Exclusion .... 135 Driving Islamophobic Narratives: The Islamophobia Industry ...... 49 AMAN ALI, MEND HEAD OF COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT DR HILARY AKED, PHD UNIVERSITY OF BATH DEVELOPING CIVIC SENSIBILITIES ...... 135 THE ‘ISLAMOPHOBIA INDUSTRY’ ...... 50 DR JOE GREENWOOD, YOUGOV THE Moral Panic, Media, and Broadcasting ...... 66 BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATION ...... 140

1 Public Exclusion, Integration and Minority Rights ...... 142

DR JAN DOBBERNACK, NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY ISLAMOPHOBIA AND THE MYTH OF MUSLIM DISTANCE...... 145

DR LASSE THOMASSEN, QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY REPRESENTING MUSLIM WOMEN AND ISLAMOPHOBIA ...... 151

DR AZEEZAT JOHNSON, QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY CONTROVERSY AND MUSLIM WOMEN’S CLOTHING PRACTICES ...... 159 PART IV: APPROACHES TO TACKLING ISLAMOPHOBIA ...... 162 MEND’s Model to Tackling Islamophobia ...... 163

2 Representative Politics” (Ethnicities, 2017). Acknowledgements He has previously held fellowships at the Contributors University of Bristol’s Centre for Ethnicity and Citizenship and at the European Nazir Afzal, OBE University Institute’s Robert Schuman Nazir Afzal, OBE, is an eminent lawyer Centre for Advanced Studies. who has campaigned on issues including Dr Yulia Egorova, Durham University child sexual exploitation and violence Dr Yulia Egorova is Reader in against women. He has worked Anthropology at Durham University. She extensively within the Crown Prosecution is the author of numerous publications Service and was the first Muslim to be exploring issues in the study of inter- appointed as Chief Prosecutor and was the community relations, including the most senior Muslim lawyer in the forthcoming “Jews and Muslims in South organisation. He is the recipient of many Asia: Reflections on Difference, Religion awards for his activities including the and Race” (Oxford University Press). People's Award which was voted for by readers of a national newspaper. He is Pro Rob Faure Walker, University College Chancellor of Brunel University & London Honorary Fellow of UCLAN and has Rob Faure Walker is a PhD candidate at Honorary Doctorates in Law from UCL Institute of Education where he is & Manchester. investigating the impact of counter- In 2005; he was awarded an OBE by the terrorism discourses in educational Queen. He has also had the honour of settings and on the democratic process. He being the only lawyer to ever prosecute a has also worked as a secondary teacher in case before the Queen. London since 2005. He manages Prevent Dr Hilary Aked, PhD University of Bath Digest, a monthly newsletter related to Prevent (www.preventdigest.co.uk). Hilary Aked is a freelance writer and researcher who holds a PhD from the Shereen Fernandez, Queen Mary University of Bath and is currently writing University a book about the Israel lobby in the UK. Shereen Fernandez is a PhD researcher at Recent publications include “The Henry Queen Mary University. Prior to this, she Jackson Society and the Degeneration of worked as a primary school teacher in British ” (Public Interest London. Investigations, 2015, co-author) and “The Britain Israel Communications and Hareem Ghani, NUS Women’s Officer Research Centre: Giving peace a Hareem Ghani is the NUS Women’s chance?” (Public Interest Investigations, Officer where she has led on work 2013, co-author). surrounding gendered Islamophobia, Dr Jan Dobbernack, Newcastle institutional responses to sexual violence University and student-staff misconduct. She is completing her Undergraduate in History Dr Jan Dobbernack is Lecturer in Sociology at Kings College London where she also at Newcastle University. His publications founded It Stops Here, a zero-tolerance include “The Politics of Social Cohesion in campaign against sexual misconduct, Germany, France and the United bullying and harassment. Kingdom (Palgrave, 2014), Citizenship, Nationality and Immigration in Germany” (Global Centre for Pluralism, 2017) and “Making a Presence: Images of Polity and Constituency in British Muslim

3 Professor Sophie Gilliat-Ray, Cardiff London. She is author of Learning and University Teaching British Values: Policies and Sophie Gilliat-Ray is Professor of Religious Perspectives on British Identities Studies at Cardiff University, and the (Palgrave, 2017). Founding Director of the Islam-UK Centre, Professor John Holmwood, University of established in 2005. She has published Nottingham numerous books and articles about Islam John Holmwood is Professor of Sociology and Muslims in Britain and has a particular at the University of Nottingham and interest in Muslim chaplaincy and member of the Institute for Advanced religious leadership. Sophie is the Study, Princeton during academic year incoming Chair of the British Sociological 2014-15. He is co-author (with Therese Association ‘Study Group’ for Religion, O'Toole) of “Countering Extremism in and the former Chair of the ‘Muslims in British Schools? The Truth about the Britain Research Network’. Outside the Birmingham Trojan Horse Affair” (Policy day-job, Sophie is a very keen cyclist, Press 2018). He was expert witness for the raising money for the charity ‘Women V defence in the National College of Cancer’. Teaching and Leadership professional Professor Todd Green, Luther College misconduct case against senior teachers at USA Park View Educational Trust. Todd Green is associate professor of Dr Azeezat Johnson, Queen Mary religion at Luther College and a former University advisor on Islamophobia at the US State Azeezat Johnson is a lecturer in Geography Department in Washington, DC. He is the at Queen Mary University of London. She author of “Presumed Guilty: Why We is one of the co-editors for “The Fire Now: Shouldn't Ask Muslims to Condemn anti-racist scholarship in times of explicit Terrorism” (Fortress Press, 2018) and “The racial violence” (to be published by Zed Fear of Islam: An Introduction to Books in November 2018), as well as co- Islamophobia in the West” (Fortress Press, founding The Critical Race and Ethnicities 2015). Network (based across the Universities of Dr Joe Greenwood, YouGov Leeds, Sheffield and York). Her research focuses on clothing practices, Blackness, Joe Greenwood is a Political Data Analyst Muslim identities, and Black feminism. at YouGov and recently completed a PhD in Government at the University of Essex. Professor Nasar Meer FAcSS, University His thesis examined the factors that of Edinburgh influence political participation in the Professor Nasar Meer is based in the United Kingdom, with a focus on School of Social and Political Sciences at economic, social, and cultural capital as the University of Edinburgh. His well as perceptions of privilege. He is publications include: “Islam and currently working on a chapter exploring Modernity (4 Volumes) (ed, 2017); authoritarian populism in the UK, and on Interculturalism and multiculturalism: an article looking at the relationships Debating the dividing lines” (co-ed, 2016); between capital, perceptions, and vote “Citizenship, Identity and the Politics of choice in 2017. Multiculturalism: The rise of Muslim Dr Sadia Habib consciousness” (2015, 2nd Edition); “Racialization and religion” (ed, 2014), Dr Sadia Habib has a decade's teaching “Race and Ethnicity” (2014) and experience in UK schools and colleges. She “European Multiculturalism(s)” (co- completed both her MA and PhD in edited, 2012). In 2016 he was awarded the Education at Goldsmiths, University of

4 Royal Society of Edinburgh (RSE) Thomas in Middle Reid Medal for excellence in the social Eastern Studies where he worked sciences, and in 2017 he was elected as a extensively on widening access to Fellow of the Academy of Social education as well as engaging community- Sciences. www.nasarmeer.com @NasarMe based organisations. er Nathan Sparkes, Hacked Off Campaign Professor Tariq Modood, University of Nathan Sparkes is Policy and Bristol Parliamentary Manager for the Hacked Off Tariq Modood is Professor of Sociology, Campaign, which was established in 2011 Politics and Public Policy and the founding in response to the phone-hacking Director of the Centre for the Study of revelations. Hacked Off campaigns for a Ethnicity and Citizenship at the University free and accountable press for the public, of Bristol. He was awarded a MBE for for implementation of the Leveson services to social sciences and ethnic Report’s recommendations, and for the relations in 2001, made a Fellow of the second part of the Inquiry to take Academy of Social Sciences in 2004 and place. The Hacked Off Campaign works elected a Fellow of the British Academy in with the victims of press abuse to achieve 2017. He served on the Commission on the those aims. Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain, the Dr Lasse Thomassen, Queen Mary National Equality Panel, and the University Commission on Religion and Belief in British Public Life. His website is Lasse Thomassen is Reader in the School of tariqmodood.com Politics and International Relations at Queen Mary University of London. He is Dr Aurelien Mondon, University of Bath the author of, among other books, “British Dr Aurelien Mondon is a Senior Lecturer Multiculturalism and the Politics of in politics at the University of Bath. His Representation”, and he works on identity research focuses predominantly on the politics and representation. impact of racism and populism on liberal Dr Aaron Winter, University of East democracies and the mainstreaming of far- London right politics through elite discourse. His first book, “The Mainstreaming of the Aaron Winter is Senior Lecturer in Extreme Right in France and Australia: A Criminology at the University of East Populist Hegemony?” was published in London. His research examines racism, 2013 and he recently co-edited “After anti-Semitism and Islamophobia, the far- Charlie Hebdo: Terror, racism and free right, terrorism and hate crime. Most speech”. His new book project with Aaron recently, he has been involved in the Winter, “Reactionary democracy: project ‘Step Up to Stop Hate’ in Newham, populism, liberal and illliberal racisms, the East London. He is co-editor of far right and the lack of political “Discourses and Practices of Terrorism: imagination”, will be published in 2019. Interrogating Terror, Reflexivity in Criminological Research: experiences with Ilyas Nagdee, NUS Black Students the powerful and powerless and Historical Officer Perspectives on Organised Crime and Ilyas Nagdee is the NUS Black Students Terrorism”. His most recent article Officer where he leads work around is “Articulations of Islamophobia: from the institutional racism, combatting state extreme to the mainstream?” with violence and challenging the Prevent Duty Aurelien Mondon in “Ethnic and Racial as part of the #StudentsNotSuspects Studies”. His new book project with coalition. He graduated from the Aurelien Mondon, “Reactionary

5 democracy: populism, liberal and illliberal Noor-ul-Hassan Sarodia, Senior Policy racisms, the far right and the lack of Analyst political imagination”, will be published in Noor-ul-Hassan holds a first-class degree 2019. in Economics and Statistics from MEND Contributors University College London. Prior to joining MEND, he worked in the Civil Isobel Ingham-Barrow, Head of Policy Service as a statistician and data analyst Isobel received her BA (Hons) in Arabic gaining experience across a number of and Middle Eastern Studies with Persian, different government departments. an MA in Middle East and Islamic Studies, Dr Antonio Perra, Senior Policy Analyst and an MRes in Middle East Studies from the University of Exeter. Alongside her Dr Antonio Perra studied Politics and work with MEND, she lectures at the International Relations at the University of University of Exeter and is a postgraduate Cagliari, Italy, before obtaining his PhD researcher in Area and Development from the Department of Middle Eastern Studies at the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies at King's College London. Prior to Studies. Her PhD research project is an joining MEND, Antonio worked as exploration of masculinity within British Lecturer at Birkbeck, University of London Muslim communities. and King's College London, where he is currently an Associate Lecturer and a Dr Shazad Amin, CEO & Consultant Visiting Research Fellow respectively. Psychiatrist Antonio has authored several papers on Dr Shazad Amin is Chief Executive of Middle Eastern Affairs, as well as a book Muslim Engagement & Development. He titled "Kennedy and the Middle East: The recently retired as an NHS Consultant in Cold War, Israel and Saudi Arabia" Adult Psychiatry based in Manchester. He (London, New York: I.B. Tauris, 2017). works as a Court Expert Witness, mainly in Zeeshan Ali, Media and Policy Analyst the area of Clinical Negligence. He is also a Chair of the Medical Practitioners Tribunal Zeeshan holds a first-class degree in MSci Service, which makes decisions about a Pharmacology from University College doctors’ fitness to practise. He is a Care London. During his master’s year, he was Quality Commission Specialist Advisor. elected UK National Policy Officer of a student-led NGO, Universities Allied for Aman Ali, Head of Community Essential Medicines, which prompted him Engagement and Development to pursue a career in policy analysis. He is Having spent two years as MEND’s passionate about empowering members of Regional Manager for London, Aman Ali is the community and tackling now MEND’s National Community Head. discriminatory narratives and policies Aman currently is undertaking his within the socio-political field. Other master’s studies at UCL’s Institute of causes of interest include access to Education, having initially graduated from medicines. Queen Mary University with a BSc in Huma Malik, IRU Hate Crime Biology with Psychology. He has many Caseworker years of experience working with various Muslim youth organisations, having Huma has completed a Master’s degree in started out as a Muslim youth worker at African politics, history, and economic the age of 17. He then moved onto various development at the School of Oriental and roles including being previously Head of African Studies. Here, she completed a Media at FOSIS and teaching science at research project in grassroots secondary level. peacebuilding initiatives across East Africa. Her interests include international

6 development, human rights, environmental, and social justice campaigning. Before joining MEND, she worked at the Living Wage Foundation providing advice and support to low wage workers. Huma has developed a passion for the non-profit sector, from her track record of working in many international NGOs and charities. Zarah Sultana, Parliamentary Officer Zarah graduated from the University of Birmingham with a first-class BA (Hons) in International Relations with Economics. During her time at University, she was elected onto the National Union of Students’ National Executive and the NUS Black Students’ Campaign. Prior to joining MEND, Zarah has worked in a variety of roles in marketing, communications and campaigns. She is passionate about promoting greater involvement of marginalised communities with the political process and tackling inequalities in accessing education and employment.

7 Muslims, and to discriminate against Foreword Muslims in the employment and educational sectors. Islamophobia has also Last January, I taught a study translated into increasing levels of violence abroad course called Islam in Europe. A as anti-Muslim hate crimes have climbed colleague and I brought twenty-five over the past two decades, reaching American students to five European disturbing levels in the past several years. countries to study the political and cultural Islamophobia poses one of the tensions pertaining to Muslim minority greatest political and moral challenges of communities and to gain insight into how our time precisely because it is so widely Muslims were responding to these accepted. By most metrics, hostility toward tensions. The last country on our itinerary Muslims in the UK and other Western was the UK. nations is only getting worse. Until While sitting in our hotel lobby in policymakers develop a better London one morning, a British gentleman, understanding of Islamophobia and also staying at the hotel, sat across from prioritize efforts to counter it, we can one of my students and struck up a expect the situation to worsen in the conversation. Noticing that she was foreseeable future. reading a book called The Fear of Islam, and Under these circumstances, the assuming it was an anti-Islam book (when MEND report, More Than Words: in fact it was a book about Islamophobia), Approaching a Definition of Islamophobia, is he immediately started complaining. both timely and essential. The report offers “We’re having LOTS of problems with a nuanced definition of Islamophobia that Muslims in Britain,” he said to her, will help policymakers better to lamenting both the plight of Muslim understand and respond to the problem of women forced to wear a hijab and the loss anti-Muslim prejudice. It also addresses of British values and culture in the wake of the various cultural, social, and political Muslim immigration. He said all of this as manifestations of Islamophobia along with casually as if he were commenting on the the real impact of Islamophobia on the weather outside. lives and livelihoods of Muslims and those When my student told me about perceived as Muslims. And it does all of the conversation, I thought to myself, this by drawing on the expertise of some of “Baroness Warsi was right. Islamophobia the most prominent scholars and analysts ‘has passed the dinner table test’ in the of Islamophobia. UK.” Her famous quip from 2011 was a The MEND report goes a long way reminder that articulating Islamophobic toward helping policymakers do their part beliefs was now acceptable in polite British to ensure Islamophobia no longer has a society, whether in the family home or in place at the proverbial dinner table, or in the Houses of Parliament. the halls of Parliament for that matter. Without a doubt, in the twenty plus years since the Runnymede Report on Islamophobia was released, Islamophobia Professor Todd Green has gone mainstream and become Luther College, USA normalised. It has been used on both sides of the Atlantic to win elections, to justify June 2018 restrictions on refugees and immigrants, to encourage teachers to “monitor” Muslim students for signs of radicalisation, to validate the surveillance and profiling of

8 all its social, economic and political Executive Summary forms. Defining Islamophobia  Contrary to some claims, it has not historically, nor should it presently, be Defining the phenomenon of Islamophobia seen as attempt to stifle free speech is important as it will provide much- and, in particular, an effort to curtail all needed clarity in legislation and policies questioning or criticism of religion. that are intended to protect vulnerable minorities. However, it is also an act of Assumptions of Islamophobia recognition. For British Muslims, it While not every instance of Islamophobia demonstrates that the Government may embody all of the underlying recognises the hardships they face and has assumptions discussed within this report, given them a name. It officially validates they are common themes that drive and their experiences and cements these infiltrate Islamophobic narratives experiences as undeniable facts in need of surrounding Muslims and their place in address. Furthermore, it reassures Muslim society. Such assumptions include: communities that these hardships can and will be tackled in a critical and dedicated  Muslims are a monolithic group with manner. static views, beliefs and practices. Such a stance ignores the huge diversity Whilst providing a full working definition between Muslims in terms of beliefs, of Islamophobia on page 22, MEND practices, ideologies, ethnicities, defines Islamophobia as a prejudice, cultures, languages and values. aversion, hostility, or hatred towards Muslims and encompasses any distinction,  Muslims are not only different, but this exclusion, restriction, discrimination, or difference also makes them inferior; preference against Muslims that has the uncivilised, irrational, violent and purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing sexist. As such, they have no place in the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on the civilised West unless they an equal footing, of human rights and denounce their barbaric and illogical fundamental freedoms in the political, ways in order to progress to an economic, social, cultural or any other field enlightened Western way of life. of public life.  Racial discrimination is normalised Why “Islamophobia” within political and public debate as something deemed necessary due to Despite longstanding semantical debates the perceived threat of Muslims to and proposals of alternative terms, such as security. Moreover, prejudiced and “anti-Muslim hatred”, MEND argues racist comments about Muslims have unequivocally that the term increasingly become normalised. “Islamophobia” is the most appropriate Rather than being considered bigoted terminology to use in this debate for a and inappropriate, such views are variety of reasons. frequently seen as justified and normal.  It is an established terminology in  Western commentators are justified in academic, activist, advocacy, and criticising Muslim individuals and victim vocabularies. countries for their beliefs, practices,  It is a terminology with an existing policies and behaviours, however, the broad conceptual understanding. reverse is unjustified and baseless. Therefore, it is a holistic descriptor that explicitly identifies the phenomenon in

9 Islamophobia, Xenophobia, Britain’s colonial past. Therefore, to fully Racism, and Anti-Semitism understand Islamophobia in any meaningful way, there must be an While animosity towards the religion is acknowledgement of the relationship frequently used as a justification for between Islamophobia, Orientalism, and Islamophobic sentiments, this hostility is empire. also a product of animosity towards race, Orientalism is a mechanism through which ethnicity and culture. In this way, Muslims to gain cultural and civilising power over collectively have become racialised Muslim populations. Islamophobia through their religious identities. thereby becomes the conduit through Therefore, rather than viewing which Muslims are regulated into Islamophobia in a vacuum, it is important hegemonic Western conceptions of to view it through the lens of racisms. As modernity. Muslims who resist such Runnymede’s recent report attests, Western appropriation are deemed a threat Islamophobia should be understood as an to the stability of the state and are thus anti-Muslim racism. placed in the dichotomy between the good In analysing Islamophobia, critical “moderate” Muslims (those who perspectives are enlightening. Indeed, unquestioningly adhere to the sensibilities there needs to be an understanding of the of Western identity constructs) and the bad history and the social, political, and “extremist” Muslims (those who threaten economic processes through which the Western hegemonic notions of modernity behaviours, practices and identities through maintaining their religious- Muslims have become regulated at a social, cultural identities or through questioning political, and legislative level. For example, the status quo of this hegemony). understanding how institutional racisms Islamophobia is often portrayed as within stop and search procedures or completely distinct from anti-Semitism. integration strategies are used to normalise However, this is a misunderstanding of racisms and regulate Muslim identities. hatred and racisms. Islamophobia, anti- Xenophobia plays an integral role in the Semitism, racism, xenophobia, sexism, development of Islamophobias. British homophobia and other forms of hatred are Muslims, even those whom have been born all mechanisms of social regulation and in the UK and whose parents were born in control of minorities. Therefore, they need this country, may be perceived to be as to be understood in the interconnectivity of foreign as someone born halfway around their logics, manifestations, and the world. The reason for this foreignness consequences. is found not only in distinctions of ethnicity, but also in a perceived conflict of Driving Islamophobic views, values, norms, practices, beliefs, Narratives: The Islamophobia and behaviours that all culminate in a Industry threat or an insult to the Western identity and way of life. Furthermore, there is an The term “Islamophobia Industry” (also intimate link between Islamophobia and known as the “Counter-jihad movement”) xenophobia that cannot be dislocated from encompasses a largely interconnected and the perceived decentring of Western power well-funded network of think tanks (for and erosions of Western and White example, the ), privilege as an existential threat. media outlets (such as Breitbart and Rebel Media), public figures, politicians, and Islamophobia in the UK is not an policy-makers that advance, disseminate ahistorical phenomenon, rather, it must be and perpetuate negative discourses about contextualised within the history of Muslims and Islam for economic and

10 political gains. Commonly guided by right- It is, therefore, essential that effective wing and neoconservative ideologies, the regulation is examined and implemented Islamophobia Industry employs the to hold publishers accountable. rhetoric of an array of “experts” in order to Within broadcasting, the lack of diversity disseminate misinformation and fear about and inclusive images stemming from a lack Muslims and Islam, primarily by of minority representation results in a perpetuating the myth of an Islamic vision which neglects segments of society invasion of the Western world. Through and thus alienates and marginalises this kind of propaganda, the industry is minority communities. Therefore, industry able to influence and hijack political initiatives that promote diversity are of discourses, to influence voting patterns, upmost importance in fostering a shared and even to set the basis for legislative sense of national identity and in order to debates and drafting.1 tackle stereotypes that result from the lack Grassroots organisations, such as the EDL of normalised images of minority groups. or , who are often guided by strong nationalistic sentiments, Racial and Religious Hate Crime subscribe to the anti-Muslim discourse Hate crime is in many ways the most overt, advanced by these experts and fuelled by visible, and undeniable symptom of the the statements of media and political Islamophobia prevalent across certain figures, thus giving this divisive rhetoric a segments of society. Over recent years, voice among broader society. British Muslims have suffered from Moral Panic, Media, and increasing levels of hate crime in conjunction with seemingly obsessive Broadcasting demonisation in the media and an Considering the overly negative increasing presence of online hate speech representation of minorities and British on social media platforms. Major socio- Muslims within the British press, the political events, such as terror attacks and media’s monopoly on public the EU referendum, often mobilise acts of understanding has detrimental impacts hostility towards Muslims and the impacts which are acutely felt by minority social, of these crimes are long-lasting, with many ethnic and religious communities, and victims left feeling anxious and fearful for Muslims in particular. This leads to their safety. potentially dangerous repercussions in In tackling anti-Muslim hate crimes, it is terms of hate crime, discrimination, and important to address the disparity in marginalisation. protections afforded by the Racial and Furthermore, the level of bias, Religious Hate Crime Act, 2006, on misinformation and distortion within grounds of race versus the protections reporting on British Muslims has fostered afforded to religious groups. At the same a sense of distrust in the media institutions time, effective strategies and primary amongst parts of the Muslim community, legislation need to be enacted to tackle and for many individuals, has led to a online hate speech whilst protecting disengagement from traditional media. freedom of speech. Meanwhile, this Muslim disengagement is Youth and Education often accompanied by a sense of frustration and insecurity with regards to Islamophobia in the education system is a their perceived place and value in society. serious problem which impacts Muslim children and their development in a wide

1 Nathan Lean, The Islamophobia Industry: how the right manufactures fear of Muslims, 2nd Edition, (S.I. : Pluto Press, 2017)

11 variety of ways. From being bullied misguided policies predicated upon explicitly in reference to their faith, to Islamophobic assumptions and discourses being stigmatised and reported to the is an area that is in need of immediate PREVENT strategy for views they may address. hold, and to being interminably Processes of securitising Muslim identities questioned on their apparent divergence have intersected with vague definitions of from (thus far ill-defined) “British Values”, “extremism”, “radicalisation”, and Muslim children are struggling to navigate “Fundamental British Values” to result in this complex maze. Meanwhile, damaging policies such as the PREVENT controversies such as the apparent “Trojan strategy, which are based on flawed Horse” affair and Amanda Spielman’s evidence and serve to stigmatise Muslims recent proposals to question schoolgirls and marginalise their voices within who wear the hijab highlight the obsessive democratic debates. scrutiny and problematisation of Muslims within the sphere of education. The Crime, Policing and the Criminal impacts of these experiences can be long- Justice System term, damaging their ability to achieve success in the employment sphere and Institutional Islamophobia relating to inhibiting their participation in wider civic discriminatory practices ingrained within society and the political arena. the Criminal Justice System is particularly significant because of both its disruption to Economic Exclusion: the lives of many Muslims and for its long- Islamophobia and the Labour term consequences to their future social Market engagement as equal members of society. It is necessary to examine Islamophobia in While noteworthy and commendable steps terms of its ability to economically exclude have been made to improve equalities in Muslims from the labour market, thereby the Criminal Justice System since the furthering socio-economic divides. Indeed, publication of the Macpherson report in numerous studies in recent years have 1999, Muslims and ethnic minorities researched the failure of Muslims to remain over-represented and demonstrate progress and reach levels of success in the lower levels of trust in the system. workplace which their non-Muslim Furthermore, homogeneity within the counterparts enjoy. These studies have Criminal Justice system needs to be pointed to a combination of Islamophobia, examined as conduit for potential biases racism and discrimination as reasons for and as a hindrance to understanding the Muslims to be paid less than their non- experiences of Muslim offenders, thereby Muslim counterparts, less likely to be in obstructing meaningful strategies to work, less likely to be in skilled and approach Muslim socio-economic mobility professional occupations, and less likely to and the driving forces behind criminality. break through the glass ceiling to access As such, Islamophobia must be examined top level executive positions. as a mechanism potentially maintaining inequalities at all levels of the Criminal Securitising Muslim Identities: Justice System. Security and Counter-Terror Political Representation and The lens through which Muslims are Exclusion repeatedly and forcefully portrayed as security threats is a narrative desperately Islamophobia should be understood as a in need of recalibration. Meanwhile, the mechanism which marginalises and damaging consequences that result from excludes Muslims from being able to fully participate in social, political and civic life.

12 While barriers have been broken by strategy, within which examples of individuals such as Mohammad Sarwar, Islamophobic assumptions and Sayeeda Warsi, Naz Shah, Yasmin institutional racism can be readily Qureshi, and witnessed regarding the treatment of Rushanara Ali, to name but a few, Muslim Muslim communities. representation of 2% of the House of The Government’s current approach Commons still lags far behind what is towards integration heavily relies on the proportional considering the population of highly criticised 2016 Casey Review. As a British Muslims, which stands at 4.4% consequence, its analysis and suggested according to the 2011 census. strategies are inherently tainted by the Furthermore, divisive security strategies same flawed evidence and lack of such as PREVENT have been utilised by understanding. This has resulted in the certain groups (such as the Henry Jackson infiltration of Islamophobic narratives and Society and its project Student Rights) to assumptions which have directed the shut down Muslim voices, particularly on development of this strategy, and university campuses which are intended to therefore, limit its potential to make a be the epicentres of critical debate and positive difference. engagement of ideas. The result is that Of particular concern are its overlap with young Muslims in particular are actively counter-terror strategies, its prescribed discouraged from being politically active views of “acceptable Islam”, the de- and engaging with the debates that are contextualisation of challenges facing integral to a democratic society. minorities, and an absence of introspection Moreover, it is essential that the concerning Government strategies such as Government’s policy of disengagement “hostile environment” policies, austerity, with credible mainstream Muslim cuts to healthcare and policing, or the organisations and be urgently reversed so cancellation of Leveson Part II. that the relationship between Government Furthermore, despite the protections and Muslim communities may be afforded by the ICCPR, the ECHR and the recalibrated. Human Rights Act, 1998, recent years have Public Exclusion, Integration and witnessed numerous controversies, Minority Rights scandals, and vicious public debates that have challenged Muslim religious practice Britain has always claimed to embody a and observance in the UK context. proud history of supporting Particular public controversy has multiculturalist principles advocating surrounded the right to halal meat, the respect and celebration of the multitude of building of mosques, and the right to diverse ethnic and religious identities that religious dress, amongst other topics of have led themselves to a British identity public interest. Such debates demonstrate built upon pluralism and collaboration. how religious practices, whilst protected However, recent years have seen by national and international legislation, simmering resentments and debates can still be contested and the discourse surrounding national identity and a around them used as a proxy argument to perceived “ghettoisation” of minorities. marginalise minority communities and Muslims specifically. In line with the development and consequences of moral panic, these fears The model to tackle have culminated in calls for the UK to Islamophobia reassess its policies towards multiculturalist principles. The result is an To solve a society-wide problem, a increasingly restrictive integration combination of legislative change,

13 Government and industry initiatives, Employment: The barriers to Muslim Muslim community empowerment, and economic empowerment is an area that wider community engagement is required. needs to be tackled by both governmental As such, MEND humbly proposes the and industry initiatives designed to following initiatives and policy changes to address religious, racial and gendered tackle the causes, driving forces, and discrimination in the workplace through impacts of Islamophobia, targeted interventions at all stages of recruitment, retention and promotion, Legislative changes including through the use of name-blind Press regulation: We call on policy makers applications. to ensure the commencement of the second Media and broadcasting: There needs to part of the Leveson inquiry. Furthermore, be emphasis on promoting positive and Leveson II should place explicit emphasis normalised images of Muslims within on including an investigation of media and broadcasting. It is also essential Islamophobia in the press as a mandatory that support is given to educative and requirement. industry initiatives designed to attract Counter-Terror legislation: It is Muslim and BAME individuals into the imperative that the Government commits spheres of journalism and broadcasting. to an independent review of PREVENT Public exclusion: It is imperative that and all counter-terrorism legislation public figures show greater maturity and enacted since 2000 with a view to curbing responsibility when discussing integration the encroachment of counter-terrorism debates and take care not to cause hysteria policies on civil liberties. for the sake of political popularity and Incitement to Religious Hatred agendas. Meanwhile, especially legislation: Considering the disparities considering the unclear status of human between the protections afforded for racial rights commitments within Brexit and religious hatred, it is essential to negotiations, we must ensure that the review the 2006 Racial and Religious tenants of the European Convention on Hatred Act with a view to strengthening Human Rights and the Human Rights Act legal protection afforded to religion and are preserved within UK law post-Brexit. equalise it with those granted to race. Crime and policing: Areas in need of Primary legislation to deal with social government support include: media offences and online hate speech: The Government should consider primary  Tackling the high number of Muslim legislation to deal with social media prisoners through schemes to facilitate offences and work with social media rehabilitation, cut re-offending and companies to protect free speech while develop pathways for social inclusion. developing an efficient strategy to tackle  Launching research into the online hate speech online. underlying reasons for the Government and industry initiatives disproportionately high numbers of Muslim prisoners, including issues of Racial and religious equality: In the socio-economic deprivation and context of current Brexit negotiations, structural issues within the judicial attention needs to be given to supporting system. the principles of the EU Equal Treatment Directive to advance protection against  Supporting educative and industry discrimination on the grounds of religion initiatives to attract BAME individuals to education, healthcare, housing, access to into the police force. goods and services and social protection, within UK law post-Brexit.

14 Muslim community empowerment  Prioritising PSHE and PSRE in the national curriculum to prepare young The Government’s current disengagement people for life in a diverse and policy is a clear barrier to British Muslim’s pluralistic society. participation in social and political life. It is essential that the Government mends its  Developing training programmes and broken relationship with Muslim resources for teachers focussed on communities by committing to engaging tackling bullying based on race, with and listen to a wider spectrum of religion, disability or sexuality. representative Muslim grassroots  Developing teaching materials to organisations, such as MEND and MCB. educate young people on the dangers Muslims themselves have a responsibility of Islamophobia, racism, anti- to ensure that they are engaging with Semitism, homophobia and other processes of democracy to overcome the forms of hatred. challenges they face. As such, there are a  Supporting community and school-led number of ways in which British Muslim programmes that encourage cultural communities may be empowered to play exchange between pupils of different their full role as civic actors. Strategies to racial, religious, ethnic and other achieve this include: backgrounds.  Supporting educative and industry  Supporting academic freedoms and initiatives designed to attract Muslims initiatives to decolonise education, and BAME individuals into the spheres whilst giving greater emphasis within of politics, the civil service, media, and the national curriculum to shared broadcasting. histories and the contributions of  Placing greater emphasis on minority communities in building our educational programs aimed at society. empowering minority communities to

be actively engaged within politics and media.  Encouraging grassroots and community-led movements to overcome barriers to reporting hate crime and encourage maximum reporting of Islamophobic incidents to the police. Wider community engagement Islamophobia, like all forms of hatred, is an issue of social justice, and therefore, it is inherent upon every member of society to contribute towards ending it. As such, there are certain areas that MEND feels should be addressed:  Promoting a greater awareness of Islam.  Promoting greater inter-community engagement.

15 Part I: Introducing MEND’s Definition of Islamophobia

A Call for a Definition of “Islamophobia” .... 17 A Message from our CEO ...... 19 MEND’s Definition of Islamophobia ...... 20 Understanding MEND’s Definition of Islamophobia ...... 22 Diversity of Terminology: Why use “Islamophobia”? ...... 24 Understanding British Muslim Communities ...... 27

PROFESSOR SOPHIE GILLIAT-RAY, CARDIFF UNIVERSITY THE DEMOGRAPHICS OF MUSLIMS IN BRITAIN ...... 29

16 It is now time to afford official recognition A Call for a Definition to a definition of Islamophobia so that the same progress will be afforded to the of “Islamophobia” efforts to tackle the prejudices, hostilities, An important part of the movements to fight discriminations, and barriers faced by anti-Semitism, racism, and homophobia in this Muslims on account of their ethno- country was the development of terminologies religious identities. As such, a working to identify these biases. The stigmatization of definition is important for the following Jews, African-Americans, and the LGBTQ reasons: community existed long before we had words to  describe it, but the formulation of these words It is a critical tool for awareness raising in — anti-Semitism, racism, and homophobia — communicating to the public the serious and their usage by prominent figures, was a prejudice and discrimination faced by critical step in communicating to the public the Muslims. serious prejudice and discrimination these  It is an asset in formulating effective and groups faced.2 meaningful legal protections. The Bridge Initiative, “Islamophobia: The  It encourages a full and holistic exploration Right Word for a Real Problem”, 2016 of the phenomenon, which in turn presents In 2018, the All Party Parliamentary Group effective methods for approaching and for British Muslims launched an inquiry challenging it. into a definition of Islamophobia. Such a  It is also an act of recognition. For British development is hugely important and a Muslims, it demonstrates that the significant step in tackling the prejudice Government recognises the hardships they and discrimination facing British Muslims, face and has given them a name. It and, indeed, many Muslims across the officially validates their experiences and world. cements these experiences as undeniable Why is a definition important? facts in need of address. Furthermore, it reassures Muslim communities that these Defining the phenomenon of Islamophobia hardships can and will be tackled in a is important as it will provide much- critical and dedicated manner. needed clarity in legislation and policies that are intended to protect vulnerable  While being an act of recognition for minorities. As duly observed by victims of Islamophobia, it also forms a Gottschalk and Greenberg, “movements basis for countering the vocal minority in against discrimination do not begin until a our society who deny Islamophobia’s very commonly understood label evolves that existence, despite overwhelming evidence brings together under one banner all forms to the contrary. of that particular prejudice”.3 Once This report is intended to provide critical established, terms such as sexism, analysis to the following: homophobia, racism and anti-Semitism became important tools to oppose and  The roots and causes of Islamophobia. tackle the various discriminations and  The manifestations of Islamophobia. prejudices these labels embody; prejudices  The socio-political and personal and discriminations which at one time consequences of Islamophobia. were considered normal and thus remained unchallenged.  Potential solutions to tackling Islamophobia.

2 "Islamophobia: The Right Word for a Real Problem," The Bridge Initiative | A 3 Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, Islamophobia Making Muslims the Enemy Research Project on Islamophobia, September 08, 2016, accessed June 19, 2018, (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008), p11. http://bridge.georgetown.edu/islamophobia-the-right-word-for-a-real-problem/.

17 It is our hope that the discussions contained in this report will advance conceptual understandings of Islamophobia that will, in turn, assist policymakers in approaching a holistic appreciation and an all-encompassing working definition of Islamophobia.

18 hateful words to murder, to economic A Message from our Islamophobia, from the overlooked promotion to the sustained campaigns of CEO bullying and harassment. At a higher level, Dr Shazad Amin we see media Islamophobia from vile tweets to an incessant barrage of articles and full-blown documentaries. Finally, we have professional and structural Islamophobia, whereby the apparatus of the state and other institutions conspire to deny Muslims opportunities to play their full part in the political and civic life of this country. We must call out all of these examples, but to do so we need a definition that captures Islamophobia in its many colours and shades. I believe that in this report from MEND, supported by a variety of excellent

contributions from guest authors, we have “When I use a word,” Humpty Dumpty said, not only produced a comprehensive in rather a scornful tone, “it means just what I definition, but have highlighted the socio- choose it to mean—neither more nor less.” political context in which it sits. “The question is,” said Alice, “whether you can make words mean so many different I hope that whatever definition is things.” “The question is,” said Humpty eventually proposed it captures the Dumpty, “which is to be master—that’s all.” essence of this report. We owe it to the next generation and beyond to tackle this Through the Looking Glass, ChVI, Lewis Carroll, 1872 scourge of our society in the most robust way possible.

A couple of centuries on from Lewis Carroll’s immortal words, words are even more important than ever. We are now living in an era of globalised instant communication where ideas, emotions, hopes, and tragedies are communicated to Dr Shazad Amin others in an instant, and words can indeed mean so many things. The potential for CEO, MEND miscommunication, misunderstanding, obfuscation and distortions is enormous.

As such, when we are tackling the big ideas of the modern era the importance of precision within definitions is paramount, and the need to define “which is to be master” has never been greater. As this report shows, Islamophobia is much more than the common perception of a woman with hijab being verbally abused in the street. It has many faces, from the criminal Islamophobia ranging from a few

19 the religious sphere may include (but are in MEND’s Definition of no way limited to): Islamophobia  Causing, calling for, aiding, or justifying the killing or harming of Muslims or those Short Definition: perceived to be Muslim due to their Islamophobia is a prejudice, aversion, religious identity. hostility, or hatred towards Muslims and  Causing, calling for, aiding, or justifying encompasses any distinction, exclusion, the killing or harming of individuals due to restriction, discrimination, or preference their perceived or actual connection to or against Muslims that has the purpose or support of Muslims. effect of nullifying or impairing the  recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an Charging Muslims with conspiring to equal footing, of human rights and harm humanity and/or the Western way fundamental freedoms in the political, of life or blaming Muslims for the economic, social, cultural or any other field economic and social ills of society. of public life.  Making mendacious, dehumanising, vilifying, demonising, or stereotypical Working Definition: allegations about Muslims. Islamophobia (in line with anti-Semitism,  Objectifying and generalising Muslims as racism, homophobia, sexism and other different, exotic or underdeveloped, or forms of hatred and discrimination) is a implying that they are outside of, distinct tool used to gain and maintain power. It is from, or incompatible with British society inextricably linked with socio-economic and identity. factors, and frequently reflects the underlying inequalities within society.  Espousing the belief that Muslims are inferior to other social or religious groups. Islamophobia is a prejudice, aversion, hostility, or hatred towards Muslims and  Accusing Muslims as a collective of being encompasses any distinction, exclusion, responsible for real or imagined restriction, or preference against Muslims wrongdoing committed by a single that has the purpose or effect of nullifying Muslim person, group or nation, or even or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or for acts committed by non-Muslims. exercise, on an equal footing, of human  Applying double standards by requiring of rights and fundamental freedoms in the Muslims a behaviour not expected or political, economic, social, cultural or any demanded of any other social, religious or other field of public life. ethnic group. As such, Islamophobia is demonstrated in,  Applying ethnocentric approaches to the and articulated through, speech, writing, treatment of Muslims (judging another behaviours, structures, policies, legislation culture solely by the values and standards or activities that work to control, regulate of one's own culture). For example, or exclude Muslim participation within evaluating Muslim women’s choice of social, civic, economic and political life, or dress exclusively through the speaker’s which embody hatred, vilification, expectations and without reference to the stereotyping, abuse or violence directed at personal cultural norms and values of the Muslims. women in question. Taking into account the overall context,  Acts of aggression within which the examples of Islamophobia in public life, targets, whether they are people or the media, schools, the workplace, and in property – such as buildings, schools, places of worship and cemeteries – are

20 selected because they are, or are perceived to be, Muslim(s) or linked to Muslims. While criticism of Islam within legitimate realms of debate and free speech is not in itself Islamophobic, it may become Islamophobic if the arguments presented are used to justify or encourage vilification, stereotyping, dehumanisation, demonisation or exclusion of Muslims. For example, by using criticism of religion to argue that Muslims are collectively evil or violent.

21 perceived culprit is assigned Understanding responsibility, which frequently escalates MEND’s Definition of to the scapegoating of whole communities. Part Two of this report explores how and Islamophobia why Islamophobia exists and is manifested. As such, we will analyse Deconstructing MEND’s themes such as: Definition  Islamophobia and its relationship to MEND’s working definition of xenophobia, racism, and anti- Islamophobia is 480 words long, while Semitism. even our short definition consists of 58  Perceptions of collective threat and words. This may seem rather long for a processes of securitisation. definition, however, in order to encompass the full breadth of Islamophobia and its  The counter-jihad movement and consequences, clarity is required; and such Islamophobia as a mechanism for clarity requires a lengthy explanation. control. While we have attempted to achieve this  Moral panic, the media and clarity in our definition, we would like to broadcasting. take this opportunity to introduce the reasoning and multiple layers of Islamophobia is a prejudice, aversion, hostility, understanding contained within this or hatred towards Muslims and encompasses definition. As such, the following any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or discussion seeks to deconstruct our preference against Muslims that has the definition and contextualise it within the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the wider framework of this report. recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental Islamophobia (in line with anti-Semitism, freedoms in the political, economic, social, racism, homophobia, sexism and other forms of cultural or any other field of public life. hatred and discrimination) is a tool used to gain and maintain power. It is inextricably linked As this report attests, Islamophobia with socio-economic factors, and frequently encompasses far more than simply reflects the underlying inequalities within hostility and hate crime. Islamophobia society. infiltrates every aspect of public life and creates barriers to Muslims (or those Hatred and discrimination are used as perceived to be Muslim) in overt ways, but tools to oppress, restrict, control, regulate, also in ways that are subtler, and thus exclude and deprive those against whom much harder to detect and demonstrate. they are directed. They are frequently used For example, hatred and physical abuse on as mechanisms to distract society from the streets is overt and impossible to wider socio-economic issues. A glaring ignore. However, the CV that is passed example of this is when the Nazi Party over because it boasts a Muslim sounding used anti-Jewish propaganda to scapegoat name; or the British-Pakistani man who is innocent Jewish communities and distract repeatedly assumed a threat at the airport from Germany’s economic struggles on the basis of his beard; or the child who following WWI. feels unable to ask questions in class Often, hatred and discrimination may also because she is worried she may be swept be a reaction to real or imagined threats to up into the apparatus of PREVENT, these economic, political, social and ideological are examples that may be harder to detect, interests and may stem from a fear of but which have dire repercussions on losing one’s longstanding privilege or British Muslims’ daily enjoyment of benefits. In response to these threats, the freedoms.

22 Part Three of this report thus explores the While criticism of Islam within legitimate consequences of Islamophobia on British realms of debate and free speech is not in itself Muslims. Within this section, we will Islamophobic, it may become Islamophobic if attempt to highlight the impacts of the arguments presented are used to justify or Islamophobia in terms of: encourage vilification, stereotyping, dehumanization, demonization or exclusion of  Racial and religious hate crime Muslims. For example, by using criticism of  Youth and education religion to argue that Muslims are collectively evil or violent.  Economic exclusion It is important to note that criticism of  Security and counter-terror religion is excluded from our definition of  The criminal justice system Islamophobia. “Islamophobia” as a term, is often wrongly accused of being an attempt  Political exclusion to stifle legitimate arguments surrounding  Public exclusion religion. The 1997 Runnymede report “Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All”4 As such, Islamophobia is demonstrated in, and highlighted the need to recognise the articulated through, speech, writing, contrast between “open views” of behaviours, structures, policies, legislation or legitimate criticism of Islam, and the activities that work to control, regulate or “closed” views that constitute exclude Muslim participation within social, Islamophobia. It is these “closed” views civic, economic and political life, or which embody hatred, vilification, stereotyping, abuse that MEND’s definition is attempting to or violence directed at Muslims. address. Further analysis will be given to this issue in later discussions. In other words, Islamophobia can be found in and may be upheld by a variety of There is also frequently concern that the mediums. For example: word “Islamophobia” is being used as a tool to hinder freedom of speech.  Speech: such as political statements or However, within MEND’s proposed individual verbal abuse. definition as an example, there is no  Writing: such as in opinion articles and conflict with freedom of speech that online hate speech. extends any further than what already exists. Indeed, the only potential  Behaviours: such as aggressive and limitations to speech within our definition unreasonable acts, or attitudes towards already have existing legal precedents, for Muslim employees. example, legislation that protects racial  Structures: such as the minorities from abuse, and legislation that underrepresentation of Muslims in restricts calling for the causing of harm. upper echelons of business, politics, and teaching.  Policies: such as questioning Muslim girls who wear the hijab.  Legislation: such as security legislation that excludes the need for reasonable suspicion in stop and search, and thus relies on ethnic, racial and religious profiling.

4 Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, Summary, The Runnymede Trust, 1997, https://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/publications/pdfs/islamophobia.pdf.

23 However, the long-standing existence and Diversity of usage of “Islamophobia” as a descriptive tool for approaching and explaining these Terminology: Why use experiences means that the term has “Islamophobia”? accepted credibility amongst those whom it affects. Meanwhile, due to this wide and Islamophobia is a term that consistently established legitimacy, it has a galvanising produces a wide range of responses and and mobilising force within the realms of emotions. For some time, there has been activism. considerable debate as to whether such a Therefore, it is not a term that will be easily term is appropriate, accurate or even replaced within political, activist or victim counterproductive when it comes to vocabularies. As such, there is merit in the discussing processes of hatred and efficiency of using the most widely discrimination facing Muslim individuals recognised and used linguistic tools to and communities. This has led individuals challenge urgent socio-political issues. and organisations to propose the use of other terms such as “anti-Muslim hatred” While others have suggested “anti-Muslim as alternative descriptors. hatred” as a replacement, this would be counter-productive as it would involve However, MEND argues unequivocally forcing a new terminology into the place of that the term “Islamophobia” is the most a well-established concept. Consequently, appropriate terminology to use in this at this point, it is far more prudent to debate for a variety of reasons. The devise a strong and comprehensive following discussion sets out MEND’s definition for the word “Islamophobia”, arguments for why the term Islamophobia than to attempt to force a new terminology remains the most effective linguistic tool to into the language of advocacy and understand and tackle the roots, activism. manifestations, and consequences of hatred, discrimination, and exclusions An all-encompassing facing Muslim communities in the social, terminology economic and political fields. Differences between terms such as An established terminology Islamophobia and “anti-Muslim hatred” While Islamophobia is a term around reflect differences in focus and which linguistic debates may centre, there understanding of the phenomenon. is a great deal of conceptual clarity and Therefore, they produce different understanding. In other words, while there approaches and priorities in tackling it. may be a definitional problem, no such “Anti-Muslim hatred” does not have the problem exists conceptually. As such, what same conceptual understanding attached is needed is a label to be attached to this to Islamophobia. Therefore, while “anti- concept. Muslim hatred” may be used to describe Islamophobia is a term that already holds hate crime, verbal abuse, and harassment, currency within public discourse and is it obfuscates the damaging effects of well established within public and popular political and media discourses and the understanding. Consequently, it has an dangers of discrimination and socio- existing legitimacy and emotional power. political exclusion. Anti-Muslim hatred Many individuals affected by thus should not be divorced from the roots Islamophobia may not have the technical from which in emanates. vocabulary nor the theoretical framework Consequently, understanding the hatred, to fully articulate the roots, causes or the discrimination, and exclusions facing precise definition of their experiences.

24 Muslim communities as Islamophobia under colonial rule were perceived and provides a holistic understanding that treated by the French colonizers. In this explicitly identifies the phenomenon in all instance, Islamophobia is about people, its social, economic and political forms. about Muslims, not about religion. Furthermore, because this definition Islamophobia truly entered mainstream makes it possible to identify Islamophobia political discourse with the publication of in all its forms, it is a useful tool in the 1997 Runnymede report extrapolating specific areas for address, “Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All”.7 approaches, and priorities in tackling it. Within this report, Runnymede It is worthy to note that the term “anti- unwaveringly defined Islamophobia as Muslim racism” is a term that could also being about the believers and not the potentially encompass this full and holistic religion. Indeed, they exerted considerable understanding. However, due to the effort in highlighting the need to mitigate previously mentioned arguments the dangers of Muslim belief and practice surrounding Islamophobia as an becoming beyond the realm of critical established and credible linguistic tool, we inquiry. As such, they stressed the need to do not feel that “anti-Muslim racism” can recognise the contrast between “open be easily co-opted as an activist concept views” of legitimate criticism of Islam and into the public understanding with the the “closed” views that constitute same efficiency as Islamophobia. Islamophobia. It should also be noted that Furthermore, it risks precipitating although the term Islamophobia has been distracting semantic and legal arguments used in public discourse for over 20 years that Muslims are not a race, in the same it has not hitherto stifled debate or free way that Jews and Sikhs have been defined speech. as by UK case law. Islamophobia should not be understood as Islamophobia is not about a protection against questioning or prohibiting criticism of religion criticising religion. Nor should it be seen as an attempt to enforce restrictions on Islamophobia, as a term, is often wrongly freedom of speech beyond what is accused of being an attempt to stifle free necessary for civil society to protect speech and, in particular, an effort to individuals from abuse and violence – curtail all questioning or criticism of protections for which there already exists a religion. However, it has never historically, vast array of legal precedents. nor should it presently, be seen in this Whilst cherishing the right to freedom of light. speech in an open democratic society, one The historical usage of Islamophobia can must not allow individuals to hide behind be found in colonial communications as far the free speech argument to peddle anti- back as the turn of the 20th Century. One of Muslim and racist agendas. There is the earliest examples can be found in the currently no absolute right to free speech writing of French colonialist Maurice that harms others, and we would support Delafosse in his discussion of that position. “Islamophobie”5 in 1910. Delafosse discusses Islamophobia as “a principle of indigenous administration.”6 As such, Islamophobia was a reference to how Muslims living

5 Over time, the French “Islamophobie” became translated into English as 6 Abdoolkarim Vakil, “Is the Islam in Islamophobia the same as the Islam in Anti- “Islamophobia”. This follows the same pattern set by the term “Judeophobie” and Islam; Or When is it Islamophobia Time?” in S. Sayyid and Abdoolkarim Vakil, “xenophobie”, which later became anti-Semitism and xenophobia. eds., Thinking Through Islamophobia, (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 38.

7 Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All.

25 The beauty of lexically non- not all Jews are Semites and not all Semitic sensical terms people are Jews. However, anti-Semitism is a terminology that is well established and Another criticism often levied against the conceptually understood (much in the use of the term Islamophobia is concern same way as Islamophobia), and therefore, over the use of “phobia” and the idea that is considered unproblematic. it means “a phobia of Islam”. This is clearly Lexically, Islamophobia may not be ideal. not what is meant by Islamophobia as the However, it is by far the most ideal term term has always had the conceptual we have as a label for a concept that is well meaning of hostility and discrimination understood, and which is popularly called towards people who embody an identity Islamophobia. based on a certain practice or belief (in this case Islam), much the same way as hostilities and discriminations are manifested within homophobia and xenophobia. Secondly, some have pointed to the use of “phobia” in arguing that the term incorrectly implies some kind of mental illness, thereby causing objections to the idea that it is an “irrational fear of Islam”. It is useful in this regard to remember that Islamophobia shares this suffix with both homophobia and xenophobia, neither of which are intended to imply a mental illness. However, despite not implying any mental illness, it is worth remembering that a great deal of public discourse surrounding Muslims stemming from certain elements of society serves the explicit purpose of engendering extreme or irrational fears of Islam in others, hence the term is not without some descriptive value in this regard. As such, examples of Islamophobia do include attempts to promote and propagate the spreading of heightened and irrational suspicion, hostility and fear of Islam and its adherents amongst the public imagination. English is a beautiful and interesting language in its inconsistencies as much as in its logic. It is not uncommon to find words that, at best, take a great deal of effort to understand (the fact that the words “flammable” and “inflammable” mean the same thing, for example), and, at worst, are lexically non-sensical. Anti- Semitism is a good example of this. Indeed,

26 London. The first mosque in Britain is Understanding British believed to have been established at Glyn Muslim Communities Rhondda Street in Cardiff in 1860.12 During the 19th century, Victorian high- Britain has a relationship with Muslims society were attracted to the teachings of that expands over 1000 years, with British Islam. George Allanson-Winn, the fifth Muslims today comprising of roughly 4.4% Baron of Headley and a noted civil of the population. While in no way engineer who constructed the road comprehensive (several volumes could be between Baramula and Srinagar in the written on this topic), this section attempts mountainous region of Kashmir converted to provide an insight into the history, to the faith; as did William Quilliam, a contributions and vast diversity of British lawyer and poet who established a mosque 8 Muslims. and orphanage in Liverpool; and novelist A (very brief) history of British and translator of the Holy Qur’an, Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall. Muslim communities Britain’s first purpose-built mosque was Britain’s relationship with Islam can be designed by architect Gottlieb Leitner and seen from Elizabeth I to Elizabeth II; from opened in Woking, Surrey, in 1889.13 shops offering sherbets in Shakespeare’s By the 1950s, Muslims responded to the London to Muslims holding influential shortfall in labour and the need to rebuild positions as today’s Ministers and British infrastructure following the Second 9 Mayors. World War. This saw large-scale migration Indeed, Muslims have played a valuable largely from South Asia, which still role in Britain for over 1000 years. In the constitutes the large majority of British eighth century, King Offa minted coins Muslim communities today. These groups bearing the Islamic Arabic inscription “In mainly settled in the inner-city areas of the name of God, the Most Merciful, the London, the industrial towns of the Most Beneficent”. Some seven centuries Midlands and the textile towns of later, Queen Elizabeth I asked Ottoman Lancashire, Yorkshire and Strathclyde. Sultan Murad for naval assistance against Today, Muslims living in Britain originate 10 the Spanish Armada, and the Moroccan from a vast range of national and cultural ambassadors Ahmed Bilqasim and backgrounds. The population also includes Muhammad An-Nuri both visited London a significant number of British and 11 between 1589 and 1600. European converts to Islam. Others have The rise of the British Empire saw a come from war-torn countries to find a deepening relationship between Britain better life in Britain. and Muslims. By 1841, around 3,000 Moroccan Muslims have been present in Muslim seaman, or “lascars”, visited significant numbers in since the Britain every year and an increase in trade 1960s. Nigerian Muslims arrived in the following the opening of the Suez Canal in 1950s and then again during the 1990s, 1869 led to a number of seaman from mainly for economic reasons. Small Yemen settling in the port cities of Cardiff, numbers of Egyptians and Saudi Arabians Liverpool, South Shields, Hull, and have also been present in the UK for

8 For a more comprehensive insight into the history of British Muslims, see Humayun 11 "The First Muslims in England," BBC, March 20, 2016, Ansari, The "infidel" Within: The History of Muslims in Britain, 1800 (London: C. Hurst, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-35843991. 2004). 12 "History of Islam in the UK." 9 "British Muslims - Working for the Common Good," Muslim Council of Britain, accessed June 19, 2018, http://www.mcb.org.uk/british-muslims/. 13 "History of the Mosque - Part 1," Shah Jahan Mosque, accessed June 19, 2018, http://www.shahjahanmosque.org.uk/history-mosque-part-1. 10 "Religions - Islam: History of Islam in the UK," BBC, September 07, 2009, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/uk_1.shtml.

27 decades. The Somali Muslim community, are Muslim. Muslims living in London numbering over 100,000, form Britain’s make up 1 in 8 of the population of the largest refugee population. In more recent UK’s capital, exceeding 1 million.19 times, Muslims have arrived in the UK Blackburn with Darwen also contains the from Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria as a most concentrated area of Muslims across result of war and societal breakdown.14 the whole of the UK, with the council Demographics wards of Bastwell and Shear Brow both having local Muslim populations above The 2011 Census provides the most up-to- 75%.20 date and comprehensive data available on the characteristics of the UK’s Muslim The age structure of the Muslim population, following the introduction of a population in the UK is much younger religion identifier in the 2001 Census. The than the general population, with only 4% data revealed that the UK’s Muslim of Muslims of retirement age compared to population had risen 75% over the 16% of the overall population. Almost half intervening period, from 1.6 million in of UK Muslims are under the age of 25, 2001 to 2.8million by 2011.15 compared to a third of the UK population.21 Muslims make up 4.4%, or less than 1 in 20, of the overall UK population. The Muslim toddlers under the age of 5 make overwhelming majority of UK Muslims, up 9% of all children in this age range, 95%, live in England. 3% of Muslims live in indicating that young Muslims will have Scotland, 1.6% in Wales, while just 0.1% an increasing influence in society as time 22 reside in Northern Ireland.16 progresses. Despite making up a relatively low This trend is more acutely seen in areas of proportion of the overall population, high Muslim populations, with over 80% Muslims are concentrated in specific areas of children under 5 in the Birmingham of the UK. Half of Muslims in England and wards of Washwood Heath, Bordesley Wales reside in the cities of London, Green and Sparkbrook being Muslim. Birmingham and Bradford17, while almost More than 50% of children in Tower 60% of Scottish Muslims live in Glasgow or Hamlets, and 40% in Newham, are 23 Edinburgh.18 Muslim. Certain council areas such as the London British Muslims are very diverse in terms boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Newham, of ethnicity, culture, and language. Two- and Blackburn with Darwen in the North thirds of UK Muslims are of Asian West of England, feature Muslim ethnicity, with 10% being of Black ethnicity populations above 25%. Just under a and 7% being of Arab ethnicity, while quarter of Bradford residents are Muslim, White British Muslims comprise 3% of the while 22% of the population of UK Muslim total.24 The range of languages Birmingham, the UK’s second largest city, spoken by British Muslims is also vast, including but not limited to, Arabic,

14 Jawad Iqbal, "The Diverse Origins of Britain's Muslims," BBC, January 18, 2016, Britain, January 2015, accessed May 10, 2018, https://www.mcb.org.uk/wp- https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-33715473. content/uploads/2015/02/MCBCensusReport_2015.pdf.

15 Aisha Gani, "Muslim Population in England and Wales Nearly Doubles in 10 Years," 18 Scottish Muslims in Numbers. , February 11, 2015, accessed May 10, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/feb/11/muslim-population-england- 19 British Muslims in Numbers. wales-nearly-doubles-10-years. 20 Ibid. 16 Khadijah Elshayyal, Scottish Muslims in Numbers: Understanding Scotland’s Muslim Population through the 2011 Census, report, The Alwaleed Centre, The University of 21 Ibid. Edinburgh, December 2016, accessed May 10, 2018, https://www.ed.ac.uk/files/atoms/files/scottish_muslims_in_numbers_web.pdf. 22 Ibid.

17 Sundas Ali, British Muslims in Numbers: A Demographic, Socio-economic and Health 23 Ibid. Profile of Muslims in Britain Drawing on the 2011 Census, report, Muslim Council of 24 Ibid.

28 Punjabi, Urdu, Bengali, Gujarati, Turkish, relatives ‘back home’ remain strong via Somali, Kurdish, and Pashto. transnational marriage and remittances. Finally, British Muslims are hugely diverse Until 2001, statistic information about the in their ideologies, beliefs and practices. demography of Muslim communities in While the majority of Muslims in the UK Britain was largely a matter of guesswork. follow the Sunni schools, an estimated 1 in Extrapolation from Census data about 10 classify as Shia.25 ethnicity provided some clues, alongside a number of large-scale quantitative studies One of the key features of Islamophobia is that included attention to questions of to treat Muslims as a homogenous group. religion.26 But with the introduction of a However, diversity in the reasons for question on religion in the 2001 Census, migration, ideology, culture, background researchers interested in Muslims in and language all show that Muslims in the Britain could begin to map their socio- UK are a community of communities, and economic situation in detail.27 Analysis of arguably the most diverse religious the 2001 Census data was conducted by community of all. researchers at the University of Bristol, in The Demographics of Muslims in collaboration with the Muslim Council of Britain Britain.28 This volume provided an invaluable contribution to the field of British Muslim Studies, and Professor Sophie Gilliat-Ray complemented extensive qualitative Director, Centre for the Study of Islam in the understanding. Since 2001, demographic UK information about Muslim communities in Britain has been essential for policy- It is difficult to summarise in a few makers, Muslim organisations, and sentences the complex picture that academics. Arguably, the successful emerges from the most recent campaign for the (voluntary) ‘religion’ demographic/Census data in relation to question in the Census was an important Muslim communities in Britain. Broadly driver for the incorporation of ‘religion and speaking, however, we are talking about belief’ as one of nine ‘protected ‘communities’ that are unevenly characteristics’ of the Equality Act 2010. distributed around the UK, demographically ‘young’, suffering A question on religion was retained in the disproportionate socio-economic 2011 Census, thereby enabling the disadvantage compared to other faith beginning of some longitudinal groups, and reflecting a wide range of comparisons. Data has been subject to ethnic, racial and linguistic backgrounds. detailed analysis, with the Muslim Council Nearly half the Muslim population in of Britain again having a significant role in Britain was born here, and about two interpretation of the findings.29 There is thirds originate from the Indian now a considerable body of research that subcontinent. Despite this, links with investigates Muslim demography, both methodologically30 and empirically.31 Census data is not the only source of

25 "The Diverse Origins of Britain's Muslims." 29 British Muslims in Numbers.

26 Tariq Modood et al., Ethnic Minorities in Britain: Diversity and Disadvantage - Fourth 30 Clive D. Field, "Measuring Religious Affiliation in Great Britain: The 2011 Census National Survey of Ethnic Minorities, report, Policy Studies Institute, 1997, in Historical and Methodological Context," Religion 44, no. 3 (2014): 357-382, http://www.psi.org.uk/pdf/Ethnic%20Minorities%20In%20Britain_small_file.pdf. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2014.903643.

27 Jamil Sherif, "A Census Chronicle – Reflections on the Campaign for a Religion 31 Abby Day and Lois Lee, "Making Sense of Surveys and Censuses: Issues in Question in the 2001 Census for England and Wales," Journal of Beliefs & Values 32, Religious Self-identification," Religion 44, no. 3 (2014): 345-356, no. 1 (2011): 1-18, doi:10.1080/13617672.2011.549306. doi:10.1080/0048721x.2014.929833.

28 Serena Hussain, Muslims on the Map: A National Survey of Social Trends in Serena Hussain and Jamil Sherif, "Minority Religions in the Census: The Case of Britain (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2008). British Muslims," Religion 44, no. 3 (2014): 414-433, doi:10.1080/0048721x.2014.927049.

29 demographic information about British involved in the production of information Muslims, however. Other large-scale about Muslim communities. quantitative surveys, such as the Ethnic The production of reliable statistical data Minority British Election Survey, provide about Muslim communities in Britain is important information on voting crucial for Islamic organisations involved behaviour and attitudes to political issues, with representing community interests in for example. civil society, and advocating on their While the 2011 Census data on Muslims is behalf. Demographic information about extremely detailed, there have since been Muslim communities paints a clear picture demographic developments that will only of disproportionate socio-economic be enumerated via the next Census in 2021. hardship and discrimination, but also the This means that certain statistical cumulative disadvantage that arises from information in the intervening ten-year the intersection of such things as poor period can only be estimated using other housing quality, ill-health, economic methods. Where datasets are produced inactivity, or low educational attainment. featuring information on ethnicity and not Islamophobia and anti-Muslim hatred may religion, a common method is to be difficult to measure quantitatively at a extrapolate estimates from ethnic groups national level. But we now have sufficient with large Muslim representation. For evidence – both qualitative and example, with over 90% of Pakistani and quantitative – to suggest that it has a Bangladeshi individuals recording their compounding effect on other aspects of religion as Muslim, these ethnic groups British Muslim experience and provide insight into Muslim experiences. disadvantage and its effects justify new However, these groups comprise just over systematic high-quality research. 50% of the overall UK Muslim population and, therefore, they often cannot provide a Muslim contributions to Britain full picture. The British Muslim community is a vibrant Amid the generation of new datasets and and heterogeneous one, whose qualitative studies of British Muslims, it is contributions to Britain are numerous and essential to critically evaluate multi-layered. Muslim contributions to methodology, techniques of data analysis, Britain include but are in no way limited to: interpretation of findings, and the ‘interests’ that lie behind the  There are more than 13,400 Muslim- commissioning of new research. Who is owned businesses in London alone, engaged in the production of demographic creating over 70,000 jobs. As such, information about Muslim communities, Muslim owned firms represent a third and with what authority, knowledge, of small to medium enterprises in the power and evidence? Peer-review, capital.32 triangulation (using more than one method  British Muslims donate more to charity on the same topic), and appropriate ethical than any other group, donating an scrutiny, are some of the hallmarks of average of £371 each.33 Indeed, during reliable, high-quality, academic research. Ramadan 2016, British Muslims Through the particular emphasis given to research methodology, students of our MA in Islam in Contemporary Britain at Cardiff University are schooled to question data sources, and the credentials of those

32 The Muslim Pound: Celebrating the Muslim Contribution to the UK Economy, report, 33 Tom Moseley, "Which Religion Gives The Most To Charity?," HuffPost UK, October Muslim Council of Britain, 2013, http://www.mcb.org.uk/wp- 03, 2013, http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2013/07/21/muslims-give- content/uploads/2014/10/The-Muslim-Pound-FINAL.pdf most_n_3630830.html.

30 donated £100 million, which is Torkia, Rimla Akhtar, and James Caan equivalent to £38 per second.34 in all realms of life, be it within sports, media, politics, criminal justice or  British Muslims contribute over £31 business. billion to the UK economy.35 Meanwhile, the halal food industry in However, despite their important social, Britain is worth £1 billion, with the economic, and civic contributions and the global halal food market estimated to fact that 95% of Muslims feel a strong sense be worth £685 billion.36 of loyalty to the country, as evidenced by a targeted BBC poll,40 Muslims are  The public sector draws heavily on frequently engulfed in a climate of skilled professionals from Muslims- suspicion; are often accused of being a majority countries, with 26% of doctors community possessing little interest in working in the NHS being Asian or being a full part of British society; and face Asian British.37 high levels of discrimination and socio-  Muslims are eager to participate in economic barriers to their active society and support their communities. participation in social, political, civic, and In the last month alone, two Muslims economic life. It is the role of Islamophobia have been appointed Mayor: Mayor of within these anti-Muslim hostilities, Swindon, Junab Ali, was re-elected in discriminations, and barriers that this May 2018 for a fourth term and Magid report seeks to address. Magid was elected in Sheffield.  There are currently 650 British Muslims soldiers in the British Army.38 In 2006, Jabron Hashmi became the first British Muslim soldier to die in Afghanistan. He was 24 years old. His older brother, Zeeshan, who had also worked in the British Army, said: “Jabron was a committed soldier and a committed Muslim. He was fiercely proud of his Islamic background and he was equally proud of being British and was very proud to live in Britain.”39  A number of high profile Muslims excel in all realms of British public life. One need not look far to witness the contributions of Muslim figures such as Sayeeda Warsi, Naz Shah, Rushanara Ali, Nazir Afzal, Mohammed Farah, Mohammed Salah, Nadiya Hussein, Dr Saleyha Ahsan, Mishal Husain, Dina

34 Nick Donaldson, "Ramadan – making a real difference," Charity Commission, July 37 Haroon Siddique, "Figures show extent of NHS reliance on foreign nationals," The 14, 2016, https://charitycommission.blog.gov.uk/2016/07/14/ramadan-making-a- Guardian, January 26, 2014, real-difference/. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2014/jan/26/nhs-foreign-nationals- immigration-health-service. 35 Asa Bennett, "British Muslims Add Over £31 BILLION To UK Economy," The Huffington Post, October 29, 2013, 38 "About Us." Armed Forces Muslim Association. Accessed June 4, 2018. http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2013/10/29/uk-muslims- http://afma.org.uk/about-us/. economy_n_4170781.html. 39 "British Muslim soldiers." The Open University. Accessed June 27, 2017. 36 The Muslim Pound: Celebrating the Muslim Contribution to the UK Economy, report, http://www.open.ac.uk/ccig/blogs/british-muslim-soldiers. Muslim Council of Britain, 2013, http://www.mcb.org.uk/wp- content/uploads/2014/10/The-Muslim-Pound-FINAL.pdf. 40 “Most British Muslims 'oppose Muhammad cartoons reprisals'”, BBC News, accessed 15.05.2018, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-31293196

31 Part II: The Manifestations, Logics, and Mechanisms that Fuel Islamophobia

The Assumptions of Islamophobia ...... 33

DR AURELIEN MONDON, UNIVERSITY OF BATH AND DR AARON WINTER, UNIVERSITY OF EAST LONDON LIBERAL AND ILLIBERAL ISLAMOPHOBIAS ...... 36 Islamophobia, Xenophobia, Racism, and Anti-Semitism ...... 38

PROFESSOR TARIQ MODOOD, UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL ISLAMOPHOBIA: A FORM OF CULTURAL RACISM ...... 38

DR YULIA EGOROVA, DURHAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMOPHOBIA IN ITS RELATION TO ANTI-SEMITISM ...... 45

PROFESSOR NASAR MEER FACSS, UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ISLAMOPHOBIA AND ANTISEMITISM? ...... 46 Driving Islamophobic Narratives: The Islamophobia Industry ...... 49

DR HILARY AKED, PHD UNIVERSITY OF BATH THE ‘ISLAMOPHOBIA INDUSTRY’ ...... 50 Moral Panic, Media, and Broadcasting ...... 66

NATHAN SPARKES, HACKED OFF CAMPAIGN LEVESON AND THE GOVERNMENT’S FAILURE TO KEEP ITS PROMISES TO THE VICTIMS OF PRESS ABUSE ...... 72

32 assuming that the desires, ideologies, The Assumptions of political standpoints and values are universal across Muslims, the guilt of a few Islamophobia is frequently attributed to all Muslims. A Part II of this report is intended to explore case in point is when innocent Muslims are the manifestations, logics, and mechanisms considered culpable and blameworthy for that fuel Islamophobia. In opening this the reprehensible violent actions exploration, it is useful to briefly explore committed by individuals such as some of the underlying assumptions that Muhammad Emwazi, Salman Abedi, underpin the logics of Islamophobia. While Michael Adebolajo, or Khalid Masood. not every instance of Islamophobia may Indeed, following acts of terrorism where embody all of the assumptions discussed the perpetrator is Muslim, there is the below, they are common themes that drive invariable suggestion that Muslims should and infiltrate Islamophobic narratives come out in condemnation of the atrocity – surrounding Muslims and their place in as if they do not condemn it in the same society. way as everyone else. This has culminated “All Muslims are the same” in a 712-page Google document and website listing the times that Muslims have One of the key features of Islamophobic condemned violence. The absurdity of this narratives is that Muslims are a monolithic suggestion is strikingly obvious when one group with static views, beliefs and makes the parallel suggestion that all practices. Such a stance ignores the huge White people should apologise for the diversity between Muslims in terms of atrocities committed by white beliefs, practices, ideologies, ethnicities, supremacists such as Anders Breivik, cultures, languages and values. Darren Osborne, Thomas Mair, Pavlo By ignoring this vast diversity, the result is Lapshyn, David Copeland, Alexandre that the acts and examples of a few are Bissonnette, and James Harris Jackson. extrapolated to being considered This translation of guilt is an issue representative of over a billion believers. In discussed in Part Three by Todd Green in other words, the example of a small his article “Islamophobia and the minority of Muslims is considered Presumption of Muslim Guilt in applicable to the whole Muslim Terrorism”. population. One example of this is when the treatment of women in Saudi Arabia is Islamophobia includes: portrayed as the collective treatment of all Muslim women, ignoring the freedoms the Making mendacious, dehumanising, vilifying, women enjoy in Muslim-majority demonising, or stereotypical allegations about countries such as Indonesia, or the Muslims. empowering examples of British Muslim Accusing Muslims as a collective of being women such as Baroness Sayeeda Warsi, responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing Naz Shah, Rushanara Ali, Nadia Hussein, committed by a single Muslim person, group Dr Saleyha Ahsan, Mishal Husain, Dina or nation, or even for acts committed by non- Torkia, or Rimla Akhtar, and too many Muslims. other pioneering British Muslim women to name. Muslims are the inferior “Other” As a consequence of generalisation, Within the logics of Islamophobia, Muslims become vulnerable to Muslims are presented as “different” and stereotyping, vilification and as sharing none of the core values of dehumanisation. Furthermore, in Western culture, such as respect for

33 freedom of belief. This perspective is part of Dar al-Islam, the 'House of epitomised in the lauding of “British Submission'. Widely accepted Islamic theology Values” as something distinct from based in Koranic doctrine explicitly requires Muslim values and something that that Islam be spread by any and all means Muslims are reluctant to embody, so must necessary, including by violence and mass be forced to accept. The issue of “Othering” slaughter, in a process known as jihad, or holy Muslims within the ongoing debates war. The fact that many Muslims do not concerning integration will be discussed in support or engage in violent jihad is not greater depth within “Political and Public germane.”41 Exclusion” of Part Three. The counter-jihad movement (also known According to Islamophobic assumptions, as professional Islamophobia and the Muslims are not only different, this Islamophobia Industry) is fuelled by the difference also makes them inferior; belief that Islam and Muslims living in uncivilised, irrational, violent and sexist. Europe are a threat to “Western As such, they have no place in the civilised civilisation”. This logic of the “clash of West unless they denounce their barbaric civilisations” and Muslims as the enemy is and illogical ways in order to progress to narrated through the claim that the West is an enlightened Western way of life. being subjected to an aggressive and politicised Islamic invasion. Inferiorisation is a time-tested tool of racisms and is a mechanism for controlling This invasion is exemplified by the and regulating groups whom there is a apparent removal of Christian or Jewish concern they may disrupt the delicate symbols and the imposition of Islamic balance of socio-economic power. This traditions, for example the building of theme of inferiorisation will be returned to mosques, the appearance of Islamic dress in following discussions of Islamophobia, in public, and the accessibility of halal racism and xenophobia. meat. According to those who espouse this fear, Islamophobia includes: European culture is in a state of decline due Objectifying and generalising Muslims as to infiltration by Muslims who seek to different, exotic or underdeveloped, or destroy European national identities and implying that they are outside of, distinct values. from, or incompatible with British society and Perceptions of collective threat, processes identity. of securitisation and the counter-jihad Espousing the belief that Muslims are inferior movement will be discussed further in to other social or religious groups chapters surrounding the Islamophobia Industry in Part 2 and Counter-Terror in Part 3 of this report Muslims are the manipulative enemy and hatred of Muslims is Islamophobia includes: justified Charging Muslims with conspiring to harm "Islam is above all a totalitarian political humanity and/or the Western way of life, or ideology, sugar-coated with the trappings of a blaming Muslims for the economic and social primitive desert religion to help veil its true ills of society. nature. The publicly stated goal of Islamic theology and political ideology is to impose the rule of Islam over the entire world, and make it

41 "The Counterjihad Manifesto," Gates of Vienna, accessed July 05, 2017, http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.co.uk/2009/11/counterjihad-manifesto.html

34 Islamophobia and racial Racial profiling, racial discrimination, and discrimination is normal racist exclusionary policies are in direct conflict with the principles of equality. As the later chapter on Islamophobia, However, this is an example of where Racism, Xenophobia and Anti-Semitism racial discrimination has become attests, Islamophobia is frequently normalised within political and public conflated with racism. In Britain, debate as something deemed necessary. longstanding prejudices against Moreover, prejudiced and racist comments Pakistanis, for example, have become about Muslims have increasingly become inter-mingled with anti-Muslim sentiment normalised. Rather than being considered to the point that they are often difficult to bigoted and inappropriate, such views are separate. frequently seen as justified and normal. As Baroness Sayeeda Warsi commented in These compounded hostilities are further 2011, “Islamophobia has passed the dinner augmented by heightened fears of security. table test.”43 The consequence of this is that the focus on the apparent threat of Muslims serves to Muslim criticisms of the West are justify suspicion of anyone who could invalid potentially be Muslim – anyone who “looks” Muslim. This results in issues such There is an attitude amongst certain as racial profiling at airports. In the UK segments of political and public context, profiling is frequently defended commentators who appear to perpetuate on the basis of the statistical probability of the view that Western commentators are a Muslim being of certain ethnicities. justified in criticising Muslim individuals Therefore, the security threat justifies and countries for their beliefs, practices, increased suspicion of South Asians, for policies and behaviours, however, the example. reverse is unjustified and baseless. Former UKIP candidate, Raheem Kassam, One area that is a good example of this is (who was the first British politician to meet the way in which arguments surrounding upon his inauguration freedom of speech are applied. Indeed, alongside and, until recently, organisations such as Student Rights, a was the editor of UK before project of the Henry Jackson Society, claim resigning to challenge in the to protect the freedom of speech when they next mayoral election) has repeatedly have expressed opposition to university voiced support for Donald Trump’s anti- student unions’ “no-platform” policy for Muslim policies and has been an advocate far-right speakers from organisations such of racial profiling at airports. He has stated as the BNP.44 However, it has that “I get worried when I’m not profiled simultaneously severely criticised Muslim in an airport”.42 students who criticise the current PREVENT strategy.45 Issues of racial profiling will be explored further in discussions surrounding Schedule 7 in the later Chapter “Muslims and Counter-Terror” in Part Three of this report.

42 Jim Waterson, "Raheem Kassam: Meet The Right-Wing Ex-Muslim Who Wants To 44 "London Student issue 10 (March 1st 2010)," Yudu - Your Digital editions, accessed Save UKIP," BuzzFeed, accessed July 26, 2017, July 27, https://www.buzzfeed.com/jimwaterson/raheem-kassam- 2017, http://content.yudu.com/Library/A1nkge/LondonStudentissue10/resources ukip?utm_term=.roxPV116Q#.tipNk8829. /index.htm.

43 “Lady Warsi claims Islamophobia is now socially acceptable in Britain”, The 45 "Salford Student President who opposes Prevent reveals troubling views on social Guardian, January 20, 2011, accessed 20.06.2018, media," Student Rights, accessed August 08, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/jan/20/lady-warsi-islamophobia- http://www.studentrights.org.uk/article/2466/salford_student_president_who_op muslims, -prejudice poses_prevent_reveals_troubling_views_on_social_media.

35 Liberal and Illiberal conceptual and analytical framework and Islamophobias46 tool to come to grips with the diversity, contradictions, transformation and slipperiness of Islamophobia(s), and Dr Aurelien Mondon racism itself, in order to combat it more University of Bath effectively. Currently, the signifiers ‘Muslim’ and ‘Islam’ are constructed and Dr Aaron Winter through different modes of articulations, University of East London from the most extreme to the seemingly In recent years we have seen a rise in progressive, but ultimately create an suspicion and hate directed at Muslims inchoate and yet clear Other used as a and Islam across Europe and North template to single out homogenised, America. It has manifested in a wide suspect communities. We argue that it is variety of ways, from hate speech, hate only through the dual offer of what we crimes and far-right activism, to more define as illiberal and liberal insidious forms of systemic and state Islamophobias that this racist discourse racism, such as surveillance, profiling and can become naturalised and common attempted travel and clothing bans.47 sense, since it allows for those espousing Added to these, we have also witnessed a the liberal position to justify their racist rise of Islamophobic discourse based on discourse by opposing it to the illiberal the defence of traditionally progressive articulation, even though both are part of tropes such as free speech,48 secularism the same exclusionary paradigm. It is and women’s rights.49 In addition to this, worth noting that our distinction between we have seen ongoing difficulties and the liberal and illiberal articulation here is debates over how to define this not so much based on political and phenomenon, as Islamophobia or anti- ideology theory, but rather on the Muslim racism,50 and the evolving nature perceived quality and level of acceptability of racism, which anti-Muslim discourses of each concept in the mainstream have in part fed on and utilised. discourse within modern liberal democracies.52 To make sense of the contemporary landscape of anti-Muslim racisms, and Illiberal Islamophobia commonly emerges diverse, seemingly contradictory and from exclusivist ideologies, discourses and changing articulations of Islamophobia, we identities associated with easily have developed our analytical concepts of recognisable forms of racisms, typically liberal and illiberal articulations of originating on the far-right and within Islamophobia.51 Our aim with these ultra-conservative circles. This type of concepts is to provide a more nuanced Islamophobia is closest to traditional racism and often presents Islam as

46 This report is based on and builds upon the previously published article: Aurelien 50 Claire Alexander, “The Muslim Question(s): Reflections from a Race and Ethnic Mondon and Aaron Winter, “Articulations of Islamophobia: From the Extreme to the Studies perspective”, The New Muslims, eds. C. Alexander, V. Redclift and A. Hussain Mainstream?”, Ethnic and Racial Studies Review, 40, 13 (Oct. 2017). (London: Runnymede Trust, 2013), 5-7; Chris Allen “Islamophobia: From K.I.S.S. to R.I.P.”, Thinking Through Islamophobia: Global Perspectives, eds. S. Sayyid and A. Vakil 47 Arun Kundnani, The Muslims are coming: Islamophobia, Extremism and the domestic war (London: C. Hurst & Co, 2010), 51-64; Nasar Meer and Tariq Modood, “Refutations of on terror (London: Verso, 2014); Mondon and Winter, “Articulations of Islamophobia; racism in the ‘Muslim Question’”’, Patterns of Prejudice no. 43, 3-4 (2009), 332–351; Aurelien Mondon and Aaron Winter, “Normalized Hate”, Jacobin (Aug. 2017); Naaz Mondon and Winter, “Articulations of Islamophobia”; Runnymede Trust, Rashid, Veiled Threats: Representing the Muslim woman in public policy discourses (Bristol: Islamophobia: a challenge for us all (London: Runnymede Trust, 1997); Runnymede Policy Press, 2016); Runnymede Trust, Islamophobia: still a challenge for us all (London: Trust, Islamophobia (2017); Runnymede Trust, 2017). Raymond Taras, “‘Islamophobia never stands still’: race, religion, and culture”, Ethnic 48 Gavan Titley, Des Freedman, Gholam Khiabany and Aurelien Mondon, After Charlie and Racial Studies, 36, 3 (2013), 417-433; Pnina Werbner, “Folk devils and racist Hebdo: Terror, Racism and Free Speech (London: Zed, 2017). imaginaries in a global prism: Islamophobia and anti-Semitism in the twenty-first century”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36, 3 (2013), 450-467. 49 Christine Delphy, Separate and dominate: Feminism and Racism after the War on Terror (London: Verso, 2015); Sara Farris, In the Name of Women's Rights: The Rise of 51 Mondon and Winter, “Articulations of Islamophobia”; Mondon and Winter, Charlie Femonationalism (Durham: Duke University Press, 2017); Mondon and Winter, Hebdo. “Articulations of Islamophobia”; Aurelien Mondon and Aaron Winter, “Charlie Hebdo, Republican Secularism and Islamophobia”, After Charlie Hebdo: Terror, Racism 52 Mondon and Winter, “Articulations of Islamophobia”. and Free Speech, eds. G. Titley, D. Freedman, G. Khiabany and A. Mondon. “London: Zed Books, 2017), 31-35; Irene Zempi and Neil Chakraborti, Islamophobia, Victimisation and the Veil (London: Palgrave, 2014).

36 monolithic and innately threatening and line to satisfy such demands is arbitrary, inferior (in terms of ‘race’ if not also and always moving out of reach. culture) and takes the form of open threats, It emphasises the apparent and limited hate attacks, calls for repatriation or ethnic inclusion of other ethnic and religious cleansing. Illiberal Islamophobia is thus groups typically hated by the far-right and ‘illiberal’ inasmuch as it is not only rejected traditional racists. The presentation of by the liberal norm, but denounced as criticism of Islam and Muslims as unacceptable and alien to our post-racial reactionary as a defence of women’s and societies,53 thus allowing the legitimisation LGBT rights for example provides a veneer of other, more insidious and less racialised of tolerance and progressivism. The forms, which also rely on cultural victimisation is only partially differences. acknowledged, in order to be diverted onto Contrary to illiberal and more extreme a particular scapegoat: those racialised and forms of Islamophobia, liberal stigmatised groups can join if ‘They’ Islamophobia is anchored in a pseudo- decide to integrate through hate. progressive discourse in the defence of the While it is crucial that liberal Islamophobia rule of law based on liberal equality, posits itself clearly in opposition to the freedom and rights (e.g. liberal versions of reviled illiberal articulation, the mask slips freedom of speech, gender and sexual easily and often. The focus of public debate equality). We see its clearest articulations on Muslim garments and their ban has in calls to ban the hijab or burka and the ‘Je often led to attacks on Muslim women suis Charlie’ phenomenon.54 To gain wearing head coverings. Similarly, the ‘Je legitimacy, it is thus crucial that liberal suis Charlie’ moment has not led to the Islamophobia goes beyond its attacks on liberalisation of speech for all, but the Muslims, and appears to challenge increased securitization of Muslims and traditional far-right and ultra-conservative the reinforcing of privileges and whiteness discourses and ideologies. In its self- as a norm.55 In turn, the tactical and racist proclaimed yet limited opposition to the use of potentially progressive ideals such reviled ‘racists’, ‘sexists’ and as free speech, feminism or secularism ‘fundamentalists’ of all kinds, it enables far against Muslims has allowed the far right greater mainstream and even progressive to mainstream itself and its discourse acceptance. further. Two aspects thus make the liberal We believe that our framework is essential articulation of Islamophobia distinct from to understand the current dynamics of illiberal forms: racism and exclusion. Only with a full It allows for limited distinctions between picture of these diverse and seemingly ‘Islam’ as a religion or set of ideas and contradictory articulations, can we both ‘Muslims’ as a people, and where people understand the complex and evolving are implicated, as they always are, between nature of racism, but also provide ‘good’ (redeemable) and ‘bad’ Muslims progressive movements with the tools to subject to a loyalty test. The test operates fight racism at a time when mainstream through (demands for) explicit expressions movements, media, policy and discourse is of opposition to ideas and practices trying to hijack their language and causes projected on to Muslims and apologies for reactionary ends. from ‘moderate’ Muslims, even though the

53 Alana Lentin and Gavan Titley, The Crises of Multiculturalism: Racism in a neoliberal 54 Titley et al, After Charlie Hebdo. age (London: Zed, 2011). 55 Mondon and Winter, Charlie Hebdo; Titley et al, After Charlie Hebdo.

37 to view it through the lens of racisms. As Islamophobia, Runnymede’s recent report attests, Islamophobia should be understood as an Xenophobia, Racism, anti-Muslim racism. and Anti-Semitism In Todd Green’s seminal work “The Fear of Islam”, he states that, “Islamophobia is not Earlier in this report, we laid out our racially blind, nor is it simply a argument of Islamophobia being distinct manifestation of older forms of racism from criticism of religion – it is not a fear of rooted in biological inferiority. It is an Islam, it is a fear of Muslims. This is an example of what some scholars have important point as a misunderstanding of labelled “cultural racism”. This form of this magnitude obscures the roots and racism incites hatred and hostility based on causes of Islamophobic sentiments, thus religious beliefs, cultural traditions, and inhibiting opportunities to address them. ethnic backgrounds.”56 It would be possible to write many In this manner, Muslims collectively have volumes on the interconnectivity and become racialised through their religious symbiotic relationship between identities. Islamophobias, racisms, anti-Semitism, xenophobia, and other forms of hatred. Islamophobia: a form of cultural This is clearly beyond the limits of what is racism57 possible in one report. Therefore, this chapter seeks instead to touch upon (albeit very briefly) a non-exhaustive exploration Tariq Modood, MBE, FBA, FAcSS, FRSA of a number of theories, themes, and University of Bristol approaches that are all useful in fully Islamophobia is the racialising of Muslims exploring Islamophobia as a phenomenon. based on physical appearance or descent as Cultural Racism members of a community and attributing to them cultural or religious characteristics From a policy perspective, Islamophobia is to vilify, marginalise, discriminate or a hostility that is directed at and serves to demand assimilation and thereby treat exclude people. While animosity towards them as second class citizens. the religion is frequently used as a justification for these sentiments, this It was not very long ago that Anglophone hostility is also a product of animosity scholars of racism understood it in terms of towards race, ethnicity and culture. A case biology, and specifically in terms of the in point is the conflation between ethnic black-white binary. At the same time, other and religious insults (such as the scholars, especially in continental Europe, application of “p*ki” when the pejorative understood racism in terms of anti- term is expressed in hostility towards a semitism, especially in the recent Muslim as well as an ethnic identity), or the biologised forms that Europe has reality that British Sikhs have frequently manifested. When it began to be clear that been the unfortunate targets of these two paradigms were failing to Islamophobic abuse on the basis of their capture some contemporary experiences, ethnicity and assumed connection to a such as anti-Asian cultural racism in Muslim identity. Britain or anti-Arab cultural racism in France, some scholars began to move away Therefore, rather than viewing Islamophobia in a vacuum, it is important

56 Todd H. Green, The Fear of Islam: an Introduction to Islamophobia in the West 57 This is a shortened version of a submission to the All-Party Parliamentary Group on (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015), 27. British Muslims, 1 June 2018, in response to the call for evidence on ‘Working Definition of Islamophobia'.

38 from these paradigms.58 Yet, following the treatment of Muslims clearly has a assertive Muslim agency triggered off by religious and cultural dimension it, equally The Satanic Verses affair and other Muslim clearly, bears a physical appearance or controversies, as Muslims responded to ancestral component. For while it is true such hostilities and articulated their that ‘Muslim’ is not a (putative) biological misrecognition, they were constantly told, category in the way that ‘black’ or ‘south especially in Britain, that there is no such Asian’ (aka ‘Paki’), or Chinese is, neither thing as anti-Muslim racism because was ‘Jew’. In that instance it took a long Muslims are a religious group and not a non-linear history of racialisation to turn race. Hence Muslims could legitimately an ethno-religious group into a race. More ask for toleration and religious pluralism precisely, the latter did not so much as but not for inclusion in anti-racist replace the former but superimposed itself egalitarian analyses and initiatives. While because even though no one denied that this view continues to be expressed even Jews were a religious community, with a today, and some deny that there is a racism distinctive language(s), culture(s) and that could be labelled ‘Islamophobia’, it no religion, Jews still came to be seen as a race, longer has the hegemony it once had. and with horrific consequences. Similarly, Bosnian Muslims were ‘ethnically While a number of Anglophone authors, cleansed’ because they came to be including myself, started using the concept identified as a ‘racial’ group, that is to say, of Islamophobia in the late 1980s and early as having a perceived line of descent by 1990s, it was the Runnymede Trust, with people who actually were phenotypically, its 1997 report, ‘Islamophobia: a challenge linguistically and culturally the same as to us all’, which launched the career of the themselves. The ethnic cleanser, unlike an term as a concept of public discourse in Inquisitor, wasted no time in finding out Britain and much beyond it. It presented what people believed, if and how often Islamophobia as ‘a useful shorthand way they went to a mosque and so on: their of referring to dread or fear of Islam – and victims were racially identified as Muslims therefore to fear or dislike of all or most in terms of community membership based Muslims’. While the report was ground- on a perceived line of descent. breaking and played a crucial role in getting people to think about anti-Muslim Race, then, as I understand it is not just prejudice I felt it did not sufficiently locate about biology or even ‘colour’, for while Islamophobia as a racism, like say, anti- racialization has to pick on some features semitism. I continued to write about of a people related to physical appearance Islamophobia as a form of cultural racism, and ancestry (otherwise racism cannot be which may be built on racism based on distinguished from other forms of physical appearance (e.g. colour-racism) groupism) it need only be a marker. This is but was a form of racism in its own right – illustrated in the conceptualisation of like anti-semitism.59 This also became the cultural racism as what I have called a two- approach of UNESCO and I am pleased to step process.60 While biological racism is see that it has been explicitly embraced by the antipathy, exclusion and unequal the new Runnymede Trust report of treatment of people on the basis of their November, 2017. physical appearance or other imputed physical differences, saliently in Britain Islamophobia is a form of cultural racism their non 'whiteness', cultural racism because while the perception and builds on biological racism a further

58 Introduction and Chapter 1 in Modood, T, Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity and 60 Modood, Multicultural Politics…, Intro and chp 1 Muslims in Britain, Edinburgh, 2005.

59 Modood, Multicultural Politics…, Intro and chp 1; N. Meer and Modood, ‘For ‘’Jewish’’ Read ‘’Muslim’’? Islamophobia as a Form of Racialisation of Ethno-Religious Groups in Britain Today’, Islamophobia Studies Journal, 1(1), Spring 2012: 36-55.

39 discourse which evokes cultural the West is not reduced to racialisation or differences from an alleged British, any other ‘Othering’ theoretical frame such 'civilised' norm to vilify, marginalise or as Orientalism. By definition ‘othering’ demand cultural assimilation from groups sees a minority in terms of how a dominant who may also suffer from biological group negatively and stereotypically racism. As white people's interactions with imagines that minority as something non-white individuals increased, they did ‘other’, as inferior or threatening, and to be not become necessarily less conscious of excluded. Indeed, the dominant group group differences but they were far more typically projects its own fears and likely to ascribe group differences to anxieties on to the minority. Minorities, upbringing, customs, forms of socialisation however, are never merely ‘projections' of and self-identity than to biological dominant groups but have their own heredity. subjectivity and agency through which they challenge how they are Cultures and cultural practices are usually (mis)perceived and seek to not be defined internally diverse, containing and omitting by others but to supplant negative and various “authentic” elements, and exclusionary stereotypes with positive and adaptations and mixes. So to racially prideful identities. Oppressive group all Jews or Muslims together as one misrecognitions, thus, sociologically imply cultural ‘race’ or as one ethnoreligious and politically demand recognition. Our entity, it follows that the culturalized analyses therefore should be framed in targeting is expansive, rather than purist, terms of a struggle for ‘recognition’ – the aiming to catch most if not all cultural recognition of one’s own identity.62 minorities in that targeted group. For example, a non-religious Muslim might The danger of reducing Muslims to still be targeted as a cultural Muslim or racialised identities is particularly high at Muslim by community, which of course the moment because the Islamophobic means Muslim by background, which ‘othering’ of Muslims is acute, and if means birth and ancestry. Hence my point anything, rising. This can be seen in how that Muslims, no less than Jews, are aggressive negative portrayals of Muslims identified ‘racially’ and not simply in terms is standard in so much right-wing of religious beliefs or behaviour. Moreover, nationalism, whether in President Trump’s if we accept that racism does not Muslim bans, Marine Le Pen’s Front necessarily involve attributing qualities National, Alternative fur Deutschland in which inhere in a deterministic law-like Germany or in various parties in central way in all members of a group, then we do and eastern Europe. I do worry, however, not have to rule out cultural racism as an that just as in the 1970s and 1980s some example of racism. As such we should anti-racists, including academics, reduced guard against the characterisation of blackness to a form of anti-racism, anti- racism as a form of biological determinism Islamophobia activism and studies risks which leaves little space to conceive the seeing Muslims only in terms of ways in which cultural racism draws upon racialisation and anti-racialisation. Because physical appearance as one marker like all ethnic or religious groups Muslims amongst others.61 are not merely created by their oppressors but have their own sense of identity too. While understanding some contemporary Multicultural inclusivity means treatment of Muslims and aspects of their recognising and respecting these identities. societal status in terms of ‘racialisation’ clearly is an advance, we should beware Recognition of course does not mean that the conceptualisation of Muslims in thinking of Muslims as a group with

61 Modood, Multicultural Politics, Intro and chp 1 62 Modood, Multicultural Politics, Intro and chp 1

40 uniform attributes or a single mind-set, all As such, critical race theories examine having the same view on religion, personal society and culture as they relate morality, politics, the international world to categorisations of race, law, and power. order and so on. Muslims are just like any Ultimately, these theories are concerned other group – they cannot be understood in with how racial inequalities are preserved terms of a single essence. Groups do not through social structures that appear have discrete, nor indeed, fixed boundaries normal and inconspicuous. In particular, as these boundaries may vary across time this involves an exploration of how racial and place, across social contexts and will power is maintained over time, and the be the subject of social construction and role of policies and legislation in the social change – and Muslims are no process through which racisms become different in this respect. This ‘anti- normalised. essentialism’ is rightly deployed in the In other words, in terms of Islamophobia, study of Islamophobia and Muslims. It is a there needs to be an understanding of the powerful way of handling ascriptive history and the social, political, and discourses, of showing that various economic processes through which the popular or dominant ideas about Muslims, behaviours, practices and identities of just as in the case of, say, women, gays etc, Muslims have become regulated at a social, are not true as such but are aspects of political, and legislative level. For example, socially constructed images that have been understanding how institutional racisms made to stick on to those groups of people within stop and search procedures or because the ascribers are more powerful integration strategies are used to normalise than the ascribed. Anti-essentialism is an racisms and regulate Muslim identities. intellectually compelling idea and a powerful resource in the cause of equality. These structures and processes are important because Islamophobia and other Islamophobia is the racialising of Muslims forms of racism cannot be examined purely based on physical appearance or descent as as a matter of personal prejudices. A police members of a community and attributing officer may not be prejudiced, but the to them cultural or religious parameters of their role dictate that they characteristics to vilify, marginalise, discriminate or demand assimilation and must reinforce and replicate institutionally thereby treat them as second class citizens. racist policies and procedures. Likewise, a teacher or academic may not be Critical Race Theory personally prejudiced, but within their syllabi, they are required to teach the Critical race theories are a useful lens canonical teachings of predominantly through which to explore Islamophobia. White men from a handful of Western Critical theorists are concerned with how countries, thereby continuing an education history, political economy, and social system predicated upon ethnocentric processes exert direct and indirect assumptions and perspectives. domination over the social, political, cultural, and economic expressions and Therefore, a critical examination of history, practices of individuals and groups. This political economy, and social processes is requires a focus on the ways in which necessary to fully comprehend the full gender, sexuality, class, culture, religion, breadth and consequences of race, ethnicity, nationality, and power Islamophobia and other forms of racism. intersect to shape inequalities. Of Xenophobia particular interest is the impact of power on minority groups and/or those groups In his exploration of the Islamophobia who remain marginalised without power. Industry (a topic that will be explored in the next chapter of this report), Nathan

41 Lean observes that, “The arch of prejudice At the same time, this supposed and anti-Other discrimination is a long incompatibility with Western culture one. Societies in Europe and North makes Muslims inferior and, therefore, America have, over the course of their undeserving of the freedoms and histories, grappled with populations that privileges of Western life. As Lean explains they felt were not truly a part of the it, “capitalist economic values that overlap essential national fabric in an ugly way. At with social ideals breed suspicions that the root of much or all of this intolerance is ethnic, racial, and religious minorities xenophobia, the fear or intense dislike of want to take advantage of freedoms and foreigners… The predominant sentiment opportunities for prosperity that are among many right-wing Americans, for thought to be uniquely American or instance, is that they are not welcome in European.”64 “our” country. Such ferocity and dogged These negative assumptions are nationalism is predicated on the channelled into racist expressions directed assumption that Muslims are immigrants at Muslims. and that the religion of Islam is not a fluid or borderless belief system, but rather Commentators such as Daniel Pipes originates from afar and has, with the exemplify this conflation between relocation of populations from Morocco to foreignness and Muslim identities. As far Bahrain, invaded the United States.”63 back as 1990, Pipes stated that, “Western societies are unprepared for the massive It is important to note that being immigration of brown-skinned peoples considered “foreign” is not necessarily an cooking strange foods and not exactly attribute limited to those born outside of maintaining Germanic standards of territorial borders. Rather, someone seen as hygiene… All immigrants bring exotic foreign is anyone who is deemed to be customs and attitudes, but Muslim outside the dominant group identity. customs are more troublesome than most. Therefore, British Muslims, even those Also they appear most resistant to whom have been born in the UK and assimilation.”65 whose parents were born in this country, may be perceived to be as foreign as White revanchism someone born halfway around the world. As previously discussed, within The reason for this foreignness is found not xenophobic narratives, the rhetoric of only in distinctions of ethnicity, but also in Islamophobia is often predicated upon the a perceived conflict of views, values, inferiority of minorities and the desire to norms, practices, beliefs, and behaviours “take back” one’s country. that all culminate in a threat or an insult to the dominant identity and way of life. Revanchism is usually understood as the political manifestation of a will to reverse Moreover, there is the divisive assumption territorial losses incurred by a country, that the threat that Muslims pose cannot be often following a war or social movement. overcome through relationship building Extreme revanchist ideologues often and inter-community engagement. Rather, suggest that the desired objectives of Muslims are particularly problematic in reclaiming what has been lost can be comparison to other “foreign” groups as achieved through the positive outcome of they are uniquely unwilling or incapable of conflict with whomsoever has been adapting to Western society. identified as those responsible for the perceived loss.

63 Lean, Nathan The Islamophobia Industry: How the right manufactures fear of Muslims. 64 Lean, The Islamophobia Industry, p6 (London: Pluto Press. 2012), p5 65 Cited in Lean, Nathan The Islamophobia Industry, p5

42 In this context, White revanchism should between Islamophobia, Orientalism, and be viewed as a largely white supremacist empire. ideology intended to “take back” the Between the specific forms of medieval privileges and power that its adherents xenophobia and prejudices that have perceived to have been deprived of. characterised the Crusades, the Orientalist However, this ideology is not limited to discourses of colonial powers, and White supremacists alone. Indeed, the securitisation of Muslim identities in the arguments, grievances, and logics are context of the current threat of ISIS, frequently adopted and/or reinterpreted contemporary anti-Muslim hostilities and to represent the loss of Western hegemonic racisms are situated within a long history power and also the erosions of male of imperial rivalry and conflict. Perhaps privilege in the face of women’s the most significant major development empowerment. within this trajectory of anti-Muslim Global socio-political and economic animosity is the emergence of the modern developments stretching from the decline nation state and the subsequent ability of of the British Empire, the Cold War, global governments to successfully economic recessions, and conflicts in the institutionalise racist policies and practices Middle East have destabilised a previously to a far greater extent than previously secure sense of Western hegemonic power. possible.66 However, contemporary Muslim identities in Western contexts, Islamophobia cannot be divorced from its therefore, represent a physical precursors within its historical lineage, for manifestation of the destabilisation of the example, the imagery of the violent and supremacy of Western hegemonic notions angry Muslim that was so embedded of identity, culture, norms, and socio- within the rhetoric of the Crusades which economic and political power. has endured to this day. As such, there is an intimate link between As a general introduction, Orientalism Islamophobia and xenophobia that cannot may roughly be understood as the way in be dislocated from the perceived which the West, particularly through the decentring of Western power and erosions use of colonial and imperial knowledge of Western and White privilege as an production and discourses, essentialises existential threat. In other words, the fears non-Western societies as static and and hostility directed at minorities and undeveloped. This constant depiction of Muslims in particular should be examined other cultures and peoples fabricates and alongside a crisis within White supremacy reinforces a perception of Western and Western nation states’ abilities to society’s inherent nature as developed, regulate themselves. rational, flexible, and superior, which is in direct contrast to the “Other” – largely Colonialism, Orientalism, and Muslims and previous subjects of “Othering” colonialism – who remain innately backwards, barbaric, under-developed Islamophobia in the UK is not an and in need of Western enlightenment; ahistorical phenomenon, rather, it must be “the White man’s burden”. contextualised within the history of Britain’s colonial past. Therefore, to fully However, the concept of “Orientalism” is understand Islamophobia in any not a static and undisputed concept. While meaningful way, there must be an first promoted by Edward Said as a acknowledgement of the relationship discourse through which imperialist knowledge was produced and sustained

66 Narzanin Massoumi, Tom Mills, David Miller, eds.. What is Islamophobia?: Racism, Social Movements and the State, (Pluto Press, 2017), p. 50.

43 surrounding the Muslim world, many Western hegemonic notions of modernity scholars regard it more as an ideology. For through maintaining their religious- example, Arun Kundnani refers to it as an cultural identities or through questioning ideology which “offers an everyday the status quo of this hegemony). ‘common sense’ explanatory framework The consequences of such a “good vs bad for making sense of mediated crisis events Muslim” distinction can be seen in the (such as terrorist attacks) in ways that political exclusion of Muslims and the disavow those events’ political meanings British Government’s current (rooted in empire, racism and resistance) disengagement policy regarding and instead explain them as products of a mainstream Muslim organisations. This is reified ‘Muslimness’. Thus, Islamophobia an issue that will be explored in greater involves an ideological displacement of depth throughout this report. political antagonisms onto the plane of culture, where they can be explained in This problematic situating of Muslim terms of the fixed nature of the ‘Other’.”67 identities is also seen in the ways in which states will often emphasise and give In other words, by essentialising the innate prominence to Muslim individuals when backwardness of the “Other”, Orientalist they are in a position to be co-opted as narratives act as a mechanism for agents of the state agenda. Again, this is regulating and controlling minorities. seen in the Government’s position Taking the example of reducing terrorism regarding their engagement with and to an issue purely of religion or innate promotion of only a hand-picked selection barbarity without reference to other socio- of Muslim organisations and individuals political and economic factors, Orientalist who support their established policy depictions of Muslim populations allow positions. those with power over the narrative to exclude Muslims from critical discussions Islamophobia and anti-Semitism and representative analysis. As such, this Islamophobia is often portrayed as method of obscuring grievances and completely distinct from anti-Semitism. justifying the regulation of Muslim However, this is a misunderstanding of identities casts Orientalist narratives as a hatred and racisms. Islamophobia, anti- form of structural violence representing Semitism, racism, xenophobia, sexism, the intersection between knowledge, homophobia and other forms of hatred are power, and discourse. all mechanisms of social regulation and Orientalism is thus a mechanism through control of minorities. Therefore, they need which to gain cultural and civilising power to be understood in the interconnectivity of over Muslim populations. Islamophobia their logics, manifestations, and thereby becomes the conduit through consequences. Moreover, it is important which Muslims are regulated into that all forms of hatred are understood as hegemonic Western conceptions of mechanisms of control and are, therefore, modernity. Muslims who resist such opposed with equal vigour. Failure to do Western appropriation are deemed a threat so merely results in allowing hatred to to the stability of the state and are thus manifest itself differently once one form placed in the dichotomy between the good has been tackled, thus transforming and “moderate” Muslims (those who redirecting itself at other vulnerable unquestioningly adhere to the sensibilities groups. of Western identity constructs) and the bad Moreover, in line with the liberal “extremist” Muslims (those who threaten Islamophobias discussed previously by

67 Cited in: Narzanin Massoumi, Tom Mills, David Miller, eds.. What is Islamophobia?: Racism, Social Movements and the State, (Pluto Press, 2017), p. 50.

44 Aurelien Mondon and Aaron Winter, imageries in the context of contemporary accusations of Muslim anti-Semitism are Europe have been made in the past decade often used as a justification to discriminate by scholars who focused on the diasporic further against Muslims collectively. conditions of contemporary Muslims. These contributions come from a wide It is imperative that both anti-Semitism range of disciplines and have involved and Islamophobia are fully viewed and drawing parallels between the historical understood for their consequences and are experiences of the Jewish people and the tackled collaboratively by Muslims, Jews current experiences of Muslims in Europe. and people of all faiths and none. For instance, historian Dan Diner has Islamophobia in its Relation to observed that ‘Muslims today, like Jews in Anti-Semitism the past, face the task of transforming their all-encompassing religion into a confessio, an abstract faith community among other Dr Yulia Egorova faith communities’.71 Sociologist Sara Durham University Farris in her essay From the Jewish Question to the Muslim Question argues Scholars have made important that nowadays in Europe it is the Muslims, interventions into the study of rather than the Jews that are seen as a Islamophobia in its relation to anti- group allegedly behaving as a separate Semitism. Edward Said had famously constituency within Western nations and described Orientalism as the ‘Islamic discriminated against on account of this branch’ of anti-Semitism, 68 and suggested alleged behaviour.72 Finally, philosopher that ‘hostility to Islam in the modern Brian Klug asks the broader question about Christian West has historically gone hand whether the analogy between the anti- in hand with, has stemmed from the same Semitism of the past and the Islamophobia source, has been nourished in the same of the present is analytically valid, and stream as anti-Semitism, and that a critique concludes that within limits it is worth of the orthodoxies, dogmas, and asserting, because it usefully sheds light on disciplinary procedures of orientalism the multiple social and political realities contribute to an enlargement of our that Europe faces at the moment. understanding of the cultural mechanisms of anti-Semitism’.69 At the same time, Western mass media often portrays Muslims as the main More recently, Gil Anidjar has shown how victimisers of European Jews, and presents in Europe the figure of the enemy is the attacks on Jewish persons and property contingent on the way Europeans had where perpetrators were Muslim as further related to both Jews and Arabs, who in evidence of Muslim immigrants’ contemporary Western imaginary became susceptibility to extremist ideologies and associated with Muslims, and argued that failure to integrate.73 Moreover, in recent it is these attitudes that had set up in decades European right-wing motion processes which had resulted in commentators started constructing the current conflicts in Europe, the Middle Jews and the Muslims as polar opposites East and the United States.70 with the former being presented as a model Important attempts to explore the minority, and in some cases as the allies of relationship between Jewish and Muslim

68 Edward W. Said, Orientalism, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979), 28. 72 Sara Farris, “From the Jewish Question to the Muslim Question. Republican Rigorism, Culturalist Differentialism and Antinomies of Enforced Emancipation”, 69 Edward W. Said, “Orientalism Reconsidered”, Cultural Critique, 1985, 99. Constellations 2017, 21 (2): 296-307.

70 Gil Anidjar, The Jew, the Arab. A History of the Enemy. 73 Paul Silverstein, “Immigrant Racialization and the New Savage Slot: Race, Migration, and Immigration in the New Europe”, Annual Review of Anthropology, 71 Dan Diner, ‘Reflections on Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia’, in Matti Bunzl “Anti- 2005, 34: 367 Semitism and Islamophobia”, 52

45 the Christian West74 and the latter as Islamophobia and antisemitism both inassimilable strangers.75 Judaism is thus involve the suspicion, dislike or hatred of essentialized and othered, but portrayed as Jewish or Muslim individuals or groups. more compatible with life in Europe than This can be attitudinal or structural, and Islam. proceeds from a real or assumed ‘Jewishness’ or ‘Muslimness’ respectively. These tropes show that while in the past, Both therefore reflect a racial and not just Jews and Muslims in Europe were put theological character, and can take a together into one category of a threatening number of forms spanning behaviour, other, in recent decades their identities discourse and state policy. have become polarized in the European public and political discourse, which For these reasons it is accurate to say that created a rhetorical dichotomy between the both antisemitism and Islamophobia are ‘well-integrated’ and ‘law-abiding’ Jews similar in drawing upon signs of race, and the ‘violent’ and ‘inassimilable’ culture and belonging. As such they are not Muslims failing to adjust to the conditions limited to hostility to a religion alone, but of liberal democracy. are tied up with pressing issues of community identity, stereotyping, socio- I suggest that though at first glance such economic location, and political conflict discourses construct Jews and Muslims as amongst other dynamics.76 members of two opposing categories, they still at the same time configure them both Self-evidently therefore, Muslim and as the ‘other’, even though they associate Jewish minorities have a clear and pressing with them different imageries of alterity. In rationale for collaborating further and contemporary European imagination, Jews tackling both together. and Muslims are thus both juxtaposed as What does the comparative data tell us social groups allegedly adhering to about mass attitudes to both groups? radically different social and cultural values and religious practices, but at the One of the best available data sets offering same time are also conflated as static and a statistical comparison of attitudes unchanging minorities who, no matter towards Jews and Muslims can be found in how different they may be from each other, the Pew Global Attitudes Project (PGAP),77 are also unmistakably unalike the which surveyed almost 25,000 people perceived host society. This phenomenon across 24 countries. Among its findings, it highlights the porousness of conceptual reports: borders between anti-Jewish, anti-Muslim “A strong relationship between anti- and other forms of prejudice and Jewish and anti-Muslim sentiments in the problematises attempts at drawing rigid West. Indeed, among the U.S. and the six definitional boundaries around terms such European countries included in the survey, as anti-Semitism and Islamophobia. the correlation between unfavorable opinions of Jews and unfavorable opinions What is the relationship between of Muslims is remarkably high.”78 Islamophobia and Antisemitism? The expression of anti-Muslim and anti- Jewish attitudes therefore emerges not Professor Nasar Meer FAcSS separately but instead as a conjoined University of Edinburgh activity. Indeed, and in the most up to date

74 Matti Bunzl, Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: Hatreds Old and New in Europe. (Chicago: 77 Disclosure note: The author in an academic advisor to Pew. Prickly Paradigm Press, 2007) 78 PRC (Pew Research Center) (2008) Pew Global Attitudes Project: Unfavorable Views of 75 Nasar Meer and Noorani Tehseen “A Sociological Comparison of Anti-Semitism and Jews and Muslims on the Increase in Europe. Washington DC: PRC. Summary available Anti-Muslim Sentiment”, The Sociological Review 56 (2): 195-219. from: http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=262 P. 9.

76 Meer, N. (ed.) (2013) Racialization and Religion. London: Routledge

46 2018 data, Pew confirms that “those who Monitoring Centre on Racism and express negative views of Muslims are also Xenophobia shortly after 9/11. Its authors, more likely to express negative views of Chris Allen and Jorgen Nielsen, identified Jews”.79 This is a trend first discovered a a rise in the number of “physical and decade ago where Pew data showed that verbal threats being made, particularly to opinions of Muslims in almost all of the 24 those visually identifiable as Muslims, European countries surveyed were more especially towards women wearing the negative than they were of Jews, with more hijab”.82 What is of particular note is that than half of Spaniards and half of Germans despite variations in the number and stating that they did not like Muslims, correlation of physical and verbal threats while the figures for Poland and France directed at Muslim populations among the were 46% and 38% for those holding individual nation states, one overarching unfavourable opinions of Muslims. feature that emerged among the 15 EU Indeed, while Americans and Britons countries was the tendency for Muslim displayed the lowest levels of women to be attacked because of how the antisemitism, one in four in both countries hijab signifies an Islamic identity.83 was hostile to Muslims. This means that in It is a finding that raises problems for the USA, France and Germany, people who want to distinguish between unfavourable views of Muslims are antipathy towards Muslims and antipathy roughly at twice the rate of unfavourable towards Islam. What is common to such views of Jews, while in Poland and Spain findings is that these are overlapping and the former are only a few percentage points interacting – rather than distinct. more. What are the implications? While quantitative surveys do not always provide the best accounts of prejudice and Although they are not passive objects of discrimination, they can be useful in racism, Muslim and Jewish identities are discerning trends – alerting us in this case not free of external pressures, to the widespread prevalence of anti- objectification and racialization. Muslim feeling. In British Social Attitudes What is required therefore are conceptions survey data, for example, Voas and Ling of Islamophobia and antisemitism that are reported that one fifth of the total able to explain how prejudice population responds negatively only to simultaneously draws upon signs of race, Muslims, and that relatively few people culture and belonging in a way that is by feel unfavourable towards any other no means reducible to hostility to a religion 80 religious or ethnic group on its own. alone, and compels us to consider how The visibility of Muslims, in terms of religion has a social and political relevance sometimes distinctive dress and because of the ways it is tied up with issues appearance, is frequently the means of community identity stereotyping, socio- through which Islamophobic feeling is economic location, political conflict and so turned into Islamophobic behaviour.81 forth. A good European-wide illustration may be found in the summary report on Islamophobia published by the European

79 “Being Christian in Western Europe”, PRC, May 29, 2018, accessed 20.06.2018, 82 Cristopher Allen and Jorgen S. Nielsen, Summary Report on Islamophobia in the EU15 http://www.pewforum.org/2018/05/29/being-christian-in-western-europe after 11 September 2001, (Vienna: European Monitoring Centre for Racism and Xenophobia, 2010), p. 16. 80 David Voas and Rodney Ling, “Religion in Britain and the United States”, in British Social Attitudes: The 26th Report, 2010 Alison Par ed., 65–86, (London: SAGE), pp. 80, 83 Ibid p. 35. 81.

81 Nasar Meer, Claire Dwyer and Tariq Modood, “Embodying nationhood? Conceptions of British national identity, citizenship and gender in the ‘veil affair’”, The Sociological Review, 2010, 58(1): 84–111.

47 This is not an unproblematic cluster of issues to hold together, and good public policy here needs to draw on both the theoretical and empirical materials that are available.

48 threat can increase levels of prejudice Driving Islamophobic against the outgroup. Narratives: The Perceptions of threat Islamophobia Industry As previously mentioned, perceived threats may be threats that exist in reality Xenophobic, racist, Islamophobic and anti- (ie. genuine and real threats), or they may Semitic sentiments do not become be threats that are imagined. Regardless of activated in a vacuum. While there are whether these threats are real or imagined, many wide-ranging theories surrounding perceptions of threat can be broadly how and why hatred becomes embraced understood in two categories: and articulated, the following discussion Realistic threats will focus on one potential avenue through which Islamophobic narratives and Realistic threats are threats that pose a attitudes84 have become normalised danger to the in-group’s well-being. These amongst sections of the public; collective may include: prejudice and intergroup threat. Following Physical threats: In terms of prejudice this discussion, this chapter will then against Muslims, an example of this examine how themes of collective perceived threat is the narrative that prejudice and intergroup threat are utilised presents Muslim men as innately sexually by the Islamophobia Industry to violent and culpable to praying on Western manufacture, propagate and maintain women and girls, thereby creating the Islamophobia across the West. impression that “our women” are at risk of Collective prejudice and sexual violence and exploitation at the hands of Muslim men. perceived inter-group threat Threats to economic power: For instance, Intergroup threat theory (or integrated the perception that Muslim refugees and threat theory), is a theory used in illegal as well as legal Muslim migrants are sociological and psychological studies creating job insecurities; the idea visited exploring perceptions of threat which may earlier that they are “stealing our jobs”. lead to hostility, prejudice, and tensions between social groups. Threats to political power: This can be found in the idea of “creeping Shariah” Perceived threats include any threat that which is a prominent theme of counter- members of a group (whether it is the jihadist rhetoric. Proponents of the dominant or a minority group) believe Islamophobia Industry frequently use the they are experiencing, regardless of argument that Muslims are making whether those threats are real or imagined. political moves to impose “Shariah Law” For example, people may feel their on Western societies. economic well-being is threatened by an outgroup “stealing their jobs” even if, in Threats to existence: Perhaps the most reality, the outgroup has no effect on their prominent example of this kind of job opportunities. This is often an perceived threat is found in fears argument seen in debates surrounding surrounding terrorism and threats to immigration which frequently ignore other national security. factors influencing labour insecurity, such Symbolic threats as economic crisis and industry changes. Symbolic threats largely arise from a Regardless of other factors, perceptions perceived threat to the that the job security of the ingroup is under

84 And other forms of hatred.

49 ingroup's worldview as a consequence of more dangerous, or that Muslim women perceived differences between wearing the hijab are oppressed. group morals, values, standards, beliefs, In reality of course, perceptions of threat practices, and attitudes. These differences are mediated by a combination of can create the impression that the conscious and unconscious biases, that outgroup poses a threat to the ingroup’s have a complex and symbiotic interaction sense of identity and accepted system of at an individual level. values and customs. This is a significant theme promoted by the Islamophobia Consequences of perceptions of threat Industry, within which those promoting The consequences of perceptions of threat anti-Muslim agendas often promote the manifest in diverse ways on both the perception that Western and European psychological and individual level, as well culture is in a state of decline due to as on the wider sociological level. infiltration by Muslims who seek to However, two concepts are useful for destroy Western identities and values. exploration at this point; intergroup Conscious and unconscious bias: anxiety and negative stereotypes. Perceptions of threat are mediated and Intergroup anxiety: One of the compounded by both conscious and consequences of perceptions of threat is the unconscious bias. As previously development of anxieties in the face of mentioned, perceived threats may be interacting with members of the outgroup threats that exist in reality or they may be and the expectation that this interaction threats that are imagined. Regardless of will result in a negative experience. whether these threats are real or imagined, Intergroup anxiety is, therefore, a fear that perceptions of threat are often mediated intergroup interaction will result in through bias. Bias is defined as inclination feelings of discomfort, embarrassment, or or prejudice for or against one person or insecurity, or that those interacting may group, especially in a way considered to be become judged by members of both the unfair. Bias can be conscious or explicit, or outgroup as well as their own ingroup. unconscious or implicit. Negative stereotypes: The response to Conscious biases are well recognised perceived threats often involves the and utilised widely by the Islamophobia construction of stereotypes depicting the industry to influence others. For designated enemy outgroup. These example, attribution bias explains why stereotypes allow the outgroup to be people believe that violence perpetrated demonised and dehumanised to further by Muslims is due to religious factors justify prejudicial and discriminatory whereas in reality the causes are largely policies, practices, and attitudes directed socio-political. Confirmation bias is the towards them. Stereotypes also often allow tendency to search for or the causes of a complex situation to be present information that confirms one’s simplified and presented. In this manner, own existing beliefs, and can be seen in the the understanding of overwhelmingly media, where criminal acts by persons of a complex issues and social ills are certain ethnic or religious background are frequently reduced to being the product of highlighted whilst those same acts by one root cause – in this case, Muslims. members of the White community are ignored. The ‘Islamophobia Industry’

Unconscious bias is much more difficult to Dr Hilary Aked measure but can be a powerful influence on how make assumption about minority PhD University of Bath groups, for example, that Black people are

50 The term ‘Islamophobia industry’ was ‘conditions for Muslims in Europe must be popularised in the US context by author made harder across the board’.87 Nathan Lean’s 2012 book of the same Despite this and other patently name.85 In the UK, the so-called Islamophobic statements, his Islamophobia industry consists primarily organisation’s influence has continued. In of a network of think tanks and pressure 2015, then Conservative Prime Minister groups in civil society whose activities David Cameron made a speech about contribute to fomenting Islamophobic alleged extremism at UK universities. narratives and putting in place policies Sections of the Downing Street press which exclude and discriminate against release accompanying the speech appeared Muslims. to have been copied, virtually verbatim, It includes a spectrum of actors affiliated to from a report by Student Rights – the overlapping movements, incorporating campus-monitory arm of the Henry neoconservatives, far-right Jackson Society.88 Such manifestations of ‘counterjihadists’, elements of the Zionist influence raise serious concerns in part movement and even some left-liberal because of the highly questionable nature currents. Such actors often play an of much of the research produced by important role in feeding xenophobic and Islamophobia industry groups. A widely- racist stories to the media, particularly in reported Student Rights study on gender debates around immigration, integration, segregation on campus, for example, used terrorism and ‘extremism’. The more a biased sample to produce figures which ‘respectable’ wing of the movement also supported its claim that a significant seeks to work through the state and proportion of Islamic societies at UK successfully exerts considerable influence universities practiced gender within the political elite and on segregation.89 Another similar , government policy. Policy Exchange, was exposed by BBC Take the Henry Jackson Society, amongst for having partly based a report the most influential groups in this about alleged extremist material in UK category. Its predecessor think tank, the mosques on fabricated evidence.90 Centre for Social Cohesion, was cited five Also concerning are some of the European times in the 2011 Prevent strategy, and transatlantic links that UK demonstrating its impact on the coalition Islamophobia industry groups maintain. government’s revised version of this The Gatestone Institute, for example, is a harmful policy which went beyond deeply Islamophobic New-York based targeting violence to pursuing so-called policy institute and website founded by ‘non-violent extremism’.86 Douglas Nina Rosenwald. It publishes numerous Murray – who was founder of the Centre ‘fake news’ articles with titles like ‘Islamic for Social Cohesion and later became cannibalism’, ‘UK Islamic Takeover Plot’ associate director of the Henry Jackson and ‘Soon the Muslims will be Kings of the Society when the latter incorporated the World’.91 Yet the Henry Jackson Society, former – is infamous for having said that together with Conservative Friends of

85 Lean, The Islamophobia Industry https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/prevent-strategy-naming-and- shaming-universities-sparks-concern. 86 HM Government Prevent Strategy, June 2011, p.23. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file 89 Hilary Aked, ‘Student Rights “Campus Extremism” Study: Dishonest Pseudo- /97976/prevent-strategy-review.pdf. Science in Support Of a Toxic Narrative’, Huffington Post, 15 May 2013. Available at: http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/hilary-aked/student-rights-campus-extremism- 87 Mehdi Hasan ‘We mustn't allow Muslims in public life to be silenced’, Guardian, 8 study_b_3277503.html. July 2012. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jul/08/muslims-public-life- 90 Peter Barron, “Disastrous misjudgement?”, BBC News - The Editors, December 13, abuse. 2007, accessed 20.06.2018, http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/theeditors/2007/12/disastrous__misjudgement.html. 88 Jack Grove, ‘Prevent strategy: naming and shaming of universities sparks concern’, Times Higher Education, 1 October 2015. Available at: 91 “Gatestone Institute”, accessed 20.06.2018, http://powerbase.info/index.php/Gatestone_Institute.

51 Israel, co-hosted an event with the perpetuate negative discourses about Gatestone Institute in parliament in 2016.92 Muslims and Islam for economic and It has received financial donations from political gains. Commonly guided by right- Nina Rosenwald’s Abstraction Fund, via wing and neoconservative ideologies, the its US arm, too.93 Among Gatestone’s UK Islamophobia Industry employs the contributors are the author of the above- rhetoric of an array of “experts” in order to mentioned Policy Exchange report, Denis disseminate misinformation and fear about MacEoin, the Henry Jackson Society’s Muslims and Islam, primarily by Douglas Murray and Student Rights’ perpetuating the myth of an Islamic former director Raheem Kassam. Kassam invasion of the Western world. They also has close ties to the ‘alt-right’ US- frequently claim that the ultimate aim of based website Breitbart and to UKIP, this Muslim takeover is the which has long harboured Islamophobic implementation of law across all sentiments. liberal societies.95 Through this kind of propaganda, the industry is able to In December 2015 at the Home Affairs influence and hijack political discourses, to Select Committee’s inquiry into countering influence voting patterns, and even to set extremism, Labour MP Chuka Umunna the basis for legislative debates and challenged another UK organisation, the drafting.96 Quilliam Foundation, on its links to Gatestone.94 In the past, this self-declared Grassroots organisations, often guided by ‘counter-extremism’ body has received strong nationalistic sentiments, subscribe millions in government funding. That it to the anti-Muslim discourse advanced by should associate with a body like these experts and fuelled by the statements Gatestone demonstrates the proximity of of media and political figures, thus giving ‘counter-extremism’ rhetoric and this divisive rhetoric a voice among Islamophobia, suggesting that while broader society. discriminatory government programmes This section explores the many facets of the like Prevent remain in place, providing a Islamophobia industry, highlighting the respectable language for racism, the way in which it sustains and spreads Islamophobia industry – which is product hatred against Muslims and Islam. as well as progenitor of such policies – will Neoconservatives at heart continue to thrive and grow. The ideological framework underpinning The Islamophobia Industry and the logic of the Islamophobia industry can largely be traced back to the Islamophobia Network neoconservativism. Neoconservativism The term “Islamophobia Industry” (also has often been described as “Wilsonianism known as the “Counter-jihad movement”) on steroids”97 to indicate a hard-line, encompasses a largely interconnected Christian crusader-like approach to protect network of think tanks, media outlets, western values and interests, defeat public figures, politicians, and policy- adverse ideologies, and export the makers that advance, disseminate and American model of liberal democracy

92 ‘Alan Dershowitz addresses supporters in parliament At CFI-HJS-Gatestone 95 Wajahat Ali et all, “Fear, Inc. The Roots of the Islamophobia Network in America”, Institute event’, Conservative Friends of Israel, 23 September 2016. Available at: Center for American Progress, August 2011, accessed 01.05.2018, https://cfoi.co.uk/alan-dershowitz-address-supporters-in-parliament-at-cfi-hjs- https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp- gatestone-event. content/uploads/issues/2011/08/pdf/islamophobia.pdf

93 David Miller and Tom Mills, ‘Misinformed expert of disinformation network?’, 96 Lean, The islamophobia Industry OpenDemocracy, 15 January 2015. Available at: https://www.opendemocracy.net/ourkingdom/david-miller-tom- 97 Most famously in Walter Russell, Mead, Power, Terror, Peace, and War: America's Grand mills/misinformed-expert-or-misinformation-network. Strategy in a World at Risk, (New York: Knopf, 2004.)

94 Tom Griffin, ‘The problem with the Quilliam Foundation’, OpenDemocracy, 7 November 2016. Available at: https://www.opendemocracy.net/uk/tom- griffin/problem-with-quilliam-foundation.

52 everywhere through an interventionist therefore all European Muslims are a foreign policy. threat.101 In relation to the Arab world specifically, Funding and Network neoconservatives believe in an almost The Islamophobia Industry is sustained by messianic mission to defend the interests of an intricate network of alliances and Israel and defeat Islam, which is framed patronages worth over $57 million in the within a Huntington-like view of a “Clash United States alone. In the United States, of Civilizations” between liberal Donors Capital Fund, a non-profit democracies and Islamic societies.98 organisation that distributes funds to Huntington theorised that, with the fall of conservative and often right-wing the Soviet Union, liberal societies would be organisation, contributes with over $27 challenged by different civilisations in million to the Islamophobia network, and wars of cultures and identities, with the is presided by prominent neoconservative Islamic world posing the greatest threat figures such as Arthur C. Brooks, the alongside the Asian world. president of the American Enterprise British neoconservativism does not differ Institute, and John A. Von Kannon, vice greatly from the American one, yet as president and senior counsellor at the pointed out by Lee Jarvis and Michael Heritage Foundation.102 Scaife Lister, British neoconservatives are far Foundations, a neoconservative more careful in labelling themselves in organisation that contributes to, among such a way due to the very negative others, American Foreign Policy Council (a association of the term, in Europe strong advocate of American particularly, with George W. Bush and the interventionism abroad), raised nearly “deceptions of the war in Iraq.”99 Even so, $10.5 million to fund Islamophobic they fully embrace the concept of the organisations such as Center for Security West’s struggle with “the Other”, as well as Policy, and the Counterterrorism & the domestic mission of protecting society Security Education and Research from the perceived threat posed by Islamic Foundation. Other organisations, such as ideologies, and the foreign one of ensuring Lyne and Harry Bradley Foundation and Israel’s interests.100 Rosenwald’s Abstraction Fund also contribute tens of millions of dollars to Recurrent themes such as “Islamic funding Islamophobic think tanks that terrorism”, “Islamic threat”, and “Muslim spread conspiracy theories against invasion” are used to legitimise anti- Muslims and Islam. Muslim measures within the realm of both foreign and domestic politics, leading to In the UK, two major think tanks are part the marginalisation and containment of of this network, Policy Exchange and The Muslims, and to the justification of foreign Henry Jackson Society (HJS), which are interventionism in Muslim-majority renowned for their neoconservative stance countries. In this way, the Islamophobia on foreign policy, support of military Industry often strategically conflates interventionism in the Middle East, legitimate concerns of “Islamist” rejection of multiculturalism, opposition to terrorism with issues such as geopolitics, Muslim agency, and portrayal of Muslims refugees, and economy, resulting in claims and Islam as antithetic to the values of that Islam is inherently dangerous and neoliberal societies.103 As exposed by

98G. John Ikenberry et al., The crisis of American foreign policy: Wilsonianism in the 101 “Countering the counter-jihad”, RUSI, August 15, 2008, accessed 10.05.2018, twenty-first century, (Princeton, N.J.; Oxford: Princeton University Press, cop. 2009. https://rusi.org/publication/countering-counter-jihad

99 Lee Jarvis, Michael Lister, Critical Perspectives on Counter-terrorism, (London, New 102 “Donors Capital Fund and Donors Trust”, accessed 29.05.2018, York: Routledge, 2015), p. 192. https://islamophobianetwork.com/funder/donors-capital-fund-and-donors-trust/

100 Ibid. 103 Tom Mills, Tom Griffin and David Miller, “The Cold War on British Muslims”, Spinwatch, August 2011, accessed 10.05.2018,

53 Spinwatch, their growth “has been strongly British Islam: How Extremist Literature is assisted by a number of Conservative and Subverting Mosques in the UK”.108 pro-Israel donors”, including a number of Through this significant stream of money American neoconservative groups that and network of international alliances and have come under scrutiny for falsifying patronages, the Islamophobia Industry evidence in support of their anti-Muslim reaches out to journalists, politicians, and literature.104 HJS receives funds from US media outlets to spread and normalise organisations such as the Abstraction narratives demonising Muslims. Both in Fund, presided by Nina Rosenwald. the United States and in the UK, a number Famously dubbed “the Sugar Mama of of individuals who occupy prominent roles anti-Muslim Hate”, Rosenwald is the in Islamophobic think tanks engage with founder and director of the right-wing policy-makers and the public by Gatestone Institute. Since 2000, Rosenwald presenting themselves as “experts”. In the has used nearly $3 million to finance the US, these include personalities such as Gatestone Institute, the Center for Security Robert Spencer, co-founder of Stop Policy, Project Ijtihad, the American Islamization of America (SIOA), and Islamic Forum for Democracy, the Middle director of Jihad Watch, and who is East Forum, the Clarion renowned all over the world for his Fund, Commentary magazine and “bigoted”, “hateful” and “disgusting” the Hudson Institute. All these institutions comments aimed at “relentlessly have the common goal of fanning “the demonizing all Muslims.”109 Others flames of Islamophobia.”105 include David Horowitz, who has been Policy Exchange (rated “E” for funding dubbed the “godfather of the anti-Muslim transparency – the lowest possible score) is movement”, and who is the founder and strongly associated with the British CEO of the David Horowitz Freedom Conservative Party, and was chaired by Center.110 , who holds, as a former In the UK, similar figures include Alan conservative chairwoman confessed, Mendoza, the Director of the Henry “crazy” anti-Muslim views and policies.106 Jackson Society. In June 2011, Mendoza Although not much is known about Policy addressed AIPAC by raising fears about Exchange funding stream, part of its Muslim demographic growth in Europe. donors include The Charles Wolfson He contended that “The European Muslim Charitable Trust, which has funded other population has doubled in the past 30 right-wing think-tanks including Civitas, years and is predicted to double again by the Social Affairs Unit, the Institute of 2040” and that “it has been difficult for Economic Affairs and the Adam Smith European countries to absorb immigrants Research Trust.107 Policy Exchange was into their society given their failure to exposed by the BBC for fabricating the integrate newcomers”.111 The argument findings of its report “The Hijacking of http://spinwatch.org/images/The%20Cold%20War%20on%20British%20Muslims.p 107 Tom Mills, Tom Griffin, David Miller, “The Cold War on British Muslims: An df examination of Policy Exchange and the Centre for Social Cohesion”, Spinwatch, September 2011, accessed 29.05.2018, 104 David Miller et all, “The Henry Jackson Society And The Degeneration Of British http://opus.bath.ac.uk/30483/1/SpinwatchReport_ColdWar.pdf Neoconservatism: Liberal Interventionism, Islamophobia And The ‘War On Terror’”, Spinwatch, June 2015, accessed 10.05.2018, 108 Ibid. http://spinwatch.org/images/Reports/HJS_spinwatch%20report_web_2015.pdf and Eli Clifton and Ali Gharib, 'Iranium' or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and 109 Charles Johnson, “Spencer: Teaming Up with Euro-Supremacists Again”, accessed Love the 'Military Option'”, PBS, January 26, 2011, accessed 10.05.2018, 29.05.2018, http://littlegreenfootballs.com/article/34845_Spencer- https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2011/01/iranium.htm _Teaming_Up_with_Euro-Supremacists_Again l 110 “Robert Spencer”, Islamophobia Network, accessed 29.05.2018, 105 “The Sugar Mama of Anti-Muslim Hate”, The Nation, June 14, 2012, accessed https://islamophobianetwork.com/misinformation-expert/robert-spencer/, and 29.05.2018, https://www.thenation.com/article/sugar-mama-anti-muslim-hate/ “David Horowitz”, Islamophobia Network, accessed 29.05.2018, https://islamophobianetwork.com/misinformation-expert/david-horowitz/ 106 “Michael Gove has same 'crazy' anti-Muslim policies as Donald Trump, former Tory chairwoman says”, , March 25, 2017, accessed 29.05.2018, 111 Tom Griffin Hilary Aked David Miller Sarah Marusek, “The Henry Jackson Society https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/michael-gove-donald-trump- And The Degeneration Of British Neoconservatism: Liberal Interventionism, baroness-warsi-anti-muslim-crazy-tory-chairwoman-a7649411.html Islamophobia And The ‘War On Terror’”, Spinwatch, June 2015, p. 39, accessed

54 was later proven to be completely untrue, immigration, refuse any special and nothing more than a “hyperbolic and accommodations for Islam in public spaces inflammatory claim” largely based on data and institutions, and forbid intrusive manipulation.112 Two years later, in March public displays of Islamic practices. 2013, he suggested that “the increasing Furthermore, counter-jihadists have European Muslim population was to adapted the meaning of “jihad” to convey blame for Europe's ‘anti-Israel feelings’”,113 the idea of being threatened with a yet again demonstrating a manipulative “Muslim invasion” that is taking a variety narrative that distorts facts to aid a highly of forms: neoconservative political agenda. Demographic Jihad: threat from a Themes and arguments of the counter- growing Muslim population. jihad movement Stealth Jihad: the notion of insidious The focal point of the Islamophobia Islamic influence in society. network is the alleged Islamisation of the Western world, intended as an attempt to Rape Jihad: the imaginary idea that overturn liberal ideologies and replace Muslim men are responsible for rape and them with the Sharia law. Sharia is seen as violent crime in Europe. a “totalitarian ideology committed to Welfare Jihad: the use of state welfare and destroying western civilization”, and the benefits to fund terrorist activities. Islamophobia network contends that its implementation would result in the Faecal Jihad: the idea that Muslims are establishment of “a radical Islamist damaging Europe through low hygiene caliphate that will subordinate and punish standards.116 all non-Muslim adherents.”114 Free Speech The Islamic threat is characterised by an A key rallying cry of the global counter- alleged ideological incompatibility jihad movement is that of “free speech”,117 between the Western world and the Islamic with organisations such as the world, whereby the West is seen as liberal, International Free Press Society and democratic and progressive, while Islam is International Civil Liberties Alliance associated with submission to Allah, claiming that free speech is under threat totalitarianism and ultra- from Islam. Since 2005, when the Danish conservativism.115 In this sense, the newspaper Jyllands-Posten published Islamophobia network fully embraces the derogatory cartoons of the Prophet “clash of civilisation” theories proposed by Mohammad causing a global uproar, Samuel Huntington. defending the perceived “right” to offend According to the rhetoric of the (usually by demeaning minorities) has Islamophobia Industry/counter-jihad become a favoured pastime of counter- movement, in resisting the further jihadists. Islamisation of Western countries, it is Counter-jihadists present anti-racism necessary to eliminate Muslim campaigners’ attempts to strengthen hate

03.11.2017, 114 “Sharia hysteria”, Islamophobia Network, accessed 29.05.2018, http://spinwatch.org/images/Reports/HJS_spinwatch%20report_web_2015.pdf https://islamophobianetwork.com/consequences/#sharia-hysteria/

112 “Why the Muslim 'No-Go-Zone' Myth Won't Die”, The Atlantic, January 20, 2015, 115 S. Jonathon O'Donnell, “Islamophobic conspiracism and neoliberal subjectivity: the accessed 10.11.2017, inassimilable society”, Patterns of Prejudice, 52:1, pp. 1-23. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/01/paris-mayor-to-sue- fox-over-no-go-zone-comments/384656/ See also Doug Saunders, The Myth of the 116 “Udo Ulfkotte and Fecal Jihad: Asymmetric Warfare or Crazy Conspiracy Theory?”, Muslim Tide: Do immigrants threaten the West?, (Toronto: Vintage Canada, 2013). See June 20, 2018, accessed 20.06.2018, also John Feffer, Crusade 2.0: The West's Resurgent War on Islam, (New York: City Light http://www.islamophobiatoday.com/2011/07/05/udo-ulfkotte-and-fecal-jihad- Books, Open Media Series, 2012). asymmetric-warfare-or-crazy-conspiracy-theory/

113 “Labour should cut its ties with the illiberal Henry Jackson Society”, The Guardian, 117 Sindre Bangstad (2014) Anders Breivik and the Rise of Islamophobia, London: Zed May 20, 2013, accessed 07.11.2017, Books. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/may/20/labour-cut-ties- henry-jackson-society

55 speech legislation and laws against immigration and counter-extremism, there Islamophobia as stifling critiques of Islam are significant overlaps in approach. While at best, and apologism for terrorism at no government has gone as far as the worse.118 Thus, the well organised and counter-jihad movement would like well-funded Islamophobia Industry has (indeed, it frequently maintains that pushed back with financial aid often political elites are naïve, complacent and stemming from the USA. failing to address the imminent ‘threat’ that Islam actually poses to the West) it An example of this is seen in the workings applauds moves by some governments of Student Rights (a project of the Henry towards limiting immigration and Jackson Society, which will be discussed institutionalising Islamophobia. For further below). Student Rights have example, a broad range of counter- frequently been responsible to obstruct jihadists, including Katie Hopkins, speakers invited to university campuses by Melanie Phillips, Oliver JJ Lane, David Islamic or Palestinian societies on the Littman, Gerard Batten and Raheem grounds of accused extremism, whilst Kassam, have supported Donald Trump simultaneously utilising the arguments of and his anti-Muslim policies both free speech to oppose no-platform policies throughout his presidential campaign and directed at far-right speakers.119 during his presidency. Complicity from the State The Islamophobia Industry has viciously As previously mentioned, European sought to push the centre of politics to the governments do not appear to see right. A unique feature of the movement members of the Islamophobia Industry as that serves to give it some kind of an inherent threat and are thus failing to legitimacy is that, unlike any Islamist or counter them. Perhaps part of the reason jihadist movement or any neo-Nazi for this is that counter-jihadists are not party,121 it has supporters in influential fundamentally opposed to the state. Their positions in Western governments and outlook on the “inevitability” of violent wider circles. In the US, prominent civil war is more focused on defending examples include and Walid national identity, than on revolution. Phares, (Donald Trump’s strategist and Indeed, it has been observed that members Middle East policy advisor), as well as of the Islamophobia industry are more Frank Gaffney, (from the Center for likely to engage in what may be considered Security Policy and a former Reagan ‘pro-state violence’.120 Far right violence is administration official, who has links to often deemed to be ‘lone wolf’ violence and several Trump administration officials is rarely given a media prominence including Attorney General Jeff Sessions). comparative to that of religiously inspired As Spinwatch points out: violence. “[h]ere lies the counterjihad movement’s This tacit leniency towards the alarming strength: it is a ‘spectrum’ with Islamophobia Industry may also result ‘street-fighting forces at one end’ (such as from the fact that many right-wing the ) and ‘cultural Western governments actually share conservatives and neoconservative writers aspects of the counter-jihadist analysis to at the other’ (from Daniel Pipes to Douglas some extent. In two major policy areas, Murray). As well as flourishing in the

118 For example: Denis MacEoin, ‘The Impact of Islamic Fundamentalism on Free 14.06.2018, https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/hilary-aked/student-rights-claims- Speech’, Gatestone Institute, 19 June 2016. media-mistakes_b_3303703.html https://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/8280/islamic-fundamentalism-free-speech - accessed 2 November 2016. 120 José M. Atiles Osoria (2012) ‘Pro-State Violence in Puerto Rico: Cuban and Puerto Rican Right-Wing Terrorism from the 1960s to the 1990s’. Socialism and Democracy, 26:1. 119 “Student Rights Group Claims Media 'Mistakes', Conflation with Extremism 'Not the Fault' of its Gender Segregation Report”, The Huffington Post, July 19, 2013, accessed 121 At least in north-western Europe.

56 blogosphere, it has publishing houses (eg. Across Europe, parliamentarians with Encounter Books) and newspapers (eg. counter-jihadist allegiances or sympathies Dispatch International), produces films have advocated anti-Islam legislation, (eg. Fitna and Obsession), establishes often in the name of security and counter- foundations and even ‘charities’ (eg. terrorism concerns. These policies and Victims Of Islamic Cultural Extremism, or legislative developments are often related VOICE UK).” The combined effects of to sharia law, women’s clothing or mosque these top-down and bottom-up forces may construction. prove extremely dangerous. In this manner, rather than opposing the This wing of elites lends an element of state, the counter-jihad movement pursues respectability to the counter-jihad its goals through official channels. Liz movement’s grassroots and allowed it to Fekete observes that the Islamophobia carve out a niche within mainstream Industry is thus “using state power politics. For example: to…put into place legal and administrative structures that discriminate against  At least one counter-jihad event has Muslims”.122 been held in the European Parliament building, courtesy of an MEP from Radical right parties with close links to the Belgium’s far right Vlaams Belang Islamophobia network and counter- party. jihadist ideologies have long been seeking to seize power via elections. Several have  Baroness Caroline Cox has hosted become significant players in European Anne Marie Waters of Sharia Watch governments: for instance, the Danish UK in the House of Lords. People’s Party became the country’s  Together with fellow British peer Lord second biggest party in 2015 and the PVV Finkelstein and former US ambassador became the second largest party in the to the UN, John Bolton, Baroness Cox Dutch House of Representatives following also sits on the board of the New York elections in March 2017. In Germany, think-tank, the Gatestone Institute, Alternative for Germany (AfD) boasts 97 which publishes many counter-jihad seats in the Bundestag, 158 in State writers cited in Anders Breivik’s Parliaments, and a membership of over manifesto. 30,000 people.  President Miloš Zeman of the Czech A Transnational Movement Republic spoke at a ‘Bloc Against Despite its strong association with Islam’ rally in November 2015. nationalist politics, the counter-jihad  In 2016, Conservative MP Bob movement is structurally organised Blackman hosted in Parliament Tapan through “dispersed, decentralised, non- Ghosh, an Indian Hindu-nationalist hierarchical networks” of blogs, think who praised the genocide of Rohingya tanks and protest groups, with “no set Muslims in Burma. command and control hierarchy” and few  Conservative MP Mike Payne shared a leaders.123 This versatility allows it to “Muslim parasites article on social organise across borders and thus hugely media. increases its destructive potential. As Farid  Conservative MP Alexander van Hafez has argued: Terheyden called Islam a “violent political ideology”. “While the main focus on an exclusive identity politics in the frame of nation- states previously divided the far right and

122 Liz Fekete (2006) ‘Enlightened fundamentalism? Immigration, feminism and the 123 Andreas Önnerfors, cited in Nigel Copsey, “Conference Report: Fascist Ideologues, Right’, Race & Class, 48:2, 2. Past and Present”, Fascism: Journal of Comparative Fascist Studies, 2013, 2:2, 268.

57 complicated transnational cooperation, a connections to political and media shared Islamophobia has the potential to institutions that the opinions of these so- be a common ground for strengthening the called “experts” are capable of driving and transnational links of right-wing influencing national policies and political parties.”124 agendas. Transnational organisation of the The Henry Jackson Society (HJS) Islamophobia Industry frequently occurs In the UK, arguably the most divisive at the grassroots as the same ideas are think-tank is the Henry Jackson Society mobilised across borders under different (HJS). The ideological framework names. For example: underpinning the activities of HJS is best  The Stop the Islamisation of Denmark exemplified by Douglas Murray, the think movement has spawned SIO Europe, tank’s associate director. Murray is the SIO Deutschland, SIO France, SIO author of a book conveniently titled England and Stop the Islamization of “Neoconservatism: Why We Need It”, in America, collectively known as Stop which he discussed at length the morality the Islamisation of Nations (SION) of neoconservativism and its value for  The English Defence League (EDL) was Western societies. Neoconservativism, in replicated in Scotland, Germany and his view, “is not a political party… but a Norway, amongst others, and a way of looking at the world”, which frames European Defence League was his political orientation within the wider launched in Aarhus, Denmark in 2012, discourse on the global war on terror, the though without much success. threat posed by Islam, and the need to  The German movement PEGIDA has protect “Us” from “Them”. inspired copycat movements in many In this regard, particularly concerning is countries including Austria, Sweden Murray’s opinion that “A Muslim and the UK. immigrant into the United States who A blueprint of the Islamophobia claims the same rights as those enjoyed by an American whose family have lived in Industry the country for generations presents an Aside from its considerable funding, the even greater challenge”,125 which structure of the Islamophobia Industry unmistakably outlines his discriminatory makes it incredibly effective in delivering views on immigration and inter-racial and its message at all levels of society. The inter-religious community relations. following section explores the primary Murray was not new to controversial elements of this structure; “experts” and stances. During a speech in 2006, when he think-tanks, reformed or “moderate” was director of the Centre for Social Muslims, politicians, media figures, and Cohesion (CSC – now part of HJS), Murray grassroots organisations. said that, “Conditions for Muslims in Europe must be made harder across the “Experts” and think-tanks board: Europe must look like a less Well-funded “experts” and think-tanks attractive proposition.”126 Following the provide a “respectable face” to anti- speech, the Conservative front bench was Muslim agendas and discourses. It is duly forced to sever all formal relations through the pseudo-research of these with both Murray and CSC. organisations and through their prominent

124 Farid Hafez (2014) ‘Shifting borders: Islamophobia as common ground for building 126 “Paul Goodman: Why the Conservative frontbench broke off relations with Douglas Pan-European right-wing unity’, Patterns of Prejudice, 48:5, 479. Murray – and what happened afterwards”, Conservative Home, October 17, 2011, accessed 03.11.2017, 125 Douglas Murray, Neoconservativism: Why We Need It, (New York: Encounter Books, https://www.conservativehome.com/thecolumnists/2011/10/by-paul-goodman- 2006) p.105 the-struggle-against-islamist-extremism-demands-from-the-start-the-separation-of- islam-a-complex-religion.html

58 In 2015, he wrote: “The claim that Islam is internalized its imprisonment. It takes time a religion of peace is a nicety invented by for bird to escape, even after someone has Western politicians so as either not to opened the doors to its cage.”130 In a 2015 offend their Muslim populations or simply interview for the New York Post, she went lie to themselves that everything might yet as far as saying: “The assumption is that, in turn out fine. In fact, since its beginning Islam, there are a few rotten apples, not the Islam has been pretty violent.”127 entire basket… I’m saying it’s the entire basket.”131 Reformed or “moderate” Muslim validators In the UK, similar figures include Ed Husain and Maajid Nawaz, founders of the The views perpetuated by these well- Quilliam Foundation – which now receives funded think-tanks are then legitimised by funds from neoconservative American Muslim or former Muslim activists and organisations – Sara Khan of Inspire and validators, who accept the idea of an now UK counter-extremism chief, Amina inherently dangerous side of Islam and Lone, Co-Director of the Social Action and legitimise anti-Muslim discourses. In the Research Foundation (SARF), Raheem US, these include figures such as Nonie Kassam, and Fiyaz Mughal, founder of Tell Darwish, a Senior Fellow at the Center for MAMA. To various degrees, they all Security Policy and founder and president shared opinions accepting that Islam has in of Arabs for Israel. She was raised in the fact a problematic face, or that interfaith Gaza Strip and grew up a Muslim. Her and interracial relations are not working. opinion is that Islam “should be For example, Nawaz openly declared that annihilated” because “is a poison to a “multiculturalism has failed”;132 Mughal society. It’s divisive. It’s hateful. ... Islam is rejected the entire concept of going to be brought down… because Islam Islamophobia;133 and Khan is one of the is based on lies and it’s not based on the strongest supporter of the highly truth".128 Others include Tawfik Hamid – a controversial counter-terror strategy, self-described “Muslim reformer” and an PREVENT.134 alleged former member of the Egyptian terrorist organization al-Gama’a al- Meanwhile, Raheem Kassam, former Islamiyya – who believes that Muslims editor-in-chief of Breitbart News London “prefer this violent traditional teaching of and former chief advisor to UKIP Islam."129 leader Nigel Farage, said white converts to Islam are “the nuttiest”.135 A former Perhaps amongst the most widely known Muslim who now holds a highly of these figures is Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a controversial stance on Islam, Kassam is Somalia-born Dutch politician currently the author of “No Go Zones: How Sharia employed by the American Enterprise Law Is Coming to a Neighborhood Near Institute, who wrote in her book Infidel You”. that, “Islam was like a mental cage. At first, when you open the door, the caged bird In recent times, Ed Husain, co-founder of stays inside: it is frightened. It has the highly controversial Quilliam

127 “'Religion of peace' is not a harmless platitude”, The Spectator, January 17, 2015, 132 “Maajid Nawaz Says Multiculturalism Is Dead”, accessed 11.06.2018, accessed 11.06.2018 https://www.spectator.co.uk/2015/01/religion-of-peace-is-not- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mgm5XMZ5fwY a-harmless-platitude/ 133 “Let’s not confuse anti-Muslim hate with Islamophobia”, The Times, May 14, 2018, 128 “Video: Nonie Darwish Says Islam Should be 'Annihilated' (CAIR)”, accessed https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/let-s-not-confuse-anti-muslim-hate-with- 29.05.2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bv6TBnmc_vI islamophobia-85977vgcg

129 “Tawfik Hamid”, Islamophobia Network, accessed 29.05.2018, 134 “The latest Prevent figures show why the strategy needs an independent review”, https://islamophobianetwork.com/echo-chamber/tawfik-hamid/ The Guardian, November 10, 2017, accessed 11.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/nov/10/prevent-strategy- 130 Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Infidel, (New York, London: Free Press, 2007) statistics-independent-review-home-office-muslims

131 “‘In Islam, they are all rotten apples’: Ex-Muslim’s call for religion’s reboot”, New 135 “Raheem Kassam: Meet The Right-Wing Ex-Muslim Who Wants To Save UKIP”, York Post, March 22, 2015, accessed 14.06.2018, Buzzfeed, October 28, 2016, accessed 14.06.2018, https://nypost.com/2015/03/22/activist-argues-for-a-complete-reformation-of- https://www.buzzfeed.com/jimwaterson/raheem-kassam- islam/ ukip?utm_term=.jxnDP2Vpqe#.vyzgvjKAl1

59 Foundation, has attracted criticism for an policies as politicians respond to societal article published in The Telegraph, in influence. which he dismissed legitimate concerns The English Defence League (EDL) over Islamophobia in the Conservative Party calling it a “political card”. He The EDL is a far-right street further blamed Labour Leader Jeremy protest movement which exists solely to Corbyn for “pitting Britain's Muslims oppose to Islam and what it considers to be against Jews”.136 a spread of Islamism and Sharia in the United Kingdom. It was founded by Diversity in beliefs and practices in terms Tommy Robinson, a far-right activist who of faith is a natural characteristic of British was repeatedly convicted for “breaching Muslim communities and nothing to be the peace” and a number of other concerned about. However, the problem offences.138 emerges when individual Muslims are used and promoted for the purpose of The stated objectives of the EDL are: justifying the stigmatisation and  To act, lead and inspire in the struggle marginalisation of Muslims as a whole. against global Islamification Establishing themselves as spokespeople for “liberal Muslims”, individuals such as  To stand for democracy and the rule of those mentioned above justify heightened law by opposing sharia scrutiny of Muslims and anti-Muslim  To stand for English cultural norms by policies “thus justifying, seemingly from a opposing sharia Muslim’s perspective, concerns about those Muslim communities who hold  To oppose the Islamic distinction different views from theirs.”137 between Muslims and non-Muslims Grassroots  To demand effective action against the threat of terrorism in the UK The ideas pronounced by experts and justified by Muslim validators influence  To educate the British public about grassroots movements, media, and in turn Islam politicians.  To reject politically correct depictions In the United Kingdom, grassroots of Islam in Britain organisations that subscribe to the views of  To promote an open debate about the Islamophobia Network include the Islam in British life English Defence League (EDL), , PEGIDA UK, and the relatively  To promote a balanced depiction of recently emerged Football Lads Alliance Islam as a religion and ideology.139 (FLA). Largely through the leveraging of Several investigations have demonstrated issues such as identity and British the EDL’s tactics in perpetuating and nationalism, the scope of these grassroots amplifying the divide between Muslims movements is to spread and perpetuate and non-Muslims in Britain. In January anxieties about Muslims among the 2010, an undercover investigation by The general public. Finding consensus among Guardian, revealed the group’s plan “to hit the masses allows these groups to increase racially sensitive areas in attempt to societal divide and potentially swaying provoke disorder over summer”.140 More

136 “ is pitting Britain's Muslims against Jews”, The Telegraph¸ June 6, 138 “Far-Right Criminals”, accessed 29.05.2018, https://far- 2018, accessed 14.06.2018, rightcriminals.com/category/tommy-robinson/ https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2018/06/06/jeremy-corbyn-pitting-britains- muslims-against-jews/ 139 “About Us”, English Defence League, accessed 29.05.2018, http://www.englishdefenceleague.org.uk/mission-statement/ 137 “How the Islamophobia Industry Silences Voices of Dissent”, Counterpunch, March 30, 2018, accessed 29.05.2018, https://www.counterpunch.org/2018/03/30/100867/ 140 “English Defence League: Inside the violent world of Britain's new far right”, The Guardian, May 28, 2010, accessed 11.06.2018,

60 recently, in June 2017, the EDL clashed I looked into the religion that I thought, with police officers during a march in this is what it is. It’s got to do with Manchester, during which supporters Islam.”145 brandished a pig's head – an act aimed at In 2012, Robinson left the EDL after a high taunting Muslims.141 profile “deradicalisation” that was Together with marches and public attributed to the Quilliam Foundation. At demonstrations, the EDL maintains a the time, Robinson stated that he had strong presence on social media through decided to “counter Islamist ideology… which it galvanises support by fuelling not with violence but with better, anti-Muslim hatred online. On Twitter, democratic ideas”.146 It later emerged that several accounts continue to be associated the Quilliam Foundation had paid Tommy with the EDL, despite ongoing efforts by Robinson £2000 a month in order to take the platform to shut down its leaders’ credit for his resignation from the EDL.147 pages.142 Similarly, the EDL has managed During this time, Robinson assumed a to maintain some presence on Facebook, somewhat more conciliatory tone, with pages such as “English Defence apologising for the climate of anti-Muslim League London Division II” attracting hatred he contributed to creating, and even thousands of people.143 These pages, which agreed “with a vision of multiculturalism are filled with fake news, conspiracy inclusive of a variety of ethnic and theories and pseudo-nationalistic religious groups”.148 sentiments that depict Muslims as threatening enemies, also include However, by 2015 this conciliatory period potentially thousands of other accounts set seems to have ended. That year, he took up by EDL members privately. part in an anti-Islam rally in Holland organised by the Patriotic Europeans Tommy Robinson Against the Islamisation of the Occident Tommy Robinson, one of the EDL (PEGIDA). During the speech, Robinson founders and most charismatic leaders, declared that “he was proud’ to have set up was permanently banned from Twitter for the EDL”, and that his aim is to “bring “hateful conduct” in March 2018, after he people together and we are going to enter wrote in a post: “Islam promotes killing into a new era in Europe where everyone is people.”144 Robinson formed the EDL in going to unite against the Islamisation of 2009 with the aim of sheltering Luton – and our countries.”149 In January 2016 Robinson by extension Britain – from the “Islamic duly set up PEGIDA UK, with the threat”. As he commented in an interview: inaugural rally attended by roughly 200 “I always knew there was a hostility coming from that community, and I never really knew what it was. I didn’t know anything about the religion. It’s only when https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/may/28/english-defence-league- 145 “Who is the real Tommy Robinson?”, The Telegraph, October 18, 2103, accessed guardian-investigation 11.06.2018, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/10389954/Who-is-the-real- Tommy-Robinson.html 141 “EDL protesters holding pig's head in anti-Muslim slur clash with police at counter- terror march in Manchester”, The Telegraph, June 12, 2017, accessed 11.06.2018, 146 “EDL leader Tommy Robinson quits group”, BBC, October 8, 2013, accessed https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/11/mayor-andy-burnham- 11.06.2018, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-24442953 condemns-manchester-protest-against-islamist/ 147 “Tommy Robinson, Former EDL Leader, Claims Quilliam Paid Him To Quit Far- 142 “Twitter suspends EDL’s account in latest ‘purge’ of the far-right”, Metro, December Right Group”, The Huffington Post, December 10, 2015, accessed 11.06.2018, 18, 2017, accessed 11.06.2018, https://metro.co.uk/2017/12/18/twitter-suspends- https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2015/12/03/tommy-robinson-claims-quilliam- edls-account-latest-purge-far-right-7169683/ paid-him-to-leave-edl_n_8710834.html

143 See https://www.facebook.com/English-Defence-League-London-Division-II- 148 “Ex-EDL leader Tommy Robinson says sorry for causing fear to Muslims”, The 408618569264988/ Guardian, October 11, 2013, accessed 11.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/uk- news/2013/oct/11/edl-tommy-robinson-sorry-fear-muslims 144 “Tommy Robinson permanently banned by Twitter”, The Guardian, March 28, 2018, accessed 11.06.2018, 149 “EDL founder Tommy Robinson addresses Pegida anti-Islam rally in Holland”, The https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/mar/28/tommy-robinson- Independent, October 12, 2015, accessed 11.06.2018 , permanently-banned-twitter-violating-rules-hateful-conduct https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/edl-founder-tommy-robinson- addresses-pegida-anti-islam-rally-in-holland-a6691406.html

61 people – half the number expected by the London Bridge, Meighan “felt strongly police.150 that something needed to be done”.153 The group was set up as an “anti-extremism” Robinson was sentenced to 13 months in movement, but soon become associated prison in May 2018 for contempt of court with far-right activists. During a FLA proceedings after he live streamed filming march in Birmingham in March 2018, of defendants in an active criminal trial. witnesses reported “threatening behaviour PEGIDA UK towards Asian bystanders and heard PEGIDA UK was born with the same speeches attacking Muslims in Britain.” ideological objectives of the EDL, although Interestingly, the march was attended by 154 it sought to distance itself from the “loutish Tommy Robinson as well. behaviour and alcohol-fuelled violence” As reported by The Guardian, the FLA’s that characterises EDL’s activities.151 Facebook page is filled with posts “calling Through PEGIDA UK, Tommy Robinson for Khan, London’s first Muslim mayor, to hoped to attract the same demographic be “hanged” and for Abbott, Britain’s first that PEGIDA had attracted in black female MP, to be “run over”. There Germany: middle-class, educated are also posts claiming mosque attacker individuals able to articulate a rational Osborne is a “scapegoat” and suggesting opposition to Islam, and organise he was right to plot to kill Labour leader themselves in a sophisticated group Jeremy Corbyn.”155 In April 2018, Meighan capable of legitimisation. As he stepped down, justifying his decision by commented: “We are taking the whole saying he needed to “re-focus my energies football culture, which was embedded in into my personal and professional life”.156 the EDL, out of it and we are trying to Despite Meighan announced that the create a safe environment”, also adding company would be dissolved after his “After going out to Germany, I felt resignation, FLA website and GoFundMe ashamed of the way we'd conducted page remain active.157 ourselves as Englishmen… I stood there in Britain First Dresden and spoke to 40,000 people. There was no aggression. They had discipline. Following the nationalistic tendencies of There was unity.”152 PEGIDA UK does not other anti-Muslim grassroots have any official online presence, which organisations, Britain First is a far-right possibly indicates the organisation has group describing themselves as a "patriotic been dissolved. political movement", which campaigns primarily against multiculturalism and The Football Lads Alliance (FLA) against the Islamisation of the United The Football Lads Alliance (FLA) is a Kingdom. Britain First’s leaders, Paul relatively new organisation which was Golding and Jayda Fransen, were both founded by John Meighan in 2017. convicted of religiously-aggravated Following the attacks in Manchester and harassment.158 While having a broader

150 “Pegida UK supporters stage anti-Islam silent march in Birmingham”, The Guardian, 155 “Secret Facebook page reveals violence at heart of forum for ‘football fans”, The February 6, 2016, accessed 11.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/uk- Guardian, March 17, 2018, accessed 12.06.2018, news/2016/feb/06/pegida-uk-supporters-stage-anti-islam-silent-march- https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/17/football-lads-alliance-secret- birmingham facebook-page-racism-violence-sexism

151 “Tommy Robinson: The man behind the British version of Pegida”, BBC, January 156 “Football Lads Alliance: ‘We could have a civil war in this country’”, BBC, May 9, 29, 2016, accessed 12.06.2018, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-35432074 2018, accessed 12.06.2018, https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/e5ee9e0a-18d7- 49a4-a3c2-80b6b4222058 152 Ibid. 157 “Leader of Football Lads Alliance resigns amid charitable donations row”, BBC, 153 “Meet the man behind Britain’s new street movement (with a difference), Shy April 30, 2018, accessed 12.06.2018, Society, June 27, 2017, accessed 12.06.2018, https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/c92aa56d-bbaf-4bcb-b717-9e3cb8f74847 https://shysociety.co.uk/2017/06/27/meet-the-man-behind-britains-new-street- movement-with-a-difference/ 158 “Britain First supporters launch tirade after leaders jailed”, Far-Right Criminals, accessed 29.05.2018, https://far-rightcriminals.com/2018/03/07/britain-first- 154 “Premier League clubs warned over ‘far-right’ Football Lads Alliance”, The Times, supporters-launch-tirade-after-leaders-jailed/ March 30, 2018, accessed 12.06.2018, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/premier- league-clubs-warned-over-far-right-football-lads-alliance-0mgq2lppv

62 political agenda, Britain First is as An important media outlet, which became concerned with Islam as the EDL. Its goals world famous following the appointment include “the maintenance of British of its chairman, Stephen Bannon, to the national sovereignty, independence and Trump administration, is Breitbart News, freedom”, preserving Britain’s “ancestral an American news, opinion and ethnic and cultural heritage, traditions, commentary website. The website showed customs and values”, opposing political or just how far the far-right can go with anti- religious doctrines including Marxism, Islam hysteria. In 2016, it published an Liberalism, Political Correctness, Euro article in which it lied about President Federalism and Islam.159 Obama being Muslim;162 one year later, it published another fake story about an These grassroots movements are alleged group of Muslims setting fire to a particularly insidious for society. Their church in Dortmund, Germany.163 As incessant campaign of misinformation and noted previously, Raheem Kassam served their operations at street level, combined as chief editor for Breitbart’s UK branch, with their social media presence, are Breitbart London. capable of potentially influencing and mobilising thousands of individuals, while Considering the ideological positioning of their divisive rhetoric has very real Breitbart, it is perhaps unsurprising that consequences leading to acts of violence. the website is filled with references to Indeed, Darren Osborne, the perpetrator of Douglas Murray’s articles in The the terrorist attack on Finsbury Park last Spectator,164 a conservative magazine that year, was reportedly radicalised to has been exposed for its “purple-faced, violence after watching a series of videos pro-fox-hunting, climate-change-denying, by Tommy Robinson, EDL and Britain insidiously Islamophobic worldview”.165 First.160 The magazine differs slightly from Breitbart in its ability to hide its Media figures Islamophobic agenda through seemingly The Islamophobia Industry’s ability to erudite writings. However, it hosts a disseminate anti-Muslim sentiments is variety of controversial authors including, furthered by a network of journalists, together with Murray, Melanie Phillips media outlets, and commentators. These and Rod Liddle, author of several highly individuals and outlets offer an echo- controversial pieces, including one in chamber for these Islamophobic narratives. which he described Muslims as In the US, is one of the biggest “savages”.166 While continuing to write for and most influential anti-Muslim voices, The Spectator, Liddle went on to hosting with journalists such as Jeanine Pirro equally controversial TV shows, such as calling Islam a “cancer” and describing the The New Fundamentalists and Paris attacks as part of a “Christian Immigration is a Time Bomb. genocide.”161 Less mainstream media outlets include Rebel Media (known as The Rebel), an

159 “Principles Of The Britain First Movement”, Britain First, accessed 29.05.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jan/07/german-police-quash- https://www.britainfirst.org/principles breitbart-story-of-mob-setting-fire-to-dortmund-church

160 “Darren Osborne: How Finsbury Park terror attacker became 'obsessed' with 164 See “Spectator: Will the BBC go back to ignoring grooming gangs after Darren Muslims in less than a month”, The Independent, February 1, 2018, accessed 29.05.2018, Osborne?", Breitbart News London, February 4, 2018, accessed 15.06.2018, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/darren-osborne-finsbury-park- http://www.breitbart.com/london/2018/02/04/spectator-will-the-bbc-go-back-to- attack-who-is-tommy-robinson-muslim-internet-britain-first-a8190316.html ignoring-grooming-gangs-after-darren-osborne/

161 “Fox News Channel”, The Islamophobia Network, accessed 12.06.2018, 165 “Can a leftie read The Spectator”, The Guardian, April 3, 2008, accessed 15.06.2018, https://islamophobianetwork.com/echo-chamber/fox-news-channel/ https://www.theguardian.com/media/organgrinder/2008/apr/03/canaleftiereadt hespectato 162 “Alt-Right Gathering Exults in Trump Election With Nazi-Era Salute”, , November 20, 2016, accessed 14.06.2018, 166 “Liddle under fire over ‘racist’ blog”, The Independent, December 7, 2009, accessed https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/us/alt-right-salutes-donald-trump.html 15.06.2018 https://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/press/liddle-under-fire- over-racist-blog-1835496.html 163 “German police quash Breitbart story of mob setting fire to Dortmund church”, The Guardian, January 7, 2017, accessed 14.06.2018,

63 online political and social continues to spread far-right, poisonous commentary media website founded in ideas against Muslims and liberals. In a February 2015 and which was described as recent blog entry about her speech given to “a global platform for an extreme anti- a Tea Party group in Michigan, entitled Muslim ideology”.167 “We are big and bad, and liberals should be afraid”, she said in reference to Muslims It is interesting to note that Rebel Media in the UK, “The second thing we can do is employs Tommy Robinson as well as Katie to arm ourselves…I have bullets inside my Hopkins, who has made a name for herself car… we must look for our own truth”.172 through her divisive, anti-refugee and Islamophobic remarks. Today, Hopkins Political parties and figures boasts nearly 900,000 followers on Twitter. Between the advice of the “experts”, the In May 2017, Hopkins was fired from the vocal pressure from far-right journalists, British radio station LBC – with LBC staff and the mass support of anti-Muslim breaking into “massive cheers and grassroots movements, political applause” – after her tweet called for a representatives and policymakers are “final solution” in response to the susceptible to influence from these anti- Manchester bombing.168 Shortly after, in Muslim agendas. November 2017, Mail Online refused to However, political parties, such as the renew her contract after her defamatory United Kingdom Independence Party remarks against a teacher forced the (UKIP) are also conversely capable of newspaper to pay substantial damages and purposefully fuelling anti-Muslim legal costs.169 sentiment in order to further garner Katie Hopkins is well-known for several political support and legitimacy. articles appearing in tabloids such as The At its core, UKIP maintains an anti- Sun, including one that prompted the UN establishment, Euro-sceptic stance to denounce it as resembling Nazi founded upon a strong national identity propaganda. In the article, later taken that resonates well with the British down by , Katie Hopkins described working-class.173 UKIP was instrumental migrants escaping the wars in the Middle in the triumph of the Brexit vote of June East as “cockroaches”.170 In 2017, Hopkins 2016, with an incessant campaign took part in a far-right event organised by targeting, among other things, Muslim the David Horowitz Freedom Center, migrants. Nigel Farage, UKIP former giving a speech, during which she attacked leader, capitalised on an anti-migrant Muslims and urged the participants to poster showing Muslim migrants under “fight for their country”.171 the sign “Breaking Point” to spread the Through her latest endeavour, an online idea that Britain had to “take back control” blog called Hopkins World, Hopkins of its borders.174 What followed was the

167 Richard Warnica, “INSIDE REBEL MEDIA: How Ezra Levant built an extreme https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2015/apr/24/katie-hopkins- media juggernaut, became a major player in the far-right movement — and watched cockroach-migrants-denounced-united-nations-human-rights-commissioner it all begin to unravel”, National Post, accessed 12.06.2018, http://nationalpost.com/features/inside-ezra-levants-rebel-media 171 “Katie Hopkins gave speech attacking Muslims to far-right group days before leaving Mail Online by ‘mutual consent’”, The Independent, November 27, 2017, 168 “Katie Hopkins to leave LBC 'immediately': staff broke into ‘massive cheers and accessed 13.06.2018, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/media/press/katie- applause’ when news controversial radio presenter was out broke”, The Independent, hopkins-muslims-far-right-speech-mailonline-racism-islamophobia-david-horowitz- May 26, 2017, accessed 12.06.2018, freedom-center-a8078356.html https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/katie-hopkins-sacked-lbc- radio-cheers-applause-presenter-fired-final-solution-manchester-attack- 172 “(FULL SPEECH) Katie Hopkins: “We are big and bad, and liberals should be a7756961.html afraid”, Hopkins World, May 31, 2018, accessed 13.06.2018, https://hopkinsworld.com/full-speech-katie-hopkins-we-are-big-and-bad-and- 169 “Mail Online to pay damages to teacher over Katie Hopkins column”, The Guardian, liberals-should-be-afraid/ November 28, 2017, accessed 12.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/nov/28/mail-online-damages- 173 Robert Ford, Revolt on the Right: Explaining Support for the Radical Right in Britain, teacher-katie-hopkins-column (London: Routledge, 2014).

170 “UN human rights chief denounces Sun over Katie Hopkins ‘cockroach’ column”, 174 “Nigel Farage’s anti-migrant poster reported to police”, The Guardian, June 16, 2016, The Guardian, April 24, 2015, accessed 13.06.2018, accessed 13.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/16/nigel- farage-defends-ukip-breaking-point-poster-queue-of-migrants

64 highest spike in racially and religiously play the role of the insidious, backwards, motivated hate crimes, from 40,741 to and evil perpetrators of a degradation of 49,921 in the eleven months following the Western physical security, economic vote.175 wellbeing, identity, values, and norms. This collective network is therefore Although he left the party following the incredibly dangerous due to their ability to Brexit vote – even expressing concern influence policy decisions and to drive about UKIP’s increasingly stronger far- political agendas to the detriment of right stance – Farage is in no way innocent and vulnerable minority dislocated from Islamophobic sentiments. communities. In 2015, for example, he stated that there was “an increasing level of concern because people do see a fifth column living within our country, who hate us and want to kill us”.176 UKIP is currently headed by Gerard Batten, a renowned Islamophobe and Tommy Robinson’s supporter who described Islam as a “violent death cult”. In his speech, Batten argued that non- Muslims should have a “perfectly rational fear” of Islam, a “cult” that “propagates itself by intimidation, violence and conquest.”177 UKIP currently holds one seat in the House of Commons.178 As discussed in a later chapter on Public Exclusion, Integration, and Minority Rights, UKIP is also responsible for proposing severely anti-Muslim and discriminatory integration policies. For example, in an effort to rebrand itself as “an anti-Islam party”, and as part of its new post-referendum agenda, UKIP suggests, among other measures, a ban on full face veil.179 Fuelling Islamophobia Between its considerable funding and a structure incorporating all elements of society, the Islamophobia Industry is highly efficient in promoting and maintaining a perception of inter-group threat. Within this paradigm, Muslims

175 “Brexit vote sees highest spike in religious and racial hate crimes ever recorded”, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/apr/29/ukip-new-islamophobia- The Independent, July 7, 2017, accessed 13.06.2018, row-death-cult-remarks-gerard-batten-paul-nuttall https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/racist-hate-crimes-surge- to-record-high-after-brexit-vote-new-figures-reveal-a7829551.html 178 “Current State of the Parties”, Parliament UK, accessed 13.06.2018, https://www.parliament.uk/mps-lords-and-offices/mps/current-state-of-the- 176 “Farage’s Muslim ‘Fifth Column’ remarks must not go unchallenged”, The Guardian, parties/ March 12, 2015, accessed 13.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/mar/12/nigel-farage-muslim- 179 “UKIP leader Paul Nuttall hints he will not stand in election”, The Guardian, April fifth-column-ukip 24, 2017, accessed 13.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/apr/24/paul-nuttall-dodges- 177 “UKIP MEP’s ‘death cult’ remarks spark new Islamophobia row”, The Guardian, questions-on-whether-he-will-stand-in-election-ukip April 29, 2017, accessed 13.06.2018,

65 are all symptomatic of the same Moral Panic, Media, underlying problem. and Broadcasting  The creation of a dichotomy between “us” vs “them” and the assertion that Moral panic there are no shared interests, values or In an earlier chapter of this report, we commonalities between the two. discussed the concepts of collective  A strengthened sense of moral prejudice and theories of integrated inter- indignation being attributed to the group threat. As previously mentioned, in dominant group (the idealised “us” vs response to real and imagined threats, a demonised “them”). enemies are constructed to bear the guilt  and responsibility for the conditions under Media exaggeration, sensationalism which society finds itself. This construction and distortion. of scapegoats involves inciting a moral  A pervasive sense of an almost panic. apocalyptic “slippery slope” and the Through the spreading of moral panic, idea that cultural and societal change is individuals or groups emerge as a out of control. designated threat to societal values, norms,  A culminating call for restrictions, identities, security and interests. This punitive laws, and the curtailment of moral panic is then disseminated and the suspect community’s civil liberties maintained by the mass media’s and freedoms.180 promotion of stereotypical, stylised and It is difficult to examine the distorted representations. Meanwhile, it is aforementioned elements of moral panics amplified and given credence by without acknowledging how all of them politicians, public figures and those are salient features of the ways in which considered experts. The result is Muslims are presented, commented upon overwhelming scrutiny and media and evaluated within public, political and negativity centred around the created “folk media discourses. devils” of society. However, nowhere is this framework of According to Robin Richardson, the discourse more acutely visible than in the features of moral panics include: media. Editors and journalists are under  The construction of folk devils who constant pressure to meet their commercial become the metaphorical embodiment responsibilities. However, they should also of evil and deviancy from societal be aware of their ethical responsibilities to values. report, explain, and inform the public  Criticism of those who are accused of without inflaming and pandering to public not understanding, appreciating or panic and social tensions. admitting the threats that society faces, The following section will examine the in particular, officials, religious figures treatment of Muslims in the media and and activists (the “bleeding hearts and broadcasting and aims to explore the role do-gooders”), and academics in their of these institutions in the fuelling of apparent ivory towers. Islamophobia.  The connecting of a series of unrelated threats, with the implication that they

180 Robin Richardson, “Islamophobia or anti-Muslim racism – or what? Concepts and terms revisited”, Instead, accessed 20.06.2018, http://www.insted.co.uk/anti-muslim- racism.pdf

66 Islamophobia and the British Muslims and derive much of their press information from the media. A YouGov poll conducted in 2018 by the Muslim In conducting research for our submission Council of Britain (MCB) found that of the to the House of Lords select committee 1,629 Britons surveyed, 90% had not been inquiry into citizenship and civic inside a mosque, in recent years.183 engagement,181 MEND noted that one of Another poll conducted by YouGov in 2002 the greatest barriers faced by Muslim found that of surveyed, 74% communities was felt to be a toxic knew “nothing or next to nothing about atmosphere of hatred that is fuelled and Islam” and 64% stated that what they did maintained by the moral panic whipped know was “acquired through the up print and online media. media”.184 Indeed, studies have shown that, with 21 Considering the overly negative negative references to Muslims within representation of minorities and British British media output for every single Muslims within the British press (which neutral or positive reference,182 the media will be discussed further below), the plays an integral role in spreading media’s monopoly on public prejudice, stereotypes and xenophobic understanding has detrimental impacts views of vulnerable groups, including which are acutely felt by minority social, those portraying British Muslims as being ethnic and religious communities, and backwards and illiberal. These negative Muslims in particular. representations of Muslims are incredibly Evidence of Islamophobia in the British important for community cohesion and the press subsequent ability of British Muslims to fully participate and engage as equal The prevalence of Islamophobia within the members of society. British press has been highlighted by several studies, including that of Paul The consequences of misrepresentation on Baker, Tony McEnery, and Costas public understanding Gabrielatos.185 In conducting a discourse In the fast-paced world we live in, the analysis on over 200,000 newspaper majority of the public lacks the time and articles from 11 newspapers mentioning resources to go out of their way to fully “Islam” or “Muslims”, this study research, critically analyse, and evaluate highlighted the frequency with which every article they read. Therefore, the Muslims and Islam were associated with repetitive negative misrepresentation of a conflict, with “Islam” and “terror” co- particular community by newspapers occurring in more than one-third (37.9%) of inevitably results in distorted the texts analysed. This led to the authors understandings and, ultimately, the concluding that, “[the] most salient finding fostering of prejudices. is that the British Press most frequently positions Islam and Muslims in stories or Indeed, a number of polls have shown that contexts that relate to conflict”. the British public in general are quite ill- informed about the Islamic faith and

181 “MEND submission to the House of Lords Select Committee Hearing on http://www.mcb.org.uk/90-of-people-havent-been-inside-a-mosque-change-that- Citizenship and Civil Engagement”, MEND, September 8, 2017, accessed 20.06.2018, this-weekend/ https://mend.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/MEND-Submission-to-the- House-of-Lords-Select-Commitee-Hearing-on-Citizenship-and-Civil- 184 Chris Allen, “A review of the evidence relating to the representation of Muslims Engagement_v1.pdf and Islam in the British media”, University of Birmingham, October 24, 2012, accessed 20.06.2018, https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/college-social- 182 See Baker, Paul, Costas Gabrielatos, and Tony McEnery. Discourse analysis and sciences/social-policy/IASS/news-events/MEDIA-ChrisAllen-APPGEvidence- media attitudes: the representation of Islam in the British Press. Cambridge: Oct2012.pdf University Press, 2013. 185 Paul Baker, Costas Gabrielatos and Tony McEnery, Discourse Analysis and Media 183 “90% of people haven’t been inside a mosque – change that this weekend!” Muslim Attitudes: The Representation of Islam in the British Press, (Cambridge: Cambridge Council of Britain (MCB), February 13, 2018, accessed 20.06.2018, University Press, 2013).

67 Similarly, another study by Cardiff the high-profile terrorist attacks of Al- University186 found that the bulk of Qaeda, the ensuing “war on terror”, and coverage on British Muslims was focussed more recently, the threat of ISIS. As such, on “Muslims as a threat (in relation to there has been a marked popular terrorism), a problem (in terms of fascination with - and fear of - media differences in values) or both (Muslim representations of “angry”, extremism in general)”. The study noted “fundamentalist” and “dangerous” that in more than a quarter of the articles Muslim masculinities. Examples of investigated, Islam was posed as being Muslim masculinity has thus centred on “dangerous, backward or irrational” and figures such as Saddam Hussain, Osama being in contrast to British Values. Bin Laden, Abu Hamza, Abu Musab al- Zarqawi, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi and This securitisation of Muslim identities Mohammed Emwazi. As Louise Archer will be further discussed in the later observed in the early 2000s, “Balanced and chapter on Securitising Muslim Identities: positive images of ‘normal’ Muslim Security and Counter-Terror. masculinity appear to be rather thin on the Studies have also demonstrated that ground.”188 Nearly two decades later, this within media discourse, Muslim men and situation has made little - if any - progress. women are consistently presented as This media negativity creates a hostile homogenous and unitary groups to fit a image of British Muslims and minorities, particular narrative that portrays the thus sowing Islamophobia, xenophobia, former as misogynistic, angry and violent and racism into the milieu of British extremists and the latter as passive, society. Notable tabloid publications that oppressed victims. Referring once again to have thus developed an infamous the study conducted by Baker, McEnery reputation for publishing controversial, and Gabrielatos,187 the authors made a xenophobic and Islamophobic stories number of interesting observations on the including The Sun and The Daily Mail; portrayal of Muslim women in the media. both being singled out for criticism by They found that the veil was the most name by the European Commission frequent topic that was directly associated against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI).189 with Muslim women, with a total of 9,681 The ECRI accused the Daily Mail, of references to the word veil. According to playing a “prominent role in encouraging the data, the most frequent construction is prejudice” against vulnerable groups, of Muslim women being forced to wear the whilst also reporting that both the Daily veil. Issues surrounding Muslim women Mail and the Sun “are responsible for most and veiling practices will be further of the offensive, discriminatory and discussed later in a chapter on Public provocative terminology”. Concluding Exclusion, Integration, and Minority that “hate speech in some traditional Rights. media continues to be a serious During the Salman Rushdie affair of the problem”,190 the report highlighted articles late 1980’s, Muslim men acquired the such as the Sun’s “Rescue boats? I’d use image of violent, book burning youths gunships to stop migrants”, in which the rioting on Britain’s streets. This columnist, Katie Hopkins, likened representation has since been fuelled by migrants to cockroaches, and also

186 Kerry Moore, Paul Mason and Justin Lewis, “Images of Islam in the UK: The 189 “ECRI Report On The United Kingdom”, Council of Europe, October 4, 2016, accessed Representation of British Muslims in the National Print News Media 2000-2008”, 20.12.2017, https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/country-by- Cardiff University, July 7, 2008, accessed 20.06.2018, country/united_kingdom/gbr-cbc-v-2016-038-eng.pdf http://orca.cf.ac.uk/53005/1/08channel4-dispatches.pdf 190 “ECRI Report On The United Kingdom”, Council of Europe, October 4, 2016, accessed 187 See Baker et al., Discourse analysis and media attitudes 20.12.2017, https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/country-by- country/united_kingdom/gbr-cbc-v-2016-038-eng.pdf 188 Louise Archer, Race, Masculinity and Schooling: Muslim Boys and Education (Maidenhead, Berkshire, England: Open University Press, 2003), 1.

68 highlighted The Sun’s front-page headline The impacts of media negativity on “1 in 5 Brit Muslims’ sympathy for jihadis” Muslim communities which was subsequently found to be MEND’s definition of Islamophobia wholly inaccurate and a forced retraction focusses on processes that work and apology was issued. Furthermore, in (intentionally or otherwise) to exclude 2017, the Daily Mail was banned as a Muslims from enjoying the freedoms and reliable source on Wikipedia due to its rights that come with full participation in “reputation for poor fact checking and all spheres of public life. As such, the sensationalism”.191 impact of Islamophobic narratives within Highlighting the role of certain elements of the media needs to be fully examined. the British press in fuelling moral panic, Firstly, the level of bias, misinformation the United Nations Refugee Agency and distortion within reporting on British (UNHCR) pointed to the disturbing Muslims has fostered a sense of distrust in journalism of the Sun and the Daily Mail, the media institutions amongst parts of the arguing that, “The two right wing tabloids Muslim community, and for many in our sample, the Daily Mail and Sun, individuals, has led to a disengagement were unlike anything else in our study… from traditional media. This further what really differentiated these two titles compounds a lack of understanding of was their aggressive editorialising around Muslim communities within the media as threat themes, and in particular how they suspicion creates an unwillingness to presented refugee and migrants as a engage even with journalists who do burden on Britain’s welfare state. Both genuinely wish to honestly represent a papers also featured humanitarian themes nuanced understanding. Thus, even at a much lower level than any other genuine journalists are deprived of the newspapers in our study. Overall, this opportunity to represent diverse meant that the Sun and the Daily Mail experiences. exhibited both a hostility, and a lack of empathy with refugees and migrants that Secondly, this Muslim disengagement is was unique.”192 often accompanied by a sense of frustration and insecurity with regards to However, the Sun and the Daily Mail are their perceived place and value in society. reflective of a wider problem. Indeed, the Thus, a sense of a lack of social value United Nations High Commissioner for develops in reaction to accusations of Human Rights, Zeid Ra’ad Al-Hussein, Muslim incompatibility with a national drew similar conclusions in 2015, when he identity. noted that “decades of sustained and unrestrained anti-foreigner abuse, Finally, the culmination of distorted misinformation and distortion” were images and the ultimate impact on public identified as a major problem in British understanding of Muslims and Islam can press. He called on all European countries only lead to severe damage to the to take a firmer line on racism and relationships between Muslims and wider xenophobia which “under the guise of communities. Such misunderstanding has freedom of expression, are being allowed a variety of consequences, including, but to feed a vicious cycle of vilification, not limited to: intolerance and politicization of migrants, Hate crime: The Home Affairs Select as well as of marginalized European Committee on Hate Crime and its Violent minorities”. Consequences has specifically looked into

191 Jackson, Jasper. " Wikipedia bans Daily Mail as 'unreliable' source." The Guardian. 192 “Press Coverage of the Refugee and Migrant Crisis in the EU: A Content Analysis February 8, 2017. of Five European Countries”, UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR), accessed 20.12.2017, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/feb/08/wikipedia-bans-daily- http://www.unhcr.org/uk/protection/operations/56bb369c9/press-coverage- mail-as-unreliable-source-for-website. refugee-migrant-crisis-eu-content-analysis-five-european.html p. 253.

69 the impact of media representation of data breaches occurred at a number of minority communities and hate crime other titles. levels, recognising the unambiguous link. Amongst other findings, Sir Brian Leveson Rt Hon Baroness Warsi of Dewsbury, concluded that the existing Press giving evidence on the impact of media Complaints Commission (PCC) was unfit representation on hate crime, noted “There for purpose and complaints about the is evidence to show that this does play into press were not being taken seriously the way people react on the street, the kind enough. Meanwhile, even when an of things people quote back when they apology was agreed, newspapers pursued engage in hate crime”.193 their own vengeance through "high-volume, Discrimination: As a later chapter on extremely personal attacks on those who economic exclusion will demonstrate, challenge them".195 As such, Leveson stereotypes of Muslims and resulting recommended the establishment of a new workplace discrimination has a vastly regulatory body to hold the media to detrimental impact to Muslims ability to account which was independent and free fully realise their potential in the labour from both government and press influence. market. He further stated that this regulator must have the following: Marginalisation: As our previous discussion on moral panic suggests, the A group complaints position. Under the fuelling of public misunderstanding of current regulator (which is now IPSO), Muslims often culminates in calls for only the individual affected by a published restrictions, punitive laws, and the story can make a complaint about curtailment of their civil liberties and discrimination. In practice, this means that freedoms.194 This can readily be seen in there is no protection against whole groups issues surrounding areas such as – such as Muslims or refugees – being integration and security, both of which are demonised or stereotyped. Furthermore, in discussed later in this report. respect to accuracy and other code- breaches, the individual most-closely Lack of accountability and protection affected must bring the complaint. This With the aforementioned negativity and means that a person cannot defend damaging impact on British Muslims and themselves against inaccurate reporting if minorities, it is worthwhile to briefly they are in a coma, for example. Leveson examine the role of regulation in recommended resolutions to these upholding accountability and protecting deficiencies. minorities from press abuses. The power to sufficiently remedy The Leveson Inquiry breaches to the editors’ codes of practice In July 2011, following revelations about and enforce sanctions where necessary. phone hacking and other illegal practices He recommended that the new regulator committed by News of The World, the should have the power to decide on the Leveson Inquiry was established to look placement and size of corrections, settled into the culture, practices and ethics of the by an independent board, the power to press. During the course of the inquiry, it require apologies to be published, and the became evident that hacking had occurred power to fine newspapers up to £1m. at various Mirror Group titles, and that A whistle-blower hotline: Leveson further recommended that a whistle-blowing

193 “Oral Evidence: Hate crime and its violent consequences”, Home Affairs Committee, 194 Richardson, “Islamophobia or anti-Muslim racism…” February 20, 2018, accessed 20.06.2018, http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedocu 195 Ibid. ment/home-affairs-committee/hate-crime-and-its-violent- consequences/oral/78630.pdf

70 hotline should be established for do not support or endorse the way in journalists who feel under pressure to do which the poll’s findings have been unethical things or to otherwise act against interpreted.”196 Four months after the editors’ code. complaints were lodged to IPSO, they required the publication to print a short IPSO failings piece buried on page 2 with the vague title Despite Leveson’s recommendations, the “Ipso ruling upheld”, in which the nature regulator which arose to replace the PCC of the complaint was obscured. Given the was the Independent Press Standards misleading and deeply damaging impact Organisation (IPSO). IPSO fails to be of the original headline, a more Leveson-compliant and routinely fails to appropriate response would have been for investigate articles, fails to demonstrate IPSO to require a prompt front-page adequate professionalism in dealing with correction in The Sun. The failure to give complaints, and fails to impose the correction equal prominence in a punishments that are proportionate to the timely fashion did nothing to limit the significance of the story contested. damage that this piece of fake news had Pointless remedies: the corrections already done. demanded by IPSO for breaches in the Inaction: IPSO frequently fails to act upon Editors’ Code of Practice are typically complaints in a way that seems to defy severely delayed and far less prominent both common sense and their duty to than the original inaccuracy. This is regulation. Indeed, in February, the Home especially so where the whole story is false, Affairs Committee inquiry into hate crime or the headline is part of the breach. A case and its violent consequences heard in point is that IPSO has never ordered a evidence that since IPSO’s inception it had front-page correction for a front-page received around 18,666 complaints on breach. Therefore, there is no real claims of discrimination, of which only 7 consequence for publishers who publish have been upheld as being a breach of what is effectively “fake news”. IPSO’s Editors’ Code of Practice.197 An example of this can be found in IPSO’s By way of example, in August 2017, the dealing with The Sun in 2015. In November Times printed a story headlined “Christian 2015, The Sun published a front-page story child forced into Muslim foster care”. The with the misleading and inflammatory article made a number of misleading headline ‘1 in 5 Brit Muslims’ sympathy for statements and provided an inaccurate jihadis’. This article was run 10 days after account of the situation. For example, the the Bataclan terrorist attack, during a time article falsely claimed that the child was when British and European Muslims were fostered by a family who “don’t speak experiencing increased anti-Muslim English”, while the London Borough of suspicion and hostility. The Sun’s article Tower Hamlets stated that the child was did not accurately report on the poll that it fostered by an “English-speaking family of cited. The actual poll asked individuals mixed race in this temporary placement”. whether they had sympathy with “young In response, MEND submitted eight Muslims who leave the UK to join fighters individual concerns to ISPO regarding the in Syria”. The Sun’s reporting failed to inaccurate and distorted content of the point out that “sympathy” is not the same article under Clause 1 (Accuracy) of the thing as “support” or “agreement” and Editors’ Code. IPSO stated that it would that not all fighters in Syria are jihadis. The not investigate any of these complaints due polling company itself stated, “Survation to its concern about the effect investigating

196 “Statement on Survation’s Poll of Muslims for The Sun”, Survation, accessed 197 “Oral Evidence: Hate crime and its violent consequences…” 10.01.2017, http://survation.com/statement-on-survations-poll-of-muslims-for-the- sun/

71 the facts of the case would have on the function as a genuinely independent and child. This justification for refusal to effective regulatory body. investigate is unreasonable, given that the Times had already published stories on the Leveson and the Government’s subject, and given the extensive wider failure to keep its promises to the public debate that had subsequently victims of press abuse occurred. For IPSO, taking no action to verify the information published is an Nathan Sparkes abdication of its responsibility and demonstrates inadequate commitment to Hacked Off Campaign upholding press standards and ethics. The Leveson Inquiry was established Lack of impartiality: This is an issue that is following revelations of widespread well highlighted in the case of Fatima illegality at the News of the World, and Manji. In July 2016, Fatima Manji reported since the report of Part One of the Inquiry, on the Nice terror attacks for Channel Four. it has been revealed that the criminality In response, Kelvin MacKenzie wrote a included other newspaper groups. piece in the Sun attacking Channel Four for But the inquiry exposed another scandal having a Muslim woman wearing hijab altogether: a breakdown in ethical while reporting on a terrorist incident. standards, and a total absence of regulation When Manji and ITN filed an IPSO across the British press. complaint on the basis of discrimination, harassment, and inaccuracy, IPSO rejected So the Leveson Inquiry was about much the complaint,198 stating that MacKenzie’s more than illegality. It was also about comment that Islam “was clearly a violent coverage and newsgathering activities religion” was his opinion and could not, which are not illegal, and which no one is therefore, be deemed inaccurate. campaigning to make illegal, but which Furthermore, IPSO board member, Trevor nonetheless are abusive, unethical, Kavanagh, publicly defended MacKenzie damaging to the public interest and which and stated that Manji had “made a fool of rightfully require remedy. herself.”199 A cross-party group of MPs and A leading example of this unethical peers subsequently wrote to IPSO, conduct is the treatment of Muslims by expressing concern that Kavanagh made some elements of the press. This consists of these comments while sitting on the pejorative or abusive coverage based on regulator’s board. IPSO responded that race or religion, often combined with while Kavanagh sits on its board, he is not deliberate or reckless inaccuracy which a member of the Complaints Committee goes wholly or mostly uncorrected. that passes judgements and therefore “has Accuracy no involvement in any rulings made by IPSO. The views expressed by Mr Firstly, while innocent errors are made by Kavanagh in his column following the journalists all the time (and no one is IPSO ruling on Manji v The Sun were made suggesting sanctions for every occasion in a personal capacity and do not represent some minor detail is misreported), where the view of IPSO”.200 This response from damaging inaccuracies are deliberate or IPSO brings into question its ability to reckless the fact of a standards breach must be recorded, and there ought to be consequences – whether that is steps taken

198Decision of the Complaints Committee 05935-16 Manji v The Sun , IPSO, accessed https://www.thesn.co.uk/news/2035066/gary-lineker-forgets-that-were-not-racist- 10.01.2018, https://www.ipso.co.uk/rulings-and-resolution- we-just-dont-like-being-conned/ statements/ruling/?id=05935-16 200 “Response to Trevor Kavanagh’s column in yesterday’s Sun”, IPSO, accessed 199 “Gary Lineker forgets that we’re not racist – we just don’t like being conned, The 10.01.2018, https://www.ipso.co.uk/news-press-releases/press-releases/response- Sun, October 24, 2016, accessed 20.06.2018, to-trevor-kavanagh-s-column-in-yesterday-s-sun/

72 to root out malice and incompetence, or Lacking the necessary powers and educating those making editorial independence, IPSO has never ordered an decisions. equivalent prominence frontpage correction against a national title. It has no Secondly, where inaccuracies or power to require published apologies. distortions are significant, they should be Whereas Leveson insists that regulators corrected with equivalent prominence and have the power to launch investigations apologised for where appropriate. where code breaches are serious or Thirdly, when distortions, lies, systemic, IPSO allows them only where misrepresentations or avoidable errors breaches are both serious and systemic, cause harm to a specific group of people, and it has never launched a single such as Muslims, then investigations investigation in its four-year existence. should be initiated to address the systemic In terms of discriminatory and hateful breaches of ethical standards. articles, IPSO’s rules and record are even Discrimination worse. The Standards Code covering newspapers Lumbered with an ethics code which it needs to protect vulnerable groups from does not write – a code which instead is newspaper coverage which is equivalent to written almost exclusively by newspaper hate speech. The Code itself should be the editors – IPSO is prevented from applying responsibility of an independent regulator the discrimination clause in the code to which is capable of crafting a rule that groups of people. The effect is that an balances freedom to criticise ideas article which discriminates or is pejorative (including religions) and groups of people against an individual is subject to the code, where there is a legitimate public interest yet an article which smears and abuses an (such as members of organisations which entire group, such as Muslims, is not promote violent extremism), with the need covered by the Code. for vulnerable groups to be protected from While there may be some cases where it is hate speech and discrimination. a close judgment between prejudicial and Leveson recommended that an offensive coverage which may offend, but independent regulator be established for is justifiable in the public interest, and that the press, which has; which is not, there should be an  The power to require published independent regulator able to make that apologies, judgement as Leveson recommended.  Sufficient independence to order For example, in August 2017 Trevor published corrections of equivalent Kavanagh used the phrase “The Muslim prominence to the original breach, Problem” in an article linking Muslims with child abuse. A clear reference to  The ability to mount investigations rhetoric used by the Nazi Party about where breaches of the regulator’s code Jewish people, this was not only offensive, are serious or systemic, it was abusive and discriminatory and  And control of the Code, so that it can should clearly have been subject to be amended to meet the public interest regulatory sanction. (for example in protecting vulnerable Yet IPSO refused to uphold any complaint. groups from hate speech). It could do nothing because it is subject to But most newspapers have rejected a Code written by a group of editors who Leveson’s recommendations, and instead have always refused to outlaw joined the industry body IPSO, which fails unjustifiable hate speech, while IPSO itself Leveson’s tests and does none of the above. has not been sufficiently independent to

73 request a change in the Code (this is not Broadcasting surprising as Kavanagh was on the board of IPSO at the time). Media broadcasting is crucial in nurturing a nation’s sense of shared identity, history, When the Leveson Inquiry was and social norms. It is the mirror though established, the Prime Minister of the time, which the nation recognises and David Cameron, promised to victims of continually evaluates itself. With the press abuse, Parliament, and the public consequent potential for societal cohesive that reform would come. Yet six years on, benefit being so tremendous and indelible, most newspapers are members of the same it is essential that we construct, develop complaints-handler as before the Inquiry and maintain popular images that are began, albeit having been renamed. An inclusive of our highly diverse and absence of regulation for newspapers multicultural nation. The lack of inclusive persists. images because of a lack of minority The consequences of this are not abstract or representation results in a vision which hypothetical. They are felt profoundly both neglects segments of society and thus by individuals who are targeted by the alienates and marginalises minority press, and by groups who suffer daily communities. The problem is exacerbated hostility from a powerful and with the few BAME actors who do manage unaccountable industry. to break through the barriers being cast in stereotypical roles, with the BFI Creative Instead of standing up to the press, this Director, Heather Stewart, noting in 2016 Government has conspired with press that the “types of films in which they owners and executives to block reform. In [BAME actors] have had leading roles a craven act of cover-up and supplication, suggests stereotyping. Colour-blind the Government has cancelled the second casting across genres does not really exist half of the Leveson Inquiry, which - in on the big screen…”201 Therefore, the addition to investigating the illegality simultaneous absence of minority which gave rise to Part One of the Inquiry representation and normalised images of and has emerged since – could have minority communities means there is a investigated the rise of Islamophobic press persistent development of a broadcast coverage. narrative which at worst excludes and at The Government and press editors and best stereotypes minority communities. executives should, in a democracy, be the One historical example of this is the worst of enemies. But on press regulation, blockbuster 2017 film Dunkirk, “that told they have operated in partnership to the story of the mass evacuation of Allied prevent reform at the expense of the public soldiers in World War II, contained no non- interest. white actors. It has thus been criticised for To protect the public, and to support whitewashing the brave contribution of working journalists – who can only benefit Muslim and black soldiers”.202 from the Leveson reforms – the Various studies have shown that there is a Government should implement the considerable lack of minority Leveson recommendations and begin Part representation in the British film industry, Two of the Inquiry immediately. with high levels of discrimination experienced by BAME individuals attempting to enter the industry and those

201 “New BFI research reveals representation of black actors in UK film over last 10 202 Robert Fisk, “When you watch Dunkirk, remember that it’s a whitewashed version years”. BFI: 06/10/2016. Accessed on: 12/06/2018. which ignores the bravery of black and Muslim soldiers”, The Independent, August 3, http://www.bfi.org.uk/sites/bfi.org.uk/files/downloads/bfi-press-release-new- 2017, accessed 20.06.2018, http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/dunkirk-france- bfi-research-reveals-representation-of-black-actors-in-film-2016-10-06.pdf. 1940-french-soldiers-algeria-commonwealth-white-wash-a7874501.html

74 within the industry. One study concerned levels within the TV industry. The study by with diversity within the British film Directors UK (2015), noted that of the industry and conducted by the CAMEo programmes sampled at the time only 1.5% Research Institute at the University of were made by a BAME director.206 Leicester,203 found that BAME workers Furthermore, the study also added that comprised 4.4% of the broadcasting “analysis at sub-genre level revealed there workforce, compared to 13% of the UK are a number of areas where 0% of population. This figure was even lower episodes have been made by a BAME when considering BAME directors which director”. This included genres such as was limited to 3.5%. Another study, by sketch shows, children’s comedy, reality, Grugulis & Stoyanova (2012), found that and period drama, amongst others. “members of ethnic minorities or working Therefore, the question is not one of class were less likely to secure jobs and whether or not there is a problem, rather, it were often restricted in the jobs they is an issue of how it is being monitored, held”.204 Numerous other studies investigated and tackled. corroborate these findings, giving rise to A study conducted from 2006-2016 found the conclusion that BAME individuals are that of the British films produced in the heavily underrepresented, restricted to period nearly 60% failed to cast a single particular jobs and denied progression Black actor.207 In 2014, a number of British within the field. BAME actors and writers who had left the These findings are paralleled in studies UK for international markets wrote an which have investigated minority open letter to the heads of the British TV representation in the television industry, industry calling for greater diversity, with with significant concern arising from the signatories including the likes of Idris Elba failure of broadcasters to adequately and David Oyelowo, who had travelled to monitor the diversity of their workforce. A the US to make their major breaks.208 study by , the UK’s communication An excellent analysis of this lack of regulator, found that broadcasters diversity has been produced by Campion surveyed were only able to provide who explores the reasons behind it based ethnicity data on 81% of the industry’s on interviews with over 100 media employees and religious data for only 33% professionals and her own extensive of employees.205 As there is a considerable experience in the industry. She argues that lack of data monitoring on the contribution there are many factors underpinning the of minorities within the field, it is difficult lack of cultural diversity in this area, to accurately analyse the diversity of the including conservative commissioners industry. Perhaps the only firm judgement leading to “safe” conservative one can make is that the procedures commissioning and a lack of BAME faces through which broadcasters are currently at a senior level, especially in senior organising and collating data on diversity creative and editorial roles. She cites and minority representation are challenges at recruiting and then retaining thoroughly inadequate. That said, there is talented BAME professionals, and the still ample evidence to suggest that BAME problem of them leaving due to groups are under-represented at particular

203 “Workforce Diversity in the UK Screen Sector: Evidence Review”, Cameo Research 206 “UK Television Adjusting the Colour Balance: Black, Asian and Minority Ethnic Institute: Leicester, 2018, accessed 20.06.2018, Directors in UK Television Production”, Directors UK, accessed 20.06.2018, http://www.bfi.org.uk/sites/bfi.org.uk/files/downloads/bfi-workforce-diversity- https://d29dqxe14uxvcr.cloudfront.net/uploads%2F1447243539508- in-uk-screen-sector-evidence-review-2018-03.pdf os03d6qe4pmsra4i-7c96b125575ce06ca956559154962a0a%2FDirectors+UK+- +UK+Television%2C+Adjusting+the+Colour+Balance.pdf 204 Irena Grugulis and Dimitrinka Stoyanova, “Social Capital and Networks in Film and TV: Jobs for the Boys?, Organization Studies, Vol. 33, Issue 10, 2012. 207 “New BFI research reveals representation of black…”

205 Diversity and Equal Opportunities in Television”, OFCOM, September 14, 2017, 208 “Letter to BBC and other broadcasters: actors and writers call for action over accessed 20.06.2018, https://www.ofcom.org.uk/tv-radio-and-on- diversity”, The Guardian, August 20, 2014, accessed 20.06.2018, demand/information-for-industry/guidance/diversity/diversity-equal- https://www.theguardian.com/media/2014/aug/20/bbc-broadcasters-open-letter- opportunities-television actors-writers-diversity-bame

75 disillusionment, especially in large and BAME actors were restricted to traditional organisations such as the BBC. “largely socially caricatured roles”.211 The solution to the problems, she argues, Though it may be tempting to treat these lies in embedding the concept of “cultural figures as abstract and inconsequential to intelligence”, which is defined as a “way of society, there is significant evidence valuing diverse cultural knowledge and highlighting the very tangible impact of experience in programme-making”, and the underrepresentation of minorities and which includes sensitive and intelligent the the systemic inequalities prevalent in portrayal of marginalised groups, broadcast media. Repercussions of reflecting “authentic voices” from those underrepresentation include the groups, helping to understand others and disenfranchisement of viewers from therefore ourselves. minority communities and the departure of actors from minority backgrounds to She states that cultural intelligence needs international markets. to be built into each stage of programme making, including commissioning, Research conducted by Webber, a production, scheduling, and promotion. specialist research and insight consultancy, She also advocates the use of cultural in 2016212 found that audiences from intelligence master classes to promote such minority communities were generally less a dialogue and instil change.209 likely to watch major TV channels compared to the general population, with Taking into account the lack of minority the gap increasing if the particular channel representation in the industry, the problem demonstrates lower levels of on-screen of minority representation is worsened diversity. The study found that BAME further by type-casting of BAME actors to audiences were 14.1% less likely to watch stereotypical roles. Research conducted by BBC One’s News at Six compared to all BFI between 2006 and 2016 found that individuals investigated and were 2.4% Black actors were highly unlikely to be more likely to watch Channel Four’s News casted into lead roles of dramas (255 out of at Five compared to all individuals 387 films failing to cast any black actor, investigated. The difference between the 66%), comedies (178 out of 287, 62%) or two news channels being that the latter has thrillers (100 out of 169, 59%), but were introduced a number of BAME reporters very likely to be cast as lead in crime films including: Fatima Manji, Symeon Brown, (69 out of 107 films featured black actors, Keme Nzerem, Jamal Osman, Assed Baig, 65%), fantasy (24 out of 39, 61%) and as well as others. musicals (8 out of 15, 53%).210 The study stated that the most frequent themes of the These restricted roles available to BAME productions in which Black actors were actors which represent highly varied featured included “slavery, racism, minority communities means that harmful colonialism, crime and gangs” and noted and prevalent stereotypes bias the way that this “suggests a pattern in which black society perceives these communities and actors are being cast mainly in how the community members perceive stereotypical stories”. Another study by themselves. In 2011, a study, “Media Sam Friedman and Dave O’Brien found Representations and Impact on the Lives of that there was an “oversupply of leading roles for white, male, middle-class actors”

209 Mukti Jain Campion, “Look who’s Talking. Cultural Diversity, Public Service 211 Sam Friedman and Dave O’Brien, “Resistance and resignation: responses to Broadcasting and the National Conversation”, Nuffield College Oxford, October 2005, typecasting in British acting”, Cultural Sociology, 2017, 11 (3), accessed 20.06.2018, accessed 20.06.2018, http://www.nuff.ox.ac.uk/guardian/lookwhostalking.pdf http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/84231/1/Friedman_Resistance%20and%20resignation.pdf

210 “New BFI research reveals representation of black…” 212 Trevor Phillips, “British media: not quite black and white”, Open Democracy, March 2, 2016, accessed 20.06.2018, https://www.opendemocracy.net/ourbeeb/trevor- phillips/british-tv-not-quite-black-and-white

76 Black Men and Boys”,213 looked into the Now everywhere the old order is in flames, impact of stereotypical roles of Black males right? Whether in film and television with on “their actual life chances”. The results the advent of streaming and a globalised demonstrated that the portrayals marketplace or whether at the ballot box reinforced general antagonism towards with the ascendance of populism, some Black males, reduced attention to people like to call it. structural and other big-picture factors, …We’re in search of a new national story. and exaggerated views related to It needs updating. The old one stopped criminality and violence associated with making sense to people, it stopped giving BAME communities. They further noted meaning to the complex reality and the that the images resulted in BAME new realities that they’re facing and I’m community members being “demoralised” here to ask for your help. I’m here to ask and having “reduce[d] self-esteem”. for your help in finding a new national Abstract from Riz Ahmed’s story that embraces and empowers as speech at ’s annual many of us as possible rather than excluding us and alienation large sections 214 diversity lecture in Parliament of the population. In this, like it or not, we need each other. Now, as a lot of the politicians in the room Now, what’s at stake? I just want to take a might know, it’s sometimes the most moment to kind of reframe what we’re fantastical and unrealistic stories that make talking about. What’s at stake here, I mean, the biggest impact. But even in those in this age of populism it can sometimes stories, what people are looking for is a seem like talking about diversity is kind of message that they belong; they’re part of swimming against the current, going something; that they are seen and heard against the grain, “is political correctness and that despite – or perhaps because – of gone mad?” and all that kind of thing, the uniqueness of their experience they are right? valued. It’s an added extra, it’s a frill, it’s a luxury. They want to feel represented. That’s what diversity can sound like. The That’s really what we do, that’s what we very phrase actually turns me off a little bit. have in common, that’s the game we’re in. It sounds like there’s a call, a benchmark, We’re here to represent. It’s that simple. against which everything is measured and then there’s a little bit of something you And in that task, it pains me to say we have could sprinkle on top. A little bit of salt, a failed. little bit of spice…it’s something you can It’s been a noble failure, we’ve been taking live with, but you can also live without. large strides in the right direction, And to me that really doesn’t put into focus sometimes a bit slower than we’d like, how crucial what we are talking about sometimes a bit too incremental, really is. sometimes not really seizing the bull by its We’re talking about representation, not horn but we have fallen short of the mark diversity. Representation is not an added and when we fail to represent people extra. It’s not a thrill. It’s absolutely switch off. They switch off on telly, they fundamental to what people expect from switch off at the ballot box and they retreat culture and from politics. to other fringe narratives which are sometimes very dangerous.

213 “Media Representations and Impact on the Lives of Black Men and Boys”, The http://racialequitytools.org/resourcefiles/Media-Impact-onLives-of-Black-Men- Opportunity Agenda, October 2011, accessed 20.06.2018, and-Boys-OppAgenda.pdf

214 Watch at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=36bcxDVNr1s&t=2s

77 What’s at stake isn’t just whether or not I just take a minute to kind of understand get the next acting role I want (although how much it means to someone who that would be nice). Audience member asks doesn’t, to see themselves reflected back. “what do you want?”. Oh, it’d be nice to Every time you see yourself in a magazine, have a Star Wars prequel, actually. in a billboard, TV, film, it’s a message that What’s really at stake here is much, much you matter, you’re part of a national story, bigger than that. that you’re valued, you feel represented. After the Brexit vote hate crimes went up Now if we fail to represent people in our 41%, against Muslims it went up 326%. In mainstream narratives, they’ll switch off, the 1930s we had a very similar situation to they’ll retreat to fringe narratives to filter what we have today: political polarization, bubbles online and sometimes, even off to economic disenfranchisement after a big Syria. In the mind of the ISIS recruit, he’s a financial crash, rising inequality, version of James Bond, right? In their systematic scapegoating of certain mind, everyone thinks they’re the good minorities. guy. Have you seen some of these ISIS propaganda videos? They’re cut like action What’s at stake here is whether or not we movies. Where’s the counter narrative? will move forward together or whether we Where are we telling these kids that they will leave people behind. That’s what’s at can be heroes in our stories? That they’re stake if we don’t step up and represent. valued? Now if we fail to represent, I think we’re in I saw an interesting survey recently. It was danger of losing out in three ways, the a Gallup poll, it was a survey of a billion three Es: Muslims, and it took years and years to get  One we’re going to lost people to done. I’m citing Dalia Mogahed here. And extremism. it was really interesting, they asked a  Second, we’re going to lose out on an billion Muslims what are their key expansive idea of who we are as grievances with the “West”. I’ve problems individuals and as a community. with that term, but what are the Key grievances? And number one… the  And thirdly, we’re going to really lose disconnect between the West-stated values out on the economic benefits that and their foreign policy. We’ll talk about proper representation can bring to our that another day (if you’d invite me back). economy. But number two on the list of grievances Let me just start off this first point of was the depiction of Muslims in the media. extremism. I remember when, my mum I mean that’s massive. I mean, of a billion and sister are here right now; I remember Muslims in the world that is a number two when they’d be watching TV downstairs in grievance. the lounge and I’d be upstairs you know, This isn’t just a signal to give me more playing my Gameboy or whatever and all acting work. It’s something that should of a sudden, I’d hear one of them call out give us pause and realise how important it and they’re watching TV: “Asiaaaaan!” is to feel represented. And you quickly press pause on the Now that’s extremism, it’s not just Gameboy, turn it off and run downstairs important to show people themselves and just to go and look: Sanjeev Bhaskar in to send a signal that they are valued and Goodness Gracious Me; Meera Syal, Bhaji worthwhile and represented. It’s also on the Beach; Parminder Nagra, Bend it really important, I think, to show people like Beckham; Jimi Mistry, “East is East”. If characters and stories that don’t resemble you’re used to seeing yourself reflected in culture, you really…I really want you to

78 them at all. If we don’t, we lose out on the to find work. I meet with producers here, second E, an expansive idea of who we are. meet with directors, I think they’re being honest when they say they want to work …The power of stories to allow us to relate with me, but they say “we just don’t have to stories that don’t resemble our own is anything for you, all our stories are set in phenomenal and every time we see those Cornwall in the sixteen hundreds”. experiences, it reminds us than what unites us is far, far greater than what divides us. Never mind that Cornwall already had a really busy Indian takeaway at that point, Culture is a place where you can put you just don’t want to tell that story. But yourself in someone else’s shoes; and a it’s weird because I mean, Asians are such one-size shoe shop just doesn’t make any a proportion of the population here, right? sense. It’s such a small comparative proportion of …Just a quick aside – I think some of this is the population in America ... And yet, it about history. Looking up at this beautiful takes American remakes of British shows painting over here I’m going to assume its to cast someone like me. World War One? World War One, maybe? There was a report recently, I think that Over a million Indians fought and died for Ruby McGregor Smith turned in that Sajid Great Britain in World War One. No one Javid MP commissioned and it was about ever told me that at school, we never diversity in our economy as a whole. What learned about the British Empire, we never it showed is that if black minority ethnic learned about whose blood, sweat, tears, professional workers were afforded hopes and fears are baked into the bricks in promotion at the same rate and with the this building. If we did learn about that, same frequency as their white counterparts maybe we wouldn’t think about diversity it could add 24 billion pounds to our and throwing people crumbs out of economy each year. It’s not a zero-sum politeness, maybe we’d think about giving game, there’s room for everyone up there. people their due, and representing them. And if you look at the box office, a study It was only recently that I learnt the first recently by the Bunche Foundation Indian MP was in the 1850s, the first black showed that the most diversely cast and footballer was in the 1860s, Edward the made films are the ones that do best in the Seventh had a black trumpeter, ironically American box office. It just taps into named John Blanke, and actually even our different markets. England’s first border patrol force was a North African legion fighting for the …So those are the things we are missing Italian Roman army to keep the Scots on out on if we fail to represent properly: the other side of Hadrian’s Wall. So even we’re losing people to extremism, we’re our anti-immigration movement has been losing out on an expansive idea of who we really multicultural for thousands of years. could be, and in the eyes of the world, and That’s how deep it goes, so we’re missing we’re losing out on the economic benefits. out, we’re losing people to extremism, So how are we doing? we’re losing an expansive idea of who we We’ve heard some figures already, I’m not are. But most importantly, given the Brexit going to go into too much detail…I will say bill we’re facing that we’ve got to pay, this: sometimes it’s very easy to look at the we’re losing out on money! screen and go “oh look, things are We’re losing out on my taxes. I can tell you changing so much…Look there’s Riz, from my own experience anecdotally and there’s Idris, there’s Michaela Coel doing David Oyelowo spoke about this recently Chewing gum”. These examples are often at Black Star symposium, Idris spoke about prominent because they are the exception this last year. We end up going to America

79 that proves the rule. Prominent successes problem. A lot of people, I’m hearing this can mask structural problems. from a lot of people anecdotally, what I’ve seen, is actually this is the case. We all have Obama was in the White House and you unconscious bias. Ruby McGregor Smith’s still needed the Black Lives Matter report into our economy as a whole movement. I’m getting on a plane to LA to showed that unconscious bias is attend the Star Wars premiere and I still get responsible for stopping career that second search before I board the plane. progression of minorities. By the way, if you’ve never had the Now we can train against unconscious bias experience of being asked for a selfie by or even better I propose, if you’ll humour someone who’s swabbing you for me, tying public money to proper explosives…I’d recommend it. Really representation targets, so that decision- quite, quite thrilling. Do they love me? Do making rooms, the rooms in which they hate me? Oooh not sure… decisions are made are representative of Gains are hard won and we have to fight our community, of our nation, and tell a hard to keep them. story that represents us all. So that when Only 1-4.5% of directors of TV dramas are everyone ends up exercising their from black and minority ethnic unconscious bias, somewhere in the wash backgrounds. For period drama which we it works out being kind of representative. love making so much of, and long may it It just makes sense. continue, it’s good for our economy as Centre forwards are valued on how many well, the figure is 0%. So it completely goals the score, we are in the business of shuts out form helping to shape our representation. If we don’t represent, national narrative and the history of who you’ve got to go. It’s really that simple. we are. That is what we’re here to do. Meanwhile, the participation of people I really think that Government has to step from private schools, such as myself, I got in. It’s only Government that’s going to a government assisted place to attend a have the long view and see the really, private school, is 14% when they’re 7% of really big picture… People making the population. television programmes often are trying to …if I look at my own journey two things turn out a hit and worried about their jobs jump out on me: one, we need to safeguard in a competitive industry. I get it. It’s only the opportunities and access to the creative when government steps in to set the rules industries amongst marginalised and of the game that you will foster true underrepresented groups. innovation, the same way that you do in the arms industry, the same way you do Yes, this is about mentorship, it’s about when you support the Olympics and it skills, it’s about training. brings a massive boom to how we’re seen …We need to preserve the access and around the world. They’ll thank you for it funding in community centres, we need to in the long run; you won’t be handcuffing make sure that a hike in tuition fees doesn’t them to anything, because what’s at stake stop people from going to drama school here is whether or not we can move and pursuing careers in the creative forward together. We’re really at a very industries, otherwise we’ll all lose. critical moment in our nation’s history. Now, that’s the skills and training We can feel it. argument, but there’s another argument. If we don’t step up and tell a representative The other argument is that actually we’ve story, we’re going to start losing people, got enough people who are skilled and we’re going to start losing people to other well trained to hire, it’s just a hiring

80 stories; we’re going to start losing British teenagers to the story that the next chapter in their lives is written with ISIS in Syria. We’re going to start losing MPs like Jo Cox, who are murdered in the street, because we’ve been sold a story that is so narrow about who we are and who we’ve been and who we should be… We’re at this critical moment, let’s not allow future generations to look back and judge us when centrifugal forces were threatening to tear us apart, because they really are. I can feel it, I know a lot of you can too. We need to step up decisively and act. Let’s do what’s right: let’s represent.

81 DR JOE GREENWOOD, YOUGOV THE Part III: The Socio- BENEFITS OF PARTICIPATION ...... 140 Political and Personal Public Exclusion, Integration and Minority Rights ...... 142

Consequences of DR JAN DOBBERNACK, NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY ISLAMOPHOBIA AND THE Islamophobia MYTH OF MUSLIM DISTANCE ...... 145 DR LASSE THOMASSEN, QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY REPRESENTING MUSLIM Racial and Religious Hate Crime ...... 83 WOMEN AND ISLAMOPHOBIA ...... 151 NAZIR AFZAL, OBE CHALLENGING TIMES DR AZEEZAT JOHNSON, QUEEN MARY

TO BE A MUSLIM ...... 83 UNIVERSITY CONTROVERSY AND MUSLIM DR SHAZAD AMIN, CONSULTANT WOMEN’S CLOTHING PRACTICES ...... 159 PSYCHIATRIST ISLAMOPHOBIA AND MENTAL HEALTH ...... 90 Youth and Education ...... 92

SHEREEN FERNANDEZ, QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY ISLAMOPHOBIA AND EDUCATION ...... 93

DR SADIA HABIB BRITISHNESS, BELONGING AND ISLAMOPHOBIA: REFLECTION AND DIALOGUE ...... 95

PROFESSOR JOHN HOLMWOOD, UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM THE BIRMINGHAM TROJAN HORSE AFFAIR ...... 97 Economic Exclusion: Islamophobia and the Labour Market ...... 101 Securitising Muslim Identities: Security and Counter-Terror ...... 104

PROFESSOR TODD GREEN, LUTHER COLLEGE USA ISLAMOPHOBIA AND THE PRESUMPTION OF MUSLIM GUILT IN TERRORISM ...... 106

HAREEM GHANI AND ILYAS NAGDEE, NUS ISLAMOPHOBIA, PREVENT AND UNIVERSITY ...... 117

ROB FAURE WALKER, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON INSTEAD OF BEING CAST AS A THREAT, MUSLIM SOLIDARITY COULD SHOW US ALL HOW TO LIVE TOGETHER ...... 123 Crime, Policing and the Criminal Justice System ...... 127 Political Representation and Exclusion .... 135

AMAN ALI, MEND HEAD OF COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPING CIVIC SENSIBILITIES ...... 135

82 Part of the problem is self-inflicted. There Racial and Religious are issues with extremism, with perceived poor integration amongst some, with Hate Crime disproportionately being involved in drug Challenging times to be a crime, for example, which contributes heavily to the over-representation in Muslim prison. The Muslim communities are extraordinarily diverse but that also causes Nazir Afzal, OBE issues – in London, they come from more Former Chief Prosecutor for North West than 60 countries, whilst in the North they England mostly come from two. Too often, the reluctance of community members to deal Not a day goes by without some overt with these issues is because they feel it show of anti-Muslim hatred in parts of our gives ammunition to the Muslim haters. society. Whether it’s the conflating of the That, in my view, is short-sighted – bigots actions of one or more people who happen don’t need an excuse to hate. to be Muslims into a statement about all Muslims or somewhat sinister The Hate Crime legislation does not help interpretations of Islamic culture and provide reassurance. Whilst Muslims are theology to generate fear or mistrust. Most not considered a “race,” victims have to often it’s in the day to day experience of rely on religious hate crime laws that Muslims and people who “look” like require a higher threshold of intent and Muslims – which can be violence, abuse or harm before prosecutions can follow. Only discrimination. violence and threats of violence trigger the incitement to religious hate offence and I I look at my own experience. Nobody remember meeting with a British National refers to me as the “Muslim” Pro- Party lawyer a decade ago who informed Chancellor of Brunel University or Patron me that they knew where the line was and of several NGOs or Chair of an FE college, always pushed up to it. That’s continued but contrast that with my influential with the advent of social media – though decision-making roles such as Chief many haters don’t care about the line Prosecutor or Chief Executive of Police & anymore and rely upon perceived Crime Commissioners, where the word anonymity, bots, and limited police “Muslim” is often pre-fixed in the media. resources to just keep generating hate. Why is my faith relevant in some roles and The noise is so loud that it radicalises the not others? Why was I specifically targeted vulnerable far-right extremist but it also by Far-Right groups despite getting all the creates the atmosphere of grievance decisions right in the grooming gang cases amongst many young Muslims that is and delivering justice when others failed often exploited by those who wish to to? Could it have anything to do with me radicalise them. Lose-Lose on both fronts. damaging the Far-Right narrative, that all Muslims are the same? This country’s extraordinary tolerance and acceptance of diversity is our biggest Despite the immense contributions of weapon in minimising and ultimately Muslims to civic life, to our economy, to eliminating hate. our communities, there is a knee-jerk reaction to attack Muslims whenever possible and inconsistently, to rarely Hate Crime mention their faith when they’ve done As MEND’s definition of Islamophobia good. goes to great pains to enunciate, Islamophobia is in no way limited to hate

83 crime. It does, in fact, infiltrate all realms of 2016/17. Three-quarters of these hate public, political and economic life, crimes were racially aggravated, while 7% resulting in the exclusion and were religiously aggravated.216 The marginalisation of Muslim communities number of religiously aggravated offences from enjoying the freedoms to which they numbered 5,949, a 35% increase from 4,400 are entitled. Having said that, hate crime is religiously aggravated hate crimes by no means an area that can be ignored. It recorded in 2015/16.217 is in many ways the most overt, visible, While racially or religiously aggravated and undeniable symptom of the offences were more likely to be dealt with Islamophobia prevalent across certain via a charge or court summons than non- segments of society. aggravated offences, the figures still Over recent years, British Muslims have indicate relatively low outcomes. Overall suffered from increasing levels of hate less than 20% of racially or religiously crime in conjunction with seemingly aggravated hate crimes result in suspects obsessive demonisation in the media and being charged or being summonsed to an increasing presence of online hate appear in court.218 speech on social media platforms. The number of racially and religiously This has culminated in Muslims being aggravated cases referred by the police to abused and assaulted in the street, being the Crown Prosecution Service has also thrown into the path of oncoming trains, fallen over the past year, along with the places of worship being vandalised by number of completed prosecutions. arson and brick attacks, and Muslims being Religiously aggravated crimes referred by deliberately run over by far-right terrorists. the police to the CPS fell by 11% between 2015-16 and 2016-17, with the number of The statistics expose this increase in hate completed prosecutions down crime incidents. Islamophobic hate crimes considerably by 20% over the same recorded by the Metropolitan Police Force period.219 in London numbered 1,115 in 2015/16. The number of recorded incidents increased A recent report from Citizens UK, focusing 13% to 1,266 in 2016/17, while the most on the impact of hate crime in Nottingham, recent year has seen an even larger increase found that 3 in 5 of the city’s Muslim of 32%. 1,665 Islamophobic hate crimes population have been victims of hate were recorded in London in 2017/18, crime, more than any other religious group meaning that Islamophobic hate crimes in in the city.220 the capital have risen 50% overall in just The study “Still No Place for Hate” two years.215 revealed that Muslim women in particular This picture is also seen at a national level, were often the targets of vulgar abuse and where the number of hate crimes increased criminal acts.221 Researchers revealed that by 29% between 2015/16 and 2016/17. one respondent had been told to take off There were 80,393 offences recorded by her “f****** head scarf” in the city centre. police forces in England and Wales in Another Muslim woman said, “I wear the

215 ‘MPS FY 2016/17 Crime Statistics,’ Tableau Public, accessed May 08, 2017, 219 Crown Prosecution Service, “Hate Crime Annual Report 2016–17”, report, https://public.tableau.com/profile/metropolitan.police.service#!/vizhome/MPSFY GOV.UK, October 2017, accessed May 10, 2018, -201617CrimeStatistics/NOTES. https://www.cps.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/publications/cps-hate- crime-report-2017_0.pdf. 216 Home Office, Hate Crime, England and Wales, 2016/17, by Aoife O'Neill, October 17, 2017, accessed May 10, 2018, 220 Andy May, "Nottingham Citizens Hate Crime Study Reveals Surge in Verbal and https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at Physical Harassment," Citizens UK, accessed June 20, 2018, tachment_data/file/652136/hate-crime-1617-hosb1717.pdf. http://www.citizensuk.org/hate_crime_study_reveals_surge_in_verbal_and_physic al_harassment_in_public. 217 Home Office, "Hate Crime, England and Wales, 2015 to 2016," GOV.UK, October 13, 2016, accessed June 20, 2018, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/hate- 221 Jason Pandya-Wood, "Still No Place for Hate: Analysis of the Findings of the crime-england-and-wales-2015-to-2016. Nottingham Citizen's Hate Crime Survey including Recommendations," Nottingham Citizens, May 10, 2018, accessed June 20, 2018, 218 Ibid. https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/newcitizens/pages/2982/attachments/ori ginal/1525939473/Still_No_Place_for_Hate_-_Final.pdf?1525939473.

84 Islamic dress and the perpetrator was criminal agencies, with some highlighting shouting that I was hiding a bomb. On that the police did not take the incident another incident whilst driving in my car, seriously enough or failed to display a a passer-by was shouting and calling me suitable level of empathy towards them. Bin Laden.”222 These responses highlight how poor police responses can exacerbate the level of Other victims reported being called a suffering and trauma suffered by hate “terrorist s***” and being spat on their crime victims. hijab. One woman described travelling on the bus with her sons, aged two and four, A number of wider contextual factors were and being told by a fellow passenger that given by participants as driving hate crime she was raising terrorists.223 in the city, including media coverage of terrorist events and general media bias The impacts of these hate crimes are long- against minority communities. The most lasting, with many victims left feeling frequently cited factor, however, was anxious and fearful for their safety. One Brexit.224 Muslim victim who wears a hijab said she had been left feeling “unsafe and In the wake of the June 2016 referendum, unwelcomed and scared because of the in which the public narrowly voted to way I dress” while another said she leave the European Union, there was a contemplated taking her hijab off as she considerable increase in hate crimes feels “very anxious at times especially nationally. Home Office statistics detailed when a national terrorist incident a 44% rise in racially or religiously happens”. aggravated offences in the month following the referendum result compared Victims also highlighted how being to the same month the previous year.225 attacked led them to become acutely aware of the prejudice that exists around them, as One survey respondent elucidated how the well as feeling emboldened into tackling referendum result “led to people feeling the injustice. One victim said, “I feel like more entitled to be open about their something positive needs to be done to racism, religious hate, and hatred towards address the anger the white working-class anyone who is different.” Survey [sic] men are feeling towards Muslim respondents explained how the political women. We know it’s deliberate targeting context was embedding an “us versus of a soft target.” them” dichotomy, with Brexit fuelling the ability for people to express views which The overwhelming majority (79%) of hate may have been challenged previously.226 crime victims in the study did not report the incident to the police. Reasons victims The second most common factor given for gave for not reporting the crime included influencing hate crime was media coverage believing it would be pointless and feeling of terror attacks, with most respondents too traumatised in the aftermath of the feeling that the reporting of events led to crime to report the incident. an increase in hate crime directed at Muslims. One participant stated that Hate crime victims who did report crimes attacks “heightened people’s wariness of to the police presented a mixed picture as each other”, with the reporting of terrorist to whether this resulted in a positive attacks making “ordinary Muslims feel outcome. A number of respondents had blamed”. negative experiences with police and

222 Ibid. 225 Full Fact Team, "Hate Crime in England and Wales," Full Fact, October 17, 2017, accessed June 20, 2018, https://fullfact.org/crime/hate-crime-england-and-wales/. 223 Ibid. 226 "Still No Place for Hate: Analysis of the Findings of the Nottingham Citizen's Hate 224 Ibid. Crime Survey including Recommendations".

85 While the Home Office has highlighted statements generally associating Muslims several peaks in hate crime following and Islam with terrorism.227 events such as the Charlie Hebdo shooting in Paris and the Westminster Bridge attack Inadequate legal protections in London, participants also explained that Current legislation that enables the the sensationalised and biased coverage in prosecution of anti-Muslim hate crime is newspapers led to Muslims being unfairly an extension of established race and blamed for all terrorist attacks. relations legislation where ‘religiously “Muslims are always portrayed as a aggravated’ crimes have been added to the problem to society by the media as existing racial motives for prosecuting terrorists, rapists or traffickers. If it’s an offenders. Since Muslims do not form a offence committed by a Muslim then the racial group, race relations legislation religion is always highlighted, yet anyone which protects communities such as Jews else committing such crimes never have and Sikhs, does not extend to Muslims. their religion mentioned. The word Furthermore, the Racial and Religious terrorist gets quickly attached to Muslims Hate Crime Act 2006, contains a disparity and not non-Muslims committing terrorist between the protections afforded on acts. This media brainwashing of course grounds of race versus the protections causes hate towards Muslims.” afforded to religious groups. In terms of Participants mentioned how media racial hatred, a person is protected against coverage of Muslims creates resentment abusive, insulting, or threatening words or and frustrations which are then “meted out behaviour. However, the protections to Muslims women because they are afforded on the basis of religion only perceived as soft targets.” This perception extend to threatening words or behaviour. is borne out by the reports received by This specifically excludes the protection MEND’s Islamophobia Response Unit from abusive or insulting words or (IRU), amongst which the majority of behaviour that is included under racial Islamophobic hate crime victims are hatred. female. Moreover, within the protections against While newspaper narratives around Islam religious hatred, there is an added and Muslims contribute to the negative condition that intent must be proven. In way some people perceive Muslims, this other words, it must be proven that the narrative is expounded further online perpetrators intention was to stir up through hate speech perpetrated via an religious hatred. This differs from array of social media streams. Researchers incitement to racial hatred, wherein the at Demos catalogued 144,000 derogatory likelihood that the offence would have and anti-Islamic tweets sent from the UK stirred up racial hatred is enough to between March 2016 and March 2017, a prosecute; there is no need to prove that daily average of almost 400. Half of the the perpetrator intended to stir up racial tweets analysed were derogatory anti- hatred. Islamic slurs, often directed at a specific This requirement of intent makes the individual. Just under 2 in 5 of these tweets burden of proof within this legislation framed Muslims as the “enemy” dedicated almost unachievably heavy. Indeed, the towards cultural and social destruction of intention of the perpetrator is virtually the West. Finally, around 1 in 5 of the impossible to ever prove. The consequence tweets analysed related to derogatory is that, since the legislation was enacted in

227 "Anti-Islamic Content on Twitter - Demos," Demos: False Stereotypes of Young People Holding Them Back from Getting Jobs - Demos, accessed June 20, 2018, https://www.demos.co.uk/project/anti-islamic-content-on-twitter/.

86 2006, only a small handful of successful experiences and where they can receive prosecutions have occurred under advice, support and referral services. incitement to religious hatred legislation. The IRU serves three main functions: Furthermore, social media offences and  Data collection and monitoring, hate speech online is a growing area of concern as more and more people utilise  The provision of free legal advice and the anonymity of the web to share or post police liaison, hate messages online. As such, there  Provision of basic emotional support, remains a great deal of scope to ensure hate and signposting to further professional crime is efficiently tackled on social media. sources of emotional support if Currently, due to the sheer scale of social required. media sites, the only way abusive posts are Exploring hate crime brought to the attention of social media companies is if users themselves report it. Data collection and monitoring of hate However, not all instances of online hate crime is important as it allows us to map would be reported for their racist or instances of Islamophobia. For example, by Islamophobic content online. Therefore, recording the location of attacks and the much more needs to be done to tackle this profiles of typical victims and perpetrators, issue head on. we can come to an understanding of the national picture of Islamophobia and begin In April 2017, the Metropolitan Police set to develop successful and informed up a new team of specialist police officers policies for tackling it. to investigate abuse on social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter. The team of Hate crime is perhaps the most overt five officers, who will support victims and manifestation of Islamophobia. According identify online abuse, will cost £1.7 million to the Government’s definition, “The term and has received £452,000 from the Home 'hate crime' can be used to describe a range Office. of criminal behaviour where the perpetrator is motivated by hostility or More actions like these are required, and demonstrates hostility towards the victim's the Government needs to prioritise disability, race, religion, sexual orientation formulating a strategy that allows for a or transgender identity. These aspects of a crackdown on hate speech, while person's identity are known as 'protected continuing to ensure freedom of speech. characteristics'. A hate crime can include An update from the verbal abuse, intimidation, threats, harassment, assault and bullying, as well Islamophobia Response Unit as damage to property. The perpetrator can (IRU) also be a friend, carer or acquaintance who exploits their relationship with the victim Introducing the IRU for financial gain or some other criminal purpose.”228 The Islamophobia Response Unit (IRU) was founded by MEND in response to In its first year since opening, the IRU has rising anti-Muslim attacks across Europe received almost 300 reports from victims of and a growing tide of anti-Muslim Islamophobic hate crime and sentiment. The IRU is a platform for discrimination. 70% of these reports are victims to report and share their hate crime related. It is common for the IRU to experience a surge in reports

228 "Hate Crime," The Crown Prosecution Service, accessed June 20, 2018, https://cps.gov.uk/hate-crime.

87 following major incidents, such as last Muslim women are overwhelmingly the year’s attacks in Manchester and London targets of acts of violence and aggression. Bridge. For example, following the As the perpetrators are overwhelmingly Manchester Arena attack, the IRU males, it is clear how gender violence and witnessed a 388% increase in reports. This hierarchical structures of gendered power demonstrates the vulnerability and are intrinsic to Islamophobic hate crime. backlash received by the Muslim Female victims are almost exclusively community in periods following such visibly Muslim, meaning they were events. wearing the hijab, niqab or abaya when they were targeted in public. The data the IRU collects has revealed an interesting picture of hate crime in the UK. We have learned the following: The emotional impacts of  Of all the hate crime reports the IRU Islamophobia has received, the majority involve acts The emotional impacts of hate crime on of verbal abuse. This includes street victims are vast but the effects of harassment, where Muslims are Islamophobia on mental health are largely publicly called racial slurs (P**i, unexplored in research. As such, the terrorist, infidel scum, etc) or even trauma associated with these types of receive death threats. crimes remain poorly understood.  The second largest form of our hate Testimonies from victims reporting to the crime reports involve physical acts of IRU reveal a picture of social isolation, aggression. Common forms are depression and anxiety. Many victims of spitting, shoving, being thrown to the Islamophobic hate crime report that they ground, slapping, and hijabs being choose to stay indoors more, take time off pulled off women’s heads. work, and avoid public spaces – revealing how hate crime can impede their  After terror attacks, the number of participation in public life. Many discuss physical attack reports and mosque how they avoid crowded spaces and public targeting reports rise sharply. transport. Also reported is some female  Our data also shows that incidents on victims’ desires to remove the hijab after public transport and cases of being targeted. This points to a loss in harassment by a neighbour are confidence and an underlying fear that common areas of abuse. Indeed, 40% of displaying a symbol of their faith in public our hate crime reports involve will make them more prone to abuse. Panic incidents on public transport and 25% attacks, flashbacks, sleeplessness, and are from victims experiencing anxiety are also commonly observed Islamophobic abuse by a neighbour. psychological impacts.  IRU victim and witness testimonies Victim Experiences show that over 80% of Islamophobic hate crime perpetrators are white A Muslim Convert Experience, males and the perpetrators of Islamophobic hate crime are usually Female 25, London individual actors or private citizens. I have suffered to some degree with social The gendered dynamic of Islamophobia is anxiety for many years, but over the past also worth exploring. 75% of reports to the few years having started wearing the IRU come from Muslim women. This headscarf, this has become worse. I have number rises to 80% when just looking at never suffered from what I would describe physical attacks alone - meaning that as a “hate crime,” although I have been verbally abused. I’ve been told to “go back

88 to my own f***ing country,” I’ve had “f*** carriage I was in. I wore my scarf pulled Allah” being screamed out a car window back (some may describe this as a turban amongst other types of religiously or style) as I anticipated there might be some racially motivated comments – such as a fans and wanted to look less “visibly man muttering “terrorist” under his breath Muslim.” During the journey a man started or another saying to me “I bet you speak ranting loudly about how Muslims were Afghanistan”. The above I have come to taking over our country, raping ‘our’ accept as normal. women, killing people and a whole host of other Islamophobic commentary. I was I have good and bad days, but I generally with my husband and I was terrified that am hyper-aware and alert when in public he or I would be attacked. We contacted and I am quite often anticipating being BTP who told us on arrival to London that verbally if not physically abused. Because nothing could be done as the man would of this anxiety I have started to change my say “he was just having a conversation behaviour or take “precautions”. with his mates.” Some of the minor behavioural changes I I think the next behavioural change I will have adopted to deal with anticipated take to help with my anxiety is to learn abuse is always having headphones in how to drive. when I am out alone as not to hear any comments or abuse. I try my best not to travel alone in the evenings and I am much less inclined to leaving the house alone unless I have to – i.e. to go to work or pick Spitting incident victim, up groceries. It really affects the way I feel Female, 32, Birmingham in the public space. On particularly bad days, especially when there have been “After the attack, I’ve been afraid to leave terrorist attacks I have swapped my the house. I spend most of my time headscarf for a beanie when travelling indoors. I don’t even want to go out and do which gives me a bit of peace to some the shopping. I hate being out even in my degree, but also makes me feel angry. I own local area. I don’t feel safe anymore.” have occasionally thought about no longer wearing a headscarf. I see my umbrella not just as something to protect me from the elements, but also Victim on public transport, something I could use to hit someone with Female, 24, London if they were to attack me. (Much how many “I don’t want to take the tube or buses women think of their keys.) I started taking anymore. I feel really anxious in public martial arts classes, and also prefer to wear spaces after being targeted in this way. I trousers over skirts in case I am physically just try to walk everywhere or get a lift attacked and need to be able to better from a family member.” defend myself. I feel most alert and concerned when in train stations, or when I’m on the tube, or train. On one occasion I travelled from Cardiff to Victim of physical assault, London on the train (there was a football match with a London team that has a Female 28, London particularly bad reputation.) I got a train “I feel so paranoid walking the streets, I that was leaving before their match ended feel like everyone is out to attack me. I’m and hoped there wouldn’t be too many super self-conscious in public now.” fans – there were and they came into the

89 Islamophobia and Mental Health 29% physically attacked more than three times in the same period. In terms of Dr Shazad Amin impact, the survey found a variety of responses. For some people it made them Consultant Psychiatrist feel more vulnerable, anxious, angry and The above examples of experiences led to social withdrawal, but for others it reported to the MEND Islamophobia motivated them to take positive action Response Unit show that hate crimes have through community engagement via considerable negative mental health specialist groups and charities. Certainly consequences for victims. Research has anecdotally, we have witnessed this in shown that the psychological impacts of MEND, with several people joining our hate crime are greater than for non-hate organisation as a direct result of adverse crime offences. Reported data from the personal Islamophobic abuse or attacks. Crime Surveys of England and Wales Under indirect effects of hate crime, 83% of showed that victims of hate crimes were Muslim participants reported that they almost three times as likely (36% versus knew someone who had experienced hate 13%) to report being “very much” crimes. The reactions were similar to those emotionally affected by the incident than who had directly experienced hate crimes, victims overall and were twice as likely to with a cumulative effect of those who had experience symptoms such as difficulty experienced both. This suggests a degree of sleeping, anxiety, depression, or panic identification with victims by people who attacks.229 share the same characteristic. Since the Muslim community is also the One of the most worrying adverse most likely to be victims of religiously community consequences of hate crimes is motivated hate crimes compared to victims that of avoidance behaviour following an of other religious groups, this suggests that attack, e.g. avoiding certain roads or areas there is likely to be considerable or stopping going out altogether. In a study psychiatric morbidity arising as a result.230 of racial discrimination on mental health Whilst there is a considerable corpus of Wallace et al found high rates of avoidance research on the impact of racism on mental behaviour after incidents of racial health there is precious little on discrimination.232 The rates of avoidance Islamophobia. However, in the first study were highest in the Bangladeshi and of its kind, researchers at the University of Pakistani groups with rates of 10-20% Sussex examined the direct and indirect reported. Whilst the research did not effects of hate crimes on both Muslim and record the nature of the incidents, it is LGBT communities.231 likely that some of this abuse was Concerning the direct effects of hate crime, religiously rather than racially motivated, 71% of Muslim respondents said they had noting slightly lower rates in the Indian been victim of hate crimes, predominantly group. It is well recognised that consisting of verbal and online abuse. perpetrators may conflate race with

More surprising was the numbers of religion, (and indeed there may be dual people who were victims of repeat attacks motivations), hence in the absence of more – 45% had been verbally abused more than religiously focussed research, ethnicity three times over the past three years and

229 Hannah Corcoran, Deborah Lader, and Kevin Smith, "Hate Crime, England and https://sussex.ac.uk/webteam/gateway/file.php?name=sussex-hate-crime-project- Wales, 2014/15," Home Office, October 13, 2015, accessed June 20, 2018, http://report- report.pdf&site=430. it.org.uk/files/ho_hate_crime_statistics_201415.pdf 232 Stephanie Wallace, James Nazroo, and Laia Bécares, "Cumulative Effect of Racial 230 Ibid. Discrimination on the Mental Health of Ethnic Minorities in the United Kingdom," American Journal of Public Health 106, no. 7 (2016), 231 Jenny Paterson et al., "THE SUSSEX HATE CRIME PROJECT," University of Sussex, doi:10.2105/ajph.2016.303121. January 2018, accessed June 20, 2018,

90 may serve as a proxy for religion in this stimulating mental health research in this respect.233 neglected area. Avoidance behaviour is an important phenomenon since it shows how a hate crime against an individual can vicariously affect the mental health of a whole community. We witnessed this phenomenon recently with the tragic attempted murder of Zaynab Hussein, a Somalian Muslim lady in Leicester in 2017, for which her attacker, Paul Moore, was sentenced earlier this year. He ran over Mrs Hussain twice in an attack that left the local community fearful of going out, a classic case of avoidance behaviour by the local community. Islamophobia can thus also be viewed as a public health problem, and as such we have to look at wider factors to address it such as the toxic ‘Islamophobic’ political and media climate developing in recent years. The recent rise in the political far right across Europe and in the USA, with some political parties such as PEGIDA, AfD and UKIP espousing openly hostile policies towards Muslims and Islam, has led to a state of apprehension and fear across Muslim communities as a whole. In a qualitative study Ali (2017) found that marginalisation and “othering” of Muslims in the USA led to a variety of psychological symptoms including fear, stress, worry, and insecurity.234 It is clear that we desperately need more research into the impact of Islamophobia in all its forms on the mental health of individuals, families and communities. We can then begin to target interventions both at an individual level, but also at a community level to help build resilience amongst affected Muslim communities. We are confident that a definitive understanding of what Islamophobia is, will provide a firm foundation for

233 Maureen McBride, "A Review of the Evidence on Hate Crime and Prejudice: 234 Areeza Ali, "The impact of Islamophobia on the Muslim American community: Report for the Independent Advisory Group on Hate Crime, Prejudice and accounts of psychological suffering, identity negotiation, and collective trauma" Community Cohesion," The Scottish Centre for Crime & Justice Research, September (2017). Theses, Dissertations, and Projects. 1879 2016, accessed June 20, 2018, http://sccjr.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/A- Review-of-the-Evidence-on-Hate-Crime-and-Prejudice.pdf.

91 behaviour amongst students, including Youth and Education name calling and stereotyping. In addition, Islamophobia in the education system is a 31% of respondents admitted to witnessing serious problem which impacts Muslim racist attitudes or behaviour among children and their development in a wide teachers.237 variety of ways. From being bullied Incidents of bullying, motivated by racism, explicitly in reference to their faith, to are likely to stifle the potential of students being stigmatised and reported for views in attainment and subsequently affect their they may hold, Muslim children are life chances in the future. The capability of struggling to navigate this complex maze. teachers to deal with bullying incidents is The impacts of these experiences can be therefore of vital importance so that long-term, damaging their ability to schools are environments in which achieve success in the employment sphere children may flourish and prosper, not and inhibiting their participation in wider ones they fear or avoid. civic society and the political arena. Young people are shown to be more at ease Bullying with diversity and are less likely to hold views that are intolerant or prejudicial Despite praiseworthy academic towards those of other backgrounds. As achievements, Muslim pupils frequently such, schools are an important place where encounter worrying levels of religiously diversity, difference and prejudice can be and racially motivated bullying. This is discussed, and young people may be made often particularly acute following episodes aware of the dangers of hatred of of violence and terrorist incidents such as minorities. However, the low priority the attack on Manchester Arena in May given to religious education in the national 2017. Childline have reported that it held curriculum inhibits the ability of schools to over 2,500 counselling sessions for children create environments in which pupils can concerned about race and faith-based learn about other religions and cultures bullying over the past three years.235 and appreciate their significance to fellow However, they noted a sharp increase in pupils and members of their local calls following attacks in London and communities. Manchester in 2017. Children as young as nine reported being called terrorists and PREVENT enduring abuse and threats of violence. Meanwhile, the charity also reported that These sentiments are exacerbated via the girls who wear the hijab had frequently Government’s statutory implementation of been victimised for their religious dress, the PREVENT duty, which has seen with some expressing a desire to self-harm thousands of Muslim students as a result of the cruel treatment they had unnecessarily referred to authorities on the received.236 erroneous basis of being at risk of “radicalisation” or “extremism”.238 Furthermore, a report compiled by Show Racism the Red Card on bullying in schools The levels of Muslim students attending found that 83% of 48 teachers who university has risen significantly over the completed a survey questionnaire said past decade, with Muslims constituting they had witnessed racist attitudes or 10% of all first year UK university entrants in 2016.239 The PREVENT duty, however, is

235 May Bulman, "Muslim Children as Young as Nine Branded Terrorists in Wake of 237 The Barriers to Challenging Racism and Promoting Race Equality in England’s Recent Terror Attacks, Reveals Childline," The Independent, June 27, 2017, accessed Schools, report, Show Racism the Red Card, June 21, 2011, May 10, 2018, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/nine-year- https://www.teachers.org.uk/files/srtrc-barriers-final.PDF. old-children-terrorists-race-faith-hate-bullying-childline-manchester-arena-terror- attack-a7810051.html. 238 Ibid.

236 Ibid. 239 "Religion and Belief," Higher Education Funding Council for England, accessed May 15, 2018, http://www.hefce.ac.uk/analysis/opthesa/religion/.

92 having a tangible effect on students’ years. Teachers more so than ever have an abilities to engage whole-heartedly in their incredible responsibility to not only deliver university experience, with an NUS study outstanding teaching and learning but are revealing that students are hesitant to also responsible for dealing with societal participate in classroom debates on topical pressures that young children and their issues concerning counter-terrorism and families face. This article will draw on key foreign policy for fear of being referred to instances where Islamophobia is PREVENT by their lecturers or teachers.240 perpetuated within the education sector and provide pragmatic solutions to tackle An overwhelming majority of respondents Islamophobia within the education sector to a recent NUS survey disagreed that and beyond. lecturers and education institutions should monitor and report students’ attitudes, The Prevent Duty behaviours, prayer room activities and The revisions made to the Prevent Duty in email or online activity. The report also 2015 meant that schools, along with other describes the correlation of the visibility of public institutions, are legally required to Muslim women and how they are monitor signs of extremism and impacted by PREVENT as notable, with radicalisation amongst pupils and even those wearing hijab or niqab more likely to staff members. In reality, this means that have been affected. This gives weight to teachers, after receiving a few hours of arguments that PREVENT magnifies a training on the topic, are responsible for variety of existing biases and prejudice this task. The education sector alone has among staff who are obligated to exercise made the most referrals to Prevent, making the duty. up a third of all referrals in the year 2016- Additionally, the research findings suggest 2017 (1976 out of 6093 referrals). This is that Muslim students who have been largely due to the fact that Prevent in affected by PREVENT are significantly schools is embedded within broader more likely than others to believe there is statutory safeguarding duties as well as the no safe space on campuses to discuss issues recent escalation in terrorist attacks in the that affect them. These students are also UK which inevitably heightened anxieties. significantly more likely to not be The number of cases discussed at the comfortable being involved in student Channel panel is much less, with only 386 debates around topical areas including cases examined and only 126 individuals racism, Islamophobia, Muslim student subsequently receiving Channel support. provision, terrorism, Palestine or My research so far indicates that many PREVENT. professionals within the education sector are approaching the Prevent Duty as a The impact of PREVENT is explored more ‘better safe than sorry attitude’, much like fully later in the report chapter entitled other safeguarding measures. Securitising Muslim Identities: Security and Counter-Terror. It has already been widely reported through the media and various reports that Islamophobia and education Muslim students will be mostly effected by the Prevent Duty. The Prevent Duty is Shereen Fernandez ultimately about power; it relies on Queen Mary University teachers and other educational staff members to use their ‘professional’ Our public education systems have discretion to make referrals. Considering transformed greatly over the last few that the bulk of referrals made to Prevent

240 The Experience of Muslim Students in 2017-18, report, National Union of Students, https://www.nusconnect.org.uk/resources/the-experience-of-muslim-students-in- March 18, 2018, accessed May 10, 2018, 2017-18/download_attachment.

93 via the education sector pertain to ‘Islamist extremism’, questions must be asked about the training provided and how they are evaluated. For example, does the Prevent Duty perpetuate an anti-Muslim climate in educational settings? What knowledge(s) are produced through the training materials and how do we ensure that students from certain backgrounds are not unfairly targeted because of their perceived culture or religion? This must be asked wherever Prevent operates within educational contexts. Trojan Horse The Trojan Horse affair in 2013, where a number of schools in Birmingham were alleged to be promoting Islamist ideologies, has left a lasting impact on the educational landscape. The subsequent media reporting of the affair (see figure 1 as an example) provoked an innate fear amongst the public that Muslim teachers were capable of an ‘Islamist’ takeover of Figure 1: Cartoons from The Daily Telegraph and The Sunday schools, which inevitably cast suspicion on Times via Cartoon Archive visible Muslims in particular, working Ofsted Hijab Ban within the education sector. For Muslim teachers that I interviewed for my research, In late 2017, Amanda Spielman announced the Trojan Horse affair has left many that Ofsted inspectors will soon be tasked feeling paranoid about their Islamic with questioning young girls in primary identities in their workplace. Some spoke schools who wear the hijab. Her reasons about having to downplay their Muslim for doing so was allegedly to ensure that identities whereas others felt that along Muslim girls were not being forced to wear with the Prevent Duty, they were being the hijab and that they received equal unfairly scrutinised and watched closely. opportunities when it came to teaching and The Prevent Duty outlines that schools and learning. The lack of consultation with other educational institutions should be Muslim parents and branding those who safe spaces but what is often ignored in opposed the measure as ‘extremists’ led to discussions around Prevent and a national debate on the role of Ofsted in hyperbolic, sensationalised media intervening on religious issues, reporting is the impact on Muslim particularly when those who are at the teachers. There is already a teacher receiving end of such measures have been recruitment crisis in schools and hostile excluded from such conversations and environments like this may contribute to antagonised.241 Furthermore, such a such a decline. measure could further alienate Muslim families from engaging with schools if they feel that their children are unfairly targeted. Developing solid relationships

241 “What should the role of Ofsted be?”, The Guardian, February 6, 2018, accessed 14.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/education/2018/feb/06/what-should- the-role-of-ofsted-be

94 with minority communities is essential and Funding has been severely slashed in parents and carers must be treated as schools nationally and programmes aimed partners. Ultimately, families want their at increasing parental engagement in children to succeed and will work with schools are struggling. By funding whoever is able to do so, but implementing programmes and initiatives to incorporate rash measures will further divide and hard to reach and marginalised isolate marginalised groups and achieve communities in primary and secondary the opposite. schools will not only help them develop skills and relationships, but will improve Possible Solutions parental engagement and student Increase the number of BME staff wellbeing. If parents feel like they can members: The Runnymede Trust has access schools freely, this will only have a reported that in 2015, BME teachers made positive impact on their children’s up 7.6% of the total teaching workforce in education. Schools should also be safe England which does not adequately reflect spaces for parents and carers. the BME student body.242 Increasing the number of BME staff in schools across Address hyperbolic and sensationalised media reporting: It is of utmost geographical areas should be a priority to importance that media outlets are reflect diversity of British society. Schools responsible in their reporting and news will also be better prepared in dealing with coverage. In the last few years, there have the diversity of cultures and religions in been a number of recorded incidents where their schools if their staff body mirrors this. journalists and writers have used their Include anti-racist training as part of platforms to spread divisive messaging ‘diversity and inclusion’ training in and increase intolerance towards minority schools: Anti-racism curriculums must be communities.244 This is then reflected in firmly embedded within schools to tackle schools and in the playground, where racial prejudice. Schools have taken on similar discourse is regurgitated. Schools Black History month and some have even should be places of change which are adopted Islamophobia Awareness Month dedicated to improving the lives of but such initiatives are reductive if the root younger generations and better society as a causes of racism and discrimination are not whole. addressed seriously. Schools in Wales have recently recognised the need to address Islamophobia in the classroom and similar Britishness, belonging and programmes should be implemented Islamophobia: reflection and nationally.243 Considering that the Prevent dialogue Duty has reportedly divided communities in recent years, anti-racist training for all Dr Sadia Habib staff members is essential in order to combat any preconceived ideas and to Times may have moved on since a teacher provide them with better understandings referred to an ethnic minority student as a on race and religion. ‘wog’,245 but today young Muslims are now in fear of being branded as ‘terrorists’ Increase access participation programmes by their teachers.246 Yet it is concerning that for hard to reach and minority groups:

242 “Visible Minorities, Invisible Teachers: BME Teachers in the Education System in https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/apr/27/islamophobia-not- England”, Runnymede Trust, p. 9 accessed 14.06.2018, british-press-issue-got-to-be-kidding https://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Runnymede%20ReportNEW.pdf 245 Muhammad Anwar, “Between Cultures Continuity and Change in the Lives of 243 “Schools urged to help tackle Islamophobia”, BBC News, January 15, 2018, accessed Young Asians” (Florence: Taylor and Francis, 2002). 14.06.2018, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-42650014 246 Tom Pettifor, "Teacher Sacked 'for Calling Muslim Schoolboy Terrorist after He 244 Miqdaad Versi “Islamophobia not an issue in the British press? You’ve got to be Complained about Detention'," Mirror, January 28, 2016, accessed June 20, 2018, kidding”, The Guardian, April 27, 2018, accessed 14.06.2018

95 teacher training and school professional people could examine how over time development courses, in the UK, fail to ‘Islamophobic representations have been give issues of multiculturalism and constructed as ideological tools to diversity due time and attention.247 A big legitimate campaigns of political, social, challenge for schools and teacher economic, and military domination’. 251 education institutions then is how to After investigating historical respond to trainee teachers and existing Islamophobia, young people and teachers classroom teachers consistently reporting can move onto drawing connections that they are inadequately guided or between what they have learned about the trained to teach young people about past and how this impacts the present lived multiculturalism and social inequalities.248 experiences of young Muslims. How do Hostile racial examples, like ‘It’s our young people express a sense of belonging country meant for white people’ or ‘p**i’, to contemporary Britain? Belonging refers that feature in young people’s discourses to acceptance and recognition within a of belonging to Britain, highlight the group or society. Its multiple layers are urgency of anti-racist and anti- illustrated by ‘the interplay of the Islamophobia education.249 subjective self, collective agency and Islamophobia is not a new phenomenon, structural positioning’, while its multiple and not a new racism. It is important for facets mean we can ‘belong to a young people to explore how community, a locality or a nation’, but also Islamophobia has existed for hundreds of experience ‘a transnational sense of years. To begin with, classroom activities belonging’.252 How do young people can, for example, focus upon historical negotiate these multiple belongings and examples of Islamophobia. For example, what support do they require from societal the ways in which Islamophobia infiltrated institutions? narratives surrounding the crusades By applying a critical perspective, young during the medieval period, or the impact people from all backgrounds can use the of European colonisation on Muslims safe spaces of their classrooms to challenge throughout the world. 250 By examining the ‘monovocals, master narratives, standard historical dimensions of Islamophobia and stories, or majoritarian stories’ by placing emphasis on its existence pre-9/11 contributing counter-narratives about and pre-7/7, young people can better Islamophobia and racism in contemporary understand that Islamophobia has been used ideologically for centuries. Young

https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/teacher-sacked-for-calling-muslim- Sarah Pearce, "Confronting Dominant Whiteness in the Primary Classroom: 7266677. Progressive Student Teachers Dilemmas and Constraints," Oxford Review of Education 38, no. 4 (2012): doi:10.1080/03054985.2012.710546. Rachael Revesz New York, "A Teacher Told Her Muslim Pupil He Was a 'terrorist' after He Laughed during a Film," The Independent, April 04, 2016, accessed June 20, Eleanor Stokes and Barbara Nea, "Shaping the Future: Getting the Best for Black, 2018, https://independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/teacher-calls-12-year-old- Asian and Minority Ethnic Children and Young People," Race on the Agenda, muslim-pupil-a-terrorist-as-he-laughs-watching-bend-it-like-beckham- December 2013, accessed June 20, 2018, a6966886.html. https://www.rota.org.uk/sites/default/files/webfm/researchpublications/shaping _the_future_getting_the_best_for_bame_children_and_young_people_f.pdf. John Shammas, "Muslim Student Claims Teacher Told Him: 'Stop Talking, You Terrorist' as Council Launches Investigation," Mirror, December 08, 2015, accessed 248 Sadia Habib, Learning and Teaching British Values Policies and Perspectives on June 20, 2018, https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/muslim-student-claims- British Identities (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018). teacher-told-6973738. 249 Peter Sanderson and Paul Thomas, "Troubling Identities: Race, Place and 247 Kalwant Bhopal and Jasmine Rhamie, "Initial Teacher Training: Understanding Positionality among Young People in Two Towns in Northern England," Journal of ‘race,’ Diversity and Inclusion," Race Ethnicity and Education 17, no. 3 (2013): Youth Studies 17, no. 9 (2014): doi:10.1080/13676261.2014.901491. doi:10.1080/13613324.2013.832920. 250 Jasmine Zine, "Anti-Islamophobia Education as Transformative Pedadogy: Bruce Carrington et al., "Recruitment of New Teachers from Minority Ethnic Reflections from the Educational Front Lines," American Journal of Islamic Social Groups," International Studies in Sociology of Education 10, no. 1 (2000): Sciences 21, no. 3 (June 2004): 110. doi:10.1080/09620210000200001. 251 Ibid. Richard Race, Advancing Race and Ethnicity in Education (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016). 252 Ellie Vasta, "Do We Need Social Cohesion in the 21st Century? Multiple Languages of Belonging in the Metropolis," Journal of Intercultural Studies 34, no. 2 Alistair Ross, Citizenship Education: Europe and the World; Proceedings of the (2013): doi:10.1080/07256868.2013.781983. Eighth Conference of the Childrens ́ Identity and Citizenship in Europe Thematic Network (London: CiCe, 2006).

96 Britain.253 What are young people’s own education as a means of raising the experiences of Islamophobia and racism in aspirations and opportunities for their British society? What are their everyday families and wider community. The first lived experiences? What institutional and Muslim school, Darul Uloom Al-Arabiya structural policies and practices do they Al-Islamia was opened in Lancashire in deem to impact upon their identities as 1979, but it took another 18 years for the Muslims? How do they respond to racist first state funded Muslim school, Islamia and Islamophobic discourses they Primary School, to open in London in encounter through different forms of social 1997.257 media? These are some of the critical The progress of Muslim schools in recent questions that need to be urgently explored years has been noteworthy, with a number in anti-Islamophobia education. of schools achieving excellent results and My own research into Britishness and nationwide accolades. Tauheedul Islam British values found that young people Boys and Girls Schools in Blackburn, run from a range of cultural, religious and by the Tauheedul Educational Trust, were ethnic backgrounds are keen to explore ranked 1st and 2nd in the country in 2016 by British identities and belongings. Teachers the Government’s Progress 8 measures. and students benefit from using the This means the schools were the highest principles of critical pedagogy254 in the rated for improving pupils’ attainment classroom to critically analyse what it across the whole country.258 means to belong to contemporary Despite the overwhelming achievements Britain.255 Critical pedagogy is also of many of these schools, Islamic schools practised as liberatory, empowering, or have frequently been the topic of intense radical pedagogy.256 Critical pedagogy scrutiny. This has intensified in the wake of empowers teachers and students to the infamous Trojan Horse affair. collaborate; they can work together to create a schooling space that emboldens The Birmingham Trojan Horse students’ voices, stimulates dialogue, and Affair recommends reflection and action to attain goals of social justice. Such potentially powerful outcomes make critical Professor John Holmwood pedagogy a significant approach to University of Nottingham become embedded in anti-Islamophobia The Birmingham Trojan Horse affair began education. in early 2014 with sensationalist media reporting of a supposed Islamic plot to take Islamic schools over schools in Birmingham, Bradford and Manchester. This was apparently Since the first wave of Muslim migrants evidenced by a leaked letter and document began bringing their wives and children to sent to Birmingham City Council naming 3 the UK, Muslims have invested in

253 "Critical Race Methodology: Counter-Storytelling as an Analytical Framework for Paulo Freire, Ana Maria Araujó Freire, and Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of Hope: Reliving Education Research," Philosophy of the Social Sciences, accessed June 20, 2018, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Vancouver, B.C.: Langara College, 2016). http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/107780040200800103. 255 “Learning and Teaching British Values Policies and Perspectives on British 254 Paulo Freire, The Politics of Education: Culture, Power, and Liberation (South Identities” Hadley, MA: Bergin & Garvey, 1985). 256 Gary Tate et al., A Guide to Composition Pedagogies (New York: Oxford Paul Freire, "Reading the World and Reading the Word: An Interview with Paulo University Press, 2014). Freire," Language Arts 62, no. 1 (January 1985): 15-21 257 Serving Muslim Schools | Serving Future Generations, report, Association of Muslim Paulo Freire et al., Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, Schools UK, December 2013, accessed May 10, 2018, http://ams-uk.org/wp- 2018). content/uploads/2013/12/AMS-Brochure.pdf.

Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of Freedom: Ethics, Democracy, and Civic Courage (Lanham: 258 Richard Adams, "Two Blackburn Faith Schools Top Charts for GCSE Progress," The Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2001). Guardian, October 13, 2016, accessed May 10, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/education/2016/oct/13/two-blackburn-faith- schools-top-charts-gcse-progress-tauheedul-islam.

97 schools.259 This gave rise to the Secretary of been gathered by the Clarke inquiry but State at the Department for Education not reported by him.261 (DfE) ordering Ofsted reports on 21 The background to the affair was Prime schools in Birmingham all with a high Minister David Cameron’s speech to the proportion of pupils from Muslim Munich security conference in 2011 when backgrounds. An Education Funding he declared that ‘multiculturalism had Agency review was instigated into Park failed’ and that the country had tolerated View Educational Trust (and its 3 schools) the growth of “segregated communities and two reports were commissioned, one behaving in ways that run completely reporting to Birmingham City Council counter to our values”.262 No evidence for (Kershaw Report), the other to Parliament this claim was provided – indeed there was through the Secretary of State (Clarke and is none - and, under the constraints of Report).260 These reports investigated 14 the then coalition government, no schools and claimed to find evidence of legislative action was taken to modify undue religious influence, with the Clarke regulatory requirements on schools.263 Report claiming evidence of extremism However, schools had been required to and actions to undermine British values. teach shared values under a Duty to The latter recommended that professional Promote Community Cohesion (effective misconduct cases be brought against from 2008).264 The Clarke Report, however, teachers. In the event, proceedings were treated the Munich speech as providing the brought against 12 teachers in 4 separate context of its inquiry and regarded a hearings by the National College of concern with community cohesion not as a Teaching and Leadership (NCTL), the regulatory requirement but as a form of agency of the DfE responsible for teacher political correctness which had prevented standards. The teachers were all connected Birmingham City Council from to Park View Academy which had intervening (as it should have done, or so emerged as the school at the centre of the Clarke believed). plot, although by now its tentacles were considerably retracted. The case against In 2015, under a Conservative-majority the leaders of Park View Education Trust Government, a new Counter Extremism collapsed in May 2017 when serious strategy was outlined where the only improprieties were discovered in the example of the problem it was to address conduct of the case by NCTL, including was that of the Birmingham Trojan Horse 265 giving misleading statements and failing to affair. In addition, a new requirement on disclose exculpatory evidence that had schools to promote ‘fundamental British values’ was introduced.266 The most

259 A detailed account is provided by John Holmwood and Therese O’Toole, Countering 262 David Cameron, ‘PM’s speech at Munich Security Conference’, (5 February 2011). Extremism in British Schools? The Truth about the Trojan Horse Affair (Bristol, Policy Press, Available at: www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pmsspeech-at-munich-security- 2018). The introduction is available free online: conference. http://policypress.co.uk/asset/4402/countering-extremism-in-british-schools- introduction.pdf. 263 See, for example. Saffron Karlsen, and James Y. Nazroo, ‘Ethnic and religious differences in the attitudes of people towards being “British”’, (Sociological Review, 260 Education Funding Agency, Review of Park View Education Trust, (9 June 2014). 63(4) 2015). The Government uses evidence from the Casey Review. See, Dame Louise Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/review-ofpark-view- Casey, ‘The Casey Review: a review into opportunity and integration. An independent educational-trust; Ian Kershaw, ‘Investigation Report: Trojan Horse Letter. Prepared report for the Department of Communities and Local Government’, (5 December for Birmingham City Council’, (Published by Eversheds LlP, July 2014). Available at: 2016). Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-casey-review-a- www.birmingham.gov.uk/downloads/file/1579/investigation_report_trojan_horse review-intoopportunity-and-integration. This Review has been widely discredited. _letter_the_kershaw_report; Peter Clarke, ‘Report into Allegations concerning See, Stephen Crossley, ‘Telling it Like it Is’? A critical perspective on the Casey Review Birmingham Schools arising from the ‘Trojan Horse’ Letter’, (London, House of into Opportunity and Integration’, (Discover Society, no 56, May 2018). Available at: Commons HC576 July 2014). Available at: https://discoversociety.org/2018/05/01/telling-it-like-it-is-a-critical-perspective- www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/340526 on-the-casey-review-into-opportunity-and-integration/. /HC_576_accessible_-.pdf. 264 Department for Schools, Children and the Families, ‘Guidance on the duty to 261 Professional conduct panel outcome: Panel decision and reasons on behalf of the promote community cohesion’, (London, 2007). Available at: Secretary of State for Education in respect of applications for the proceedings to be http://www.tedcantle.co.uk/publications/029%20Guidance%20on%20duty%20to% discontinued’, (May 2017). Available at: 20promote%20community%20cohesion%20in%20school.pdf. www.gov.uk/government/publications/teachermisconduct-panel-outcome-mr- monzoor-hussain-mr-hardeep-sainimr-arshad-hussain-mr-razwan-faraz-ms- 265 Home Office, Counter-Extremism Strategy, (19 October 2015). Available at: lyndsey-clark. www.gov.uk/government/publications/counter-extremism-strategy.

266 Department for Education, ‘Promoting fundamental British values as part of SMSC in schools. Departmental advice for maintained schools’, (London: Department for Education, November 2015). Available at:

98 significant aspect of the affair, however, with Park View Academy is significant to was that there was neither fire nor smoke understanding what had in fact been and no basis to the claims made against the taking place. The school was a failing teachers and the schools, all of which were school in 1996 (the beginning of the plot’s hearsay. timeline according to Clarke) yet by 2012 it was in the top 14% of all schools in England The Clarke Report was deeply and self- for academic achievement, evidently flawed, yet no media outlet notwithstanding that 72.7% of pupils were addressed those flaws, not even after the in receipt of free school meals, just 7.5% cases against the teachers had collapsed. had English as a first language and its Nor did the Parliamentary select pupil intake was below the national committee that reviewed the Trojan Horse average in academic performance on entry. affair.267 For example, there was no It is for this reason, that it was asked by the discussion in the report of the statutory DfE working together with the school requirements on schools for religious improvement team at BCC to takeover two education and compulsory daily acts of other schools, to become a multi-academy collective worship. While the latter is trust and ultimately incorporate other required to be Christian in character it can failing schools. be varied under a determination provided by the local Standing Advisory Committee The ‘takeover plot’ that Clarke discovers, on Religious Education (SACRE). Park then, was at the behest of the DfE and View had had such a determination since directly under its supervision to extend its 1996, which had lapsed in 2012 (they are good practices to other schools. Evidence renewable every five year) at the time it associated with the involvement of DfE became an academy, when responsibility officials and evidence provided by passed to the DFE. It made no provisions Birmingham SACRE was not presented in for this part of its duties toward academy the report, but it was its disclosure that and free schools. The school had also caused the NCTL hearing to collapse. The continued to teach the locally agreed ‘Islamic plot’ to takeover schools in religious education curriculum. Birmingham, then, is better described as a moral panic engendered by the Nor did the Clarke Report establish what Government’s attack on multiculturalism the responsibilities of schools were under and its promotion of unevidenced claims Prevent (there were none), yet Ipsos Mori that British Muslims are at odds with had conducted a review of schools for the British values. It also indicates a failure by DfE which showed that most schools media and Parliament to discover the truth understood it as part of their duty to behind an injustice visited on teachers and 268 promote community cohesion. Indeed, if a calumny against a community, its values Clarke – or his advisers from the DfE - had and the success of its local school. referred to this review they would have discovered that Park View was doing The current HM Chief Inspector of Schools, more, and had more teachers trained in Amanda Spielman, continues the hostility Prevent, than was typical for schools in toward schools with an Islamic ethos England. (reflecting their communities). In a recent speech,269 she praised the religious ethos of Finally, the shrinking nature of the ‘plot’ Church of England (and Catholic) schools from 21 to 14 to 4 schools, all associated www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/380595 268 Chris Phillips, Daniel Tse, Daniel and Fiona Johnson, ‘Community Cohesion and /SMSC_Guidance_Maintained_Schools.pdf. PREVENT. (Ipsos Mori Research Report 0085 for the Department for Education, 2011). Available at: 267 House of Commons Education Select Committee, ‘Seventh Report, Extremism in https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at Schools: the Trojan Horse Affair’, (11 March, 2015). Available at: tachment_data/file/182300/DFE-RR085.pdf. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201415/cmselect/cmeduc/473/47302.ht m. 269 Amanda Spielman, ‘Speech at the Church of England Foundation for Education Leadership’, (1 February 2018). Available at:

99 writing that one of ‘British values’ is, “‘mutual respect for and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs and for those without faith’. It is a happy fact that almost every Church of England school we visit takes that value seriously.” However, she went on, “tolerance and respect does not mean that we should privilege all belief above criticism. Ofsted inspectors are increasingly brought into contact with those who want to actively pervert the purpose of education. Under the pretext of religious belief, they use education institutions, legal and illegal, to narrow young people’s horizons, to isolate and segregate, and in the worst cases to indoctrinate impressionable minds with extremist ideology.” Finally, she stated, “there should not, indeed cannot, be a trade-off between school ethos and school outcomes... Sadly, I am afraid that it does not match with the reality in all of our schools today.” The real lesson of the Birmingham Trojan Horse affair is that Park View School was undermined despite its successful outcomes because of hostility to its Islamic ethos. Yet it is precisely those outcomes that served the integration of its pupils.

https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/amanda-spielmans-speech-at-the- church-of-england-foundation-for-education-leadership.

100 feeling forced to work “10 times as hard” Economic Exclusion: as their white counterparts in order to achieve equivalent levels of success.272 Islamophobia and the Employer attitudes have also been given as Labour Market a reason for failure to progress in the workplace in research by BBC “Inside Numerous studies in recent years have Out”, which found that CVs submitted researched the failure of Muslims to under a non-Muslim name were three progress and reach levels of success in the times more likely to be offered an workplace which their non-Muslim interview than those with a Muslim counterparts enjoy. These studies have name.273 pointed to a combination of Islamophobia, The findings are particularly galling given racism and discrimination as reasons for that academics found a strong work ethic Muslims to be less likely to be in work, less and high resilience among Muslims which likely to be in skilled and professional “resulted in impressive results in occupations, and less likely to break education”. These achievements are not through the glass ceiling to access top level translated into the workplace executive positions. Indeed, only 6% of unfortunately, with previous data showing Muslims in the workplace were in higher that only 20% of Muslim adults were in managerial, administrative and full-time employment, compared to 35% of professional occupations, compared to the general population.274 10% of the overall population.270 Research has also found that Muslim Studies also show that Muslims have been women face greater difficulty in being disproportionately confined to unskilled accepted in the workplace. The Social professions or those jobs with limited Mobility Commission noted how this opportunities for progression.271 Census adversity was amplified for Muslim data shows that, while a fifth of people are women wearing headscarves. Researchers employed in the highest category of socio- found that women were confronted with economic classifications, such as higher situations ranging from “assumptions they managerial and higher professional were forced to wear the headscarf to jokes occupations, this proportion falls to just 1 and casual comments in the workplace in 8 for Muslims. More jarringly, while about Muslims”. Muslim workers were only 4% of the adult population had never also hit with “a feeling of a need to worked, this figure was five times higher apologise and explain” every time a terror for Muslims, with 21.3% of Muslim adults attack occurred.275 having never worked. In 2016, the House of Commons Women The Government’s Social Mobility and Equalities Committee stated that Commission, chaired by former Labour Muslim women face a triple penalty in the minister Alan Milburn, cited a number of employment sphere, due to being women, barriers to success for Muslims in the being from an ethnic minority background employment sphere, including ethnic and for being Muslim. Another study minority sounding names being less likely found that 1 in 4 employers admitted to to be offered interviews and Muslims being reluctant to hire Muslim women, due

270 "Young Muslims in the UK Face Enormous Social Mobility Barriers," GOV.UK, https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/sep/07/islamophobia-holding-back- accessed June 20, 2018, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/young-muslims-in- uk-muslims-in-workplace-study-finds. the-uk-face-enormous-social-mobility-barriers. 273 Zack Adesina and Oana Marocico, "Is It Easier to Get a Job If You're Adam or 271 Roger Dobson, British Muslims face worst job discrimination of any minority group, Mohamed?" BBC News, February 06, 2017, accessed May 10, 2018, according to research”, Independent, November 30, 2014, accessed June 12, 2018, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-38751307. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/british-muslims-face- worst-job-discrimination-of-any-minority-group-9893211.html. 274 Ibid.

272 Anushka Asthana, "Islamophobia Holding Back UK Muslims in Workplace, Study 275 Ibid. Finds," The Guardian, September 07, 2017, accessed May 10, 2018,

101 to concerns they would prioritise their and Bangladeshi people were also the most family commitments above professional likely to be unemployed. Indeed, 11% of duties.276 Pakistani and Bangladeshi people were unemployed in 2016, almost three times One of the more disturbing revelations the rate (4%) of unemployment amongst from research into the difficulties ethnic White British people.280 minority women face in entering employment was that 1 in 8 Pakistani Alongside this, the National Equality Panel women had been illegally asked about previously found that Muslims receive, on marriage and family aspirations in job average, 13-21% less pay than their White interviews, compared to 1 in 30 White Christian counterparts with equivalent women, demonstrating the levels of qualifications.281 preconceived bias and racially and The Race Audit showed that while 74% of religiously shaped assumptions that people from White ethnic groups were Muslim women face.277 employed in 2016, only 64% of those from Discrimination for Muslim women also other ethnic groups were similarly continues once they enter the workplace. employed. This means that the difference Research conducted by MEND in 2016 in the employment rate for ethnic revealed that more than 60% of Muslim minorities compared with the overall women who wear a hijab felt they had been population, also known as the treated differently at work due to religious “employment rate gap”, was 10 percentage discrimination.278 points.282 This represents a slow improvement from the 15-percentage point The Government published its Race gap recorded over ten years previously, in Equality Audit in late 2017, amalgamating 2004, but highlights how much research and data from various sectors to intervention is still required to give people shine a light on the disparities ethnic from BME backgrounds the opportunity to minorities face in the UK. The employment both enter and then succeed in fulfilling audit showed that people of Pakistani and their potential in the workplace. Bangladeshi ethnicity suffered the most with regards to unemployment and low Given the younger age profile of the BAME pay.279 and Muslim demographic than the wider population, there are serious opportunities Amongst all minorities, Pakistani and for Government and businesses to harness Bangladeshi workers were more likely to the growth in the BAME population and be concentrated in the three lowest-skilled tap into the high levels of talent available. occupation groups, with more than 2 in 5 With more BAME students going to Pakistani and Bangladeshi workers in university, there should be no tolerance for these lower-skilled occupations, compared employers excluding people based on their to 1 in 4 of White workers. Bangladeshi and religion or the colour of their skin rather Pakistani employees also earned the than on their merits and achievements. lowest average hourly pay, £11.42, compared to £13.75 per hour received by The EU Agency for Fundamental Rights their White counterparts. Finally, Pakistani published a survey in 2017, in which 10,000

276 Siobhan Fenton, "6 Charts Which Show the Employment Barriers Faced by British 280 "Findings of 'Race Disparity Audit' Call for Action against Racial Inequality in Muslims," The Independent, August 11, 2016, accessed May 10, 2018, Britain." Muslim Engagement and Development. November 17, 2017. Accessed June https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/muslims-more-likely-to- 12, 2018. https://mend.org.uk/news/findings-race-disparity-audit-call-action-racial- be-unemployed-than-any-other-social-group-in-the-uk-mps-warn-a7185451.html. inequality-britain/.

277 Ibid. 281 John Hills et al, An Anatomy of Economic Inequality in the UK, report, National Equality Panel, January 2010, accessed May 10, 2018, 278 Tackling Racism and Employment Discrimination in the UK, Presentation, MEND https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/28344/1/CASEreport60.pdf. (2016). 282 "Employment," GOV.UK Ethnicity Facts and Figures, accessed June 20, 2018, 279 Cabinet Office, Race Disparity Audit, October 2017, accessed June 12, 2018, https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/work-pay-and- https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at benefits/employment/employment/latest. tachment_data/file/686071/Revised_RDA_report_March_2018.pdf.

102 Muslims in Europe were questioned on  A Muslim teacher who was falsely how religious discrimination impacts their accused of gender segregating a everyday lives. Workplace discrimination classroom. had the largest impact, but plenty of other  A Muslim candidate in a job interview forms of discrimination emerged from the is asked “How he feels working under survey, including: access to public and women.” private services, housing, accessing healthcare, being turned away from school  A Muslim woman who was asked to for wearing the niqab and being asked to remove the face veil in an interview. remove the niqab for meetings and when The IRU has played an active role in many dropping children off to school.283 of these cases. We have participated in An update from the many employment tribunals where we Islamophobia Response Unit have won thousands of pounds worth of settlements for employment (IRU) discrimination victims. For example, in one case dealt with by the MEND’s Islamophobia Response Unit IRU a Muslim teacher was unfairly (IRU) deals with not only hate crime, but dismissed from his role after being falsely discrimination as well. The unit is accused of introducing gender segregation fortunate to benefit from the invaluable into the classroom. The IRU supported him skills and experience of a team of dedicated and helped him take the case to an legal professionals from leading law firms employment tribunal. We helped prove across London who offer pro-bono legal that the allegations were wholly incorrect advice and support to those affected by and secured him £5,000 as a settlement. Islamophobic discrimination. This team of talent provides the IRU with the The impacts of this form of discrimination intellectual capital it needs to challenge on victims can be long lasting. Many those institutions who oppress and victims report to us that they suffer a loss discriminate against Muslims. of confidence in the workplace, poorer job prospects, and a desire to work in more Employment based discrimination is the diverse work settings. largest area of our discrimination work at the IRU. 60% of our Islamophobic It appears clear that in order for Muslims, discrimination reports are from those who and Muslim women in particular, to have been mistreated at work because of progress with their careers, clear changes their faith. are required at both employer and government levels in order to remove In the IRU’s data monitoring of reports we barriers and give Muslims the have discovered that, while 60% of our opportunities to achieve their career hate crime reports come from Muslim aspirations. women, the data we have collected on the discrimination side reveals that over 70% of our discrimination reports come from Muslim men. We have received a variety of employment discrimination reports at the IRU. Some include:

283 Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey (EU-MIDIS II): Muslims http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2017-eu-minorities- - Selected Findings, report, European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, survey-muslims-selected-findings_en.pdf. September 2017, accessed May 16, 2018,

103 perpetrator, resulting in an attitude of "us" Securitising Muslim vs "them". The intent of religiously motivated attacks further reinforces the Identities: Security and mindset of a division between the believer Counter-Terror and the dominant non-believing population.284 MEND has no intention of undermining The act, as a consequence, is not only an act the severity of security threats that our of violence but is also assault on the nation currently faces and wholeheartedly dominant group identity. However, when commend those who dedicate their lives to it comes to incidents such as the murder of ensuring the safety and security of each Jo Cox (which was also designated an act and every citizen. of terrorism), the identity of the attacker However, we also believe that the lens means that he was already part of the "us" through which Muslims are repeatedly of the dominant group and the intent was and forcefully portrayed as security threats not an overt assault upon the interests of is a narrative desperately in need of this dominant group. recalibration. The damaging consequences Therefore, within the above framework, that result from misguided policies religiously inspired terrorism is an attack predicated upon Islamophobic on society and state and, by extension, an assumptions and discourses is an area that attack on freedom and a way of life. is in need of immediate address. Therefore, Meanwhile far-right, white-supremacist, this chapter focusses on the process of or ultra-nationalist terrorism is an attack securitisation and resulting legislation that on a minority and not society as a whole. serves to marginalise and demonise British Within the public (and often political) Muslims. imagination, this leads to a perception that Labelling the threat religiously inspired terrorism is a matter of security, while far-right, white- It is difficult to ignore the level to which supremacist, or ultra-nationalist terrorism Muslim communities and individuals have is a public order concern. come to be seen through the lens of security and counter-terror. It is not It is also worth remembering previous uncommon to hear the wildly inaccurate discussions of moral panic. As mentioned, adage that “not all Muslims are terrorists, the perpetuation of moral panic leads to but all terrorists are Muslim”. Such public calls for restrictions, punitive laws, and the misconceptions create the impression that curtailment of the suspect community’s security concerns are solely in the domain civil liberties and freedoms. The of Muslim aggression, while other forms of culminating effect is a process of violence are frequently overlooked, securitisation wherein Muslims become minimalised or at least framed in a very transformed into subjects of security. different and de-prioritised manner. Processes of securitisation Perhaps a reason for this should be seen in Securitisation is the process through which an amalgamation of identity and intent. state actors transform subjects into matters Recalling earlier discussions surrounding of security. In the case of British Muslims, race, ethnicity, and identity, it is not this is the way in which politicians, uncommon for xenophobic sentiments to policymakers and public figures (state (consciously or unconsciously) influence actors) construct public narratives, the public evaluation of a Muslim

284 Following the logics of Islamophobia, in instances where this perpetrator is Muslim, the rest of the Muslim population is also tainted with this assumption of difference by proxy.

104 legislative recommendations, and policies or cocaine. One really must question how which permanently frame Muslims within much positive coverage is being given to the lens of counter-terror (thus, cancer and cocaine to make them be seen transforming them into matters of more positively than Muslims.286 security). Once a subject has been securitised within Due to the emotive nature of security, the public, political, and media discourses, it result of an individual or group being becomes necessary for policies to be predominantly framed and referenced created to mitigate the security risk they within debates of security is that they are claimed to pose. In the UK landscape, receive disproportionate amounts of this has led to a series of questionable attention and resources. For example, counter-terror legislation, including the terrorism committed by Muslims affects Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 2015 far fewer people than the numbers killed and the Terrorism Act 2006. by car accidents, heart disease, breast However, such securitised rhetoric is not cancer, smoking, or alcohol. Indeed, limited to counter-terror strategies, it has studies in the US have shown that you are also infiltrated the Government’s approach more likely to be killed by brain-eating to integration and community cohesion as parasites, texting whilst driving, toddlers, well. Indeed, the Ministry of Housing, lightning, furniture, falling out of bed, Communities, and Local Government’s alcoholism, food poisoning, choking on “Integrated Communities Strategy Green food, prescription medication, a financial Paper; Building Stronger, More United crash, obesity, medical errors or autoerotic Communities” is littered with references asphyxiation than by Muslim terrorists.285 and allusions reminiscent of counter-terror While security threats are a real and crucial strategies. This conflation between concern, the attention given to the dangers integration and security is then furthered presented by Muslims in the Western within the Home Office's updated counter- context, particularly the attention afforded terror strategy "CONTEST: The United by the media, far outweighs that of any of Kingdom's Strategy for Countering the aforementioned issues that pose equal, Terrorism", which explicitly mentions this if not greater threats. Reflecting back to the Green Paper in outlining its strategy. It is mechanics of the media industry and the imperative that strategies of community dynamics of moral panics, perhaps a integration and of counter-terrorism do not reason that the above dangers are not overlap, as this can only result in the afforded the same emotive reaction is further securitisation of an already because they are not considered as problematic tripartite relationship between newsworthy as terrorism committed by government, society, and minorities. The Muslims. Consequently, the level of media Government's integration strategy will be coverage affects the average member of the discussed further in a later chapter on public’s perception of levels of importance. Public Exclusion, Integration, and Thus, they become unable to accurately Minority Rights. weigh relative risks, and therefore overinflate the risk of terrorism compared to other threats. A case in point is that a recent study of the New York Times revealed that Muslims are presented more negatively than cancer

285 "You're 55 Times More Likely to be Killed by a Police Officer than a Terrorist," 286 "Study: 'NYT' Portrays Islam More Negatively than Alcohol, Cancer, and Cocaine," Washington's Blog, accessed April 12, 2017, Mondoweiss, March 06, 2016, accessed June 20, 2018, http://www.washingtonsblog.com/2015/03/youre-55-times-likely-killed-police- http://mondoweiss.net/2016/03/study-nyt-portrays-islam-more-negatively-than- officer-terrorist.html. alcohol-cancer-and-cocaine/.

105 Islamophobia and the What we also know from scholarly Presumption of Muslim Guilt in examinations of young people in Britain and other Western nations who end up Terrorism joining terrorist organizations is that few of them are literate in Islam. In Britain, this Dr Todd Green, PhD religious illiteracy was first brought to the public’s attention after a classified study Luther College (USA) from MI5’s Behavioural Science Unit was In a BBC One television interview in 2015, leaked. This study found most terrorist then Business Secretary insisted recruits were novices concerning Islam and British Muslims have a special were not observant practitioners.290 The responsibility to “combat the poisonous Oxford scholar, Lydia Wilson, had similar ideology” fuelling Islamist terrorism. findings in her study of imprisoned Islamic Refusal to do so, insisted Javid, would be State fighters in Iraq.291 We’ve even seen equivalent to leading Muslim children “to evidence of this in the news. When two the door” of terrorists.287 That same year, young men from Birmingham, Yusuf Prime Minister David Cameron accused Sarwar and Mohammed Ahmed, made some British Muslims of “quietly plans to travel to Syria to join a terrorist condoning” an extremist ideology that organization in 2013, they logged on to helped the Islamic State to recruit and Amazon and ordered books to help them spread its message.288 prepare for the ensuing jihad, including Asking Muslims to condemn terrorism, or Islam for Dummies and The Koran for insinuating Muslims are guilty of Dummies.292 Their choice of literature condoning terrorism unless they prove speaks volumes about what little they otherwise, has become a permanent fixture knew about Islam even after they had in public and political discourse. But there made their decision to travel to Syria. are three important reasons why we A second reason to stop asking Muslims to should avoid calling out Muslims and condemn terrorism is that Muslims asking them to condemn terrorism. condemn terrorism all the time, in word The first reason is that the question and in deed. A simple Google search yields wrongly assumes Islam is the driving force countless links to news releases, videos, behind terrorism. Most social scientists and social media posts with Muslims argue that politics factors heavily into the speaking out against terrorism. From the motives behind Islamist terrorist 7/7 and London bridge attacks in the UK, organizations, from the Islamic State to al- to 9/11 in the US, to the Paris attacks of Qaeda to Hamas. Most of these 2015, Muslim individuals and organizations are responding to Western organizations have routinely condemned imperialism or to the real or perceived terrorist attacks. occupation of territory by foreign Muslims go beyond making public powers.289 statements. Plenty of Muslims have taken the fight to terrorists abroad by serving in the armed forces of Western nations and

287 Peter Dominiczak, “Sajid Javid: British Muslims Who Don’t Condemn Terrorists Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Philadelphia: University of Are ‘Taking Children to the Door,” The Telegraph, July 12, 2015, Pennsylvania Press, 2008). https://tinyurl.com/yc3pzlos. 290 Alan Travis, “MI5 Report Challenges Views on Terrorism in Britain,” The Guardian, 288 Nigel Morris, “David Cameron: Some Muslim Communities ‘Quietly Condoning’ August 20, 2008, https://tinyurl.com/hhyq2ft. Extremist Ideology – Instead of Confronting It,” Independent, June 18, 2015, https://tinyurl.com/yb2gmpk3. 291 Lydia Wilson, “What I Discovered from Interviewing Imprisoned ISIS Fighters,” The Nation, October 21, 2015, https://tinyurl.com/y92frkdp. 289 Robert Pape, Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism (New York: Random House, 2005); Jessica Stern and J.M. Berger, ISIS: The State of Terror (New 292 Vikram Dodd, “Two British Men Admit to Linking Up with Extremist Group in York: Ecco, 2015); John Horgan, Walking Away from Terrorism: Accounts of Syria,” The Guardian, July 8, 2014, https://tinyurl.com/yb9dy7yp. Disengagement from Radical and Extremist Movements (New York: Routledge, 2009); Donatella della Porta, Social Movement Studies and Political Violence (Aarhus, Denmark: Centre for Studies in Islamism and Radicalisation, 2009); Marc Sageman, Leaderless

106 dying in the line of duty for this cause. This genocide – has characterized Western was the case with Lance Corporal Jabron nations. The Crusades, the Inquisition, the Hashmi, a British Muslim soldier who died European witch trials, slavery, lynchings, at the hands of the Taliban in Afghanistan Jim Crow, colonial violence, torture, in 2006.293 genocide – all of this is a part of “our” history, and much of it has been justified Muslims have also become police officers within a Christian framework. Some of charged with protecting their nations these episodes, moreover, are not stuck in against terrorist threats. Some 2,000 the distant past but are very much a part of Muslims constitute Britain’s National the present. During the war on terror, for Association of Muslim Police. Ordinary example, Amnesty International Muslim citizens help the police and other documented instances in which the UK intelligence agencies in their work against was complicit in the torture of suspects terrorism. In the years leading up to the held abroad.297 2017 Manchester attack, members of the Muslim community reported the future What ties these three reasons together is perpetrator, Salman Abedi, to law the presumption of guilt. Muslims as a enforcement on multiple occasions, while whole are presumed guilty of harboring the Didsbury Mosque banned Abedi from terrorist sympathies until they prove attending the most because of his extremist otherwise (if that’s even possible). Asking views.294 Muslims to condemn terrorism is a form of racist scapegoating that allows Western Muslims have raised money for victims of nations to avoid coming face to face with terrorist attacks. Muslims United for the complicated political factors driving London raised over £25,000 in 48 hours for terrorism and the need to recognize and victims of the Westminster Bridge attack in make amends for their own record of 2017.295 Similar fundraising efforts took unjust violence. As a manifestation of place after the Orlando and Manchester Islamophobia, the question ultimately says attacks.296 more about the questioners than Muslims The evidence is overwhelming. Muslims themselves. are speaking out and taking action against terrorism all the time. Why so many politicians and journalists are unaware of Understanding the terminology these actions is perhaps a more relevant of security question to ask. It is important to clarify certain The final reason to stop asking Muslims to terminologies used within security condemn terrorism is that the question is a discourses. Much of the terminology used distraction. It puts Muslims on the has the potential to become politicised or defensive so that Western nations need not applied incorrectly thus disadvantaging, come to terms both with their violent past victimising or stigmatising individuals if it and their ongoing complicity in a violent is not used in a critical and reflexive world order. manner. This is especially concerning when certain words, such as “extremist” Pretty much every category of violence become absorbed in the public imagination attributed to the Islamic State – persecution as being exclusively applicable to Muslims. of religious minorities, rape, torture,

293 Jacqueline Maley and Sam Jones, “Jabron Hashmi, the British Muslim Soldier Killed 295 Lotifa Begum, “How British Muslims United for London,” Huffington Post (UK), Fighting the Taliban,” The Guardian, July 3, 2006, https://tinyurl.com/ycfyuafg. March 28, 2017, https://tinyurl.com/y7jbbb8w.

294 Aine Fox and Beth Abbit, “Manchester Bomber Salman Abedi Was Banned from a 296 MEND itself raised £38,000 for the victims and families of the Manchester Arena Mosque and Reported to Authorities for His Extremist Views,” Manchester Evening attack. News, May 25, 2017, https://tinyurl.com/ycxp33pv. 297 “Annual Report: United Kingdom 2013,” Amnesty International, https://tinyurl.com/ybs82yuj.

107 Such a unilateral positioning serves to their relationship with the issue under distort and misrepresent vital issues of examination. security, whilst simultaneously It is also useful to remember that various marginalising and demonising Muslim points in history have seen different communities within discussions. positions labelled as “extremist” Extremism and “fundamental British depending upon the majority social values” sentiment of the time. For example, those who advocated for women’s and LGBTQ Turning to dictionary definitions, rights were once considered outside the extremism means “the quality or state of mainstream and “extreme”. In this way, being extreme” or “advocacy of extreme while some may regard choosing to wear a measures or views”. In the context of the hijab and religious dress as an indicator of current discussion, the term is mostly used “extremism”, others view it as a in a political or a religious sense, usually mainstream religious norm. referring to an ideological stance that is deemed outside of the currently accepted Since 2011, the Government has defined mainstream attitudes of society. extremism as: “vocal or active opposition to fundamental British values, including Since extremism is a relational concept, in democracy, the rule of law, individual discussing and defining what it is to be liberty and mutual respect and tolerance of “extreme”, one needs a benchmark, different faiths and beliefs. We also include something that is more “ordinary”, in our definition of extremism calls for the “centrist”, “mainstream” or “normal” for death of members of our armed forces, relative comparison. As such, the labelling whether in this country or overseas.”299 of activities, people, and groups as "extremist", and the defining of what is Within this framework for extremism, "ordinary" in any setting is always a “fundamental British values” become the subjective and political matter. Therefore, yardstick against which views are while the term "extremist” can be used in a measured and evaluated. The obvious purely descriptive, academic and non- problem with this is that “fundamental condemning way, it is usually used British values” remains ill-defined and pejoratively and with the intention of open to interpretation. With no explicit expressing great disapproval. guidance on what constitutes “British values”, the terminology implies that it is Indeed, we all have a tendency to the Government’s prerogative to set a overestimate the extent that others think threshold for acceptable cultural, religious, like we do; this is a social bias known as the and social values. This raises questions “false consensus” effect.298 We therefore surrounding how one measures and have a tendency to assume that others identifies ideologies relative to British should also think like we do and, therefore, values, particularly considering that the tend to assume that our own position is concept appears to be a nebulous and shared by the majority of other elastic yardstick. For example, aside from “reasonable” individuals. However, what religious dress, how does religious one person considers to be “reasonable” slaughter, personal sexual ethics, or fasting will substantially differ from others fit into this evaluation? depending on the observer's values, politics, moral scope, and the nature of In absence of reliable guidance on which values are to be supported and which are to be deemed at odds with the views of

298 Marks, Gary; Miller, Norman (1987). "Ten years of research on the false-consensus 299 UK, HM Government, The Prime Minister's Task Force on Tackling Radicalisation effect: An empirical and theoretical review". Psychological Bulletin. American and Extremism, Tackling extremism in the UK (2013). Psychological Association. 102 (1): 72–90. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.102.1.72.

108 mainstream society, this approach sanctions other than the threat of violence. ultimately exposes minority communities, Such non-violence as an activist strategy and Muslims specifically, to the risk of goes beyond passive, peaceful resistance: it being subject to increasing scrutiny and involves an array of direct individual and marginalisation, not for potentially violent collective political actions, such as hunger- behaviour, but for not conforming to the strikes, demonstrations, sit-ins, blockades, Government’s views on what should be acts of civil disobedience and other mainstream society’s values. persuasive and even coercive tactics (such as non-cooperation in the form of strikes) - Radicalism and non-violent extremism but all falling short of the use of violence Another clarification to be made is the against persons or objects (other than one’s difference is between “extremist” and self). Both means and ends of adherents of “radical”. These two terms are often used this political philosophy are non-violent. interchangeably, particularly by In the sense of the above, “non-violent politicians, but even by political scientists extremism” is, therefore, a misleading who should know better. It is tempting to term. Gandhian non-violence is radical but define radicals as “non-violent extremists” not extreme. However, even such a under the banner of “extreme by goal but statement hinges on where we draw the not by method” – “acceptable” extremists, line between the concepts of “radicalism” as it were. However, a more accurate and “extremism”, which many use distinction between “extremism” and interchangeably – particularly in the “radicalism” can be gleaned through manner in which such terms are used in examining the history of ideas political discourse, as both terminologies surrounding these terms. From this point indicate a position at some distance from of view, extremists tend to be closed- “centrist”, “mainstream” or “moderate” minded supremacists and radicals tend to positions. be open-minded egalitarians.300 Correct appreciation for the nuances The term violence is often a taken for contained in terms such as “non-violent granted category, therefore, we often extremism” is, therefore, of vital assume non-violence to be simply the importance. Acts such as letter writing, absence of violence. However, violence petitioning, organising or participating in itself is by no means a clear-cut peaceful demonstrations, and various terminology. Violence by organs of the other forms of campaigning are integral state may be labelled as "force", thus strategies within peaceful activism for constituting a "defensive" form of violence social change within democratic systems. and ascribing an aura of legitimacy to the However, for many, a problem occurs infliction of physical harm. A closer look at when Muslim individuals and violence reveals a multitude of nuances organisations use these “non-violent” and meanings, especially in combination methods to advocate for causes considered with adjectives like physical, “outside” of mainstream views. psychological, structural, cultural, direct or indirect, criminal, political, non-lethal and A particularly acute example of this can be lethal.301 seen in the treatment of Muslim organisations that criticise elements of Non-violence in the Gandhian tradition counter-terror strategies. A great deal of refers to an activist and at times even campaigning has been undertaken by both militant mode of conflict waging, based on Muslim and non-Muslim organisations

300 For more information, see "Radicals and Radicalism." Dictionary of American 301 Schmid, Alex P. Violent and Non-Violent Extremism: Two Sides of the Same Coin. The History. Accessed March 6, 2017. Hague: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism (2014). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and- press-releases/radicals-and-radicalism.

109 and individuals to highlight problems support terrorism and violent extremism within the UK's stance on counter-terror. and, in some cases, then join terrorist However, Muslims who do engage with groups.”302 peaceful advocacy work in this area are Although most political discourse and frequently labelled as "non-violent academic literature focus on radicalisation extremists" because their views are at odds to "violent extremism", radicalisation can with the current status-quo, but their be both violent and non-violent. As methods are within the realms of previously discussed, attempting to democratic engagement. restrict progression to non-violent This has culminated in the Government’s extremism has potentially problematic disengagement policy with Muslim applications and consequences. organisations that it considers “non- Specifically, there is a danger that violent extremists”. The ultimate focussing on "non-violent extremism" consequence is that Muslims who wish to could be used as a tool to restrict legitimate fully participate in the democratic system debates and criticism within democratic are stigmatised and excluded from having engagement which could disrupt current their views and interests heard. status quos. Once again, the Islamophobic implications of excluding Muslim political The political exclusion of Muslims (as engagement are of great concern. discussed in a later chapter of this report) is a fundamental consequence of The impacts of counter-terror Islamophobia. Therefore, it is imperative legislation on Muslim that the terminologies of security are fully understood in both their meaning, usage, communities and their implications. Current counter-terror legislation is Radicalisation centred upon the idea that, because the magnitude of the terrorist threat is too One of the issues with defining great to rely on traditional post-crime radicalisation is the importance of context jurisprudence, measures and policies need in determining what is perceived as to exist that pre-empt violent acts of terror radicalisation. Therefore, radicalisation and criminalise individuals who are can mean different things to different believed to be in the process of committing people. As such, there is no universally such acts. This transition was one of the accepted definition of radicalisation in key consequences of the War on Terror, academia or Government. which has effectively resulted in the On a basic level, radicalisation may be implementation of legislative systems that considered to be the process by which an blur “the boundary between foreign and individual or group comes to adopt domestic and between law enforcement increasingly extreme political, social, or and military action.”303 However, due to religious ideals and aspirations that reject the inherent difficulty in preventing and or undermine the socio-political status pre-empting crime, the application of pre- quo. In other words, it is the process criminal legislation results in an often through which individuals are drawn to arbitrary and over-conjectural application extremist ideologies and methodologies. of the law, whereby individuals perceived to belong to a community at risk are Within discussions on counter-terrorism, increasingly problematised and even the UK Government defines radicalisation criminalised on the basis of acts that would as “The process by which people come to

302 House of Commons. "Communities and Local Government Committee, Sixth 303 Jude McCulloch and Dean Wilson, Pre-crime: Pre-emption, Precaution and the Future, Report: Preventing Violent Extremism." (2010). (London, New York: Routledge, 2016), p. 631.

110 not be considered criminal in different resilience in order to help with effective circumstances. recovery in its aftermath. In other words, attempts to predict crime PREVENT is delivered nationwide with a inherently involve subjective judgements particular focus on areas considered to be and hypotheses, ultimately culminating in at greatest risk, such as Newham, issues of racial profiling and overt scrutiny Redbridge, Tower Hamlets, Birmingham, on one “suspect” community – Muslims. Cardiff, and Manchester.304 Each priority Within this subjective framework, it is, area then receives funding for a PREVENT therefore, inevitable that innocent co-ordinator, who is supported by the individuals will become suspect and Home Office to develop delivery plans caught up in the apparatus of security relating to PREVENT objectives. Work measures, purely on the basis of their includes disrupting extremist speakers, religious, cultural, or ethnic identities. removing material online, intervening to stop people being radicalised, and The following discussion examines the dissuading people from travelling to Syria impacts of two elements of counter-terror and Iraq and intervening when they legislation on Muslim communities – return.305 PREVENT and Schedule 7. What does PREVENT mean in practice? PREVENT Ultimately, PREVENT enforces a statutory What is Prevent? duty on certain public bodies to have due PREVENT is one part of CONTEST, which regard to signs of potential radicalisation. is the UK’s overarching counter-terror In other words, staff within schools, strategy involving intelligence agencies universities, the police, the NHS, probation and counter-terrorism policing. It is built services, local authorities, councils, upon four pillars: prisons, colleges and other public institutions have a compulsory duty to Pursue: Stopping terrorist attacks by report anyone they suspect may be detecting, prosecuting and otherwise vulnerable to becoming radicalised. disrupting those who plot to carry out attacks against the UK or its overseas Once individuals have been identified by interests through intelligence gathering staff within these public bodies, they are and surveillance. referred to a program called CHANNEL and a support plan is created if it is deemed PREVENT: Stopping people becoming necessary. terrorists or supporting terrorism by detecting those vulnerable to Guidance is provided by the Home Office radicalisation. on how each body should implement the PREVENT duty. For example: Protect: Focusing on areas such as border security, the transport system, national Local authorities should ensure that infrastructure and public places in order to publicly owned premises are not used to protect them and reduce their vulnerability disseminate extremist views. to terrorist attack. Frontline school staff should understand Prepare: Mitigating the impact of a PREVENT, be able to recognise terrorist attack where that attack cannot be vulnerability to radicalisation, and know stopped. This includes work to bring a where to go to seek further help. terrorist attack to an end, and to increase

304 Home Office, “Response to Freedom of Information request from M Norris”, 305 “Counter-Terrorism and Security Bill – Factsheet”, Home Office, accessed February September 11, 2014, accessed 11.06.2018, 01, 2018, https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/preventing_extremism_in_london https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file _report.pdf /540540/CTS_Bill_-_Factsheet_7_-_Prevent.pdf

111 Universities should have policies and general Muslim population in the UK has procedures in place for the management of been repeatedly criticised and has not events on campus, and the use of all undergone the standard independent peer- university premises, that apply to all staff, review process to give the research any students, and visitors. validity. Police should support individuals The PREVENT strategy focuses heavily on vulnerable to radicalisation, for example ideology without consideration of other factors through the CHANNEL programme, and influencing radicalisation support partner organisations to deliver There is wide agreement amongst experts PREVENT objectives. and academics that people are drawn into Prisons should offer support to terrorism for a huge variety of reasons. individuals vulnerable to radicalisation or However, PREVENT's heavy focus on move them away from other individuals of ideology does not properly account for the concern. Those who are at risk of impact of mental health issues, foreign radicalising others should face the removal policy, individual isolation, of privileges and segregation from unemployment, socio-economic others.306 deprivation or a whole host of other factors that could lead an individual to become Problems with PREVENT radicalised. PREVENT has been heavily criticised by PREVENT has no workable definitions experts, academics, activists, and politicians across all sectors of public life. As explored earlier in this chapter, the The concerns primarily centre around its Government presently has no clear lack of evidentiary basis leading to working definitions of extremism, non- inadequate training, discriminatory violent extremism, British Values nor application and the marginalisation of radicalisation. With roughly 600,000 Muslims. Ultimately, many have WRAP-trained staff attempting to identify condemned the strategy as radicalisation with a view to tackling counterproductive, with the extremism, this lack of objective ineffectiveness of de-radicalisation understanding causes confusion in programmes being illustrated by a 2018 PREVENT’s application. If a person study conducted by the Behavioural doesn’t know exactly what extremism or Insights Team (BIT), which found that 95% radicalisation are, how can they identify of these programmes were ineffective and them? 307 counter-productive. PREVENT officers must rely on inadequate PREVENT has no evidentiary basis training The list of characteristics that PREVENT Considering that counter-terror is such an requires practitioners to look out for is important component of public safety and called the ERG22+ risk factors. The that it possesses a potential to impact research underpinning the ERG22+ risk people in severe ways if not applied factors was research conducted on a small correctly, it is imperative that the training group of prisoners convicted of terrorism provided is of the highest quality. offences. The use of this tiny sample of However, at present, PREVENT delivery people – criminals who are officers receive only 45-60 minutes of unrepresentative of British Muslims – in training to identify signs of radicalisation order to draw conclusions about the (which, as previously mentioned, are

306 “Counter-Terrorism and Security Bill – Factsheet”… 307 “Most programmes to stop radicalisation are failing”, The Times, June 6, 2018, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file accessed 11.06.2018, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/most-programmes-to-stop- /540540/CTS_Bill_-_Factsheet_7_-_Prevent.pdf radicalisation-are-failing-0bwh9pbtd

112 based on flawed science in themselves). correct practice across the PREVENT Such basic training is only capable of a training. generic overview of what radicalisation at Unacceptable levels of collateral damage best. This, in turn, creates a misleading framework through which nurses, The lack of an evidentiary basis combined teachers, and other public body employees with poor training has led to a situation are required to attempt to identify where, everyday normative practices of the radicalisation.308 Islamic faith (for example, wearing the hijab) or taking an interest in politics Indeed, this lack of effective training was (criticising foreign policy) can be seen as a highlighted by the Home Affairs sign of radicalisation. Indeed, there have Committee who noted “We are concerned been numerous to dozens of cases where about a lack of sufficient and appropriate individuals have been falsely implicated as training in an area that is complex and being at risk of radicalisation. Indeed, of unfamiliar to many education and other the 7,361 individuals referred to PREVENT professionals, compounded by a lack of in 2015/16, 4,997 were referred for clarity about what is required of them.”309 “Islamist extremism”, but only 5% went on Equally worrying is the fact that there to receive CHANNEL support for de- appears to be no formative examination radicalisation – meaning that the nor on-going assessment for PREVENT remaining 95% were eventually not officers. Such a lack of unregulated quality considered to be at risk of radicalisation.311 assurance for procedures would never be In 2016/17, of the 6,093 individuals tolerated as good practice in any other referred, 3,704 (61%) were again referred workspace. for Islamist extremism, but only 184 (4.9%) went on to receive CHANNEL support.312 Taking the NHS as an example, research Some of these case studies will be conducted by Warwick University has discussed further below. found that 70% of the respondents “were ‘likely’, or ‘very likely’” to refer someone There is a paucity of research on the effects for the “possession of Islamic/Anarchist of a false referral on these individuals, but philosophy books”. This is important as it is likely that the stigmatising effects of the PREVENT training programme does being flagged as a “security risk” will be not indicate this as a factor indicative of adverse, and affect individuals from a radicalisation. The authors of the research, psychological, social, educational, and in line with the overarching concerns employment perspective. surrounding the PREVENT duty, conclude Targeting Muslims as a suspect community that “respondents are drawing their attitude from popular culture rather than Home Office data indicates that 5,000 official training or academic research”.310 individuals were referred to PREVENT for Such findings are therefore concerning as “Islamist extremism” in 2015-16. they are demonstrative of the lack of Assuming all of those referred for “Islamist standardisation and reinforcement of extremism” were Muslim, this means that roughly 1 in 500 Muslims were referred to

308 “E-learning – Prevent”, Home Office, accessed 01.02.2018, 311 “Individuals referred to and supported through the Prevent Programme, April 2015 https://www.elearning.prevent.homeoffice.gov.uk/ to March 2016”, Home Office, Statistical Bulletin 23/17, November 9, 2017, accessed 17.04.2018, 309 House of Commons, “Radicalisation: the counter-narrative and identifying the https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file tipping point – Eighth report of Session 2016-17”, August 25, 2016, accessed June 20, /677646/individuals-referred-supported-prevent-programme-apr2015-mar2016.pdf 2018, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmhaff/135/135.pdf 312 “Individuals referred to and supported through the Prevent Programme, April 2016 to March 2017”, Statistical Bulletin 06/18, Home Office, March 27, 2018, accessed 310 Charlotte Heath-Kelly and Erzsébet Strausz “Counter-terrorism in the NHS: 19.04.2018, EVALUATING PREVENT DUTY SAFEGUARDING IN THE NHS”, accessed https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at 29.05.2018, tachment_data/file/694002/individuals-referred-supported-prevent-programme- https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/research/researchcentres/irs/counterterroris apr2016-mar2017.pdf minthenhs/project_report_draft_60pp.pdf

113 PREVENT during the year. A conservative Conflicts with safeguarding estimate of the proportion of the White PREVENT causes grey areas in population referred for far-right concerns safeguarding. Ordinarily within is less than 1 in 60,000, making the safeguarding, it is the welfare of the likelihood of a Muslim being referred for individual person in question that is of “Islamist extremism” more than 110 times concern because you're trying to protect the likelihood of a White individual being that person; whereas, with PREVENT, referred for ‘far-right extremism’ to the you're protecting the state from that programme. person. This creates confusion in how to As a consequence, numerous critics have approach safeguarding needs. condemned the PREVENT strategy as As concluded by the civil rights being inherently discriminatory. Beyond campaigners, Liberty, “while everyone in issues of equality and social justice, such a society has moral and ethical obligations to discriminatory application may also prove report suspected criminality, requiring to be counterproductive. Indeed, MI5 has teachers and others in sensitive positions of concluded that “experiences of inequality, trust to report those with dissenting views marginalisation, or victimisation, risks undermining professional obligations particularly racial or religious attacks, both of confidentiality, sewing mistrust and physical and verbal” play a direct role in pushing those with grievances further the radicalisation of individuals.313 underground.”316 PREVENT, unfortunately, seems to do exactly that. The Impact of PREVENT Indeed, Andy Burnham has described the Within the confines of this report, space PREVENT strategy as contributing to does not allow a full examination of the “creating a feeling in the Muslim impact of PREVENT in every area in which community that it is being spied upon and it operates. However, the following unfairly targeted. It is building a climate of discussion seeks to briefly highlight some mutual suspicion and distrust. Far from of the key concerns arising from the tackling extremism, it risks creating the application of PREVENT in three key areas very conditions for it to flourish”.314 – schools, universities, and the NHS. Regarding PREVENT in the NHS, a senior In Schools NHS whistleblower recently revealed that With the majority of referrals to PREVENT “I have never, ever had a concern raised to coming from the education sector (32% of me about a white, non-Muslim or far-right all referrals in 2016/17),317 the impact of person,” said the whistleblower. PREVENT in schools and on the learning “Concerns have only ever been raised and development of children is of primary about Muslims. This is a shockingly bad concern. and damaging piece of legislation and in my view it has no place in an advanced A lack of trust in the classroom: The democratic country.”315 classroom environment is predicated upon trust. If students feel that they are being spied upon by their teachers, this destroys

313 “The making of an extremist”, The Guardian, August 20, 2008, accessed 30.11.2017, 316 “Liberty’s Second Reading briefing on the Counter-Terrorism and Security Bill…” https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2008/aug/20/uksecurity.terrorism p. 25.

314 “Andy Burnham calls for 'toxic' Prevent strategy to be scrapped”, The Guardian, June 317 “Individuals referred to and supported through the Prevent Programme, April 2016 9, 2016, accessed 01.02.2018, to March 2017”, Home Office, Statistical Bulletin 06/18, March 27, 2018, accessed https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/09/andy-burnham-calls-for- 11.06.2018, toxic-prevent-strategy-to-be-scrapped https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at tachment_data/file/694002/individuals-referred-supported-prevent-programme- 315 Diane Taylor, "Hospice Staff 'trained to Report Dying Patients as Part of Terror apr2016-mar2017.pdf Strategy'," The Guardian, June 11, 2018, accessed June 20, 2018, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2018/jun/11/nhs-staff-trained-to-signs- of-radicalisation-in-terminally-ill-says-whistleblower.

114 the relationship of trust that is so “Prevent is a key issue for respondents’ important. Aside from the obvious damage ability to engage meaningfully with the this has upon the student's ability to learn, structures of their institutions, unions and if students do not feel that they can ask NUS, in particular around democratic questions to their teachers, there is a engagement. It is particularly notable that danger that they may resort to finding being affected by Prevent has a negative answers online, where any kind of impact on respondents’ engagement with distorted information can be found. political debates. This negative impact persists whether or not respondents Creating a pre-criminal space: Children articulated that fear around Prevent was require encouragement and nurturing to the cause. This correlation demonstrates flourish and achieve their potential. the chilling effect of Prevent, and that However, the pre-criminal space that is being affected by Prevent accompanies an created by PREVENT stigmatises students, erosion in trust of institutions who have thereby potentially damaging their self- responsibility to combat Islamophobia.”319 confidence and their confidence in societal structures and institutions. Thus, this highlights several key problems with the implementation of PREVENT in Schoolyard bullying: The previous university settings: chapter in this report on Youth and Education outlined the levels of racially Impact on free-speech: Universities are and religiously motivated bullying that intended to be centres of critical debate and Muslim children are confronted by. learning. As such, the freedom to express Schools should not enact policies that serve ideas and explore arguments is integral to to further securitise and stigmatise this mission. Indeed, universities’ duties students. Counter-terror strategies with respect to free speech are reflected in infiltrating the school environment can the Education Act 1986,320 the Education only result in furthering the bullying Reform Act 1988,321 the Human Rights Act narratives of “bomber” and “terrorist”. 1998,322 and the Equality Act 2010.323 However, the requisites of the PREVENT Hindrance to learning and development: duty undermines these principles as Schools should be environments where speakers and topics of discussion become students feel safe, confident and regulated. Moreover, Muslim students supported. Therefore, the aforementioned have reported a reluctance to engage with concerns obviously have a great potential certain discussions due to a fear they will to severely impact the way in which be referred to PREVENT. According to the children perceive and interact with their NUS report, one-third of surveyed education. students reported being negatively In Universities affected by PREVENT. This included In 2017, the National Union of Students having been referred to authorities under (NUS) launched a report into the the scheme, having organised events that experience of Muslim students in British were cancelled or significantly changed universities.318 The report concluded that because of it (30 percent of those affected) or having disengaged from political debate

318 “The experience of Muslim students in 2017-18”, NUS, accessed 29.05.2018, 320 “Education Act 1986”, available at https://nusdigital.s3-eu-west- http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/40 1.amazonaws.com/document/documents/41267/29d43267ae2f2f0906450a27487fcd3 6/The_Experience_of_Muslim_Students_in_2017- 321 “Education Reform Act 1988”, available at 18.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJKEA56ZWKFU6MHNQ&Expires=1527604654&Sig http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1988/40/contents nature=5IoqW0HKBdTFvtkJCeSaU85FJpA%3D 322 "Human Rights Act 1998", available at 319 “The experience of Muslim students in 2017-18”, NUS, accessed 29.05.2018, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1998/42 https://nusdigital.s3-eu-west- 1.amazonaws.com/document/documents/41267/29d43267ae2f2f0906450a27487fcd3 323 “Equality Act 2010”, available at 6/The_Experience_of_Muslim_Students_in_2017- http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents 18.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJKEA56ZWKFU6MHNQ&Expires=1527604654&Sig nature=5IoqW0HKBdTFvtkJCeSaU85FJpA%3D

115 specifically due to concerns around being simultaneously opposed no-platforming reported under PREVENT.324 policies directed at far-right speakers, such as the BNP. Again, the role of Student Limiting political engagement: The NUS Rights in excluding Muslim voices from report noted the potential of PREVENT to legitimate debates will be discussed deter students from political engagement. further in the later chapter on Political and According to the findings, 43% of those Public Exclusion. who reported being affected by PREVENT felt unable to express their views or be In the NHS themselves and 30% do not feel Alongside schools, the NHS comes into comfortable attending NUS events. contact with some of society's most Islamophobia as a mechanism of political vulnerable citizens. Therefore, they have a exclusion is a topic that will be returned to duty of care towards all patients. The in a following chapter on Political pressures of PREVENT, therefore, put Representation and Exclusion. undue strains on this duty of care, Being used as a tool to shut down particularly in terms of safeguarding. opposing voices: According to the Indeed, the research conducted by the Department of Education at the University University of Warwick also noted that of Oxford, “Criticising government policy, there is “evidence to suggest that the expression of support for specific groups, mentally ill are being inappropriately identifying causal relations between stigmatised as terrorism risks”.327 This policies, processes and events, subjecting revelation has been further compounded public arguments to evaluation and by the use of PREVENT to monitor critique — these are all legitimate aspects terminally ill people and dementia patients of academic work. They also contribute to in hospices and palliative care units.328 public and political debate.”325 Therefore, it Unclear guidelines: The unclear is clear by all academic standards that, in guidelines laid out create a risk of ‘intuitive voicing and debating concerns, students reporting’ and unconscious bias. perform their duty both as academics and Ultimately, it is unavoidable that popular as engaged members of civic society. culture stereotypes will influence staff However, there are organisations such as perception of radicalisation. Student Rights (incidentally, a project of Conflicts with safeguarding: PREVENT the Henry Jackson Society),326 who present causes grey areas in safeguarding. It is not the criticisms of Muslim students – transparent, there is no audit, and no especially those in connection with clinical governance. Ordinarily within counter-terror or Palestinian rights – as safeguarding, it is the welfare of the threats to security. Furthermore, Student individual person in question that is of Rights has been accused of performing concern because you are trying to protect “witch hunts” against Islamic societies and that person; whereas, with PREVENT, you using the arguments of PREVENT to attack are primarily protecting the state from that societies and events that host speakers person. This creates confusion in how to with whom they disagree and approach safeguarding needs. As subsequently label as “extremist”. At the previously mentioned, an NHS same time, Student Rights have

324 “The experience of Muslim students in 2017-18”, NUS, accessed 29.05.2018, 326 The Henry Jackson Society are discussed in the chapter on the Islamophobia https://nusdigital.s3-eu-west- Industry of this report. 1.amazonaws.com/document/documents/41267/29d43267ae2f2f0906450a27487fcd3 6/The_Experience_of_Muslim_Students_in_2017- 327 Charlotte Heath-Kelly and Erzsébet Strausz “Counter-terrorism in the NHS: 18.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJKEA56ZWKFU6MHNQ&Expires=1527604654&Sig EVALUATING PREVENT DUTY SAFEGUARDING IN THE NHS”, accessed nature=5IoqW0HKBdTFvtkJCeSaU85FJpA%3D 29.05.2018, https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/research/researchcentres/irs/counterterroris 325 "Academic Freedom and Values," Oxford University Department of Education, minthenhs/project_report_draft_60pp.pdf accessed June 20, 2018, http://www.education.ox.ac.uk/about-us/academic- freedom-and-values/. 328 “Hospice staff ‘trained to report dying patients as part of terror strategy’”

116 whistleblower recently condemned the use Islamophobia, Prevent and of PREVENT in the NHS, accusing the University Home Office of hijacking the term “safeguarding” and redefining it in the context of PREVENT. Safeguarding duties Hareem Ghani only apply to adults deemed vulnerable, NUS Women’s Officer 2016 – 2018 with care and support needs, who are Ilyas Nagdee experiencing, or are at risk of, abuse or neglect and are unable to protect NUS Black Students Officer 2017 – 2019 themselves against such treatment. The Hareem Ghani and Ilyas Nagdee are also coordinators of whistleblower stated that, “Local the Students Not Suspects Campaign authorities will dismiss a safeguarding Earlier this year, the NUS Black Students concern if the individual does not meet and NUS Womens’ Campaign released the those criteria…What is happening here is Muslims in Education Report which ‘thought police’; concerns are usually looked at the experiences of Muslim raised about people who have made Students in Education. It was the first comments about ongoing politics such as report of its kind and some of the headline overseas wars.”329 results are below. There is little doubt that repackaging or  One in 3 Muslim Students felt framing PREVENT as an issue of negatively affected by Prevent and half safeguarding has stifled dissent in the of those felt unable to express political public sector, since very few professionals opinions and/or disengaged from would dare to question the notion of political discussion altogether safeguarding.  One in three respondents reported No place in healthcare: the majority of having experienced some type of abuse NHS staff (52%) do not think PREVENT or crime at their place of study and over 330 belongs in healthcare. Criticising a half experienced some form of online PREVENT’s operation in the NHS the abuse. recent whistleblower stated that “Patients who don’t trust their doctor or nurse may  The responses were heavily gendered; not seek advice from them, which could be women who wear a traditional Islamic potentially life threatening. Prevent moves garment (e.g. a hijab, niqab or jilbab) people’s focus away from care, treatment were significantly more likely to be and support into areas that are police very worried about being abused or business: counter-terrorism and attacked. surveillance… This is a system that is We will expand on some of the findings designed and run by the Home Office, around Prevent below. which oversees it and to which organisations are accountable. My belief is One-third of survey respondents felt that the Home Office has no place being negatively affected by the Prevent strategy. involved in day-to-day NHS work, or This included participating less in political indeed education. In essence, this is ‘soft’ activity or debate; having events they have surveillance.”331 organised being restricted or cancelled; or being reported through Prevent. Whether a Muslim student has been affected by Prevent is a significant indicator of

329 Ibid. https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/research/researchcentres/irs/counterterroris minthenhs/project_report_draft_60pp.pdf 330 Charlotte Heath-Kelly and Erzsébet Strausz “Counter-terrorism in the NHS: EVALUATING PREVENT DUTY SAFEGUARDING IN THE NHS”, accessed 331 “Hospice staff ‘trained to report dying patients as part of terror strategy’” 29.05.2018,

117 whether they are involved in a wide comment.” (Woman, aged 22–23, Master’s variety of student activities and their student) opinions on a variety of matters. As such “[When I was] getting a certain speaker for we noted throughout the survey where an event, Prevent were involved and had these answers significantly differed from to be present for the talk, in addition to the rest of the respondents, had they been police as well, shockingly.” (Man, aged 22– affected by Prevent. 23, higher education student) Students affected by Prevent highlighted Muslim students most likely not to have that their experience of Prevent has led to been affected by Prevent include those not them taking part in less political activity. involved with their students’ union, Muslim students feel strongly about what international students and women who do Prevent entails. An overwhelming not wear religious garments (eg hijab or majority of respondents disagreed that niqab). Muslim women who wear a lecturers and education institutions should covering are significantly more likely to be monitor and report students’ attitudes and affected by Prevent during their time in behaviours, prayer room activities and education than those who do not; 40 per email/online activity. Three in five cent compared with 26 per cent. This kind respondents disagreed that lecturers of correlation may raise further questions should report on their views and opinions. regarding how the Prevent duty functions Having personal experience of the impact to highlight specific Muslim students of Prevent heightens these responses. relating to their demographics, rather than Significantly more women who wore their behaviour, and in turn amplifies religious coverings disagreed with facets of existing biases and stereotypes of Muslims. the duty compared with those who do not. Our research findings suggest that Muslim For example, women wearing religious students follow a similar pattern to other garments are more likely to disagree that students in terms of their general levels of lecturers should be reporting to the participation (both passive and active) in government on their students’ views and student union activities, including a small opinions (69 per cent of women who wear percentage who have no involvement a garment versus 53 per cent for those who whatsoever. Respondents who reported a did not), or that institutions should be complete lack of involvement in these monitoring recording student emails and activities are more likely to have reported internet/web usage (72 per cent versus 56 being unaffected by Prevent. Conversely, per cent respectively). students who reported an acute awareness Two out of five respondents (43 per cent) of their students’ union’s work are more who reported having been affected by likely to have reported being affected by Prevent told us that this experience made it Prevent. Muslim students affected by harder to express their opinions or views. Prevent are more likely to disagree that Nearly a third of students (30 per cent) who their students’ union understands their have been affected by Prevent reported needs or reflects their views. experiencing barriers to organising speakers and events on campus. PREVENT Case Studies “In lessons I found myself not speaking my Prevent Watch332 and Rights Watch UK333 true opinion because of fear of being have detailed a number of cases where misreported as a result, just for saying my PREVENT has been used to identify and opinion, and I worry that others will just

332 "Cases," PREVENT Watch, accessed March 20, 2017, 333 Preventing Education? Human Rights and UK Counter-Terrorism Policy in Schools, http://www.preventwatch.org/cases/. publication, July 2016, http://rwuk.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/preventing- education-final-to-print-3.compressed-1.pdf.

118 question students outside of standard containing “insufficient detail to provide protocols and in unwarranted clear practical direction in an environment circumstances. such as the University’s.” Staffordshire Textbook case – March Farooq received a letter of apology from 2015334 the teacher that wrongfully questioned him. The teacher said, "I do not possess any Mohammed Umar Farooq was a 33-year- particular knowledge or experience of old postgraduate student enrolled on the terrorism and radicalisation, and I have Terrorism, Crime and Global Security only attended a short training session on Master’s program at Staffordshire how to identify students who might be at University.335 On 23 March 2015, he was risk of being radicalised." She further approached by two female staff while in asserted that a "combination of the content the library (Farooq initially assumed these of our discussion and my lack of staff members to be fellow students). experience in this arena caused me to According to Farooq, he was questioned consider whether this was something that about attitudes to homosexuality, ISIS, and may fall within the ‘Prevent agenda’.”336 al-Qaida. He said his replies were "largely academic but he stressed his personal The incident resulted in Farooq being so opposition to extremist views". The tense unsettled that he chose not to return to the conversation ended, and after a short course, stating that he had been “looking while, a security guard approached over his shoulder” ever since. Farooq, confirming that he had received a There are many stories like this one where complaint from staff members. The staff the individual was not referred to a told the security guard that "there is a man, PREVENT officer and, therefore, it is not who is Asian and with a beard, who is not technically recorded as a PREVENT a student and is reading a book on intervention. However, the strategy itself terrorism”. The staff went further to say, and the training of those charged with “check him out”, as she suspected he is a enforcing it has led to a situation where “radical terrorist”. The security guard individuals like Farooq are at risk of approached and recognised Farooq and stigmatisation. did not take any further action. The Eco-Warrior (May 2015) Farooq filed an internal complaint for discrimination; he asked why the staff had A Muslim pupil was investigated by chosen to question him, the only Muslim PREVENT officers for discussing with a beard, holding books on terrorism. deforestation campaigners, eco-warriors, The teachers refused to answer any of the and their tactics during a class debate questions. about deforestation. The entire class partook in a debate about eco-warriors, In response to the complaint, the Academic which was a topic they had researched for Registrar and Director of Student the debating society at school. During the Experience responded by acknowledging investigation, the pupil explained the that the university has “a commitment to context in which he used the word "eco- secure freedom of speech and to prevent terrorism", but things took a turn for the people from being drawn into terrorism.” worse when the PREVENT officers asked They further described the PREVENT duty the pupil if he was affiliated with ISIS. as “very broad, devoid of detail” and Following the event, the young pupil

334 "Postgraduate Student on Terrorism," Prevent Watch, October 19, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/education/2015/sep/24/student-accused-being- http://www.preventwatch.org/incident-postgraduate-student-on-terrorism/. terrorist-reading-book-terrorism.

335 Randeep Ramesh and Josh Halliday, "Student accused of being a terrorist for 336 "CAGE releases exclusive video interview with student accused of terrorism," reading book on terrorism," The Guardian, September 24, 2015, CAGE, September 29, 2015, https://cage.ngo/article/cage-releases-exclusive-video- interview-student-accused-terrorism/.

119 became concerned that he could be house, or the remote control. And I said: separated from his family and became ‘Don’t draw the remote!’”.341 reluctant to participate in class debates or Trip to Saudi Arabia (Undated) express his opinions.337 A recent study conducted by Warwick Free Palestine (February 2016) University over the application of the 16-year old Rahmaan Mohammadi was PREVENT duty in the NHS revealed questioned by anti-terrorism police at misguided referrals made purely on a home for wearing a “Free Palestine” badge conjectural basis. One referral involved "an to school and for trying to raise money for Asian man" who was considered a risk humanitarian aid for Palestinians. because he was planning a "future trip to Bedfordshire police visited Mohammadi’s Saudi Arabia", which was interpreted by a house with a folder of information about healthcare as a cause for concern. In truth, his activities at school, and after consulting the "Asian man" was planning a Hajj trip to with the young student and his parents, the holy city of Mecca, a pillar of Islam concluded there was no sign of which all capable Muslims are expected to radicalisation.338 Mohammadi alleges that complete at least once during their the police warned him "not to talk about lifetime.342 Palestine in school", and that school staff Watching Arabic news (Undated) approached his brother and pressured him to tell Rahmaan to "stop being Another referral highlighted by the radical".339 “My education was being Warwick University research was made ruined”, recalled Mohammadi some when a healthcare professional considered months later, “PREVENT is doing more a child watching an “Arabic televised news harm than good.”340 channel” at risk of radicalisation. On a home visit to the patient, a healthcare The cucumber cooker bomb (March 2016) professional noticed a child watching TV in A four-year-old child drew a picture of his Arabic, as well as Arabic literature lying on father cutting a cucumber and was referred the floor. The family was “reported to to PREVENT by the nursery staff who, on social care as a potential case of questioning the child about what he had radicalisation”.343 drawn misheard “cucumber” as “cuker- bum”, thus believing the picture showed Critics of PREVENT his father making a “cooker bomb”. PREVENT has been criticised by Muslims Eventually, no referral was made, but the and non-Muslims alike. These critics child’s mother recalled how tragic the include (but are not limited to) three experience was: “Initially I was so upset special rapporteurs to the UN, the NUT, and distraught that I told him not to do any the NUS, the former Independent more drawings … God bless him, he said: Reviewer of Terrorism Legislation, Rights ‘I won’t draw anything ... I’ll just draw a Watch UK, the Open Society Justice Initiative, and more than 140 academics,

337 “The Eco-Warrior”, Prevent Watch, accessed 11.06.2018, 11.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/video/2016/aug/26/prevent- https://www.preventwatch.org/incident-the-eco-warrior/ anti-radicalisation-muslims-london-video

338 Prevent Strategy 'Used To Target Young Muslims', , March 25, 2016, 341 “Nursery 'raised fears of radicalisation over boy's cucumber drawing'”, The accessed 18.04.2018, https://news.sky.com/story/prevent-strategy-used-to-target- Guardian, March 11, 2016, accessed 11.06.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/uk- young-muslims-10217460 news/2016/mar/11/nursery-radicalisation-fears-boys-cucumber-drawing-cooker- bomb 339 “Anti-terror police question schoolboy for wearing pro-Palestine badge”, The Independent, February 14, 2016, accessed 11.06.2018, 342 Charlotte Heath-Kelly and Erzsébet Strausz “Counter-terrorism in the NHS https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/anti-terror-police-question-schoolboy- EVALUATING PREVENT DUTY SAFEGUARDING IN THE NHS”, Warwick for-wearing-pro-palestine-badge-a6873656.html University, p. 26, accessed 11.06.2018, https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/research/researchcentres/irs/counterterroris 340 “The problem with Prevent: 'I was investigated by the government's anti- minthenhs/project_report_draft_60pp.pdf radicalisation programme' – video”, The Guardian, August 26, 2016, accessed 343 Ibid. p. 25

120 politicians and experts in a single letter political opposition or ideological dissent alone. from mainstream values…legislation against extremism has in some instances The National Union of Teachers (now the been used against journalists, religious NEU) groups or critics of state policy and this is The NUT voted overwhelmingly to reject not acceptable”.349 PREVENT because it causes “suspicion in Tendayi Achiume, UN Special Rapporteur the classroom and confusion in the on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial staffroom.”344 The NUT claims that the best Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related role schools can play in countering Intolerance extremism is by encouraging discussion, which is in fact inhibited by some aspects Concluding her recent visit to the UK, Prof. of the Prevent strategy. Consequently, the Tendayi Achiume, singled out PREVENT, NUT has called for a review of the slamming it as being "inherently flawed” strategy.345 and noting that there was “no evidence that PREVENT actually prevents Maina Kiai, UN Special Rapporteur on the extremism”. She added that the “vague rights to freedom of assembly and criteria” to identify individuals or groups association that are somehow “predisposed to terrorist Maina Kiai stated that PREVENT has ideology and violence” and the “lack of a “created unease and uncertainty around clear, workable definitions of “extremism” what can be legitimately discussed in and “British values”” had led to “horrific public”.346 He goes on to argue that “the consequences”.350 spectre of Big Brother is so large, in fact, Diane Abbott, Shadow Home Secretary that I was informed that some families are afraid of discussing the negative effects of The Shadow Home Secretary, Diane terrorism in their own homes, fearing their Abbott, recently condemned the use of children would talk about it at school and PREVENT. have their intentions misconstrued.”347 Speaking about its use in hospices and Furthermore, he concluded that “by dementia wards, she stated that, “The dividing, stigmatising and alienating public will not understand what business a segments of the population, Prevent could counter-terror programme has monitoring end up promoting extremism rather than dementia patients or people dying in a countering it.”348 hospice… Ministers wax lyrical about how Ben Emmerson, UN Special Rapporteur Prevent is focused on a need for on the protection and promotion of ‘safeguarding’… If the government has human rights while countering terrorism finally realised woeful inadequacies in social work and social care provisions, they Ben Emmerson, has previously said, need look no further than their own speaking on domestic counter-terrorism scathing cuts. The Prevent strategy is strategies, “some states have misused these losing credibility and is not making the poorly defined concepts to suppress

344 Richard Adams. "Teachers back motion calling for Prevent strategy to be scrapped." 348 "Prevent strategy 'could end up promoting extremism'" The Guardian. March 28, 2016. Accessed March 17, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/mar/28/teachers-nut-back-motion- 349 United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. “Do not calling-prevent-strategy-radicalisation-scrapped. criminalise extreme views – UN Special Rapporteur on counterterrorism”. Accessed June 11, 2018. 345 "Prevent Strategy." National Union of Teachers. March 28, 2016. Accessed March http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=1722 17, 2017. https://www.teachers.org.uk/news-events/conference-2016/prevent- 9#. strategy. 350 Tendayi Achiume. “End of Mission Statement of the Special Rapporteur on 346 Damien Gayle. "Prevent strategy 'could end up promoting extremism'" The Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Guardian. April 21, 2016. Accessed March 17, 2017. Intolerance at the Conclusion of Her Mission to the United Kingdom of Great Britain https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/apr/21/government-prevent- and Northern Ireland”. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High strategy-promoting-extremism-maina-kiai. Commissioner. Accessed on June 11, 2018. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=2307 347 Ibid. 3&LangID=E.

121 public any safer. It urgently needs a The National Union of Student (NUS) fundamental rethink and a complete The NUS claims that their opposition to review.” PREVENT rooted in the fact that the Rights Watch UK strategy is “fundamentally racist and Islamophobic, targeting the Muslim A report from Rights Watch UK states that community whilst eroding civil liberties for all “Muslim children across the United as part of a clampdown on political dissent and Kingdom are self-censoring for fear of undermining the space for critical discussion in being reported under Prevent. Their fear is our universities, colleges and schools.”355 not unwarranted. We have uncovered a number of instances where children have Andy Burnham, Mayor of Greater been referred to Prevent for legitimately Manchester exercising their right to freedom of Andy Burnham has described the expression in situations where they pose PREVENT strategy as contributing to 351 no threat to society whatsoever.” “creating a feeling in the Muslim The Justice Initiative community that it is being spied upon and unfairly targeted. It is building a climate of According to The Justice Initiative report mutual suspicion and distrust. Far from "Eroding Trust", the PREVENT strategy tackling extremism, it risks creating the risks human rights violations, including very conditions for it to flourish”.356 the right against discrimination, as well as the right to freedom of expression.352 It Hundreds of academics and experts concludes that “Being wrongly targeted The Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University, under Prevent has led some Muslims to Louise Richardson has stated that the 353 question their place in British society.” Government strategy is "wrong-headed” David Anderson QC, the former because it prevents freedom of speech on independent reviewer of terrorism university campuses and inhibits students legislation from confronting speech they may find objectionable.357 Similarly, numerous Prevent has been heavily criticised for academics signed an open letter criticising sowing mistrust and fear in Muslim the ERG22+ and for PREVENT’s focus on communities. While he is not anti- Islamist extremism and fixation on religion PREVENT per say, the former independent as the primary driver of terrorism, which reviewer of terrorism legislation, David has led to overwhelming attention on Anderson, QC did stipulate that the duty religious observance as an indicator of on schools to identify radicalisation has radicalisation.358 More recently, over 140 become a “significant source of grievance” experts and academics signed an open among British Muslims, encouraging letter criticising the PREVENT “mistrust to spread and to fester”.354 programme. Amongst those voicing concerns are prominent academics

351 Owen Bowcott and Richard Adams. "Human rights group condemns Prevent anti- 355 "Preventing Prevent - We are Students Not Suspects @ NUS connect." NUS Connect. radicalisation strategy." The Guardian. July 12, 2016. Accessed March 17, 2017. Accessed March 17, 2017. http://www.nusconnect.org.uk/campaigns/preventing- https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jul/13/human-rights-group- prevent-we-are-students-not-suspects. condemns-prevent-anti-radicalisation-strategy. 356 “Andy Burnham calls for 'toxic' Prevent strategy to be scrapped”, The Guardian, June 352 "Eroding Trust: The UK's Prevent Counter-Extremism Strategy in Health and 9, 2016, accessed 01.02.2018, Education." Open Society Foundations. October 2016. Accessed March 17, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/09/andy-burnham-calls-for- https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/reports/eroding-trust-uk-s-prevent- toxic-prevent-strategy-to-be-scrapped counter-extremism-strategy-health-and-education. 357 Rob Merrick. "Oxford University vice-chancellor says Prevent strategy 'wrong- 353 "Eroding Trust: The UK's Prevent Counter-Extremism Strategy in Health and headed'" The Independent. September 22, 2016. Accessed March 17, 2017. Education." http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/oxford-university-vice- chancellor-says-prevent-strategy-wrong-headed-a7323916.html. 354 David Batty. "Prevent strategy 'sowing mistrust and fear in Muslim communities'" The Guardian. February 03, 2016. Accessed March 17, 2017. 358 "PREVENT will have a chilling effect on open debate, free speech and political https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/feb/03/prevent-strategy-sowing- dissent." The Independent. July 10, 2015. Accessed March 17, 2017. mistrust-fear-muslim-communities. http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/letters/prevent-will-have-a-chilling-effect- on-open-debate-free-speech-and-political-dissent-10381491.html.

122 including Professor Noam Chomsky, fights new Trojan Horse Islamic schools Professor Humayun Ansari, and Professor plot’361 made them feel judged for their Tariq Ramadan, as well as numerous faith. psychiatry experts.359 I had always tried to make the kids feel Instead of being cast as a threat, welcome in our classroom. Working in a Muslim solidarity could show us predominantly Muslim community, this meant discussing the importance that the all how to live together children placed on fasting, prayer and pilgrimage. I did my best to accommodate Rob Faure Walker religious practice by supervising the school’s prayer room and had even read PhD candidate at UCL Institute of Education some Muslim teen fiction362 at the behest of I became aware that there was a problem my students. After all, as Riley has one morning in March 2014. As the explored in her book of the same name, children in my classroom sat down for whose school is it anyway? 363 Though I morning registration, gasps rose across the had previously tried to understand my room as some of them noticed that the girls students’ experience, this was the first time sitting in front of them had saliva on the I learned that the children felt unsafe backs of their headscarves. This was the because of their faith. The concerns that the morning that the since discredited children expressed led me to carry out allegations that the schools in Birmingham research into the ‘Trojan Horse’ and the had been taken over by so-called ‘Islamic policy that has emanated from it. 364 Like extremists’ were on the front page of every others, I have seen how the Government national newspaper. This supposed have contributed to the fear that my ‘scandal’ that became known as the ‘Trojan students described and how the situation Horse’ would more recently be confirmed has since become worse. Many more as unfounded by a Parliamentary Muslims now feel unsafe, not only on the Committee who reported that ‘no evidence street, but in their schools, doctor’s of extremism or radicalisation, apart from surgeries and homes. 365 This means that, at a single isolated incident, was found by a time of austerity, Muslims are being any of the inquiries and there was no disproportionately denied access to social evidence of a sustained plot nor of a similar and civic activities, blocking them from situation pertaining elsewhere in the political engagement. Muslim students in country’. 360 After the girls had washed schools and universities report their Hijabs and returned to class, the withdrawing from political debate366 and children told me that being Muslim made barriers to mental health services for them feel unsafe. They told me that this Muslims have been shown in recent was in part because headlines like ‘City

359 "Anti-radicalisation strategy lacks evidence base in science | Letters." The accessed 21.06.2018, https://discoversociety.org/2017/02/01/how-preventing- Guardian. September 28, 2016. Accessed March 17, 2017. terror-is-promoting-violence/ ; Faure Walker, "Use of the word ‘radicalisation’ is https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/sep/29/anti-radicalisation-strategy- ballooning – and it’s hiding the real causes of violence." The Conversation, March 8, lacks-evidence-base-in-science. 2018, accessed 21.06.2018, http://theconversation.com/use-of-the-word- radicalisation-is-ballooning-and-its-hiding-the-real-causes-of-violence-92900. 360 “Extremism in schools: the Trojan Horse affair Seventh Report of Session 2014– 15”, House of Commons Education Select Committee, (London: The Stationary Office, 365 “Preventing Education? Human Rights and UK Counter-Terrorism Policy in 2015), accessed 21.06.2018, http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/22429/ Schools”, Rights Watch UK, July 2016, accessed 21.06.2018, http://rwuk.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/07/preventing-education-final-to-print-3.compressed-1.pdf ; 361 Andrew Gilligan, "City fights new Trojan Horse Islamic schools plot." The Telegraph, “Eroding Trust: The UK’s Prevent Counter-Extremism Strategy in Health and May 3, 2014, accessed 21.06.2018, Education”, Open Society Justice Initiative, October 2016, accessed 21.06.2018, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/10806862/City-fights-new-Trojan-Horse- https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/reports/eroding-trust-uk-s-prevent- Islamic-schools-plot.html. counter-extremism-strategy-health-and-education

362 Abdel-Fattah, Does My Head Look Big in This? 366”Joint Committee on Human Rights: Freedom of Speech in Universities”, House of Commons: Joint Committee on Human Rights, March 27, 2018, accessed 21.06.2018, 363 Kathryn Riley, Whose School Is It Anyway?, (London: Falmer, 1998). https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/jt201719/jtselect/jtrights/589/589.pdf ; Hareem Ghani and Ilyas Nagdee, “#MuslimsInEducation”, National Union of Students, 364 Rob Faure Walker, "By casting teachers as informants, British counter-extremism March 18, 2018, accessed 21.06.2018, https://www.nusconnect.org.uk/resources/the- policy is promoting violence." The Conversation, December 20, 2017, accessed experience-of-muslim-students-in-2017-18 21.06.2018, http://theconversation.com/by-casting-teachers-as-informants-british- counter-extremism-policy-is-promoting-violence-85474.; Faure Walker, "How Preventing Terror is Promoting Violence." Discover Society (41), February 1, 2017,

123 academic research.367 Both of these UN, Parliamentary committees,371 situations have been fuelled by the NGOs,372 and civil liberties PREVENT Counter-Terrorism Strategy,368 organisations,373 the Government a strategy that is based on flawed evidence continues to expand the policy. that is no less racist than early theories of The earlier mentioned anti-Muslim stories criminology that tried to identify criminals in the media are not solitary incidents, they from the shape of their heads.369 represent a continuing Islamophobic narrative; recently the Times has been criticised by the Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO) for presenting a “misleading” and “distorted” picture of a Muslim foster family374 and the editor of the Daily Express told a Parliamentary committee that his newspaper had created “Islamophobic sentiment”.375 These observations suggest that the media has contributed to Islamophobia. At a time when the Government are mired in the Windrush scandal over immigration targets and the deportation of legal immigrants to former British colonies, we might surmise that they care more about looking tough than in Figure 1: Early attempts to classify criminals effective policy. And, this might explain (Lombroso [1876] 2006) why the Government continue to roll out strategy that alienates Muslims of all While this targeting of Muslim ages.376 communities is unacceptable, the Home Office’s recent focus on Far-Right groups PREVENT’s efforts to look tough are does not obfuscate the harm done by demonstrated by the strategy’s targeting of PREVENT. As stated by the UN Special political activism in young Muslims, Rapporteur on racism, “The Prevent duty Rights Watch (UK) reporting the case of is inherently flawed, and expansion of a Rahmaan Mohammadi who became a flawed program to cover more groups is by subject of the counter-terrorism strategy no means curative”.370 In spite of the when he wore a Palestinian scarf to continued criticism of PREVENT from the school.377 In my own professional life as a

367 Charlotte Heath-Kelly and Erzsébet Strausz, “Counterterrorism in the NHS: https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons- Evaluating Prevent Duty Safeguarding”, University of Warwick and Wellcome Trust, select/home-affairs-committee/inquiries/parliament-2017/inquiry3/ 2018, accessed 21.06.2018, https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/pais/research/researchcentres/irs/counterterroris 372 “Islamophobia: Still a challenge for us all”, Runnymede Trust, 2017, accessed minthenhs/project_report_60pp.pdf 21.06.2018, https://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Islamophobia%20Report%202018%20F 368 Prevent strategy 2011. HM Government, (The Stationary Office Limited, 2011), INAL.pdf ; Asim Qureshi,, "The ‘science’ of pre-crime: The secret ‘radicalisation’ accessed 21.06.2018, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prevent- study underpinning PREVENT", CAGE, accessed 21.06.2018, https://cage.ngo/wp- strategy-2011 content/uploads/2016/09/CAGE-Science-Pre-Crime-Report.pdf

369 Katy Sian, Katy. "Born radicals? Prevent, positivism, and ‘race-thinking’." Palgrave 373 “Prevent duty must be scrapped: LEA admits discrimination after teachers call Communications 3 (1):6. police over seven-year-old boy’s toy gun”, Liberty, January 27, 2017, accessed 21.06.2018, https://www.libertyhumanrights.org.uk/news/press-releases-and- 370 “End of Mission Statement of the Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of statements/prevent-duty-must-be-scrapped-lea-admits-discrimination-after ; Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance at the Conclusion “Preventing Education? Human Rights and UK Counter-Terrorism…” of Her Mission to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland”, United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner, accessed 21.06.2018, 374 “Ruling 20480-17 Tower Hamlets Borough Council v The Times”, edited by https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=230 Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO), 2018, accessed 21.06.2018, ”73&LangID=E https://www.ipso.co.uk/rulings-and-resolution-statements/ruling/?id=20480-17

371 “Counter-Extremism: Joint Committee on Human Rights: Second Report of Session 375 “Joint Committee on Human Rights: Freedom of Speech…” 2016-17”, House of Lords and House of Commons, July 20, 2016, accessed 21.06.2018, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/jt201617/jtselect/jtrights/105/105.pdf 376 “Eroding Trust: The UK’s Prevent Counter-Extremism Strategy…” “Home Affairs Committee: Hate crime and its violent consequences”, House of Commons, October 23, 2017, accessed 21.06.2018, 377 “Preventing Education? Human Rights and UK Counter-Terrorism…”

124 secondary school teacher, I have also seen An experimental analysis conducted by the Muslim children steered away from EHRC on Schedule 7 powers assessing the political activism by school authorities prevalence of racial disproportionality in when they have not been allowed to collect stops and examinations found that Asians money for Muslim Aid to support Syrian and individuals of “other” ethnic groups refugees and I have heard other Muslims were 11.3 times more likely than White school children criticised for raising money people to be stopped and questioned. and awareness of the plight of the Comparatively, Black people were 6.3 Rohingya in Myanmar, years before the times more likely and those of mixed mainstream media caught up with this ethnicity were 3.6 times more likely to be tragedy. stopped and searched.379 The study further concluded that although the total As scenes from Gaza, Syria and the vast proportion of examinations of Asians or camps for Rohingya refugees in “other” ethnic minorities at all ports and Bangladesh are beamed live to us via our airports was 46.6% in 2010/11, an analysis TVs and phones, the global solidarity of airports indicated that 63.5% of total demonstrated by Muslims could show us examinations were of Asians and “other” how we should respond with compassion ethnic minorities. Meanwhile, 65.2% of all and affirmative action. Though this port and airport examinations and solidarity might point the way to a more detentions lasting over an hour were of harmonious future, Muslims who express Asians or other ethnic minorities. a concern for recent British foreign policy and for the plight of Muslims abroad are This level of disproportionality in Schedule often represented as a threat to Western 7 stops has continued to grow over recent values, resulting in referrals via years. While the overall number of controversial strategies like PREVENT, or Schedule 7 examinations has fallen since in more insipid self-censoring of school 2011/12, the proportion of those stopped children and university students.378 Such who are from Asian or “other” ethnic oppression of any community should not backgrounds continues to grow. Despite be tolerated. It is a bitter irony that the individuals of Asian ethnicity comprising compassion that Muslims show for one of just 8% of the overall population, another is being cast as a threat, rather than 2015/16 marked the first year where those as a model for how we could all be living. stopped of Asian ethnicity (30%) outnumbered those stopped of White Schedule 7 ethnicity (27%), with those of Asian or Asian British ethnicity being most likely to Schedule 7 of the Terrorism Act and the be detained under Schedule 7 powers.380 powers to stop and search at ports and The former Independent Reviewer of airports without “reasonable suspicion” Terrorism Legislation, David Anderson have been another major source of QC previously said that the use of antagonism in minority communities with Schedule 7 powers has “given rise to the issues of racial profiling and resentment among some Muslim groups disproportionality resurfacing in studies who feel they are being singled out” by assessing the impact of the powers on authorities.381 He further noted that Muslims.

378 Ibid; “Eroding Trust: The UK’s Prevent Counter-Extremism Strategy…”; Ghani 380 Operation of police powers under the Terrorism Act 2000, financial year ending and Nagdee, “#MuslimsInEducation”. March 2016, accessed 29.05.2018, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/operation-of-police-powers-under- 379 Karen Hurrell, An Experimental Analysis of Examinations and Detentions under the-terrorism-act-2000-financial-year-ending-march-2016/operation-of-police- Schedule 7 of the Terrorism Act 2000, report, Equality and Human Rights powers-under-the-terrorism-act-2000-and-subsequent-legislation-arrests-outcomes- Commission, Winter 2013, accessed May 29, and-stop-and-search-great-britain-financial-y 2018,https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/briefing-paper-8- an-experimental-analysis-of-examinations-and-detentions-under-s7-of-the-terrorism- 381 Rowena Mason, ‘UK terror law watchdog calls for end to detention at borders act-2000.pdf without suspicion,’ The Guardian, December 01, 2013, accessed 29.05.2018,

125 Schedule 7 detentions and examinations Islamophobia, securitisation, were imposed upon members of ethnic PREVENT, and Schedule 7 minority groups to a greater extent than “their presence in the travelling population As our definition of Islamophobia argues, would seem to warrant”,382 suggesting Islamophobia may be articulated and evidence of disproportionate use. maintained through policies, legislation, However, in his December 2016 report, and structures which serve to exclude, Anderson concluded that as Schedule 7 is restrict, or discriminate against Muslims, not supposed to be a randomly-exercised and which have the effect of nullifying or power, the continuing disproportions of impairing the recognition, enjoyment or Asians being stopped “do not constitute exercise, on an equal footing, of human evidence that Schedule 7 powers are being rights and fundamental freedoms in the used in a racially discriminatory political, economic, social, cultural or any manner”.383 other field of public life. Following consultation, Schedule 7 powers As this chapter attests, processes of were amended in the Anti-Social securitisation have the natural effect of Behaviour, Crime, and Policing Act 2014. excluding, restricting, and discriminating Changes included reducing the maximum against Muslims in every area of public examination period in detention from 9 to life. Meanwhile, this securitisation has 6 hours; granting individuals detained culminated in legislation which, through access to legal counsel; and repealing its application, specifically targets Muslims powers to take ‘intimate samples' of on the basis of their ethnocultural and biometric data. The Independent Reviewer religious identities, and thus impairs their further called for the introduction of a abilities to fully enjoy their fundamental "suspicion threshold" in the exercise of the freedoms on an equal footing with other powers, along with a statutory bar members of society. rendering answers given under Schedule 7 It is for this reason, that MEND urges for questioning inadmissible in criminal trials. the immediate need to conduct an While changes introduced in the 2014 Act independent review of PREVENT and all are a positive step towards addressing the counter-terrorism legislation enacted since encroachment on the civil liberties of 2000 with a particular attention afforded to minority communities, the changes do not the manifestations of Islamophobia within go far enough. For example, their development, scope, training recommendations by the Joint Committee procedures, and application. on Human Rights to collate data on the self-declared religious identity of individuals stopped have yet to be adopted. With the broadening of powers at the disposal of border officials, including passport seizure powers, collecting data that enables evaluation of compliance with equalities legislation is of paramount importance, as is the proper training of officers to ensure racial and religious stereotyping is avoided at all cost.

https://www.theguardian.com/law/2013/dec/01/uk-terror-law-watchdog- 383 David Anderson, QC, The Terrorism Acts in 2015, December 1, 2016, detention-borders-schedule-7 https://terrorismlegislationreviewer.independent.gov.uk/wp- content/uploads/2016/12/TERRORISM-ACTS-REPORT-1-Dec-2016-1.pdf 382 David Anderson, QC, The Terrorism Acts in 2011, June 27, 2012, https://terrorismlegislationreviewer.independent.gov.uk/wp- content/uploads/2013/04/report-terrorism-acts-2011.pdf

126 While noteworthy and commendable steps Crime, Policing and have been made to improve equalities in the Criminal Justice System since the the Criminal Justice publication of the Macpherson report, System Muslims and ethnic minorities remain over-represented. Therefore, Islamophobia While Islamophobia is often associated must be examined as a mechanism with blatant acts of violence or aggression potentially maintaining inequalities at all against Muslims, its manifestations can be levels of the Criminal Justice System. much more subtle and difficult to detect and include institutionalised practices of Overrepresentation of Muslims discrimination and structural racism. and minorities in the Criminal Institutional Islamophobia relating to Justice System discriminatory practices ingrained within the Criminal Justice System is particularly In 2016, the Lammy Review exposed a high significant because of both its disruption to level of discrimination and the lives of many Muslims and for its long- disproportionate representation of British term consequences to their future social Muslims in the Criminal Justice System. engagement as equal members of society. Indeed, despite making up just 14% of the population, BAME individuals constitute Institutional racism is not a new concept in 25% of prisoners, while over 40% of young the analysis of the modus operandi of the people in custody are from BAME Criminal Justice System. The 1999 backgrounds. Over the past decade, the Macpherson Inquiry, which was number of Muslims in prison increased by established to scrutinise the Metropolitan nearly 50%, from 8,900 to 13,200. As such, Police Service’s investigation into Stephen Muslims make up 15% of the total prison Lawrence’s murder, produced a critical population, while only amounting to 5% of report accusing the Metropolitan Police the general population.386 Interestingly, as Service of “institutional racism” and Lammy pointed out, this dramatic rise in advanced 49 recommendations to improve the number of prisoners is not linked to policing and its impact on racial minorities. terrorism offences, as only 175 Muslims The Macpherson report found that ethnic were convicted of terrorism-related minorities were “over policed... and under offences between 2001 and 2012.387 protected” 384 with encounters between race groups and police forces influenced by Today, ethnic minorities are a high incidence of stop and search. The disproportionately more likely to be Macpherson report proposed priority stopped and searched than at the time of measures to “increase trust and confidence the Macpherson report, with the ratio of in policing among minority ethnic Black to White stops increasing from 5 to 1 communities” through policy directives in 1999 to 8 to 1 in 2002.388 Meanwhile, regulating the use of stop and search figures published by the Equalities and procedures and improvements in the Human Rights Commission in separate recruitment and retention of ethnic reports in 2010 and 2013 found that the minority officers in the police force.385 ratios steadily increased, demonstrating a growth in the degree of disproportionality.

384 William MacPherson, The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, report, February 24, 1999, 387 Ibid. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at tachment_data/file/277111/4262.pdf 388 Ben Bowling, Alpa Parmar, and Coretta Phillips, ‘Policing ethnic minority communities,’ Handbook of Policing, 2003, http://thinkethnic.com/ wp- 385 Ibid. content/uploads/2012/02/Policing%20ethnic%20minority%20communities.pdf

386 “The Lammy Review: final report”, Gov.uk, September 8, 2017, p. 3, accessed 23.10.2017 https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/lammy-review-final- report

127 In its 2010 “Stop and Think!” report, the Explaining overrepresentation EHRC found that Black people were at least six times as likely to be stopped and As noted above, the current political searched as a White person and an Asian climate that identifies Muslims as almost twice as likely to be stopped and individuals belonging to a community ‘at searched.389 In 2013, the EHRC concluded risk’ contributes significantly in their high that during 2010/11 and 2011/12 Black level of representation in the Criminal people were 29 times more likely to be Justice System. However, there are a stopped and searched in some areas when number of structural issues that also stops and search were assessed by police contribute towards creating the conditions force area and the respective size of the for Muslims, and the BAME population BAME population. Similar findings were more generally, to suffer from seen in 2015/16, with Black people being disproportionate representation in the over six times more likely to be stopped Criminal Justice System. than White people. Overall, those from Cultural stereotypes BAME groups were three times more likely According to Dr Zubaida Haque, a to be stopped and searched than those who researcher on race disparity for the are White. Figures showed that just 16% of equalities think-tank, the Runnymede stops led to an arrest, with 76% of stops Trust, the increase in the representation of resulting in “no further action”.390 Muslims in the Criminal Justice System can The detrimental impact of the stop and only be explained as a result of “cultural search powers can be observed in their stereotypes” and poverty. Indeed, she effect on Muslim males. As the EHRC suggests that the widespread noted in a report in 2011, “For many young Islamophobia that has developed Muslim men on the streets, stop and search throughout the 21st Century has had an under Section 44 of the Terrorism Act (s44) impact on the Criminal Justice System and has become their most frequent and the unconscious bias against Muslims regular contact with the police… Such across the whole spectrum of the justice measures were seen to add to perceptions system. of racial and religious profiling and The stigmatisation of Muslims further discrimination.”391 Meanwhile, a survey by contributes to widening the divide the HMIC of 391 BAME people revealed between Muslim and non-Muslim that police officers may not be following communities, whilst having a profound stop and search procedure in all impact on the Criminal Justice System and cases: 44% of respondents said the police its approach to Muslim individuals. did not treat them with respect; 42% said Indeed, over the past decade, the public they did not understand why they were discourse on Muslim has been almost stopped and searched; 47% felt they were exclusively associated with crime, not treated with respect; and 37% said they terrorism and issues of integration, which were not told the reason why there were creates the impression that young Muslims stopped and searched.392 are less integrated, have less in common with their non-Muslim peers, and possess ambivalent loyalties.

389 Stop and think: A critical review of the use of stop and search powers in England 391 Tufyal Choudhury and Helen Fenwick, The impact of counter-terrorism measures and Wales, report, Equality and Human Rights Commission, March 2010, on Muslim communities, report, Equality and Human Rights Commission, May 12, https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/ehrc_stop_and_search_ 2011, https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/files/research-report- report.pdf. 72-the-impact-of-counter-terrorismmeasures-on-muslim-communities.pdf.

390 Home Office, Police powers and procedures England and Wales year ending 31 392 “Stop and Search Powers: Are the police using them effectively and fairly?” HMIC, March 2016, October 27, 2016, 2013, accessed 19.07.2017, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmic/media/stop-and-search-powers- /562977/police-powers-procedures-hosb1516.pdf. 20130709.pdf

128 Furthermore, there is an issue of to provide a fair and less discriminatory discrimination occurring in the Criminal justice service. Justice System, with harsher sentences, or Homogeneity in the Criminal Justice at the very least a different judgement, System being passed on the basis of an individual ethnicity/religiosity. Indeed, the last major Another issue affecting the treatment and study published on the subject and judgement of BAME individuals within covering decisions made in five Crown the Criminal Justice System is a potential Court Centres in the West Midlands in lack of understanding of the experiences of 1989, showed that substantially longer minorities. At the core of this problem is sentences were given to both Black and homogeneity and a lack of diversity within Asian offenders than White offenders. A the system itself. more recent study published in 2005 also Although the judiciary are independent showed that Asian males, were more likely office holders, they provide a significant 393 to receive a custodial sentence. public service and were, therefore, Socio-economic challenges included within the Government’s recent Race Disparity Audit. In 2016, 6% of court Considering the severe economic judges who declared their ethnicity were deprivation experienced by Muslims (with from non-White ethnic groups. nearly half living in the 10% of the poorest Representation of those from non-White areas in England and Wales), the increase ethnic groups was more than twice as high of Muslim inmates should in fact be seen as among tribunal judges and non-legal the result of discrimination, both socio- members of tribunals combined, at 14%. economic and within the justice system Asian people made up the largest non- itself.394 Indeed, the Race Disparity Audit White ethnic group in these roles, with showed that 31% (or around 343,000) of the around 3% of court judges and 8% of Pakistani population and 28% (or roughly tribunal judges and non-legal members. 113,000) of the Bangladeshi population Around 16% of court judges and 12% of lived in the most deprived 10% of tribunal judges and non-legal members did neighbourhoods in England. All Black not disclose their ethnic group.397 ethnic groups were also disproportionately likely to live in the most deprived As pointed out by the research conducted neighbourhoods.395 Research has further by T2A Alliance, a senior probation officer demonstrated that living in deprived emphasised the importance of accounting neighbours has a negative spill-over effect for the background of magistrates: “I on multiple aspects of life, including would argue whether you could even say a general well-being, education, magistrate has been through any type of employment, and crime.396 formal training. They are people from a particular background who won’t The socio-economic issues faced by BAME understand the needs of ethnic minority individuals, and Muslims particularly, are communities.”398 critical to understand and tackle criminality, but are also pivotal in an effort

393 “Section 95 Criminal Justice Act 1991 Race and the Criminal Justice System: An 2018, https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/static/race-disparity- overview to the complete statistics 2003–2004”, Criminal Justice System, February 2005, audit-summary-findings.pdf accessed 15.02.2018, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218141305/http://rds.homeoffice. 396 “Communities in recession: the impact on deprived neighbourhoods”, Joseph gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/s95overview.pdf Rowntree Foundation, October 2009, accessed 05.03.2018, https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/jrf/migrated/files/communities- 394 “The Muslim Prison Population Has Surged, Here's Why The 'Stereotypes And recession-impact-neighbourhoods.pdf Myths' Are Wrong”, Huffington Post, September 8, 2017, accessed 24.10.2017 http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/lammy-review-muslim- 397 “Race Disparity Audit Summary Findings from the Ethnicity Facts and Figures prisoners_uk_59afcaa0e4b0b5e531022f26 website.”

395 “Race Disparity Audit Summary Findings from the Ethnicity Facts and Figures 398 “Young Muslims on Trial”, Maslaha, March 2016, accessed May 29, 2018, website”, Cabinet Office, October 2017 (revised February 2018), accessed June 21, https://www.t2a.org.uk/wp- content/uploads/2016/03/Young_Muslims_on_Trial.pdf

129 Lack of understanding of British Muslim thus results in the inability to understand diversity the proclivities and aspirations of young Muslims living in the UK. This not only Another issue concerns the fact that results in a broad-brush application of the Muslims are often perceived as having a law, but also in difficulties in addressing homogenous identity. Those within the the root cause for criminality among these Criminal Justice System lack the communities.401 understanding of the different Muslim communities, whether they are Somali or In addition, and as mentioned earlier in Pakistani, Shia or Sunni, or how their lives this report, simplistic characterisations are affected if they live in different areas in inherently contain the seeds of the country. It is in fact crucial to Islamophobia. Indeed “when others understand the rich diversity within assume all Muslim individuals share the Muslim communities if appropriate same experiences, religious practices, or services are to be provided. As pointed out behaviours, they make a judgment that by the Runnymede Trust, “Muslim there are no differences between members communities are constructed as ‘suspect’ of a certain group, that an entire religious through the frequent implicit and explicit group is completely homogenous.” 402 This juxtaposition of the terms ‘law-abiding results in the belief that there is no majority’ and ‘extremist minority’ when flexibility to the practice or tradition and discussing both sets of communities”.399 that every single person of the group must engage in such a behaviour. Therefore, a The issue of the Criminal Justice System’s homogeneous view of Muslims through perceived homogeneity of British Muslims the lens of counter-terror has the is significant for a number of reasons. unavoidable consequence of pre- Firstly, because it frames Muslims within criminalising all Muslims. the war on terror narrative, thus making the simplistic distinction between “bad” In short, “to ensure that everyone receives and “good”. In the Criminal Justice fair and equal treatment, it is critical to System, this can result in discrimination understand the needs of equality and occurring on the simple basis of prejudice minority groups and identify what deriving from the mainstream separate provision may be required. This is interpretation of what constitutes an likely to be different not just across different acceptable interpretation of Islam.400 protected characteristics but within them. Indeed, one of the key things highlighted… Moreover, such a simplistic was the importance of not assuming characterisation disregards other key homogeneity amongst the needs of all factors that can lead to a more equitable individuals from a particular group.”403 understandings and just conclusions within the Criminal Justice System, such as Mistrust ethnicity, education, class, place, gender These issues create a mutual feeling of and political outlook. The failure to mistrust that has a profound impact on the acknowledge the inherent difference lives of Muslims,404 and has unavoidable among the many Muslim communities repercussions in the relations between

399 Kjartan Páll Sveinsson, “Criminal Justice v. Racial Justice Minority ethnic 402 Kevin L. Nadal et al., “Subtle and Overt Forms of Islamophobia: Microaggressions overrepresentation in the criminal justice system”, Runnymede, accessed 15.02.2018 toward Muslim Americans”, Journal of Muslim Mental Health, Volume 6, Issue https://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/publications/pdfs/CriminalJusticeVRa 2, 2012. cialJustice-2012.pdf 403 “Tackling inequality in the Criminal Justice System”, Clinks, May 2015, accessed 400 Scott Poynting and Victoria Mason, “Tolerance, Freedom, Justice and Peace”?: 20.02.2018, Britain, Australia and Anti-Muslim Racism since 11 September 2001”, Journal of http://www.recoop.org.uk/dbfiles/news/246/Tackling_Inequality_within_CJS_Cli Intercultural Studies, Volume 27, 2006 - Issue 4. nks_Report.pdf

401 Gabe Mythen and Fatima Khan, “Futurity, Governance and the Terrorist Risk: 404 “Young, Muslim and British: Between rhetoric and realities”, LSE Blog, accessed Exploring the Impacts of Pre-emptive Modes of Regulation on Young Muslims in the 24.10.2017, http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/religionpublicsphere/2017/04/young-muslim- UK”, accessed 20.02.2018 and-british-between-rhetoric-and-realities/ https://www.kent.ac.uk/scarr/events/beijingpapers/Mythenppr.pdf

130 Muslims and the Criminal Justice System. real) is perceived in the Criminal Justice For example, the justice system provides System.407 incentives for those who have committed Some, for example, felt they had been crimes to admit guilt, such as potential discriminated against by judges on the reductions of sentences or access to basis of the records of their brothers, older interventions that keep them out of prison cousins, or even uncles. One man reported altogether. Yet, pleading “guilty” implies a that, “I don’t know what it is about our level of trust between the accuser and the family but we never seem to get bail – you accused that BAME individuals simply do get people nicked on big conspiracy not have, due to a real or perceived charges who get bail.” Others went as far disparity in the way they are treated. as saying: “they give excuses and say As the Lammy Review suggested, “Many things like oh we think you’re going to BAME defendants neither trust the advice commit further offences”.408 Overall, the that they are given, nor believe they will research showed a high degree of mistrust receive a fair hearing from magistrates” of British Muslims in relation to the way and are thus instinctively more prone to they are sentenced. One example of this is plea “not guilty” than their White the testimony of a young man, who said: counterparts.405 However, this means that “We know a lot of it has to do with our BAME defendants face harsher sentences if religion. I’ve met people in jail who have found guilty. The punitive treatment been scared to grow a beard because reserved to BAME individuals who plea they’re worried they will get a high-end “not guilty” cannot be addressed sentence.”409 overnight but is critical nonetheless. While A study published by The European Journal a concerted and durative effort to build up of Psychology Applied to Legal Context trust between BAME groups and the showed that White individuals had a Criminal Justice System needs to become a higher degree of satisfaction with the priority, the Criminal Justice System also outcomes received from the justice system, needs to put in place a system that allows as well as with the legal processes and interventions to be set up prior to the procedures. Conversely, citizens belonging plea.406 to ethnic minorities perceived more Furthermore, the climate of mistrust that unfairness in both cases.410 This is due to has characterised the relationships the fact that societal discrimination and between Muslim and non-Muslim even more so, discrimination within any communities in British society has area of the Criminal Justice System, produced a spill-over effect in the way reduces the level of confidence that Muslims are judged within the Criminal individuals have in the Criminal Justice Justice System at virtually every stage. System. Finally, the underrepresentation of Several Muslims who took part in minorities groups can lead to a lesser interviews conducted by the T2A Alliance, degree of sympathy for the complexities a charity organisation that deals with and diversity of the BAME individual, discrimination and fair treatment in the particularly for individuals belonging to Criminal Justice System, lamented the communities already considered “at risk”, existence of prejudice in the way their or communities often misunderstood and criminality (whether it being alleged or

405 “The Lammy Review: final report”, p6. 409 Ibid.

406 Ibid, p27-28. 410 Estefanía Estéveza , Marina Rachitskiy, and Carla Rodríguez, “Is perception of the mainstream legal system homogeneous across ethnic groups?”, The European Journal of 407 “Young Muslims on Trial." Psychology Applied to Legal Context, 5 (2013), pp. 155-161, accessed June 21, 2018, https://ac.els-cdn.com/S1889186113700052/1-s2.0-S1889186113700052- 408 Ibid. main.pdf?_tid=spdf-03747654-b1a3-4bcd-9374- 3ace337938bd&acdnat=1518710571_1338a41fbbd1369ef42ab7f9d421fa57

131 misrepresented across broader segments of community it serves. People of a BAME British society. background wishing to develop their careers within the police service often lack The issue of trust in the Criminal Justice role models, encounter barriers when System is important because people can trying to access necessary training and face accept decisions and outcomes from the selection panels which are almost always justice system more willingly when they lacking in diversity.413 believe that the authorities are using fair procedures based on trustworthy It is crucial that steps are taken to ensure motivations.411 that police forces are representative of the many segments of British society and the Recruitment of BAME in the communities they serve. This need is Police Force evidenced by the recent Race Disparity Audit, published by the Government in For many people, the police form the most late 2017, which found a significant visible representation of the state. As such, disparity in the representation of it is incredibly important that the minorities in both the police force and the relationship between minority wider Criminal Justice System. In 2016, communities and their local police are 94% of prison officers in England and characterised by trust and understanding. Wales who disclosed their ethnicity were Therefore, recruitment and adequate White. The same year, around 1 police representation of minorities within the officer in every 17 was from a non-White force is an important asset in nurturing ethnic minority group. While this ratio understanding, trust, and a feeling of differed greatly according to rank, type of representation within this relationship. work and geography, there has been a The “Police Diversity” report prepared by slight increase in the proportion of officers the House of Commons found that while from a non-White background over the last there has been a steady increase in the 10 years, indicating promise. overall proportion of officers and staff who It is crucial that police forces are equipped are of a BAME background, particularly with the necessary tools to understand the since this issue was brought to the cultural intricacies of the communities they attention of the Government in 2013. serve. This can not only result in a more However, progress remains somewhat nuanced understanding of the incidents slow and there is wide variation between they investigate, but can also help the forces and increased numbers of BAME building of a more positive relationship police officers remain overwhelmingly in between them and the communities they the most junior rank. Even allowing for serve. Indeed, police forces are seen as a appropriate career progression, the representation of the state, and a positive number of BME officers above the rank of relationship with them can result in an Inspector remains very low. These results increased sense of belonging of were thus deemed “unacceptable” by the communities that often find themselves at committee.412 the outskirts of society. The issue of BAME representation at junior levels is particularly problematic. Indeed, the lack of senior BAME representation in the police service affects its leadership, culture and understanding of the

411 Ibid. 413 Ibid.

412 “Police diversity First Report of Session 2016–17”, House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, accessed 20.02.2018, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmhaff/27/27.pdf

132 Case study: Bijan Ebrahimi, neighbours, who repeatedly accused him victim of institutional racism in of being a paedophile and threatened to kill him. On one occasion, Mr James saw the police force Mr Ebrahimi filming him and his children Bijan Ebrahimi was murdered on July 14, as they were walking around the estate and 2013 by his neighbour Lee James, who believed him to be a paedophile. However, punched and kicked him to death, before the IPCC report revealed that Ebrahimi setting fire to his body outside his house in told police officers that he had taken the Bristol. It emerged that, prior to his death, photographs as evidence that Mr James Mr Ebrahimi had contacted the police was drinking in the public areas of the several times in light of Lee James’s estate whilst in charge of children. He said behaviour, but the force had regarded him that this was a regular occurrence, which as a nuisance. Following the incident, a resulted in “a mess”. report was prepared by the Independent Indeed, the report reads, “There was Police Complaints Commission evidence, not least from Mr James himself, (IPCC), revealing that police officers may of Mr Ebrahimi taking a great deal of have been biased against Mr Ebrahimi and trouble over the appearance of his flat, by failed to protect him. A total of seventeen cultivating plants and flowers in pots officers and staff were interviewed, and outside. He plainly considered the IPCC Commissioner Williams determined behaviour of Mr James and his associates, to refer the files concerning three police drinking in the public areas and discarding officers, a control room supervisor, a call cans, to be anti-social behaviour, with taker, and a police community support which many people may agree. It was officer to the Crown Prosecution Service, possible, even likely that as a result of for consideration of offences of misconduct previous complaints, and he had been in public office. It was additionally advised to take photographs or video to determined to refer the offence of evidence this behaviour.” perverting the course of justice for consideration against the police In the days before his death, Ebrahimi community support officer. called the police to say his neighbour Lee James had barged into his home and Mr Ebrahimi, 44, was born in Iran in 1969 attacked him by punching him in the face. and lived there during his formative years. Rather than arresting Mr James, the police His parents both died when he was a officers handcuffed Mr Ebrahimi, who was young man and he was their full-time carer escorted into the police car before a crowd for some time before their death. He had of cheering neighbours. moved to a new neighbourhood in Bristol after his previous home was set on fire by A neighbour said that she saw Mr James his neighbours. stood by the washing line and heard him shout either “I’ll f*****g kill you” or “I’ll The report prepared by the IPCC reveals f*****g get you” towards Mr Ebrahimi. She that Mr Ebrahimi was a vulnerable man, saw that both female police officers were whose first language was not English and present but neither reacted or did anything who was subject to numerous unfounded in response to these shouted threats. The allegations against him. He had turned to IPCC also found that one of the officers, PC the police for help several times in the Helen Harris, approached Mr James and months leading to his death. Mr Ebrahimi’s told him “off the record I would have done final call to a police officer occurred just the same thing”. She also told him that they one hour before he was murdered. were going to arrest Mr Ebrahimi for Between 2007 and 2013, Mr Ebrahimi breach of the peace. experienced a number of issues with

133 The IPCC noted that by arresting Mr action, or failure to act, Article 2 requires Ebrahimi and not Mr James, PC Harris and there to be an independent and effective PC Winter undoubtedly “discriminated” investigation to determine the between them. Indeed, the officers could circumstances and causes of the death. The have been in no doubt about the danger IPCC found that “from the outset, there that Mr Ebrahimi was in, having heard the were serious breaches of Avon and remarks about “firebombing” him out and Somerset Constabulary hate crime Mr Ebrahimi being labelled as a policy.” “paedophile”. PS Hill’s remark that the Two men, beat manager PC Kevin Duffy, “pitch fork and burning torch brigade are and community support officer Andrew after him”, provided an indication of how Passmore, were both jailed over how they serious they knew the situation to be. dealt with Ebrahimi after being found However, instead of protecting Mr guilty of misconduct in a public office. Ebrahimi, they mistreated him, humiliated They and two other constables, Leanne him, and even intimidated him before Winter, 38, and Helen Harris, 40, who releasing him back “without any arrested Ebrahimi, have been dismissed meaningful risk assessment”. from the force.415 In all, 18 police staff and The evidence from CCTV in the Custody officers, including sergeants and Suite showed PC Harris’ treatment of Mr inspectors, face disciplinary proceedings. Ebrahimi to have been rude and unprofessional, including striking him on the back of his hand with the folded sheets of paper, an action which can only be described as indicative of contempt. Mr David McCallum, independent chair of the review process, accused Bristol City Council and Avon and Somerset police officers of institutional racism, intended as “The collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture, or ethnic origin. It can be seen or detected in processes, attitudes and behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness and racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people”. 414 Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) places an obligation on the state not to take life, except in very limited and defined circumstances, and to take reasonable steps to protect life where there is a real and immediate risk. If there is an indication that a death may be the result of police

414 “Safer Bristol Partnership Multi-Agency Learning Review Following The Murder 415 “Police officers jailed over Bijan Ebrahimi murder case”, The Guardian, February 9, of Bijan Ebrahimi”, accessed 29.05.2018. 2016, accessed 29.05.2018, https://www.theguardian.com/uk- https://www.bristol.gov.uk/documents/20182/35136/Multi- news/2016/feb/09/bijan-ebrahimi-murder-bristol-police-sentenced agency+learning+review+following+the+murder+of+Bijan+Ebrahimi

134 asked her permission to raise money for Political charities assisting Palestinian children affected by the conflict. She gave me the go Representation and ahead and told me I could bucket collect in Exclusion the college for an entire week. With the help of some friends, we raised over £1000. Developing Civic Sensibilities The point I want to focus on, however, is not the achievement but more so on the Aman Ali decision made by the teacher. She could Head of Community and Development, have easily decided otherwise, citing MEND reasons such as it would distract me from my upcoming exams, or let the teachers Growing up as a teenager living in organise something you don’t worry about London, I gave very little thought to my it, or any number of logistical concerns. But civic responsibilities in my early she didn’t. She heard me out, saw that I adolescence. I guess, like most people my had a plan and let me run with it. age back then, I had my own individual plan that I hoped to follow, which included The morale of the story being always give typical things like getting a good young people a chance to make a education, a good job and having a family difference. one day. Many young people I am sure have had the Being a British Muslim of Bangladeshi urge to change something around them but origin, I went through life not seeing may have never had the right person myself represented very much in society. I around them to enable them or encourage didn’t see other British Muslims of them. Our collective failure to provide Bangladeshi origin feature prominently in support to young change makers risks public life. Whether that be on the news, excluding them from being civically watching sports or going about my daily engaged in the future, thereby losing their life such as going to school or to the contribution to society. hospital. A second significant incident took place Hence, I guess, I just went through my during my time at University. I was in a teenage years with my head down and got guest lecture where a speaker made a very on with life. It was only after having had profound point that really reshaped my my eyes opened up to certain realities outlook on civic responsibility. Addressing around me, that I began lifting my head up what was a very diverse audience which and taking notice of the world around me. included people from various walks of life, young and old, and various ethnic Often it can be a tragic incident that forces backgrounds. Pointing to everyone in the a person to take notice. For me, the first eye audience he said “You have just as much opener was in college when the Gaza War right to shape the future of this country as broke out in 2008. Witnessing the massacre any other person living in the UK. That that was inflicted upon the Palestinians left responsibility is not reserved for a me enraged and fuming. I took to the privileged few but a right that should be streets like many others and joined protests exercised by every citizen, including calling for the end of the massacre of the you!” Palestinian people. It was such a powerful point the speaker But something within my conscience told made. Never had I thought about my me I hadn’t done enough by just marching personal responsibility towards society in on the streets. I wanted to do more. So, I such a manner. Never for a moment had I approached the Head of the college and thought this responsibility was even mine

135 in the first place. Never did I think such a discrimination based upon ethnicity, responsibility was meant for people like religion, sexual orientation, and gender no me. longer plagues our society. Remember, I grew up not seeing myself represented much in public life. So, for Political representation and someone to tell me I had such a big exclusion responsibility was very much a cognitive paradigm shift. Islamophobia should be understood as a mechanism which marginalises and After that speech, I went searching for excludes Muslims from being able to fully further opportunities to try and be more participate in social, political and civic life. active. I took part in more charitable While data shows a growing trend of initiatives, got involved with local Muslim engagement in the field of politics, campaigning and came across this this chapter addresses the challenges organisation called MEND one day. They Muslims face when operating within the were addressing an issue which was close political sphere and the barriers to to me, the issue of Islamophobia. Having engagement that still exist. had unfortunate experiences involving myself or family members in the past, I It concludes that our political institutions wanted to play an active role in combatting need to reflect the communities they serve Islamophobia in the UK. and encourage Muslim representation within Parliament. In these efforts, political Alongside the work of tackling parties need to address structural barriers Islamophobia, I came to realise MEND that exclude Muslims and other minority were actively encouraging greater civic groups. involvement on the part of the Muslim community in the UK. They provided Moreover, it is essential that the training courses on how to engage Government’s policy of disengagement effectively with politics and media and had with credible mainstream Muslim a big focus on empowering communities to organisations and leaders be urgently become active citizens through their reversed so that the relationship between working groups set up across the country. Government and Muslim communities may be recalibrated. I’ve been with MEND now for a number of years and my work revolves around Muslim representation reaching into communities and finding Forming one of the most diverse Muslim like-minded people who have realised communities in the world, British Muslims their civic responsibility and want to make are an integral part of the social fabric of a difference. the nation through their significant Together we are creating a movement in contribution to the economy (valued at £31 the UK of British Muslims who are playing billion) and their presence across a wide a vital role in promoting active citizenship range of professions in the public and amongst Muslims in the UK. Our desire is private sectors, most notably the NHS.416 to see a UK very different to the According to Lucy Michael, the unrepresentative one most people in my “integration of minority groups in equality generation grew up in. And, finally our terms” can be measured by engagement in aspiration is to shape society where party politics and governance.417 To some

416 Esmat Jeraj, ed., The Missing Muslims: Unlocking British Muslim Potential For The West, Surrey: Association of Muslim Social Scientists (UK) and Foundation for Benefit Of All, Report by the Citizens Commission on Islam, Participation and Public Political, Economic and Social Research, 177 – 197. Cited in p.22 of Mustafa, Anisa. Life, 2017, p46, https://www.barrowcadbury.org.uk/wp- 2015. "Active Citizenship, Dissent And Power: The Cultural Politics Of Young Adult content/uploads/2017/07/Missing_Muslims_Report_-full-report.pdf British Muslims.". Ph.D, University of Nottingham.

417 Michael, Lucy. 2009. “Securing civic relations in the multicultural city”. 164-186, in Krause, W. (Ed.) Citizenship, Security and Democracy: Muslim Engagement with the

136 extent, this can be demonstrated by the in public life has been brutal”, adding that election of the first Muslim MP, “Muslims who engage with politics or any Mohammad Sarwar, in 1997. In two other institutions are to be viewed as decades since this historic landmark, the suspicious and Muslims who don’t engage number of Muslim MPs has risen to 15, are to be treated as suspicious for being eight of whom are women. Also, separatist”.419 Adding to this notion of politicians who identify as Muslim or are suspicion, Muslim MPs, Rupa Huq and of Muslim heritage have served as Tulip Siddiq, recently spoke out about ministers in the past three governments being disproportionately stopped by under Gordon Brown, David Cameron and security staff within Parliament and now Theresa May - with Baroness Warsi having their credentials questioned, with becoming the first Muslim female minister Huq stating that “[b]ecause of our under the Cameron administration in 2010. pigmentation we are treated differently”.420 While barriers have been broken by individuals such as Mohammad Sarwar, Scepticism towards Muslims engaging Sayeeda Warsi, Naz Shah, Yasmin within the political realm is further Qureshi, Shabana Mahmood and evidenced in the fact that 14 out of 15 Rushanara Ali, to name but a few, Muslim constituency Labour parties (CLPs) placed representation of 2% of the House of under “special measures” have sizeable Commons still lags far behind what is Muslim populations, varying from 11% proportional considering the population of (Brentford & Isleworth) to 50% British Muslims, which stands at 4.4% (Birmingham Hodge Hill).421 “Special according to the 2011 census. This measures” refers to the administrative highlights the lack of equitable mechanism introduced first in the 1980s to representation of Muslims in public life prevent “hostile takeovers of constituency and, therefore, according to Michael’s parties and local councils”.422 When assessment of integration and equality, one imposed on constituency groups, members may argue that Muslims are far from equal. are vetted and selection processes are The reasons for this underrepresentation centrally controlled. While special ranges from political parties fearing a measures may be the appropriate cause of backlash for fielding more Muslim action in a few extreme situations, it is only candidates, discrimination against meant to be a short term measure, as Muslims within political party structures, highlighted by the Chakrabarti Report into the centralised nature of the party system anti-Semitism and other forms of and Muslims feeling alienated from the racism within the Labour Party.423 democratic system.418 However some CLPs had been under special measures for more than two Barriers to political engagement decades before being reinstated under Experiences of discrimination and Jeremy Corbyn’s leadership.424 Craig, in a Islamophobia are rife at all levels of piece about Birmingham Hall Green CLP, political engagement. Baroness Warsi, for points out that the four Birmingham CLPs example, remarked that “being a Muslim in special measures are in areas with a high

418 Anisa Mustafa, "Active Citizenship, Dissent and Civic Consciousness: Young 421 Mark Ferguson, "The Kafkaesque Farce of the Labour Party "special measures" Muslims Redefining Citizenship on Their Own Terms," Identities23, no. 4 (2015): 22, Revisited...," LabourList, July 03, 2013, https://labourlist.org/2013/07/the- doi:10.1080/1070289x.2015.1024127. kafkaesque-farce-of-the-labour-party-special-measures-revisited.

419 Homa Khaleeli, "Sayeeda Warsi: 'Where Are My Grandkids Going to Call Home? 422 Radhika Sanghani, "Labour Reveal Constituencies Under Central Control," The What World Will They Grow up In?'" The Guardian, March 25, 2017, Telegraph, July 03, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2017/mar/25/sayeeda-warsi-where- https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/labour/10156596/Labour-reveal- are-my-grandkids-going-to-call-home-what-world-will-they-grow-up-in. constituencies-under-central-control.html.

420 "The Londoner: Rupa and Tulip in Racist Security Row," , May 423 Hattie Craig, "23 Years in "special measures"," The Clarion, October 01, 2016, 24, 2018, https://www.standard.co.uk/news/londoners-diary/the-londoner-rupa- https://theclarionmag.org/2016/10/01/23-years-in-special-measures/. and-tulip-in-racist-security-row-a3847451.html. 424 "Labour Reveal Constituencies Under Central Control."

137 Muslim or Pakistani population, and Student events have become subject to emphasises that there is “a feeling of increased bureaucratisation, and at times injustice from members of these groups even shut down outright. We note that the that they are under suspicion, that having findings of a recent report by the NUS lots of members from these communities in Black Students’ and Women’s Campaign, the party is regarded as a bad thing”.425 echoed these concerns and experiences, identifying PREVENT as contributing Islamophobia in politics is also towards a deficit in civic engagement for characterised by discourse which is Muslim students; impacting their ability to divisive, fuels hate and promotes hatred engage in certain discussions and deterring and fear of Muslims. The dog-whistle them from running for elected positions.426 politics displayed during the London mayoral election against Sadiq Khan, The Henry Jackson Society and Student where he was branded an “extremist” by Rights opponent Zac Goldsmith was arguably the An organisation that exemplifies the most high-profile example of what is a attempts to shut down the voices of regular experience for Muslims Muslim students is the Henry Jackson participating in electoral politics. Coming Society, through the guise of its project from the political establishment and being Student Rights. Student Rights claims to led by senior CCHQ officials gave the support “equality, democracy and episode an added gravity. In the eyes of freedom from extremism on university Muslims, it translated fundamentally into campuses”.427 However, despite these a message that the Muslim community claims to equality, it is striking that Student may be accomplished in their education Rights appears to focus almost exclusively and professional careers, but they will on Muslim students and student groups never be fully accepted into mainstream and has repeatedly used the language of society. Seeing high-profile Muslim counter-extremism to demonise Muslim politicians being subjected to a vilification students and societies. It has especially campaign with racial and Islamophobic targeted students who are vocal about their undertones reaffirmed the feeling of support for the Palestinian cause and those disillusionment with the political process critical of counter-terror strategies. that many Muslims felt, and has undoubtedly negatively impacted the Furthermore, far from living up to its aspirations of young Muslims in pursuing name, Student Rights has no basis as a public office. representative body for students and has no affiliation with any student union and Obstructing political engagement has frequently attracted severe and in universities widespread criticism for its agenda-driven narratives and activities.428 The fear of being labelled “extremist” is pervasive within the context of Muslim Student Rights has been accused of seeking students at British universities. What to pressure universities to “impose should be spaces of empowerment for restrictive measures on Muslim students young Muslims have become more heavily that would, in effect, institutionalise securitised under the PREVENT duty, Islamophobia” and its work has been particularly impacting the work of Islamic described as seeking “to narrow the space societies and pro-Palestine societies. for all radical political dissent on

425 "23 Years in “special measures””. 427 "Student Rights - About Us," Student Rights, accessed June 21, 2018, http://www.studentrights.org.uk/about_us. 426 "Our Research into the Experiences of #MuslimsInEducation" NUS Connect, March 18, 2018, https://www.nusconnect.org.uk/articles/our-research-into-the- 428 Hilary Aked, "Muslim and LGBTQ Students Unite Against 'Student Rights' in Run experiences-of-muslimsineducation. Up to NUS Conference," HuffPost UK, May 19, 2014, https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/hilary-aked/nus-conference_b_4986437.html.

138 campus.”429 Student Rights has also been exclude, and marginalise Muslims within condemned by the NUS for its use of civil society and political life. Indeed, flawed methodologies and has Muslim organisations have been subsequently been widely criticised for its progressively isolated and excluded from “dishonest pseudo-science in support of a the realm of legitimate political discussion, toxic narrative”.430 Meanwhile, the as highlighted by the Government’s conclusions of Student Rights’ reports have current policy of non-engagement with been discredited and labelled as “a witch- organisations such as the Muslim Council hunt which makes sweeping judgments of Britain. about student Islamic societies”.431 Levied against such organisations are Interestingly, Student Rights claims to accusations of “extremism” that are protect free speech and has expressed frequently baseless but accompanied by opposition to student unions’ no-platform long-lasting stigma. In turn, accusations of policy for the BNP.432 However, it has “segregation” and “refusal to integrate” simultaneously severely criticised are used as justification to enact increased speakers it sees as “extremists” who have surveillance and securitisation of Muslim been invited by Islamic and Palestinian communities. societies,433 as well as Muslim students Meanwhile, attempts to engage with who criticise the current PREVENT political life lead to smears and suspicion, strategy.434 thus creating a damaging and inescapable Moreover, the Institute of Race Relations cycle. As demonstrated by Sayeeda Warsi’s has noted with concern that Student earlier quote,437 Muslims become restricted Rights’ work and reporting has been used between two very uncomfortable positions by far-right groups to target Muslim of “isolationism” and “entryism”. student events.435 Indeed, several British Rather than engaging with a broad universities have been forced to cancel spectrum of Muslim organisations and events after material from SR has resulted voices, the Government has traditionally in threats of violence from far-right groups, insisted in dealing with a handpicked including the EDL.436 minority who already support their policy This group represents just one in a network positions, particularly on issues such as that seeks to monitor and police Muslim counter-terror, media regulation and political engagement, going far beyond the Palestine. Consequently, think-tanks and realm of legitimate critique into brazen NGOs which do not possess the confidence discrimination. of British Muslims have exercised considerable influence in shaping public Policies of disengagement policies, thus resulting in widespread At the heart of Islamophobic rhetoric, what feelings of alienation and frustration we see is a concerted effort to regulate, amongst Muslim communities. As

429 Critical Perspectives on Counter-terrorism, p.192. 434 "Salford Student President who opposes Prevent reveals troubling views on social media," Student Rights, accessed August 08, 2017, 430 Hilary Aked, "Student Rights 'Campus Extremism' Study: Dishonest Pseudo- http://www.studentrights.org.uk/article/2466/salford_student_president_who_op Science in Support Of a Toxic Narrative," HuffPost UK, July 15, 2013, poses_prevent_reveals_troubling_views_on_social_media. https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/hilary-aked/student-rights-campus-extremism- study_b_3277503.html?utm_hp_ref=uk-student-rights. 435 "Far Right targets Islamic events," Institute of Race Relations RSS, accessed July 28, 2017, http://www.irr.org.uk/news/far-right-targets-islamic-events/. 431 "'Extremists' preaching to UK student societies," BBC News, May 13, 2013, accessed Also see UniofReading, "Statement on Discover Islam Week events at the University 07.11.2017, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-22509757. of Reading – University of Reading," University of Reading, accessed July 28, 2017, 432 "London Student issue 10 (March 1st 2010)," Yudu - Your Digital editions, accessed http://www.reading.ac.uk/news-and-events/releases/PR490014.aspx. July 27, 436 "EXPOSED: Quilliam leadership directly involved with neocon Douglas Murray's 2017, http://content.yudu.com/Library/A1nkge/LondonStudentissue10/resources Henry Jackson Society," Loonwatch.com, August 20, 2016, /index.htm. http://www.loonwatch.com/2013/12/exposed-quilliam-leadership-directly- 433 "Student Rights - Tackling Extremism on Campuses," Student Rights - Tackling involved-with-neocon-douglas-murrays-henry-jackson-society/. Extremism on Campuses, accessed July 27, 2017, http://www.studentrights.org.uk/. 437 "Sayeeda Warsi: 'Where Are My Grandkids Going to Call Home? What World Will Also see Asa Winstanley, "How front group "Student Rights" undermines Palestine They Grow up In?'" solidarity," The Electronic Intifada, February 11, 2017, https://electronicintifada.net/content/how-front-group-student-rights- undermines-palestine-solidarity/12991.

139 recommended by the 2017 Citizens UK independent investigations into claims of report entitled “Missing Muslims”,438 it is institutional Islamophobia – as recently of pressing urgency that the Government demanded of the Conservative Party by reassesses its engagement with Muslim the Muslim Council of Britain. The fact that communities and seeks to mend the such a call has gone unheeded contrasts “broken relationship” by taking steps to sharply with the vociferous calls for an end this impasse. The Government must, inquiry into anti-Semitism in the Labour therefore, urgently reconsider its policy of Party. Such a refusal creates the perception disengagement with credible Muslim of a hierarchy of acceptable intolerances. In organisations that have the trust and reality, hatred against all minorities should support of mainstream British Muslim be confronted with equal vigour. communities. Engagement does not mean agreement on every issue but facilitating The Benefits of Participation the exchange of ideas and perspectives is an integral component of a democratic Dr Joe Greenwood society. Barriers to political participation restrict However, far from seeking to mend the who can get involved, and this places broken relationship, it appears that the limits on both the individual and societal Government is set on continuing to benefits of participation, which take at least distance itself from segments of the British three forms. First, participation contributes Muslim population. This was recently to the quality of representation and policy illustrated by the Home Secretary, Sajid outcomes; second, it helps overcome Javid, when he dismissed allegations of divisions between groups; and third, it Islamophobia in the Conservative Party offers personal rewards to individuals. and reiterated the Government position Together, these benefits have the capacity that it would not enter into a dialogue with to contribute to individual happiness, the Muslim Council of Britain, the biggest community integration, and improved Muslim umbrella group in the UK, with societal outcomes 439 over 500 affiliates. The fact that the In the first case, research has shown that Conservative Party Chair subsequently limits on participation can reduce both met with the “moderate” Muslim group descriptive and substantive Tell MAMA, reiterates the Government’s representation.440 This means that if certain intention to maintain the “good Muslim”, social groups face barriers to participation “bad Muslim” dichotomy. This then, concomitantly, they are likely to be dichotomous narrative is, in itself, a good underrepresented at various levels of example of institutional Islamophobia in government.441 This can create a divide in that is seeks to regulate Muslims and which excluded social groups see elected exclude those who disrupt the institutional representatives as distant and status-quo. disconnected from them, and has Moreover, discourse that seeks to implications for the quality of policy dehumanise, stigmatise and spread hatred outcomes. Indeed, research has shown that of Muslims must be called out by elected representatives tend to reflect the politicians across the party spectrum. In views of the groups that are represented doing so, political parties should conduct and are able to participate.442 This means that, counter to the principle of an open

438 The Missing Muslims: Unlocking British Muslim Potential For The Benefit Of All, p46. 441 Richard L. Fox and Jennifer L. Lawless, ‘If Only They’d Ask: Gender, Recruitment, and Political Ambition’, The Journal of Politics, Vol. 72, No. 2 (Apr., 2010), pp. 310-326. 439 Greg Heffer, "Sajid Javid in Muslim Council of Britain Spat over Islamophobia Claims," Sky News, June 03, 2018, https://news.sky.com/story/sajid-javid-in- 442 Larry M. Bartels, Unequal Democracy: The Political Economy of the New Gilded muslim-council-of-britain-spat-over-islamophobia-claims-11393750. Age (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2008). 440 Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1995).

140 democratic discourse, the policy-making and gain the psychological reward of process is not based on a diverse set of standing up for what they believe in. views and the resulting policy outcomes In light of the above, an inclusive may be sub-optimal. participatory system has the capacity to The representation of diverse views in the reduce divides between groups and their policy-making process is also indicative of representatives, and to ensure diverse the capacity for participation to build voices are reflected in policy-making. bonds between groups. There is classic Further, open participatory contexts allow academic work showing the ease with communities to meet each other, construct which humans form group identities, and new group identities, and bridge divides. subsequent research has developed these Finally, participation offers an array of findings by showing that group identity personal, collective, and expressive can be context-specific and thus primed.443 benefits to those who get involved. Thus, This means that if contexts are created in the many benefits of participation can be which people from various social groups felt by both individuals and society. can all participate in then it is possible to build more inclusive group identities. Thus, an inclusive participatory system can not only increase the diversity of voices that contribute to policy making but can also create bridging social capital between communities. Increased social capital can also be an important individual benefit that results from participation, which enables people to make new acquaintances. As such, it constitutes a selective incentive for participation alongside motivations such as the desire to seek office and rewards such as reduced prices for other services. Selective incentives are one of three sets of reasons for political participation that are identified by the general incentives model.444 Collective goods are the second motivation for participation, and offer the opportunity to help a party or organisation achieve particular policy outcomes. Finally, there are the expressive benefits of participation, in the form of the opportunity to support a cause that one believes in. Taking all of these potential benefits together, we can see political participation as an opportunity for individuals meet new people and achieve personal goals, influence policy-making,

443 Henri Tajfel and John C. Turner, ‘The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup 444 Paul F. Whiteley, Patrick Seyd, Jeremy Richardson, and Paul Bissell, ‘Explaining Behavior’, in J. T. Jost and J. Sidanius (eds.), Key readings in social psychology (New York, Party Activism: The Case of the British Conservative Party’, British Journal of Political NY, Psychology Press, 2004), pp. 276-293; Naomi Ellemers and S. Alexander Haslam, Science, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Jul., 1984), pp. 5-16. 'Social Identity Theory', in Paul A. M. Van Lange, Arie W. Kruglanski, and E. Tory Higgins (eds.), Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (Volume 2, London, Sage Publications, 2012), pp. 379-393.

141 cultural differences in the private and the Public Exclusion, public sphere. Integration and Assimilation Minority Rights Assimilationist policies attempt to erode the cultural differences between groups, As MEND’s definition of Islamophobia both in the public and the private sphere. highlights, Islamophobia incorporates any The ultimate goal is to make the newcomer exclusion, restriction, or preference against or minority community indistinguishable Muslims that has the purpose or effect of from the dominant or host society. Under nullifying or impairing the recognition, assimilationist strategies, people are enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, required to manifest themselves according of human rights and fundamental to the dominant culture in public spaces. freedoms in the political, economic, social, The result of well-enforced assimilation is cultural or any other field of public life. acculturation, that is to say that the newcomers or the minority assume the As such, this chapter seeks to examine the culture of the dominant group. As Laura ways in which Muslims become Coello and Baukje Prins observe, although discriminated against or excluded from assimilation was widely used throughout public life. It pays particular attention to the 20th century in the United States, the Islamophobic discourses present Australia and France, it is increasingly seen within discussions surrounding as an unfeasible and unfair practice.445 integration and the rights of minority communities in public life. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) Assimilation, Integration and In 1976, the UK adopted the International Multiculturalism Covenant on Civil and Political Rights For decades, fierce debates have raged (ICCPR). The ICCPR demands that all surrounding the best strategies and member states must commit themselves to frameworks through which to manage the ensuring for “all individuals within its differences between dominant and territory and subject to its jurisdiction the minority groups, the most cited rights recognized in the Covenant, without frameworks for which are assimilation, distinction of any kind, such as race, integration and multiculturalism. colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, Despite their common usage within property, birth or other status.”446 political and social discourse, the differences between these three concepts There are three particularly relevant are often only vaguely understood. This articles within the covenant in need of imprecise understanding is due largely to mention at this stage; Articles 1, 18, and 21 the fact that the strict application of one or Article 1 the other strategy is practically impossible, and governments have frequently used a All peoples have the right of self- combination of both assimilation and determination. By virtue of that right they integration methods in their social policies. freely determine their political status and For the large part, the difference between freely pursue their economic, social and these three methods lies in the scope cultural development. individuals possess to manifest their socio-

445 Laura Coello and Baukje Prins, Significant Difference?: A Comparative Analysis of 446 "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights," The United Nations, Office Multicultural Policies in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands (Amsterdam of the High Commissioner, accessed May 18, 2017, University Press, 2010). http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CCPR.aspx.

142 Article 18 acculturation of minority groups is clearly in direct contradiction to the commitments  Everyone shall have the right to in the ICCPR. freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include Integration freedom to have or to adopt a religion Policies based on integration seek to join or belief of his choice, and freedom, people of various ethnic backgrounds either individually or in community closer by asserting one, common public with others and in public or private, to identity or culture, yet allowing or manifest his religion or belief in tolerating manifestations of differences in worship, observance, practice and the private sphere. As Coello and Prins teaching. explain: “[w]hen the host community  No one shall be subject to coercion welcomes or allows the manifestations of which would impair his freedom to differences, it can lead to fusion: the have or to adopt a religion or belief of creation of a new identity emerging from his choice. the contact with elements from the various groups, but without purposely eliminating  Freedom to manifest one's religion or cultural differences.” beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law Castles et. al define integration thus; and are necessary to protect public “Integration is a two-way process: it safety, order, health, or morals or the requires adaptation on the part of the fundamental rights and freedoms of newcomer but also by the host society. others. Successful integration can only take place  The States Parties to the present if the host society provides access to jobs Covenant undertake to have respect and services, and acceptance of the for the liberty of parents and, when immigrants in social interaction. Above all, applicable, legal guardians to ensure integration in a democracy presupposes the religious and moral education of acquisition of legal and political rights by their children in conformity with their the new members of society, so that they own convictions. can become equal partners. Indeed, it is possible to argue that, in a multicultural Article 27 society, integration may be understood as In those States in which ethnic, religious a process through which the whole or linguistic minorities exist, persons population acquires civil, social, political, belonging to such minorities shall not be human and cultural rights, which creates denied the right, in community with the the conditions for greater equality. In this other members of their group, to enjoy approach, integration can also mean that their own culture, to profess and practise minority groups should be supported in their own religion, or to use their own maintaining their cultural and social language.447 identities, since the right to cultural choices 448 By adhering to the ICCPR, the UK limits its is intrinsic to democracy.” choice of strategies to integration and Ultimately, integration is a two-way multiculturalism. In light of the protections process, while assimilation is a one-way afforded within the covenant to religious, process. This is clearly misunderstood by linguistic and cultural identities, some political commentators and advisors. assimilationist policies aimed at Dame Louise Casey is a particularly

447 "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights." http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218135832/http:/rds.homeoffice.g ov.uk/rds/pdfs2/rdsolr2803.doc. 448 Stephen Castles et al., Integration: Mapping the Field, report, Centre for Migration and Policy Research and Refugee Studies Centre for the Home Office, University of Oxford, December 2002,

143 worrying example of this confusion after Government integration she famously stated that integration strategies and Muslims should not be a two-way street.449 The reason for special concern over Dame Britain has always claimed to embody a Louise Casey’s misunderstanding is the proud history of supporting fact that the Government’s currently multiculturalist principles advocating proposed integration strategy relies respect and celebration of the multitude of heavily on the Casey Review. As such, the diverse ethnic and religious identities that distortions present in Dame Louise Casey’s have led themselves to a British identity review have infiltrated and informed built upon pluralism and collaboration. current strategies. This will be discussed However, recent years have seen further below. simmering resentments and debates surrounding national identity and a Multiculturalism perceived “ghettoisation” of minorities. Multiculturalism can be considered as an In line with the development and idea, political theory, pursuit of policies, or consequences of moral panic, these fears enactment of civil society initiatives that have culminated in calls for the UK to establish and foster a society composed of reassess its policies towards several groups of individuals that multiculturalist principles. The result is an prescribe to different cultures co-existing increasingly restrictive integration at the socioeconomic and political level. strategy, within which examples of However, the concept does not limit this Islamophobic assumptions and ideal to individuals restricted to one institutional racism can be readily culture, rather it suggests that whilst the witnessed regarding the treatment of cultures are discreet, the individuals may Muslim communities. prescribe to different cultures for different The Government recently closed its aspects of their lives. For example, one may consultation on its “Integrated wear western clothing whilst Communities Strategy Green Paper; simultaneously enjoying cultural cuisine Building Stronger, More United or participating in a multitude of religious Communities”. This green paper sets out festivals. Therefore, individuals have the the Government strategy and approach freedom to adopt chosen aspects of their towards integration. As a starting point, respective cultures to enrich their lives. the Green Paper heavily relies on the This adoption of multi-faceted cultural highly criticised 2016 Casey Review. As a identities can be fostered or regulated consequence, its analysis and suggested through integrative or assimilative policies strategies are inherently tainted by the pursued at a governmental level. The same flawed evidence and lack of pursuit of such policies thus affects the understanding that has guided the relationship between the majority and Government’s policies on community minority cultures, either resulting in the cohesion and integration in the past. dominance of the former over the latter or The scope of this current report on allowing individuals to pursue either Islamophobia does not allow for a full without restriction. analysis of the Green Paper.450 However, there are several key areas wherein the infiltration of Islamophobic narratives and assumptions have directed the development of this strategy, and

449 "Louise Casey: Integration 'not a Two-way Street'," BBC, January 09, 2017, 450 Indeed, MEND’s submission to the consultation process exceeds 40pages and can https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-politics-38563877/louise-casey-integration- be found at https://mend.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/MEND- not-a-two-way-street. Submission-to-the-Green-Paper-on-Integration-V1.pdf

144 therefore, limit its potential to make a policy, the PREVENT strategy, and Brexit, positive difference. have further contributed to creating a climate of fear, mistrust and Overlap with counter-terror disillusionment that prevents BAME The Green Paper is littered with references individuals from fully and actively and allusions reminiscent of counter-terror participating in British society. strategies that have previously been Moreover, the absence of any form of condemned as hugely damaging to introspection and self-criticism results in a cohesion and inclusion of minorities. This very limited understanding of some of the fear has been heightened with the key causes that contribute to limiting publication of the Home Office’s updated integration between minorities and counter-terror strategy “CONTEST: The broader society. For example, there is no United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering mention of the impact of the Government’s Terrorism”, which explicitly mentions the policy of austerity and cuts to public Green Paper in outlining its strategy. It is service affect minorities’ access to health imperative that strategies of community services, nor is there mention of severely integration and of counter-terrorism do not reduced police budgets at a time in which overlap, as this can only result in the hate crime against minorities is on the rise. further securitisation of an already Furthermore, there is an absence of problematic tripartite relationship between commentary on how elements of the government, society and minorities. British media contribute to spreading Prescribed views of “acceptable Islam” harmful narratives surrounding The call for a “clearer interpretation of minorities, as well as a lack of analysis Islam for life in the UK” is extremely regarding the Government’s recent worrying for the Muslim community and cancellation of the second part of the needs to be clarified. The concern is that a Leveson inquiry. certain liberal interpretation of “acceptable Without a stronger focus on the broader Islam” will be championed by consultation issues and mechanisms of socio-economic with Government selected Muslim discrimination and exclusion, the Green representatives, whilst mainstream Paper will be confined to be a collection of conservative views will be marginalised as half measures that will be insufficient to “extremist”. Furthermore, it is concerning bring about positive change. that Islam has been singled out without references to any other faith groups. Islamophobia and the myth of De-contextualising challenges and an Muslim distance absence of introspection Dr Jan Dobbernack, The overall approach of the Green Paper is highly problematic. By unilaterally shifting Newcastle University the responsibility and blame for a lack of The idea that Muslims lead “separate social inclusion almost entirely onto lives” is yet again in the news. Breathless minority communities, it de-contextualises stories about urban ghettoes and barriers to inclusion and examines them in dangerous no-go areas have long had a a vacuum. While there are brief mentions presence in the British press. In a series of of hate crimes contributing to isolation, policy reports, Theresa May’s government there is a concerning lack of analysis of now presents its own view on Muslims’ institutionalised and systematic racism in spatial and cultural distance. The Casey Britain. Similarly, there is no mention of the way developments, such as the Government’s “hostile environment”

145 Review451 and Government’s Integrated conviviality – youth centres, inter-faith and Communities Green Paper identify outreach initiatives – face chronic segregation as the main obstacle towards underfunding. How can “libraries and improving the national condition.452 The other community hubs”, as the Green remedy that both reports envisage is Paper requests, “maximise their contact. Both parts of the equation, contact contribution to building integrated and segregation, need to be unpacked to communities”456 when they cannot even examine the understanding of Muslim maintain reasonable opening hours in the “difference” that informs Government’s face of cuts? In light of Government’s current policy offer. defunding of ESOL instruction, its emphasis on the importance of language Casey’s apocalyptic perspective on British for integration rings hollow.457 Muslims speaks of a “downward spiral with a growth in regressive religious and It is tempting to disregard the new agenda cultural ideologies”453 and also underpins of “meaningful contact” and “integrated the more policy-minded approach in the communities” altogether, and not just recently published Green Paper. Both because the concerned policies lack documents proceed from the assumption funding. Their excessive emphasis on that things go well when there is contact – contact only makes sense against the when “meaningful interaction” takes place background of dominant myths about – and that the absence of contact needs to Muslim separation. Government responds be understood as a critical failure of to manufactured anxieties about Muslim integration. This is despite the fact that distance, which explain its direction of contact is an ambivalent remedy. There is political travel much better than any no sociological evidence that heightened positive definition of “integration”. Echo- interaction – that is, contact without due chamber bureaucrats, such as Casey, single attention to socio-economic circumstances, out political, residential and educational political environments and local choices by Muslim citizens, whom she geographies that structure the relationship blames for the lack of cross-cultural contact between social-cultural groups – would in British society. Her understanding of improve anything, much less resolve the Muslim separation isn’t gleaned from any problems of multicultural Britain.454 evidence-based approach. It reflects alluring myths that persist despite a wealth It is perplexing that UK policy-making, of readily available counterevidence, despite some lip service to the contrary, suggesting that Muslims are as much part continues to present contact as a of British society as any other social comprehensive solution to urgent social group.458 problems.455 Among the reasons is that the remedy is cheap. Policies that target The myth of separation doesn’t need to be “segregated” populations for deficient backed up by facts. It brings long-standing attitudes, not for their socio-economic anxieties about Muslim difference into circumstances, require fewer resources play. The idea that British Muslims lead than any material investment in the good “separate lives” draws on cultured society. At the same time, initiatives that understandings of “the Muslim world” as do valuable work in fostering local irredeemably different, anti-modern and

451 The Casey Review: a review into opportunity and integration. 455 Integrated Communities Strategy Green Paper, p12.

452 Integrated Communities Strategy Green Paper, HM Government, March 2018, 456 Integrated Communities Strategy Green Paper, p15. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at tachment_data/file/696993/Integrated_Communities_Strategy.pdf. 457 Maya Goodfellow, "English Language and Integration," Discover Society, May 01, 2018, https://discoversociety.org/2018/05/01/english-language-and-integration/. 453 The Casey Review: a review into opportunity and integration, p15. 458 Farah Elahi and Omar Khan, eds., Islamophobia: Still a Challenge for Us All, report, 454 James Laurence, "Reconciling the Contact and Threat Hypotheses: Does Ethnic The Runnymede Trust, 2017, Diversity Strengthen or Weaken Community Inter-ethnic Relations?" Ethnic and https://www.runnymedetrust.org/uploads/Islamophobia%20Report%202018%20F Racial Studies 37, no. 8 (2013): doi:10.1080/01419870.2013.788727. INAL.pdf

146 engulfed in a civilizational crisis. There is extremism, this is registered as evidence of an entire genre of contributions that speaks dangerous distance. The new counter- of a Muslim “rebellion” against modernity terrorism tsar, Sara Khan, alleges that which, as one commentator suggests, finds organisations that do not proactively expression in “aimless and formless engage with the policy belong to a “Salafi- resentment and anger of the Muslim Islamist line-up”.462 Campaigns for civil masses at the forces that have devalued liberties and against Islamophobia do not their traditional values and loyalties”.459 reflect a welcome commitment to the The description of Muslim life in Casey’s common good, but underscore the alleged report is not materially different. It is self-centredness of Muslim political informed by the civilizational agency, which is often portrayed as a understanding that Muslims are politics of grievance.463 dangerously distant, which it re-describes The myth of distance draws on a continuity in the spatial terms of “segregation”. Such of ideas about Muslim otherness. It is not distance is slippery and attempts by possible to discuss here if available Muslim organisations, including MEND understanding of Islamophobia capture and the Muslim Council of Britain, to this continuity and provide a good basis defeat the myth by demonstrating for pushing back against such myths. But proximity, or by highlighting the civic there is no doubt that the idea that Muslims “normality” of Muslim concerns, are are dangerously distant — for the stigma always subject to evasive manoeuvres. that this idea entails and for its When a recent report by Policy Exchange invulnerability to counterevidence — found very little difference between constitutes a form of cultural racism that is Muslim and non-Muslim priorities in both common and widely acceptable in housing, education, values and national British society. identity, David Goodhart – one of the report’s authors – decided to downplay Protecting Minority Rights such findings and underline the one remaining marker of difference that When considering Islamophobia and its conveniently remained (here: a somewhat infiltration into discussions surrounding more pronounced tendency to embrace the rights of minority communities and the conspiracy theories about foreign place of Muslims in society, it is important policy).460 In his private writings, Goodhart to briefly acknowledge the national and is committed to reinforcing the idea of international legislative commitments that Muslims’ radical otherness.461 Available the United Kingdom observes with regards counterevidence, including from the think to protecting civil rights, minority rights tank that employs Goodhart, does very and human rights more broadly. Important little to change such views. For British pieces of legislation include: the 1950 Muslims findings of proximity never seem European Convention on Human Rights to stick. Distance always does. and the 1998 Human Rights Act; and the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and The myth of distance extends to social and Political Rights. political agency. Where British Muslim organisations refuse to buy into Prevent, the problematic agenda of counter-

459 Bernard Lewis, "The Roots of Muslim Rage," The Atlantic, September 1990, 461 David Goodhart, The Road to Somewhere: The Populist Revolt and the Future of accessed June 20, 2018, Politics (London: Hurst & Company, 2017). https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1990/09/the-roots-of-muslim- rage/304643/. 462 Sara Khan, The Battle for British Islam: Reclaiming Muslim Identity from Extremism (London: Saqi Books, 2016), 68. 460 Martyn Frampton, David Goodhart, and Khalid Mahmood, Unsettled Belonging: A Survey of Britain’s Muslim Communities, report, Policy Exchange, December 2016, 463 Jan Dobbernack, Nasar Meer, and Tariq Modood, "Misrecognition and Political https://policyexchange.org.uk/wp- Agency. The Case of Muslim Organisations in a General Election," The British Journal content/uploads/2016/12/PEXJ5037_Muslim_Communities_FINAL.pdf. of Politics and International Relations 17, no. 2 (2014): doi:10.1111/1467-856x.12033.

147 The European Convention on Human way which is incompatible with the ECHR, Rights (ECHR) unless to do so would contravene any other primary legislation. The Human The European Convention on Human Rights Act requires judiciary bodies to take Rights (ECHR), originally draft in 1950, is any decisions, judgment or opinion of the an international treaty that protects European Court of Human Rights into fundamental freedoms and human rights account, and to interpret legislation, as far in Europe that all the 47 Council of Europe as possible, in a way which is compatible member states must observe. The treaty with the protections afforded by ECHR. provides a number of legal provisions that protect the British Muslim community. The practice of religious rights Amongst these protections is Article 9, freedom of thought, conscience and Despite the protections afforded by the religion. ICCPR, the ECHR and the Human Rights Act, 1998, recent years have witnessed Article 9 states: numerous controversies, scandals, and “Everyone has the right to freedom of vicious public debates that have thought, conscience and religion; this right challenged Muslim religious practice and includes freedom to change his religion or observance in the UK context. Particular belief and freedom, either alone or in public controversy has surrounded the community with others and in public or right to halal meat, the building of private, to manifest his religion or belief, in mosques, and the right to religious dress, worship, teaching, practice and amongst other topics of public interest. observance. Such debates demonstrate how religious practices, whilst protected by national and Freedom to manifest one’s religion or international legislation, can still be beliefs shall be subject only to such contested and the discourse around them limitations as are prescribed by law and are used as a proxy argument to marginalise necessary in a democratic society in the minority communities and Muslims interests of public safety, for the protection specifically. of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of Halal Hysteria others.” Animal welfare should rightfully be of The unambiguous consequence of the primary concern, particularly considering article is the provision of legal protection today’s industrialised meat industry. for British Muslims (and other religious Indeed, all citizens have a responsibility to minorities) to be able to hold, observe, and confront issues such as cruelty, practice their faith. overproduction, and inhumane conditions Human Rights Act, 1998 that have notoriously characterised certain segments of the industry. To give a general The UK strengthened the provisions picture of some of the controversies outlined in the ECHR by introducing them surrounding meat production: into domestic law as part of the 1998 Human Rights Act. The intention of this act  Between July 2014 and 2016, a total of was to provide remedies for human rights 9,511 breaches of animal welfare were breaches within the UK court system and, reported to the Food Standards therefore, not requiring an individual to go Agency, nearly half of which were through the European Court of Human classed as category 4, the most severe Rights in Strasbourg. category, and caused “avoidable pain, Specifically, the Human Rights Act makes it unlawful for any public body to act in a

148 distress or suffering”.464 Cases included This has led to calls for all animals to be chickens and pigs being immersed in stunned before slaughter, with the boiling hot water while still being alive assumption that stunning leads to a in order to “soften the skin”. morally acceptable “pain-free” method of meat production. However, this is not  The Bureau of Investigative Journalism always the case. A study by the European (BIJ) in 2017 noted that there are Food Safety Authority (EFSA) looked at around 800 “megafarms” which house conventional slaughter methods more than a “million chickens, 20,000 employing pre-stunning, including the use pigs or 2,000 dairy cows” with around of the penetrative captive bolt (PCB) 15 chickens per square metre; or as BIJ method, whereby a bolt of 7-11cm is fired illustratively noted, around an area into the animal’s brain to render it “about the size of an A4 sheet of paper unconscious and the non-PCB method for each bird”.465 whereby a bolt is fired at the head of the  A 2003 report by the Farm Animal animal but does not enter the brain. The Welfare Council noted that 1/3 of pigs study found that the failure rate for slaughtered were killed using gas stunning in cattle for PCB method was chambers in which carbon dioxide is around 4%, and between 20-30% for the pumped into the rooms, resulting in non-PCB method. Therefore, 20-30% of suffocation.466 animals undergoing non-PCB have to be However, in the face of these numerous re-stunned. Obviously, a bolt being fired at and highly problematic practices and an animal’s head that fails to render them outcomes, Muslims are frequently singled unconscious is clearly going to be a painful out for special and aggressive scrutiny. and distressing experience. In fact, research has found that in some animals The debate on religious slaughter has been the non-PCB method causes skull ongoing in the UK for almost a decade. In fractures. Hence to advocate that stunning 2009, a blog post on the PETA (People for is always pain free is not supported by the Ethical Treatment of Animals) website research.469 was published entitled “The Cruelty Furthermore, these studies highlight the Behind Muslim Ritual Slaughter.”467 This blog post effectively initiated the “halal need for serious analysis of animal welfare hysteria” that would characterise much of and the advocating of responsible farming the discussion surrounding halal meat ever and slaughter across all strands of the meat since. It did not take long for various industry. newspapers to latch on to the moral panic One of the first people to bring the topic of and produce typically fear driven and religious slaughter to the attention of divisive headlines, such as “Now halal Parliament is Philip Davies, Conservative school dinners,” from the Daily Star in 2010 MP for Shipley. In 2010, Davies stated that which claimed that schools will give pupils numerous retailers sell halal food without “no option but to eat meat slaughtered informing customers. Consequently, he following Islamic teachings specifically for urged the Leader of the House to ensure Muslims”.468 that the issue of food labelling would be

464 Andrew Wasley, "FSA: 4,000 Major Breaches of Animal Welfare Laws at UK tachment_data/file/325241/FAWC_report_on_the_welfare_of_farmed_animals_at_s Abattoirs in Two Years," The Guardian, August 28, 2016, laughter_or_killing_part_one_red_meat_animals.pdf. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/28/fsa-4000-breaches- 467 "The Cruelty Behind Muslim Ritual Slaughter," PETA, December 08, 2009, accessed animal-welfare-laws-uk-abattoirs-two-years. May 11, 2017, http://www.peta.org/blog/cruelty-behind-muslim-ritual-slaughter/. 465 Andrew Wasley and Madlen Davies, "The Rise of the "megafarm": How British Meat Is Made," The Bureau of Investigative Journalism, July 17, 2017, 468 Gary Nicks, "NOW HALAL SCHOOL DINNERS," Daily Star, August 05, 2010, https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2017-07-17/megafarms-uk- accessed May 11, 2017, http://www.dailystar.co.uk/news/latest- intensive-farming-meat. news/147870/NOW-HALAL-SCHOOL-DINNERS. 466 Report on the Welfare of Farmed Animals at Slaughter or Killing, report, Farm Animal 469 Welfare Council, June 2003, accessed June 20, 2018, "Opinion on BSE Risk from Dissemination of Brain Particles in Blood and Carcass https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at following Stunning," EFSA Journal 2, no. 12 (2004): 1-4, doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2004.123.

149 debated in Parliament.470 The topic of food compassionate traditions of animal labelling was thus debated in April 2012, welfare,”471 ostensibly appearing to be when Davies proposed a bill requiring all centring their policies around prioritising food to be labelled, so that consumers the “ethical treatment of animals”. would be better able to make informed However, the reality behind their decisions on what to buy. proposals was a specific targeting of Muslim and Jewish communities have Muslim communities and the party was subsequently supported policies which are repeatedly accused of using divisive seen to promote good practice in animal language to enflame anti-Muslim slaughter, such as the installation of CCTV sentiment.472 This is evident as the in slaughterhouses and calls for clearer agricultural spokesman himself, Stuart food labelling. However, they have argued Agnew, stated that the policy was not that a wide framework of labelling be meant to target Jews, but rather it was adopted, including labels for electrocution, “aimed at others” implying that the policy strangling, and other methods used in non- was addressing halal meat and Muslims, religious stunned slaughter as well. Thus, and the impact on Jews would be the aim is to avoid discriminatory “collateral damage”.473 He also clarified treatment or burdens on Muslim and that this move was made distinctly to win Jewish producers and consumers. votes ahead of the general election.474 The topic of religious slaughter even reached The welfare of animals is in fact a major the UKIP leadership elections in August concern in both the Islamic and Jewish 2016, where one candidate, Bill Etheridge, faiths, with the requirements of halal and claimed that he would call for a ban on Kosher slaughter dictating the religious slaughter if he became the party requirements for humane treatment and leader, stating that he is “highly respect for the animal, not just in the concerned” that these practices cause process of its death, but also in the “unnecessary suffering” to animals.475 conditions of its life, including requirements such as providing ample As previously mentioned, a genuine space, adequate nourishment, and concern for animal welfare should be avoiding pain, suffering and distress. encouraged and commended, it is in fact central to the practice of religious The media’s preoccupation with halal slaughter. However, UKIP’s sudden stand slaughter has allowed far-right groups to for animal welfare is somewhat surprising capitalise on anti-Muslim sentiment to and would appear disingenuous given further their own anti-immigrant and anti- their history of policy positions that run Muslim agendas. UKIP is a prominent contrary to the welfare of animals. For example of this rhetoric. Having called for example, UKIP have committed to the banning of non-stunned slaughter in bringing back fox hunting in the UK, their their 2015 manifesto, UKIP became the first MEPs voted against measures to protect party willing to back such a ban. Their elephants and crack down on the illegal stance attempted to draw on the moral ivory trade, and they also voted against an aspect of the debate, claiming that religious EU ban on importing seal fur, with one slaughter is overriding “the UK’s MEP, Roget Helmer, claiming that “it's

470 "Business of the House," Hansard Online, accessed May 11, 2017, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2938362/Farage-accused-wanting-drive- https://goo.gl/Qvc9l5. Jews-Britain-Ukip-pledge-ban-religious-slaughter-animals.html.

471 "Should religious slaughter be banned in the UK?" 474 Christopher Hope, "Ukip bans non-stun slaughtering in abattoirs," The Telegraph, February 03, 2015, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/11388345/Ukip- 472 Catherine Bearder, "Ukip's position on halal and kosher meat is about stoking bans-non-stun-slaughtering-in-abattoirs.html. division, not animal welfare," New Statesman, February 10, 2015, http://www.newstatesman.com/politics/2015/02/ukips-position-halal-and- 475 Jonathan Walker, "UKIP leadership candidate to ban kosher and halal slaughter," kosher-meat-about-stoking-division-not-animal-welfare. Birmingham Mail, August 03, 2016, http://www.birminghammail.co.uk/news/midlands-news/ukip-leadership- 473 John Stevens, "Farage accused of driving Jews from Britain after Ukip pledge to ban candidate-wants-ban-11691868. religious slaughter of animals," Daily Mail Online, February 04, 2015,

150 mawkish, sentimental and unhelpful to because, as a group, Muslims are adopt a Bambi attitude to animals”.476 homogenised. We get a homogenous image of Muslims where one can stand in Therefore, regarding halal slaughter, for the rest: if they are all the same, we can debates have frequently been characterised simply substitute one for another. What’s by an aggressive (while often superficial) more, if one is a terrorist, then the rest must adoption of animal rights concerns be too – or at least they must sympathise combined with the perpetuation of with the terrorists. This is also why, when Islamophobic tropes and misinformation, the media need to illustrate a story about aimed at stigmatising and marginalising anything involving Islam or Muslims, they British Muslim communities. Such rhetoric pull out a picture of women in hijab or a leads to both a failure to properly address picture of angry young men. These are the legitimate and urgent animal welfare images that Islam and Muslims have concerns and to a furthering of anti- become reduced to. The story about the Muslim discourses and agendas. woman on Westminster Bridge draws Representing Muslim women upon, and reproduces, these wider and Islamophobia representations of Islam. Islamophobia is nourished by this homogenisation of Muslims (‘they are all the same’) and this Dr Lasse Thomassen reduction of them to a particular image Queen Mary University (‘they are all like this’). A terrorist attack on Westminster Bridge. A The cloth of the hijab becomes part of a big woman walks past an injured person on cloth that envelops all Muslim women the pavement. She is looking at her mobile wearing the hijab, creating a homogeneous and seems to be in a hurry. The woman is mass out of them. At the same time, wearing a headscarf. Because terrorism is different degrees of covering are taken as associated with Islam, the woman is seen reflections of different degrees of as a Muslim. The woman on the bridge is autonomy: the more covered you are, the now a Muslim woman ignoring a victim of less free you must be. Take, for instance, Islamist terrorism. the case of Shabina Begum. Her school had a shalwar kameeze version of the school People commenting on the photo of her on uniform, but she wanted to wear a jilbab. social media do not know that the woman The whole case concerned the significance is a Muslim. They take her headscarf as a of the sartorial difference between the two transparent sign of her Muslim-ness. It is a forms of the hijab. This had to do with familiar pattern: the more covered a much more than the physical cloth: it woman is, the more transparent is her precisely had to do with the significance – identity to others. The woman becomes yet the meaning – of the shalwar kameeze and another Muslim woman who is identified the jilbab. In the debate about the case, the by her hijab, and by that alone. She is jilbab was taken as a sign of extremism, but reduced to her Muslim-ness. Like other it also became a sign of Shabina Begum’s Muslims, she can only speak and act as a lack of autonomy: she cannot have chosen Muslim. She becomes bound to, and by, to wear the jilbab herself, she must have this identity. been under the influence of her brother, The photo of the woman on Westminster and so on and so forth. One version of the Bridge becomes yet another way of talking hijab (the shalwar kameeze) becomes the about Islam and Muslims by talking about version worn by moderate and reasonable a woman in a hijab. This is possible girls who can choose themselves; the other

476 "Ukip's position on halal and kosher meat is about stoking division, not animal welfare".

151 version of the hijab becomes what a girl of Muslims (judging another culture solely under the influence of darker forces would by the values and standards of one's own choose to wear. culture). For example, evaluating Muslim women’s choice of dress exclusively The misrepresentation of Islam and through the speaker’s expectations and Muslims in the media and by government without reference to the personal cultural agencies is a common theme, and norms and values of the women in complaint, in both public and academic question.” debates about Islamophobia. It is particularly important in the context of Women’s dress is an area that is repeatedly Muslim women. Their clothing and their highlighted within media, political, and bodies have become the primary sites for public discourses as a mechanism for debates about the place of Islam in society stigmatising Muslim communities as (and not just what we usually refer to as backwards, oppressive, and incompatible ‘Western’ societies, but also in the so-called with Western societies. However, it is rare ‘Muslim world’). that Muslim hijabi or niqabi women are themselves afforded platforms or Women’s clothing and bodies have become recognised agency within the debate. the real and metaphorical sites for discussions of ‘the Muslim question’. This As Todd Green observes, “The makes it all the more important that we ask stereotypical Muslim woman in the which and whose representations of Islam Western media is depicted as a victim of dominate not just public debate but also either violence or sexism (or both) at the the conversations we have at work, at hands of angry and misogynist Muslim home and on social media. In those debates men”.477 Within these narratives, Muslim and conversations, how can we let Muslim women are consistently represented as women speak for themselves? In voiceless, submissive, oppressed, and answering that question, we must passive victims and there is a serious lack remember that a woman can cover and of representation of Muslim women as uncover but can never completely control creative, successful and powerful leaders. how others interpret this. What we say and Meanwhile, Muslim women’s what we do as individuals draw upon achievements are overlooked, particularly existing structures of meaning. For women who do not fit into the stereotype instance, we could not follow a religion, if of the veiled and the victimised. our actions were not recognisably As such, the following discussion attempts ‘Muslim’, say. And this is precisely why it to explore some of the ways in which is so important who gets to define what it Islamophobic narratives infiltrate the means to be a ‘Muslim’ and the debates surrounding Muslim women’s associations people make. It is why it is dress. important that we pay attention to the representations of Islam and Muslims that Focus on Muslim women’s dress have become dominant in our society. The media, and society in general, are obsessed with the way women look. What Hijab, veiling, and the niqab women wear frequently overshadows any debate other achievement or endeavour in a way that is undeniably distinct to the way MEND’s working definition of men’s dress is approached. A good Islamophobia includes “applying example of this is when, in an attempt to ethnocentric approaches to the treatment expose the sexism directed at his female

477 Todd H. Green, The Fear of Islam: an Introduction to Islamophobia in the West (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2015), 240-241.

152 colleagues, the Australian TV anchor Karl as a diverse collection of voices, Stefanovic wore the same blue suit on his experiences, and values. Moreover, the show every day for a year.478 While his damaging tendency to examine issues female co-host received regular unsolicited facing Muslim women purely through and appraisals on her wardrobe choice from ethnocentric lens, and without wider viewers, not a single viewer noticed that consultation with these women the man sitting next to her had been themselves, is uncomfortably reminiscent wearing the same cheap suit for months. of the age old imperialist paradigm of “White men saving Brown women from In many ways, Muslim women are victims Brown men”. of this particular strain of sexism not only in terms of their adherence to fashion This ethnocentric lens was recently applied sensibilities, but also through accusations when Ofsted announced proposed plans to that they are in some way socially deviant question Muslim girls who wear the hijab and refusing to integrate and adhere to in schools. In November 2017, Amanda British cultural norms and values. Spielman, Ofsted’s Chief Inspector of Newspaper articles that talk of “shroud- Education, raised concerns surrounding swishing zombies”479 and dressing “like a young Muslim girls being “sexualised” by Dalek”480 constitute completely wearing the hijab at a young age. For many dysphemistic481 representations with the Muslims, this accusation is confusing, as expressed purpose of condemning Muslim sexualisation is directionally oppositional women for their choice of dress, and to the purpose of the hijab. It is possible directly link this choice of dress to a lack of that the assumption of the hijab sexualising social morality. young girls actually stems from a much more convoluted set of Ethnocentric approaches to Muslim misunderstandings. women In reality, the issue is one of the Many scholars have observed that Muslim comparative tastes and normative women are frequently considered to be behaviours of differing cultural or victims of their religious and/or cultural religious traditions. In the United heritage without having actually been Kingdom today, the dominant cultural consulted on the matter.482 As has often norms of women’s dress dictate that the been the case throughout the history of head remains uncovered. There is no value feminism, usually educated, Western, judgement to be made in this respect – it is White men and women have spoken on simply a cultural norm and tradition; no behalf of their non-Western and non-White better or worse than any other. However, counterparts. This paints a generalised and this cultural norm is in contrast to the incomplete picture, whilst simultaneously norms of many British Muslims — presenting solutions and approaches that regardless of whether these norms derive do not resonate with the women that they from cultural, religious or ethnic are intended to help. understandings. It is imperative that Muslim women are Those that accuse the hijab of “sexualising” recognised, not as a monolithic group, but a girl or a woman have taken the dominant

478 See Michael Lallo, "Karl Stefanovic's sexism experiment: Today presenter wears 480 The Sun, 20th June 2008. See Paul Baker, Tony McEnery, and Costas Gabrielatos, same suit for a year," The Sydney Morning Herald, November 14, 2014, Discourse analysis and media attitudes: the representation of Islam in the British press http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/tv-and-radio/karl-stefanovics-sexism- (Cambridge: University press, 2013), 215. experiment-today-presenter-wears-same-suit-for-a-year-20141115-11ncdz.html and Bim Adewunmi, "Male TV presenter wears same suit for a year – does anyone notice?," 481 Intentionally employing derogatory or offensive terminologies and phraseologies The Guardian, November 17, 2014, over terms that are more innocuous and neutral. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/womens-blog/2014/nov/17/male-tv- presenter-same-suit-year-female-colleagues-judged. 482 See Moosavi, "Orientalism at home.”

479 The Sun, 24th June 2009. See Paul Baker, Tony McEnery, and Costas Gabrielatos, Discourse analysis and media attitudes: the representation of Islam in the British press (Cambridge: University press, 2013), 216.

153 norms of Western dress as the standard MEND’s definition of Islamophobia benchmark of normality. From this includes measures that seek to or result in perspective, the hijab is something restricting or excluding Muslims from additional which is thus in need of enjoying and accessing fundamental explanation. The conclusion of some in freedoms in public life. Restricting a searching for this explanation is that of a Muslim women’s right to choose what to “backwards culture” which oppresses wear will do nothing to encourage women. This explanation overlooks the participation in the economic, social, actual lived experience of millions of political, and public spheres. In reality, and women that choose to wear the hijab as our definition of Islamophobia suggests, globally. the consequence will be to exclude them and marginalise them further. Amanda Spielman’s concerns surrounding young girls supporting religious dress is Furthermore, while British Muslim not a new topic of public discussion. women’s lives are framed within their Indeed, debates have been raging for ethno-cultural and religious several years across Europe surrounding circumstances, the challenges they face the idea that veiling practices hinder cannot and should not be completely educational development or that it is a dislocated from structural disadvantages symbol of the oppression that young girls that all British women face more generally. face at the hands of their parents and male Moreover, political and media discourses relatives.483 that serve only to perpetuate stereotypes of Muslim women can only ever be However, as Marjane Satrapi has argued, counterproductive for all women by “I passionately believe that the young misrepresenting the nature - or worse, women who have been expelled from completely distracting from - the issues school for wearing a veil should have the that they actually face. Therefore, while freedom to choose. It is surely a basic cultural practices should be examined, human right that someone can choose women’s issues do not exist in a vacuum what she wears without interference from and need to be confronted with the state. Critics argue that it is not the girls appropriate honesty and nuance. themselves who want to wear the veil, rather they are forced to do so by their It is, therefore, essential that ethnocentric parents. But if that is the case, if these are limitations are removed and that Muslim the kind of parents who will force their women are fully consulted, heard, and daughters to wear a veil, they are probably respected in discussions surrounding the kind of parents who will be happy to issues that innately affect them. withdraw them from school and then to The Façade of Women’s Liberation marry them off to a distant cousin at 15 with whom they will bear five children. If The history of Western (and often male) we want to give these girls any chance of politicians supposed support of women’s emancipation, any chance that one day advancement and liberation is largely one they will decide for themselves that they of general hypocrisy and insincerity. The don't want to wear the veil, it will come Egyptian American feminist, Leila Ahmed, from education. It will certainly not come points to Evelyn Baring, the Earl of from being withdrawn by their Cromer, who served as Britain's first families.”484 consul general of Egypt between 1883 and 1907. Cromer is an emblematic proponent

483 Jess Staufenberg, "Muslim Teenager Forbidden from Wearing Face Niqab by 484 Marjane Satrapi, "Veiled threat," The Guardian, December 12, 2003, German Court," The Independent, August 23, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/dec/12/gender.uk. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/germany-muslin-student- banned-niqab-face-veil-school-islam-a7204671.html.

154 of the “White man’s burden” mentality – heels. This oppression is also seen in the the need for White men to save Brown damage caused by media representation women from Brown men that has been and advertising that serves to objectify pushed in every imperialist and colonialist women’s bodies. project even to this day.485 Cromer believed As Satrapi notes, “I have been incredibly Islam degraded women and that it was surprised by the reaction of French essential that Egyptians "be persuaded or feminists, who have publicly campaigned forced" into abandoning the veil, which he for the banning of "this visible symbol of described as a "fatal obstacle" to the the submission of women". The western Egyptians' "mental and moral woman is so entranced by the idea that her development". emancipation comes from the miniskirt However, back in Britain, as Ahmed that she is convinced that if you have observes, "this champion of the unveiling something on your head you are nothing. of Egyptian women" was the "founding The women who are forced to wear the member and some-time president of the veil, and the women who are portrayed Men's League for Opposing Woman naked to sell everything from car tyres to Suffrage". She therefore concludes that orange juice, are both facing a form of "[f]eminism on the home front and oppression.”486 feminism directed against white men was As the Moroccan-American academic Laila to be resisted and suppressed; but taken Lalami has noted, "[t]he societies that abroad and directed against the cultures of already have coercive laws - Iran and Saudi colonised peoples, it could be promoted in Arabia, for example, which force women to ways that admirably served and furthered wear headscarves, Turkey and Tunisia, the project of the dominance of the white which forbid women to wear face veils - man." are not known for their respect of human In following this tradition, politicians rights."487 Therefore, in European countries advocating a niqab ban, for example, which pride themselves on tolerance, frequently use it as a vehicle for garnering freedom and respect for human rights, it political support and legitimacy through seems paradoxical that there is so much the façade of supporting women’s rights. If impetus afforded to restricting Muslim this were the case in reality, equal concern Women’s dress. would be shown for major social issues According to François Hollande, the such as rape, gendered violence, former head of the French Socialist Party, employment discrimination, harassment, "the tactic is clear. It's about getting back a sexual objectification and a whole host of hold of a part of the electorate which has in other issues that obstruct women’s part retreated into abstention or voting for equality on a far greater scale across the far right."488 Ultimately, it is about Europe than does the choice of a tiny scoring political points. minority of Muslim women to cover their faces with a niqab. Indeed, throughout Europe, support for a niqab ban cuts across the left-right divide. Likewise, if genuine concern was given to While it is seen on the right as a threat to oppression through women’s dress, there “European” culture and values and a would be equal prominence given to symbol of a “foreign, belligerent faith company policies and dress codes that community, the ‘other’”, it is seen on the demand women to wear makeup and high

485 One of the advertised reasons for Western intervention in both Iraq and 487 Mehdi Hasan, "Thinly Veiled Threat: Mehdi Hasan on the Niqab," New Statesman, Afghanistan was the need to liberate Iraqi and Afghani women. May 28, 2010, http://www.newstatesman.com/religion/2010/05/face-veil-muslim- women-ban. 486 “Veiled threat.” 488 Ibid.

155 left as a form of oppression that subjugates Jack Straw, wrote in his local paper about a women and violates their rights. Muslim woman wearing a niqab. The woman in question had come to Mr. However, this seems to ignore the fact that Straw’s office accompanied by her not every Muslim woman is forced, under husband to discuss a problem. Despite threat of violence, to wear the veil by her being impressed with her “entirely English male relatives. In reality, many wear the accent” and the couple’s completely UK niqab or burqa as a matter of personal based education, Jack Straw had serious choice. reservations about her choice of dress.490 In As Mehdi Hasan has observed “[t]he irony the article he described the veil as a “visible of using the threat of prison to freewomen statement of separation and of from the so-called prison of the burqa is not difference.”491 This is significant as one lost on Muslim commentators, either.” could argue the same thing about Scottish This irony is noted by British Muslim kilts, Jewish kippahs, Japanese kimonos, writer and activist Myriam François- Sikh turbans, and Indian saris which are Cerrah; “[t]he Belgians have a funny idea worn as much as (if not more than) niqabs of liberation… criminalising women in are worn in Britain.492 order to free them.” She also points out that There are several key issues with this strain the individuals and organisations who of integration discourse. As discussed support the ban on face veils as a matter of earlier in this chapter, the first is a clear women’s liberation largely have seriously misunderstanding of what the term troubling attitudes to women’s rights: “integration” actually means. In reality, “[b]ut what else do we expect from the while many proponents of restricting likes of Sarkozy in France or Silvio Muslim women’s dress (most often seen in Berlusconi in Italy? Their co-opting of calls for a niqab ban) refer to “integration”, feminist rhetoric and the language of they are actually describing assimilation. human rights cannot hide their abysmal As Professor Tariq Modood493 has form on gender issues - from Sarkozy's ex- observed, assimilation involves the wife Cécilia branding him a "stingy ‘newcomers’ becoming as much like their philanderer" to Berlusconi's string of hosts as possible while not disturbing the alleged affairs with very young women. In host society, with the least change in the the UK, and Malcolm Pearson, attitudes of the latter.494 leaders of the BNP and UKIP respectively - the only political parties advocating an This is in direct contrast to integration outright ban on the veil in this country - which relies upon mutual understanding have similarly questionable attitudes to the and accommodations: advancement of women's rights.”489 “Integration is a two-way process: it Islamophobic sentiments within requires adaptation on the part of the nationalist discourse newcomer but also by the host society. Successful integration can only take place A major accusation levied against veiling is if the host society provides access to jobs that it is a visible rejection of British values, and services, and acceptance of the and that the niqab specifically is an alleged immigrants in social interaction. Above all, barrier to integration. In 2006, the Member integration in a democracy presupposes of Parliament for Blackburn in Lancashire,

489 Ibid. 492 L. Moosavi, "Orientalism at home: Islamophobia in the representations of Islam and Muslims by the New Labour Government," Ethnicities 15, no. 5 (2014): 655. 490 Nahid Afrose. Kabir, Young British Muslims: identity, culture, politics and the media (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010), 144. 493 Whose own contribution to this report can be found in the earlier chapter on Islamophobia, Racism, Xenophobia, anti-Semitism and Othering. 491 "UK | UK Politics | In quotes: Jack Straw on the veil," BBC News, October 06, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/5413470.stm. 494 Tariq Modood, "Remaking Multiculturalism after 7/7," OpenDemocracy, September 29, 2005, https://www.opendemocracy.net/conflict- terrorism/multiculturalism_2879.jsp.

156 acquisition of legal and political rights by as inferior and in need of being the new members of society, so that they civilised.”498 Moreover, it implies that can become equal partners. Indeed, it is Muslims are unwilling to engage in possible to argue that, in a multicultural dialogue. society, integration may be understood as Ultimately, this discussion of “British a process through which the whole values” and Muslims’ supposed rejection population acquires civil, social, political, of these values is symptomatic of human and cultural rights, which creates underlying fears surrounding national the conditions for greater equality. In this identity and Muslims as an “invading approach, integration can also mean that threat” to this identity. minority groups should be supported in maintaining their cultural and social Discourses surrounding gender are central identities, since the right to cultural choices to self-definition of social groups. is intrinsic to democracy.”495 Throughout history, men have been equated to rationality and social agency, In Moosavi’s study on Labour Cabinet while women have been equated to Ministers’ speeches between 2001 and familial belonging and cultural 2007, he observed that politicians authenticity. At its most basic level, a frequently argued for increasing woman’s body is the source of future patriotism by emphasising “British citizens, and as the mothers of the nation, values”. However, in so doing, they it is women that are considered the constructed ideas of Britishness as nurturers of that identity. Therefore, it is something directly opposed to what it women’s bodies that are representative of means to be Muslim.496 Consider the what these future citizens should become. following two quotes from the then Prime Consequently, it is upon the bodies of Minister, , and cabinet minister women that displays of national identity Ruth Kelly: are played out and negotiated. “[W]e expect all our citizens to conform to Furthermore, Muslim women’s bodies [“our common values”]… not optional for have become the territory over which the British citizens. They are what British is imagined “clash of civilisations” has about. Being British carries rights. It also frequently been fought. If we look at the carries duties. And those duties take clear history of Western images of Muslim precedence over any cultural or religious women, colonialist logic traditionally practice.” (Blair, 2006) centred upon veiling and the seclusion of “making [British values] resonate with women as the emblem of women’s some people, including a small group of oppression and cultural backwardness. As younger Muslims, is a genuine challenge.” such, it was the colonial regime’s duty to (Kelly, 2007)497 educate and liberate women. This stigma against veiling leads to the public Kelly and Blair were not alone in these perception of veiling as an inferior practice kinds of statements, and in making such that has no place in the construction of a statements advertise to wider society that modern society. Needless to say, such a Muslims are making a conscious decision perception stems from the deep vacuum of to reject British values. Ultimately, it understanding within Western discourse suggests that Muslims need to be “taught surrounding veiling and the meaning that morality, a trope of the white man’s burden, a trope which singles Muslims out

495 Integration: Mapping the Field. 497 Quoted in Moosavi, "Orientalism at home,” 660.

496 Moosavi, "Orientalism at home: Islamophobia in the representations of Islam and 498 Moosavi, "Orientalism at home,” 660. Muslims by the New Labour Government," Ethnicities 15, no. 5 (2014): 659.

157 it holds for the women whom choose to Fred Nile argued that criminals and practice it. terrorists can use face coverings such as the burqa and niqab to hide their identities.501 These attitudes towards the At the same time, Australian Government “backwardness” of veiling are emphasised Senator Cory Bernardi linked recent raids in media discourses. In 2006, the News of on suspected terrorists to face veils, the World attested that “95% of Britain’s claiming that burqa wearers had been Muslims do not wear the veil. They are found in several of the houses raided.502 normal people who want to integrate.”499 Many UK politicians and public figures, Similarly, in 2007, the Times stated that such as Nigel Farage, have echoed these “many Indian women still wear security concerns and argued that face headscarves and veils.”500 Firstly, the use of veils obstruct counter-terrorism efforts. the word “normal” implies that women who do choose to veil are in some way Indeed, referring once again to Ofsted’s deviant. Secondly, the use of the term concerns surrounding the hijab in schools, “still” positions veiling as something according to The Guardian, Ms Spielman irrational, inferior and backward that referenced “fundamentalist groups should be “grown out of” and abandoned. influencing school policy” in her proposal Consequently, hijab, niqab, burqa or any to question Muslim girls in hijab. The other kind of veil is frequently portrayed consequence of directly linking the hijab to within public, political, and media fundamentalism is to imply that those who discourses as a signifier of a lack of social chose to wear the hijab must do so out of progress. extremist tendencies. For many Muslim women who choose to wear the hijab, it is Thus, women themselves have become the simply part of a cultural or religious norm physical embodiment of both a society’s of dress and, therefore, it has no more civilizational progression and its correlation with extremism than a crucifix, adherence to cultural identity. It is in this skull cap or turban. The danger of way that veiling has become seen as a influential public figures making such physical representation of deviation from connections is to malign practicing the British national identity. Women are Muslims and marginalise them within the culturally authentic and, in Britain, (in public life. theory) women are deemed to be empowered, progressive and bestowed As discussed in a previous chapter with sexual liberation and freedom. This is regarding Securitising Muslim Identities: in stark contrast to the Islamophobic Security and Counter-Terror, this stereotypes that are prevalent in the media connection between Muslim women’s surrounding veiled, oppressed, backward dress and extremism is another example of and victimised Muslim women. the ways in which Muslim identities have become securitised to such a level that even Veiling as extremism and a security risk religious clothing is deemed to be a The burqa and niqab specifically, but hijabs heightened risk to security. more generally, are often viewed as This heightened level of securitisation and symbols of extremism. Across the West, concern must be examined thoroughly so politicians and public figures have that counter-terror measures may be repeatedly pointed to the potential security expounded in a proportional manner. For threats posed by the practice of face example, a blanket ban on the niqab/burka veiling. In 2014, the Australian Reverend

499 The News of the World 22nd October 2006 501 Renae Barker, "Banning the Burqa Is Not the Answer to Fears about Public Safety," The Conversation, September 22, 2014, http://theconversation.com/banning-the- 500 The Times 20th June 2007 burqa-is-not-the-answer-to-fears-about-public-safety-31628.

502 Ibid.

158 on the grounds of security (as some have unlikely that this week you will read any suggested) is a disproportionate response reports of a UK terrorist incident. Even less to the potential for a terrorist attack to be likely that a Muslim woman in a veil committed using a niqab or burqa to would be the culprit.”505 As such, the obscure the attacker’s identity. In practice, argument that restricting the freedoms of police already possess the power to request Muslim women will mitigate security risks a person remove their face covering in completely ignores the reality of violent front of a female officer for the purposes of crimes. checking their identity. This is a far more Furthermore, while the niqab may receive proportionate and sensible approach. a lot of attention due to its visibility, the Furthermore, as the lecturer of law, Renae numbers of women who actually choose to Barker, argues, “[f]ace veils can, in certain wear them remains incredibly low. circumstances, impede identification and According to the co-director of the Belgian pose a security risk. However, there is no Institute for Equal Opportunities, Edouard security threat from women wearing the Delruelle, only around 215 women "at burqa while having coffee at their favourite most" in Belgium wore the veil before the café.”503 ban. Others estimated the number to be as Furthermore, the security risk from low as 30, in a Muslim population of just women generally is incredibly low. over 600,000 and a total Belgian population Indeed, in the UK, women make up only of 10.8 million. Consequently, the majority around five per cent of the prison of Belgians would never have met a niqabi population, of which 81 per cent are woman. Likewise, the French security serving a sentence for a non-violent services estimated that 2,000 of crime.504 Furthermore, even considering approximately two million adult Muslim the tiny number of terrorist incidents in the women in France - 0.1 per cent - wore the UK, these too, are overwhelmingly carried full-face veil. In discussions surrounding out by men. Belgium’s banning of the face veil in 2011, Green MP, Fouad Lahssaini, described In response to UKIP’s announcement of the passing a ban on the face veil as "taking out inclusion of a niqab ban in their proposed a bazooka to kill a fly".506 “Integration Agenda”, Kirsty Strickland of the Independent made an important point Ultimately, these debates merely serve to in her article “Paul Nuttall's burqa ban highlight the infiltration of processes of seems to forget that the public are more at securitisation into the lives of innocent risk from white men than Muslim Muslim women. These processes of women”. She argues that men in general securitisation, as previously discussed, (regardless of ethnicity or religion) are the thereby result in the stigmatisation, perpetrators of violent crime in far greater demonization, and marginalisation of numbers than similar crimes committed by Muslim communities. women. Yet, as a group, men are not characterised as a risk to public safety nor Controversy and Muslim placed under restrictions. women’s clothing practices She notes that “[i]f you pick up a newspaper today you will see examples of Dr Azeezat Johnson white men harming women, children, Queen Mary University minority ethnic groups and each other. It is

503 Ibid. 505 Ibid.

504 Kirsty Strickland, "Paul Nuttall’s Burqa Ban Seems to Forget That the Public Are 506 “Thinly Veiled Threat: Mehdi Hasan on the Niqab." More at Risk from Men than Muslim Women," The Independent, April 24, 2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/paul-nuttall-ukip-manifesto-burqa-ban- male-violence-muslim-women-a7698771.html.

159 We all wear clothes that we think reflect objectified within Islamophobic rhetoric. A how we want to present ourselves (or how number of feminist scholars have already we think we should present ourselves) as pointed to the social conditioning that we learn to negotiate different people, informs all of our clothing practices, schools, homes, workplaces, etc. Yet whether Muslim or not:510 511 after all, Muslim women’s clothing practices are ‘nobody is born knowing how to walk in often the source of much public (and high heels’.512 This language of “choice” is academic) debate and controversy: after used to position Muslim women’s clothing all, the Casey Review posited a connection practices as deviant from the norm of between the “adherence to Muslim dress” Western liberal societies. and a “pull[ing] further away from By positioning these specific garments as a mainstream society”.507 Such connections symbol of Muslim women’s lack of work to stereotype Muslim women and fix integration, Muslim women are forced into them into specific garments as a defence of their clothing practices as representative of “the Muslim woman”, either empowering and feminist (i.e. white instead of thinking about the diversity of liberal feminist), or oppressive and clothing practices that different Muslim barbaric (i.e. Muslim). Jasbir Puar women engage with across different highlights how this logic of gender spaces. More importantly, by associating exceptionalism works to position the “Muslim dress” with a lack of integration, experiences and behaviours of Muslim Muslim women are represented as a women as subordinate to that of the white, potentially transgressive and threatening non-Muslim Western woman: presence within public spaces. Gender exceptionalism works as a The rhetoric surrounding Muslim women missionary discourse to rescue Muslim is not particularly new, but reflects a long women from their oppressive male colonial history of positioning these counterparts. It also works to suggest that, clothing practices as a source of oppression in contrast to women in the [West], Muslim that Muslim women had to be “liberated” women are, at the end of the day, from by European colonisers.508 509 Rather unsavable. More insidiously, these than focusing on discrimination against discourses of exceptionalism allude to the Muslim women within the employment, unsalvageable nature of Muslim women housing and education sectors, “Muslim even by their own feminists, positioning dress” appear to overshadow the woman the [Western] feminist as the feminist that is wearing it. Muslim women’s own subject par excellence.513 words or experiences are silenced and ignored: rather, “Muslim dress” is solely When Muslim women continue to wear the understood through the ways in which headscarf or burqa and refuse the gift of other (non-Muslim) people might view or liberty presented through this white interact with their clothing practices. saviour narrative, she then becomes a threat, a representation of one’s The focus around whether Muslim women unwillingness to conform to these “choose” to wear specific clothing is supposedly tolerant Western societies. ultimately used to avoid addressing the And this double role as both victim and ways in which Muslim women’s bodies are threat is what feeds the objectification of

507 The Casey Review: a review into opportunity and integration, p123. 511 Beverley Skeggs, Formations of Class and Gender: Becoming Respectable (London: SAGE, 2012). 508 Malek Alloula, The Colonial Harem (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2008). 512 Richard Phillips, Muslim Spaces of Hope: Geographies of Possibility in Britain and the 509 Prasenjit Duara, Decolonization: Perspectives from Now and Then (London: West (London: Zed Books, 2009), p73. Routledge, 2008). 513 Jasbir K. Puar, Terrorist Assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer times (Durham, NC: 510 Rose Weitz and Samantha Kwan, The Politics of Womens Bodies: Sexuality, Duke University Press, 2008). Appearance, and Behavior (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

160 Muslim women within racist discourse. It is of little surprise that one of the activities of the now infamous “Punish a Muslim Day” included “pulling the headscarf off a Muslim ‘woman’”. This illustrates the way visibly Muslim woman have become central objects of Islamophobic language and action.

161 Part IV: Approaches to Tackling Islamophobia

MEND’s Model To Tackling Islamophobia ...... 163

162 Weakness of incitement to hatred MEND’s Model to legislation Tackling Islamophobia The Racial and Religious Hate Crime Act, 2006, contains a disparity between the What processes are allowing protections afforded on grounds of race vs Islamophobia to continue? the protections afforded to religious groups. In terms of racial hatred, a person Media negativity is protected against abusive, insulting, or The media is a key driving force behind threatening words or behaviour. However, how minority groups, including Muslims, the protections afforded on the basis of are received and understood within public religion only extends to threatening words perception. However, mainstream media or behaviour. This specifically excludes the in the UK is falling desperately short of its protection from abusive or insulting words ethical responsibilities not to incite moral or behaviour that is included under racial panic against vulnerable and innocent hatred. communities. Furthermore, within the protections In fact, newspapers such as The Sun and against religious hatred, there is an added The Daily Mail have repeatedly condition that intent must be proven. In demonstrated discriminatory, other words, it must be proven that the misrepresentative, distorted, exaggerated perpetrators intention was to stir up and inaccurate reporting of Muslims. religious hatred. This differs from Indeed, the European Commission against incitement to racial hatred, wherein the Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) recently likelihood that the offence would have highlighted discriminatory reporting in stirred up racial hatred is enough to both The Daily Mail and The Sun, claiming prosecute; there is no need to prove that that they “are responsible for most of the the perpetrator intended to stir up racial offensive, discriminatory and provocative hatred. terminology”. The commission further The primary result of this disparity in concluded that “hate speech in some legislation, is that Muslim communities are traditional media continues to be a serious often not protected against comparable 514 problem”. abuse against which groups such as Jews Considering the media promotion of and Sikhs are protected on the grounds of stereotypical, stylised and distorted race. representations of Muslims, it cannot be Secondly, the requirement of intent makes surprising that sections of the public the burden of proof within this legislation would hold negative and prejudicial almost unachievably heavy. Indeed, the understandings of British Muslim intention of the perpetrator is virtually communities. impossible to ever prove. The consequence It is thus imperative that proper regulation is that, since the legislation was enacted in of newspapers is enforced, in order to 2006, only a small handful of successful ensure that newspapers are held prosecutions have occurred under accountable for inaccurate, discriminatory incitement to religious hatred legislation. and distortive reporting on vulnerable Social media legislation minorities. As Nazir Afzal stated in his article earlier in this report when discussing protections

514 “ECRI Report On The United Kingdom”, Council of Europe, October 4, 2016, https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ecri/country-by- country/united_kingdom/gbr-cbc-v-2016-038-eng.pdf

163 from hatred, “many haters don’t care about Furthermore, the Government’s policy of the line anymore and rely upon perceived disengagement is hugely damaging to its anonymity, bots, and limited police relationship with Muslim communities. It resources to just keep generating hate.” can only fix this currently “broken Anonymity combined with a lack of relationship” through honest and open protection from online abuse has resulted engagement with a representative in an almost toxic atmosphere of anti- spectrum of British Muslims.517 Muslim racism across a variety of social Lack of Muslim engagement within media media platforms. and broadcasting Indeed, between March 2016 and March 20 The underrepresentation of Muslims in 17, almost 144,000 Tweets were sent from politics is mirrored in mainstream media the UK that are considered to be and broadcasting outlets. Media and derogatory and anti-Islamic – this amounts broadcasting institutions have often been to roughly 400 a day.515 Meanwhile, criticised for their embedded lack of Facebook and Twitter accounts of leading representation in terms of ethnicity, far-right and anti-Muslim groups can religion, sexuality, and often gender as attract several thousands of followers. well. Within these institutions, there are As such, there is a clear need for changes to still very few Muslim journalists, editors, be made in order to regulate hate speech producers and directors, meanwhile there online whilst also protecting freedom of is a crucial dearth of normalised and speech within a legal framework. As has representative images of British Muslims often been argued, what is illegal offline and minorities more generally. should be illegal online as well. Appropriate representation is essential for equality and creating a shared national Lack of Muslim political engagement identity. Therefore, it is imperative that British Muslims remain woefully British Muslim communities are actively underrepresented within the political engaged in the fields of politics and media sphere. Considering the size of the British in order to ensure that Muslims have the Muslim population relative to the general platforms necessary to present the reality population, one would expect to find behind their lived experiences. approximately 31 Muslim MPs in Barriers to Muslim economic engagement Parliament. In reality, the figure is 15.516 Likewise, within the senior Civil Service, Muslims experience the highest levels of there is also a general under- disadvantage in the labour market518 and, representation of BAME communities, according to the National Equality Panel, including Muslims. Encouraging British also suffer the greatest “ethnic penalty”.519 Muslim engagement in political and media This ethnic penalty is especially felt by institutions is MEND’s raison d’être and Muslim women, who often suffer multi- we firmly believe that empowerment level discrimination that is compounded within politics is essential to ensure by religion, gender, skin colour, and equality for all. ethnicity.520 Studies have also shown that CVs submitted under a non-Muslim name are three times more likely to be offered an interview than those with a Muslim name

515 Miller and Smith, Anti-Islamic Content on Twitter – Demos. 518 “Employment opportunities for Muslims in the UK”, report, House of Commons Women and Equalities Committee, August 11, 2016, 6, https:// 516 “Record number of Muslim MPs elected”, Muslim News, accessed 04.06.2018 , www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201617/cmselect/cmwomeq/89/89.pdf. http://muslimnews.co.uk/newspaper/home-news/record-number-muslim-mps- elected/ 519 An anatomy of economic inequality in the UK.

517 “The Missing Muslims: Unlocking British Muslim Potential for the Benefit of All.” 520 "Women Are the First to Pay the Price of Islamophobia in Europe," European Network Against Racism, May 26, 2016, http://www.enar-eu.org/Women-are-the- first-to-pay-the-price-of-Islamophobia-in-Europe.

164 attached.521 Meanwhile, Muslims are the role of minority communities in heavily concentrated in unskilled and building this country. semi-skilled professions with limited Flawed counter-terror strategies career progression and are frequently victims of frustrated ambitions as they Prof. Tendayi Achiume is the third UN remain under-represented in the higher special rapporteur to criticise the positions within their professions.522 PREVENT strategy and its damaging and discriminatory impact on British Muslims. At the same time, Muslim communities are While security is a real and necessary characterised by a younger age concern, strategies must be evidence-based demographic than any other social group. and developed through cooperation and With 48% of British Muslims aged 24 or engagement with all stakeholders. under523 this is a dynamic and innovative Furthermore, security strategies must be population whose potential should be carefully balanced with the rights, civil encouraged. Considering the obvious liberties, and values upon which Britain is frustrations hindering Muslims’ success in founded. the labour market and the huge potential for businesses to benefit from young The model to tackle Muslim talent, it is essential that barriers of Islamophobia discrimination are challenged through governmental and industry initiatives. To solve a society-wide problem, a combination of legislative change, Wider community engagement Government and industry initiatives, As discussed in the previous chapter on Muslim community empowerment, and Political and Public Exclusion, debates on wider community engagement is required. integration frequently and incorrectly As such, MEND humbly proposes the portray demands for Muslims to assimilate following initiatives and policy changes to as a lack of integration. Choosing to tackle the causes, driving forces, and maintain ethno-cultural and religious impacts of Islamophobia, identities, for example by wearing Legislative changes religious dress, is not an indication of a lack of integration or “Britishness”. Press regulation: With the recent Government decision to cancel Leveson Furthermore, integration is a two-way Part II, the current future of press process which also requires interaction regulation remains uncertain. However, it from the dominant group. With the is imperative that the press is held overwhelming negativity stemming from accountable in order to protect minorities popular mainstream media from the damaging impacts of representations, it cannot be surprising sensationalist, distorted, and that large sections of the non-Muslim misrepresentative narratives. Therefore, community may hold distorted we call on policy makers to ensure a full impressions of their Muslim neighbours. implementation of the Leveson system, Inter-community engagement is necessary including aspects such as the enforcement to overcome these barriers to interaction of an independent press regulator and and community cohesion. Meanwhile, ensuring the commencement of the second there needs to be greater emphasis on part of the Leveson inquiry. Furthermore, promoting our nation’s shared history and Leveson II should place explicit emphasis on including an investigation of

521 "Is it easier to get a job if you're Adam or Mohamed?" select/women-and-equalities-committee/news-parliament-2015/employment- opportunities-for-muslims-evidence-15-16/. 522 "Muslims in employment: prejudice and discrimination in wider society examined - News from Parliament," UK Parliament, April 12, 2016, 523 "British Muslims in Numbers," http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-

165 Islamophobia in the press as a mandatory needs to be tackled by both governmental requirement. and industry initiatives designed to address religious, racial and gendered Counter-Terror legislation: In light of the discrimination in the workplace through PREVENT strategy’s lack of empirical targeted interventions at all stages of grounding and the disproportionate recruitment, retention and promotion, impact of Schedule 7 on Muslims, it is including through the use of name-blind imperative that the Government commits applications. Indeed, these already exist in to an independent review of PREVENT parts of the public sector, for example, in and all counter-terrorism legislation the NHS. enacted since 2000 with a view to curbing the encroachment of counter-terrorism Particular attention needs to be given to policies on civil liberties. Strategies must be Muslim women’s experiences of the triple developed that work to foster social ethnic penalty and improving their access cohesion and community resilience to all to employment. Furthermore, there needs forms of violence and criminality through to be greater focus within the civil service programmes in which all communities are and within industry to improve ethnic active stakeholders. diversity in all sectors through schemes designed to encourage BAME recruitment, Incitement to Religious Hatred mentoring and promotion. Considering legislation: Considering the disparities the disproportional representation of between the protections afforded for racial Muslims within the higher echelons of and religious hatred, it is essential to their professions, one area for potential review the Racial and Religious Hatred Act development is schemes designed to 2006 with a view to strengthening legal promote and facilitate careers progression protection afforded to religion and and advice services. equalise it with those granted to race. Primary legislation to deal with social As well as the special attention that needs media offences and online hate speech: In to be given to the barriers facing Muslim order to deal with the large swathes of hate women, the young age demographics of filled rhetoric that thrives online, the Muslim communities singles out young Government should consider primary people as also needing increased support legislation to deal with social media in achieving their career aspirations. offences and work with social media Therefore, programs are needed that aim companies to protect free speech while to improve young people’s access to the developing an efficient strategy to tackle labour market, for example, through online hate speech online. funding apprenticeships, internships and alternative routes into employment. Government and industry initiatives Finally, employers need to be supported in Racial and religious equality: In addition developing widely accessible inclusion to reviewing legislation and in the context strategies within the workplace, such as of current Brexit negotiations, attention recognising and accommodating religious needs to be given to supporting the festivals and religious observance within principles of the EU Equal Treatment the workplace. Directive to advance protection against discrimination on the grounds of religion Media and broadcasting: The to education, healthcare, housing, access to overwhelming negativity of mainstream goods and services and social protection, media representations of Muslims is an within UK law post-Brexit. area in need of immediate attention. This can only be countered by promoting Employment: The barriers to Muslim positive (and perhaps more importantly) economic empowerment is an area that normalised images of Muslims within

166 media and broadcasting. Considering this  Supporting educative and industry need and the necessity of encouraging initiatives to attract BAME individuals into more sensitivity when it comes to stories the police force. and narratives affecting British Muslims, it Muslim community empowerment is essential that support is given to educative and industry initiatives The Government’s current disengagement designed to attract Muslim and BAME policy is a clear barrier to British Muslim’s individuals into the spheres of journalism participation in social and political life. It is and broadcasting. essential that the Government mends its broken relationship with Muslim Public exclusion: It is the responsibility of communities by committing to engaging political figures to educate themselves and with and listen to a wider spectrum of understand the meanings behind and representative Muslim grassroots inherent requirements of terminologies organisations, such as MEND and MCB. such as “integration”. In understanding Engagement does not mean agreement on the requirements of integration, it is every level. However, it is only through imperative that public figures show greater engagement that the Government will be maturity and responsibility when better equipped to understand structural discussing integration debates and take barriers affecting British Muslims and care not to cause hysteria for the sake of implement meaningful policies to tackle political popularity and agendas. them. Meanwhile, especially considering the unclear status of Human Rights However, the responsibility for tackling commitments within Brexit negotiations, issues of socio-economic discrimination we must ensure that the tenants of the and exclusion is in no way limited to wider European Convention on Human Rights society. Muslims themselves have a and the Human Rights Act are preserved responsibility to ensure that they are within UK law post-Brexit. engaging with processes of democracy to overcome the challenges they face. After Crime and policing: The relationship all, one cannot be helped if they refuse to between Muslim communities and their help themselves. Moreover, as British local police and their experiences of the citizens, everyone has a right, a Criminal Justice System is key to the way responsibility, and a duty to work towards in which British Muslims relate to and feel the betterment of our society as a whole. valued by the state. Considering the inequalities and issues discussed in the As such, there are a number of ways in earlier chapter on Crime, Policing and the which British Muslim communities may be Criminal Justice System, changes need to empowered to play their full role as civic be made to counter the impacts these actors. Strategies to achieve this include: inequalities have on Muslim communities.  Supporting educative and industry Areas in need of Government support initiatives designed to attract Muslims and include: BAME individuals into the spheres of  Tackling the high number of Muslim politics, the civil service, media, and prisoners through schemes to facilitate broadcasting. rehabilitation, cut re-offending and  Placing greater emphasis on educational develop pathways for social inclusion. programmes aimed at empowering  Launching research into the underlying minority communities to be actively reasons for the disproportionately high engaged within politics and media. This is numbers of Muslim prisoners, including one of the strategies in which MEND has issues of socio-economic deprivation and invested a great deal of attention. As but a structural issues within the judicial system. few examples of our work, our politics and

167 media training courses, our toolkits, Developing diversity, citizenship, and factsheets, manifesto summaries, and our engagement in education: Schools play a Get Out And Vote campaign have vital role in educating children on how to empowered and encouraged thousands of be members of a diverse and pluralistic British Muslims to take a greater role in society. Therefore, schools need to be active civic engagement. supported in this role by being given greater support in terms of curriculum and  Encouraging grassroots and community teacher training. Areas to address this led movements to overcome barriers to include: reporting hate crime and encouraging maximum reporting of Islamophobic  Prioritising PSHE and PSRE in the national incidents to the police. curriculum to prepare young people for life in a diverse and pluralistic society. Wider community engagement  Developing training programmes and Struggles for equality are never limited to resources for teachers focussed on tackling those directly experiencing discrimination. bullying based on race, religion, disability Anti-Semitism, sexism and homophobia or sexuality. are not issues that should be limited to Jews, women, or LGBTQ communities.  Developing teaching materials to educate They are problems for which the solutions young people on the dangers of are the responsibility of the whole of Islamophobia, racism, anti-Semitism, society. The same should be said of homophobia and other forms of hatred. Islamophobia. Islamophobia, like all forms  Supporting community and school-led of hatred, is an issue of social justice, and programmes that encourage cultural therefore, it is inherent upon every exchange between pupils of different member of society to contribute towards racial, religious, ethnic and other ending it. As such, there are certain areas backgrounds. than MEND feels should be addressed:  Supporting academic freedoms and Promoting a greater awareness of Islam: initiatives to decolonise education, whilst The distorted images of Islam and Muslims giving greater emphasis within the needs to be countered through programs national curriculum to shared histories and aimed at combatting stereotypes and the contributions of minority communities raising greater awareness amongst the in building our society. non-Muslim population. Islamophobia Awareness Month (IAM) is a month-long campaign that MEND and its local partners coordinate every November. The campaign is designed to highlight not only the challenges facing British Muslims, but also the contributions that Muslims make to British society. Promoting greater inter-community engagement: Local communities need to play a proactive role in events, activities and programs designed to bring together diverse neighbours, friends and work colleagues. Relationship building is key to encouraging understanding of differing experiences and is thus integral to overcoming narratives of hate.

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