Daydreaming and Its Correlates in an Educational Environment☆

Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167

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Learning and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lindif

Daydreaming and its correlates in an educational environment☆

Sophie I. Lindquist ⁎, John P. McLean 1

School of Psychology, McElwain Building, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia article info abstract

Article history: The experience of daydreaming is familiar to all, yet daydreaming and its correlates in an educational context Received 12 May 2010 have yet to be adequately explored. This study investigated academic and other potential correlates of task- Received in revised form 4 December 2010 unrelated images and thoughts (TUITs) during lectures. 463 undergraduate psychology students participated Accepted 23 December 2010 across three lecture sessions. During lectures, an auditory probe was sounded five times; alerting participants to record whether they were experiencing a TUIT at that moment. Results revealed significant negative Keywords: correlations between TUIT frequency and age, detail of notes taken and course interest. Also, those seated in Daydreaming fi Mind wandering the front third of the lecture experienced signi cantly fewer TUITs. Furthermore, as TUIT frequency increased, Seating position there was a trend towards poorer performance in course examinations, which measure the learning of Note taking lecture-based content. Academic performance © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Thoughts unrelated to sensory input or the task at hand have been across laboratory and everyday life experiences (McVay, Kane, & defined in a number of ways, including daydreaming (Singer, 1966), Kwapil, 2009). Furthermore, errors on the sustained attention to task-unrelated images and thoughts (Giambra, 1995), task-unrelated response task (SART; see Robertson, Manly, Andrade, Baddeley, & thoughts (e.g. Filler & Giambra, 1973; Shaw & Giambra, 1993) and Yiend, 1997) are considered to be behavioural markers of day- mind wandering (e.g. Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). Daydreaming is dreaming (e.g. Christoff, Gordon, Smallwood, Smith, & Schooler, 2009; regarded as one of the most fascinating phenomena in the vast range Smallwood, Beach, Schooler, & Handy, 2008; Smallwood et al., 2004; of human behaviour (Singer, 1975, 1976). Singer (1966) argues that Smallwood et al., 2009). Recently, Smallwood, Beach et al. (2008) daydreaming represents a shift of attention away from some primary demonstrated a reduction in the P300 event-related potential for non- physical or mental task or from a perceptual response to external targets prior to both behavioural and subjective reports of mind stimulation towards a response to some internal stimulus. Consider- wandering relative to periods of being ‘on-task’.Furthermore, able data has documented the apparent universality of daydreaming subjective reports of daydreaming are associated with activity in a and the acknowledgement by large numbers of people that day- default network of cortical regions that are active when the brain is ‘at dreaming is a general phenomenon in their daily lives (Klinger, 1987; rest’ (Mason et al., 2007) and more recently, activity in the default and Singer, 1968, 2003) and generally reflect an individual's ‘current executive networks, two systems that have been assumed to work in concerns’ (Klinger, 1987). opposition, suggesting that daydreaming may evoke a unique mental The validity of subjective self-reports of daydreaming has been state allowing these systems to work in cooperation (Christoff et al., demonstrated in experimental studies. For example, daydreaming has 2009). been found to vary as a function of stimulus presentation rate (e.g. Research has revealed a number of important demographic correlates Antrobus, 1968; Antrobus, Singer, & Greenberg, 1966; Filler & related to daydreaming frequency. For instance, questionnaire and Giambra, 1973; Giambra, 1995; Grodsky & Giambra, 1990–1991) laboratory studies of daydreaming have revealed that daydreaming memory load (Smallwood et al., 2004; Teasdale et al., 1995) and mood frequency fluctuates as a function of age, such that as age increases, induction (Seibert & Ellis, 1991; Smallwood, Fitzgerald, Miles, & frequency of daydreaming decreases (Giambra, 1974, 1977–1978, 1979– Phillips, 2009). Individual differences in daydreaming also persist 1980, 1989, 1993, 1999–2000; Grodsky & Giambra, 1990–1991; Parks, Klinger, & Perlmutter, 1988–1989). Several studies have found no gender differences in daydreaming frequency (Giambra, 1989, 1995; Goldstein & ☆ This work has not been published elsewhere and has not been submitted Baskin, 1988; Singer, 1968; Singer & McCraven, 1961). However, in a simultaneously for publication elsewhere. study by Giambra (1979–1980) involving 1200 participants, females at ⁎ Corresponding author. 8 Bendora Crescent, Palmerston, ACT 2913, Australia. every age group experienced significantly more daydreams and signifi- Tel.: +61 2 6240 2726. cantly more absorption in daydreaming than males. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.I. Lindquist), [email protected] (J.P. McLean). In terms of academic correlates, Wagman (1968) found that scores 1 Tel.: +61 7 3365 6394. on the School and College Ability Test (SCAT) did not correlate with self-

1041-6080/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2010.12.006 S.I. Lindquist, J.P. McLean / Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167 159 reported daydreaming frequency, however a strong negative correlation on responses where participants indicated zoning out revealed poorer was observed for Grade Point Average (GPA; an averaged indicator of comprehension levels than the baseline performance of those academic achievement over a range of courses within a fixed time participants who were randomly given text recognition probes, period), but only for women. However, in a study by Gold, Andrews, and indicating that zoning out was associated with low levels of attention Minor (1985–86), students were asked to record all school-related to the text (Schooler et al., 2004). Furthermore, on a final daydreams experienced over a 14 day period. No differences were found comprehension test and intermittent recognition tests, negative on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) between students who experi- correlations between reading comprehension and both self-caught enced five or more daydreams or less than five over the recording period, and probe-caught zone outs were observed. (Schooler et al., 2004). however students recording five or more daydreams over the two week More recently, Smallwood, McSpadden, and Schooler (2008) period had better GPAs at the end of the semester than students examined whether inattention during reading impairs the ability to reporting less than five daydreams (Gold et al., 1985–86). These findings construct a mental model of ongoing events in a narrative, referred to as indicate that daydreaming frequency may have important and poten- the “situation model of the narrative” (p 1144). Participants read a tially complex implications in the educational domain. Sherlock Holmes novella, and provided reports of their mental state at One reason why daydreaming may have implications within the both random and inference critical points (when a clue to the identity of educational domain can be gleaned from experimental evidence the villain was revealed). Results revealed that the frequency of off-task indicating that when daydreaming occurs, performance on a primary episodes was associated with poorer text comprehension (Smallwood, task tends to suffer (McVay & Kane, 2009; McVay et al., 2009; Smallwood, McSpadden et al., 2008). When awareness was taken into account, Baracaia, Lowe, & Obonsawin, 2003; Smallwood, Obonsawin, & Heim, reports of off-task thoughts without awareness (zoning out) were a 2003; Smallwood et al., 2004). According to Smallwood and Schooler reliable predictor of text comprehension while reports with awareness (2006) when the mind wanders, attention becomes divided between (tuning out) were not, indicating that the consequences of inattention internal and external information, known as a decoupling of attention. during reading may depend on lacking awareness of being off-task According to Smallwood and Schooler (2006) “mind wandering can be (Smallwood, McSpadden et al., 2008). It was also found that zoning out viewed as a state of decoupled attention, because instead of monitoring prevented the retrieval of information from a specific interval in the text online sensory information, attention shifts inward and focuses on one's and prohibited the linking of events to establish the identity of the thoughts and feelings” (p 951). Smallwood, Fishman, and Schooler villain, with lapses occurring early in the narrative having the greatest (2007) argue that “in principle, because mind wandering is a state of influence (Smallwood, McSpadden et al., 2008). Smallwood, McSpad- decoupled attention, it represents a fundamental breakdown in the den et al. (2008) contend that these results confirm that zoning out individual's ability to attend, and therefore integrate, information from during reading is an indication that the construction of a situation model the external environment” (p 230). If attention is decoupled from the of the narrative has not been adequately formulated. These findings task at hand during episodes of mind wandering, representations of the provide evidence that understanding ongoing events in everyday life task may be less detailed than during periods of time when attention is depends on the ability to pay attention at critical points in time focused on the task (Smallwood, O'Connor, Sudbery, & Obonsawin, 2007; (Smallwood, McSpadden et al., 2008). Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). These studies provide evidence that daydreaming during reading A recent review by Smallwood, Fishman et al. (2007) introduces interferes with text comprehension, suggesting that attention the argument that mind wandering is a phenomenon of interest in the becomes decoupled and leads to superficial representations of the educational domain. Smallwood, Fishman et al. (2007) argue that mind task. This is an important concept to investigate in a widely used wandering is relevant to education because it represents a breakdown in teaching methodology — the lecture. the normal coupling between the internal and external environments. An earlier study by Grodsky and Giambra (1990–1991) also Smallwood, Fishman et al. (2007) contend that “mind wandering investigated daydreaming during reading. Participants were required to prevents the successful encoding of information from the environment read passages of pre-determined high or low difficulty and high or low and this relative absence of facts puts the individual at a disadvantage personal interest. The factor that determined TUIT frequency during when forming the more general models needed for reading” (p 231). If reading was not passage difficulty, but interest: TUITs were more frequent mind wandering interferes with the encoding of information, the when the text was uninteresting to participants (Smallwood & Schooler, absence of factual information could lead to a disadvantage when 2006). This indicates that in the context of semantically meaningful tasks formulating both the propositional and situational models required for a such as reading, rather than resource-driven factors such as task difficulty, deep understanding of text (see Smallwood, Fishman et al., 2007). The interest appears to play an integral role in determining the frequency of consequences of impaired encoding could “cascade downward through daydreaming (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). the cognitive system, so that simple deficits in superficial processing This study will address a gap in the literature by investigating the could lead to more obvious deficits at a deeper level of analysis” academic and demographic correlates of daydreaming within a real (Smallwood, Fishman et al., 2007, p 233). Evidence of this encoding world educational environment — the lecture. Previous research has deficit can be found in an unpublished study by Schooler, Smallwood, investigated student attentiveness in classroom environments. Early McSpadden and Reichle (2007; as cited in Smallwood, Fishman et al., work by Cameron and Giuntoli (1972) utilised consciousness 2007) where participants often failed to immediately notice when text sampling in college classes to investigate attentiveness in undergrad- had turned to gibberish approximately 30% of the time, and continued uate classes. A bell was sounded at random intervals during the reading for a significant number of words before coming to this classes, signaling students to respond to questionnaire items assessing realisation (Smallwood, Fishman et al., 2007). Furthermore, probe- whether they were paying attention at that moment, as well as items caught mind wandering was predictive of the likelihood of failing to requesting information about the nature of their thoughts. It was detect when the text had become gibberish (Smallwood, Fishman et al., found that approximately 46% of students were paying attention at 2007). any given time during class, suggesting that the college classroom Earlier work by Schooler, Reichle, and Halpern (2004) provides environment focuses less than half of the students' attention on the insights into the impact of daydreaming on reading comprehension. content of the class (Cameron & Giuntoli, 1972). A more recent study Participants read text and responded whenever they caught them- by Geerligs (1995) investigated the content of students' thoughts who selves zoning out and were also randomly probed for zone outs. were engaged in problem-based small group discussions. Students Zoning out was defined as a situation in which readers realised they were asked to report their thoughts at regular interruptions during had no idea what they had just read and were thinking about the group discussion, signaled by an auditory probe. Thoughts were something else altogether (see Schooler et al., 2004). Text recognition later classified into categories reflecting on-task and off-task thoughts. 160 S.I. Lindquist, J.P. McLean / Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167

Results revealed that 26% of students' thoughts were off-task during increases attention and results in greater concentration on the the small group discussions, the majority of these regarding current material to be learned. Bligh (2000) further argues that note taking concerns about daily matters (Geerligs, 1995). is an activity that maintains a slightly higher level of arousal because it In a study of relevance to this investigation, Klinger (1984) is self-stimulating. Bligh (2000) supports this proposition by arguing explored the inter-relationships between test anxiety, preparation, that enthusiastic, stimulating lectures often lead to increased note thought content and academic performance during a college exam. taking. However, half of students surveyed by Hartley and Davies During a course exam, students were signaled by auditory probe to (1978) reported that note taking sometimes interfered with their stop work and record the content of their thoughts and respond to an understanding of the lecture content. Furthermore, studies have item regarding their state anxiety. Thought content was classified by found that fewer notes are recorded as lectures proceed (Lloyd, 1968; two independent judges into categories, including thoughts unrelated Scerbo, Warm, Dember, & Grasha, 1992). to the exam (see Klinger, 1984). A non-significant negative associa- Benefits of handouts have also been reported. Northcraft and tion was found between examination performance and the frequency Jernstedt (1975) found that the provision of lecture outlines resulted of “other unhelpful to performance thoughts” (Klinger, 1984, p 1382). in better performance on subsequent objective examinations com- While this study possesses the advantage of ecological validity and pared to full lecture transcripts. Furthermore, students who received if taken at face value suggests that daydreaming frequency may have no handouts experienced the lowest levels of performance in the no influence on academic performance, there are a number of examinations (Northcraft & Jernstedt, 1975). Furthermore, studies methodological considerations that need to be taken into account. have found that the provision of skeletal handouts to students results Firstly, this study took place during an exam, meaning the effects of in better performance on subsequent recall tests when compared to daydreaming during the learning phase and the subsequent impact of standard handouts (Hartley, 1976) and full lecture transcripts this on academic performance were not addressed. Importantly, due (Morgan, Lilley, & Boreham, 1988). A recent study also found that to low frequencies of thoughts unrelated to the examination, this the provision of guided handouts resulted in significantly higher category was added to a second category containing unhelpful outcomes on daily content quizzes when compared to no handouts thoughts related to the exam, forming the other unhelpful to (Austin, Lee, Thibeault, Carr, & Bailey, 2002). It is possible that performance thoughts category (Klinger, 1984). As such, this is not handouts, particularly incomplete or guided handouts, capture a pure measure of thoughts unrelated to the exam, and accordingly student attention as vigilance is necessary in order to record conclusions regarding daydreaming frequency and examination information omitted from these handouts. performance cannot be drawn from this study. With reference to the literature reviewed, a number of potential A potential shortcoming of these consciousness sampling studies is academic and demographic correlates of TUITs will be investigated. the requirement of participants to report their thoughts in detail, which This study will investigate whether TUIT frequency differs as a may have led to censorship as well as experimental demand function of age and gender, and whether Overall Position (OP) score, a characteristics (Ericsson & Simon, 1980; Geerligs, 1995). In the present measure of high school level academic ability used to assess a study, daydreaming will be operationalised as task-unrelated images student's suitability to study university courses in Queensland, is and thoughts (TUITs), and will be measured using the probe-caught associated with TUIT frequency in first year university lectures. The self-classification technique, in which individuals are interrupted during relationship between TUIT frequency and future academic achieve- task performance and asked to report whether they were experiencing a ment will be investigated, indexed by examination marks, assignment TUIT at the moment that the probe occurred, recorded by a yes/no marks and overall course marks. This study will also investigate response (see Giambra, 1995; Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). An whether student interest, as indexed by self-reported interest in the advantage of this method is that individuals are not required to disclose course content and degree program, leads to a lower TUIT frequency. the personal content of their thoughts, reducing the potential influence Finally, this study will explore the effect of seating position on TUIT of demand characteristics (Smallwood & Schooler, 2006). frequency, whether note taking is associated with a decrease in TUIT While not directly examined in the daydreaming literature, factors frequency, and the effects of having lecture notes during the lecture related to student learning have been found to influence achievement on TUIT frequency. and are of interest to this investigation. Several studies have found that academic achievement is influenced by seating position, with students sitting towards the front of the room exhibiting higher levels of 1. Method academic performance (e.g. Brooks & Rebeta, 1991; Stires, 1980). However, other studies have found no effects (e.g. Millard & Stimpson, 1.1. Participants 1980; Wulf, 1977). Studies investigating the effects of seating position on behaviours such as eye gaze, note taking and participation have Participants were 463 (138 males and 325 females) undergraduate found that these behaviours are greatest among those sitting in the front psychology students attending an Introduction to Psychology lecture or center of the room (Breed & Colaiuta, 1974; Levine, O'Neal, Garwood, on consciousness at the University of Queensland. The average age of & McDonald, 1980; Sommer, 1969). Breed and Colaiuta (1974) argue the participants was 19.27 years with an age range of 17–53 years. that all of these behaviours can be thought of as indicative of Eight participants were excluded from all further analyses due to not attentiveness. The environmental hypothesis, which suggests that recording responses to all five TUIT probes. This study was conducted students seated near the front of the room fall under the direct as part of an in-class demonstration of the empirical recording of surveillance of the instructor and are obliged to pay attention out of daydreaming frequency, with data collection being incorporated into courtesy, while students towards the back are more able to daydream or the lecture in a non-invasive manner. This study was designed to talk, supports these findings (Stires, 1980). Potentially then, it is possible collect data from an in-class demonstration developed by John that seating position may also influence student attention. McLean and run during his lecture on consciousness. Participants Reviews of the note taking literature have revealed the beneficial gave informed voluntary consent to taking part in the study during effects of note taking during lessons on recall (e.g. Bligh, 2000; Hartley the lecture. The data collection technique was designed to demon- & Davies, 1978; Kiewra, 1985). The process function of note taking strate a method of collecting data on daydreaming, and does so by suggests that the activity of note taking is beneficial independent of indexing the frequency of self-reported daydreaming. Due to the large review, because it increases attention during the lecture and number of students enrolled in this course, the one lecture on facilitates encoding of lecture ideas into long term memory (Kiewra, consciousness was repeated three times, enabling data to be collected 1985). For instance, Peper and Mayer (1978) claim that note taking from three individual groups of students. S.I. Lindquist, J.P. McLean / Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167 161

1.2. Materials handouts completely blank, or if they specifically did not want their data included in the academic performance analyses to not fill in their 1.2.1. TUIT frequency recording sheet student number on the demographic sheet. Access to students' course This measure consisted of a table with five sections for each probe on results was only granted by the inclusion of a student number on the which participants were able to report whether they had experienced a demographic sheet. TUIT (see Appendix). On this sheet, participants were able to record Following this discussion, the lecturer began the lecture. During whether or not they had been experiencing a TUIT at the moment that the fifty minute lecture, at the specific intervals of 8, 15, 25, 34 and the probe occurred by circling either YES or NO. Instructions of how to 40 min, the auditory probe was sounded. When the probe sounded, recognise a TUIT were provided on this measure: participants recorded by dichotomous yes/no response whether at the moment that the probe occurred they had been experiencing a TUIT or During the course of this lecture, you may find yourself thinking attending to the material being presented. Following each probe, about things other than the material being presented by your participants were given 15 s to record their responses. The lecturer lecturer. These thoughts may simply pop into your head, or you may would then resume the lecture. At the completion of the lecture, choose to think about something other than the lecture content. In participants returned both measures to the experimenters. At the this demonstration, we are interested in both of these instances of completion of the academic semester, participants who provided their daydreaming. For the purposes of this demonstration, daydreaming is student number, thereby giving permission for access to their course defined as any thoughts or images that are experienced throughout results, had their data included in the analysis of the relationship the lecture that are not related to the course material being presented between academic achievement and TUIT frequency. In order to during the lecture. Examples of daydreams include ‘What will I have directly assess the effects of TUIT frequency on lecture content, scores for dinner?’, ‘I wonder what my friends are doing now?’ and ‘I hope from mid-semester and final exams, based solely on lecture content, the bus home isn't too crowded’. were combined and weighted, with the same procedure applied to assignment marks for the purposes of comparison. Total course mark and overall course grade were also included in the academic analyses. 1.2.2. Demographic sheet Written response items requested included age, gender, OP score 2. Results (typically ranging from 1 to 15), and degree program being studied (see Appendix). OP scores are Queensland University entry ranking 2.1. Demographic analyses scores and run in reverse numerical order, such that 1 represents the highest possible academic ranking, 2 represents the second best Descriptive statistics for the demographic analyses are displayed in ranking and so forth. Likert scale response items addressed interest in Table 1. the lecture series and degree of note taking. Examples of these items The association between TUIT frequency and the independent include ‘How interesting have you found John McLean's lectures and variables of age, course interest, note taking and OP score were cognitive psychology so far?’ with responses ranging from (1) not examined via a non-parametric Kendall's Tau statistic. Significant interesting to (5) extremely interesting and ‘How many notes on average negative associations were observed between TUIT frequency and age do you record in addition to those provided on your lecture notes, or τ=−.110, p=.004, course interest τ=−.114, p=.005, and note overall if you do not have lecture notes?’ with responses ranging from taking, τ=−.172, pb.001. These findings indicate that TUIT frequen- (1) no notes to (5) very detailed notes. Option-based response items cy decreases as age, course interest and note taking increase. requested information regarding seating position in the lecture Furthermore, a positive association was found between TUIT theatre and whether notes had been printed out prior to the lecture. frequency and OP scores, τ=.094, p=.017, suggesting that as OP Examples of these items include ‘Have you downloaded and printed the scores increase (indicating lower levels of academic ability), TUIT lecture notes in advance for today's lecture (Yes/No)?’ and ‘Approxi- frequency also tends to increase. Course interest was also found to mately where are you sitting in the lecture theatre (front third, middle have a positive association with both age, τ=.080, p=.045, and note third, back third)?’ This sheet also included an option for students to taking, τ=.144, p=.001. These findings indicate that as age increases, provide their student number if they wished for their data to be used interest in the course content also tends to increase and as course in the academic performance analyses. interest increases, more notes are taken during lectures. A t-test for independent groups was conducted in order to test the 1.3. Procedure possibility that TUIT frequency may differ as a function of gender. Analyses revealed that on average, males experienced TUITs more The undergraduate Introduction to Psychology: Physiological and frequently (M=1.73, SE=.107) than females (M=1.61, SE=.067). Cognitive Psychology lecture on the topic of consciousness took place However, this difference was not significant t (461)=1.012, p=.312 during the seventh week of semester 1, 2008 at the University of (equal variances assumed) and represents a very small effect r=.047. Queensland, Australia. This was the seventh lecture in the series of To determine whether student interest in course content as indexed twelve lectures for this course. The participants had recently completed by degree program leads to differences in TUIT frequency, a t-test for their mid-semester examination for this course. Participants entered the lecture theatre and were given a demographic sheet and a TUIT Table 1 frequency recording sheet. Once seated, participants were asked to Descriptive statistics for the demographic analyses. complete the demographic sheet. Following this, participants were Mean Standard Standard TUITs oriented to the topic of the lecture and then debriefed regarding the deviation error of Percent nature of the demonstration and informed of how to recognise when a mean TUITing TUIT occurs by the lecturer. Participants were informed that an alarm would sound around five times during the lecture, and when they heard TUIT frequency 1.64 1.222 .057 Overall 32.9 OP score 5.61 3.412 .174 this alarm, to report whether they were experiencing a TUIT at the Course interest 3.49 .710 .033 Probe 1 25.1 moment that the alarm occurred. Following this a demonstration of the Note taking 3.11 .808 .038 Probe 2 35.9 alarm was provided. Participants were not informed of when the Probe 3 27.9 auditory probes would be sounded. Participants were also informed that Probe 4 31.7 Probe 5 43.8 if they did not wish to take part in the demonstration, to leave all 162 S.I. Lindquist, J.P. McLean / Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167 independent groups was conducted. On average, there was very little Table 2 difference in TUIT frequency between psychology (M=1.64,SE=.176) Descriptive statistics for the academic performance analyses. and non-psychology majors (M=1.65, SE=.059), t (85.333)=−.036, Mean Standard Standard TUITs p=.971 (equal variances not assumed) with virtually no effect r=.004. deviation error of Percent mean A t-test for independent groups was conducted to discern whether TUITing having lecture notes during the lecture led to differences in TUIT TUIT frequency 1.61 1.200 .066 Overall 32.2 frequency. On average, those with lecture notes (M=1.58, SE=.069) OP score 5.41 3.266 .193 reported fewer TUITs than those without lecture notes (M=1.80, Course interest 3.51 .693 .038 Probe 1 25.1 SE=.101).2 This difference did not reach significance, t (456)=1.829, Note taking 3.08 .808 .044 Probe 2 36.5 p=.068 (equal variances assumed), and represents a very small effect Weighted exam mark 50.242 7.001 .383 Probe 3 24.9 Weighted assignment mark 27.604 4.202 .230 Probe 4 29.3 r=.085. Final exam mark 52.988 8.770 .480 Probe 5 44.9 A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted in order to Weighted total mark 77.846 9.630 .527 determine whether seating position within the lecture theatre during a Course grade 5.35 .927 .051 lecture has an effect on TUIT frequency. A significant effect of seating position on TUIT frequency was found, F (2, 458)=10.539, pb.001, r=.210. Post hoc comparisons using the Gabriel method for slightly 1974, 1977–1978, 1989, 1993, 1999–2000; Grodsky & Giambra, 1990– unequal sample sizes revealed that those seated in the front third of the 1991; Parks et al., 1988–1989), particularly the findings of Giambra lecture theatre (M=1.30) experienced significantly fewer TUITs than (1979–1980), which indicated that age groups separated by only a few those seated in the middle third (M=1.69, p=.010) and in the back years exhibit this relationship. While the association between TUIT third (M=1.95,pb.001). However those seated in the middle third did frequency and age was just outside of significance in the academic not differ significantly from those seated in the back third. performance analyses, this can be attributed to the 28% reduction in sample size and corresponding reduced variation in student age and does 2.2. Academic performance analyses not invalidate the significant negative association observed in the demographic analyses. Giambra (1989) suggested that the existence of There were 334 participants (99 males and 235 females; average this relationship may be due to TUIT likelihood being proportional to the age=19.19, age range 17–53) who gave permission for their data to amount of non-conscious processing in the cerebral cortex or in the brain be included in the academic performance analyses. A further 15 as a whole (Giambra, 1989). With this in mind, the finding of this participants were excluded from this analysis due to not having relationship within a lecture environment indicates that non-conscious completed all assessment items for the course. One more participant processing may begin to decline as early as in the mid 20s. However, this was excluded from the following analyses due to incorrect data entry. theory was tested using a wide range of ages, from late teens to the Descriptive statistics for the academic performance analyses are elderly (e.g. Giambra, 1989; Grodsky & Giambra, 1990–1991). In the displayed in Table 2. lecture environment however, the majority of students are in their late The association between TUIT frequency and academic perfor- teens, with the majority of mature age students not representing ages mance was investigated via a non-parametric Kendall's Tau statistic proportionate to that of the main student cohort, or of these previous and is displayed in Table 3. studies. An alternative explanation of these findings is that older students Significant negative associations were observed between TUIT may have more invested in their degree, or have more dedication to their frequency and weighted exam mark, final exam mark, weighted total studies than younger students who have just left school, thus tend to mark, and overall course grade. These results indicate that as TUIT focus more on the lecture content. This explanation is somewhat frequency during lectures increases, there is a trend towards poorer supported by the positive association between age and course interest performance in terms of the final exam, and mid-semester and final observed in this study. However, further research into this assumption is exams combined, all of which measure the learning of lecture-based important in further understanding the mechanisms operating behind content. Furthermore, a greater TUIT frequency during lectures also the inverse relationship between TUIT frequency and age. results in a trend towards a lower total course mark and overall course The positive association between TUIT frequency and OP score in this grade. Interestingly, TUIT frequency had a non-significant negative study contradicts previous studies demonstrating no relationship association with weighted assignment mark, indicating that the effects between TUIT frequency and measures of academic ability (Gold et al., of TUIT frequency on academic performance were exclusive to 1985–86; Wagman, 1968). However, Gold et al. (1985–86) relied on the assessments based on lecture content. For weighted exam mark, the recording of daydreams over a two week period, while the study by only other significant correlation worth noting other than TUIT Wagman (1968) involved a questionnaire requesting ratings of how frequency is the negative association observed with OP. Neither course frequent daydreams related to a number of motivational and interper- interest, nor note taking had significant associations with weighted sonal aspects of behaviour were experienced by participants. These exam mark. In contrast to the demographic analyses, the correlations approaches can be inaccurate due to factors such as forgetting and between TUIT frequency and age and TUIT frequency and OP score were reconstruction errors and censorship (Geerligs, 1995). By using the just outside of significance (p=.058; p=.059, respectively). extensively validated probe method that does not require the reporting of the contents of consciousness, the present study may have captured an 3. Discussion effect that these prior studies were not able to tap in to. As a higher OP score indicates poorer academic ability, this result suggests that increased The purpose of this study was to investigate the demographic and TUIT frequency is related to lower levels of academic ability. This academic correlates of daydreaming within an ecologically valid lecture relationship was just outside of significance in the academic performance environment. The finding of an inverse association between TUIT analyses, however as previously mentioned this can be attributed to the frequency and age is in agreement with previous research (e.g. Giambra, reduced sample size in comparison to the demographic analyses. It is important to note however, that OP score is not only ranked on the individual student's ability, but also on the ability of all students 2 The anonymous reviewers raised the possibility that having/not having lecture within their school and district. Therefore, OP score is not a holistic notes may reflect differences in student interest, and thus represent a confounding reflection of an individual's academic ability. Furthermore, not all variable in this analysis. A t-test for independent groups confirmed that there was no effect of having/not having lecture notes on student interest, t (453)=.091, p=.928, participants reported OPs, which is likely to be due to different r=.004. Australian states using different university entry score calculation S.I. Lindquist, J.P. McLean / Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167 163

Table 3 Correlation matrix of TUIT frequency and academic variables.

TUIT Weighted exam Weighted assignment Weighted total Final exam Grade Age OP Course Note frequency mark mark mark mark interest taking τ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ TUIT frequency 1.000 −.136 −.056 −.119 −.119 −.134 −.084 .087 −.143 −.164 N 334 334 334 334 334 334 333 286 331 332 ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ Weighted exam mark 1.000 .316 .755 .880 .734 .040 −.405 .038 .017 ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ Weighted assignment mark 1.000 .568 .312 .607 .004 −.307 −.127 −.067 ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ Weighted total mark 1.000 .730 .838 .038 −.426 −.027 −.012 ⁎⁎ ⁎⁎ Final exam mark 1.000 .714 .057 −.398 .018 .007 ⁎⁎ Grade 1.000 .038 −.449 −.036 −.033 ⁎⁎ Age 1.000 .066 .127 −.060 OP 1.000 .090 .038 ⁎⁎ Course interest 1.000 .139 Note taking 1.000

⁎⁎ Significant at the .01 level (2-tailed). systems, compounded by international students enrolled in first year The effects of seating position on student attention as postulated by psychology. While administering a standardised test of academic ability Breed and Colaiuta (1974) have been confirmed in the present study. to participants directly prior to a similar study could be of value, the Students seated in the front third of the lecture theatre experienced potentially onerous and impractical nature of such a test could make it significantly fewer TUITs than those seated elsewhere. This adds support difficult to undertake within a lecture setting without interfering with to the environmental hypothesis, where students sitting in the front the ecological validity of the study. Therefore, the influence of academic portion of the lecture theatre are under the direct observation of the ability on TUIT frequency is in need of further investigation. lecturer, and thus are more obliged to be attentive (e.g. Stires, 1980). The lack of a significant gender difference is in conflict with the This explanation is in agreement with a number of studies indicating findings of Giambra (1979–1980), where females at every age group that seating location influences participation (e.g. Levine et al., 1980; experienced significantly more daydreams and significantly more Montello, 1988), but up until now, no study has found evidence that absorption in daydreaming than males. In the present study the inverse seating location has an impact on student attention during lectures. trend was present: males daydreamed slightly more frequently than The significant negative association between TUIT frequency and females. However, the study by Giambra (1979–1980) was retrospective note taking is in agreement with a number of authors who have in nature; therefore it is possible that the greater levels of absorption in postulated this mechanism, but have not provided direct evidence in daydreaming for females may lead to better recall of daydreaming support of this function (e.g. Bligh, 2000; Kiewra, 1987; Peper & experiences in retrospective questionnaires. Furthermore, the lack of a Mayer, 1978). This finding also provides further support to the gender difference is in agreement with a number of retrospective studies process function of note taking, whereby the activity of note taking is (e.g. Goldstein & Baskin, 1988; Singer, 1968; Singer & McCraven, 1961) beneficial independent of review, because it increases attention and laboratory studies (Giambra, 1989, 1995). However, the gender split during the lecture and facilitates encoding into long term memory in this study was very uneven, with more than two-thirds of participants (Kiewra, 1985). The decrease in TUIT frequency observed with more being female. It is possible that with a larger number of males, a detailed note taking suggests that the activity of note taking requires significant difference may emerge. Indeed, Giambra's (1979–1980) study students to focus their attention on the lecture in order to record the involved 1200 participants. However if a sample as large as that of key points. Furthermore, Piolat, Olive, and Kellogg (2005) argue that Giambra's (1979–80) is required to detect a significant difference, then the time urgency of selecting key points and recording them while the value of any observed gender effect in a practical sense is trivial and also comprehending new information places significant demands on inconsequential. In light of this possibility and findings of previous the central executive and other components of working memory. This research, it does not seem likely that gender has any reliable effect on suggests that note taking as a complex activity may not increase TUIT frequency. attention to the lecture content per se, but rather redirect resources to In the present study student interest was indexed by degree program the manipulation of information in working memory. Therefore, it and self-reported interest in the course content. The observed negative would appear that one method of curtailing student inattention association between course interest and TUIT frequency is suggestive of during lectures is through the active encouragement of students to an effect similar to that observed by Grodsky and Giambra (1990–1991), participate in note taking during the lesson. however the strength of this effect is marginal, and must be interpreted Although this effect did not reach significance, the finding of reduced with caution. It is possible that the five item measure used was not TUIT frequency in students who had lecture notes is intriguing. The sensitive enough to capture the influence of course interest on TUIT handouts provided in this study consisted of the lecturers' PowerPoint frequency. No difference between those enrolled in a psychology degree slides, and as such a lot of information was delivered in the lecture that program with those not enrolled emerged, possibly suggesting that in a was not included in these handouts. While several studies have found lecture environment student interest has no effect on TUIT frequency. performance benefits associated with skeletal and guided handouts (e.g. However, degree program may not be an accurate reflection of students Austin et al., 2002; Hartley, 1976; Morgan et al., 1988; Northcraft & who are engaged in psychological studies. For instance, the Bachelor of Jernstedt, 1975), this is the first study to provide some evidence to Arts and Bachelor of Science degree programs offer majors in suggest that the provision of lecture handouts may help students psychology, and students engaged in these degree programs would maintain attention to the lesson, possibly by requiring vigilance in order not have been captured by the measure in the present study. to record important information omitted from such handouts. Furthermore, the sample sizes of the two groups were vastly uneven, This study provides evidence that TUIT frequency during lectures is with only seventy participants being enrolled in a psychology degree reduced when: i) the course content is interesting to the student, ii) program. If any differences do exist, the sheer number of students who students are seated at the front of the lecture theatre, iii) students are were not enrolled in psychology degree programs may have suppressed actively engaged in note taking and iv) students have a copy of the any potential effect. Therefore, it is possible that interest has an influence lecture notes. In a study of task-unrelated thought while encoding on TUIT frequency, but at this stage the results remain equivocal. information, Smallwood, Baracaia et al. (2003) found that when 164 S.I. Lindquist, J.P. McLean / Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167 participants were instructed to encode categorically organized lists of While the association between TUIT frequency and weighted exam words for future retrieval, a lower frequency of task-unrelated thought mark is of a relatively small magnitude, it needs to be placed in the was observed relative to a random list condition and a categorical correct context. Lecture content in this course was examined by condition in which participants were instructed to merely shadow the recognition-based multiple choice exams. Students also had the words. This led Smallwood, Baracaia et al. (2003) to postulate that the opportunity to revise prior to these exams. With these factors in effects of stimulus organization on the frequency of task-unrelated mind, the fact that a significant negative association still exists suggests thought be considered as an interaction between the presentation of a that in the lecture environment daydreaming may indeed lead to a stimulus set providing an “affordance” (p 456) for information to be decoupling of attention, leading to poorer representations of the lecture readily encoded and whether active engagement with the task is material and resulting in poorer performance on lecture-based assess- required. More recently, Smallwood, McSpadden, and Schooler (2007) ments. Would this effect be more pronounced if there was no investigated the influence of mind wandering on encoding during a task opportunity for revision and if assessment was recall-based? An where participants were required to encode words for future retrieval investigation is currently underway to examine this proposition and detect targets with either high or low probability. Of particular (Lindquist & McLean, in preparation). interest, it was found that high probability targets increased the A number of limitations within the present study are worthy of automatic aspects of memory (retrieval via familiarity), indicating that scrutiny. To begin with, in order to conduct an ecologically valid the frequent interruptions provided by the targets provided exogenous investigation of TUIT frequency within a real lecture environment, support to attention by enabling participants to sustain their attention elements of experimental control were forfeited. However, despite on the task (Smallwood, McSpadden et al., 2007). This can be this trade-off the findings of the present study provide important conceptualised as an affordance, as it provided a task environment in insights into the academic and educational correlates of TUIT which the features of the external environment mitigated the negative frequency, and set the agenda for further investigation. Furthermore, consequences of mind wandering (Smallwood, McSpadden et al., 2007). imposing experimental conditions upon a lecture environment is not Interest, seating position, note taking and lecture notes can potentially be only impractical, but would also severely limit the ecological validity viewed as affordances in the lecture environment. Interest in the content of the investigation. While in principle this investigation was of the lecture focuses student attention, suppressing TUITs and ecologically valid, it is possible that the demonstration itself may potentially creating an affordance so that the lecture content can be have influenced the number of TUITs experienced, perhaps by making readily encoded and understood. Furthermore, sitting towards the front participants more attuned to these episodes or even having of the lecture theatre places the student directly in view of the lecturer, participants spend time thinking about the concept of TUITs. increasing attentiveness (Breed & Colaiuta, 1974; Stires, 1980), while However, this demonstration has been conducted over a number of lecture handouts afford students with a guide to the organization of the years during the consciousness lecture, and there has been no lecture. In addition, the activity of note taking requires students to be indication or feedback from students that this has inflated the actively engaged during the lecture, again suppressing TUITs by focusing frequency of TUITs, and some suggestion that the self-monitoring attention on the task at hand and potentially facilitating the encoding of stemming from TUIT measurement may reduce TUITs (J. McLean, information (Kiewra, 1985). These findings provide strategies to personal communication, 15 October, 2010). It is possible that the educators that have the ability to reduce the frequency of TUITs within timing of the consciousness lecture during the semester may have had the classroom, focusing student attention on the content of the class and an effect on exam performance; however this is not likely given that also having an influence on academic outcomes. Further research into students were able to revise the course content prior to the final exam. the effects of affordance and active engagement within the classroom The present study provides valuable insights into the educational and whether these are contingent upon one another in both ecologically correlates of TUIT frequency, and an obvious direction for future valid and simulated classroom settings would be of benefit. research is the investigation of other factors that may influence The significant negative associations observed between TUIT student attention within the lecture environment, particularly frequency and weighted exam mark, final exam mark, total course alertness (e.g. Versace, Cavallero, De Min Tona, Mozzato, & Stegagno, mark and overall course grade suggest that increased TUIT frequency 2006) and caffeine consumption (e.g. Smith, Sturgess, & Gallagher, during lectures has a negative impact on academic performance. Of 1999) in order to rule out these potential influences on the relation- particular importance is the negative association observed between ships observed in this study. TUIT frequency and weighted exam mark, an academic performance measure based solely on the lecture content. What makes this association even more fascinating is the lack of association between 3.1. Summary and future directions TUIT frequency and weighted assignment mark, which suggests that TUIT frequency during lectures has a selective effect on material The purpose of the present study was to investigate TUIT frequency learned during lectures only. This finding adds support to the within an ecologically valid educational setting. A number of important contention that when TUITs occur attention becomes decoupled associations were discovered, all of which have important implications between the internal and external environments leading to superficial for current educational practices. Further studies should attempt to representations of the task at hand (Smallwood, Fishman et al., 2007; conduct similar studies within other educational environments; such as Smallwood & Schooler, 2006), and is also in agreement with the in tutorials, discussion groups, and even within schools, in order to fully contention of Smallwood, Fishman et al. (2007) that TUITs have examine the impact of attentional lapses across all educational realms. important implications in education due to the deficits in encoding Further studies should also attempt to disentangle some of the more associated with TUITs and the absence of factual information that pertinent findings, such as the effect of note taking on TUIT frequency results from this. These deficits in encoding may be due to a failure in and the impact of TUIT frequency on the learning of lecture-based the ability to create and maintain a situation model of the lecture content, within a controlled laboratory environment in order to provide narrative (Smallwood, McSpadden et al., 2008), leading to poorer a more solid basis upon which to justify the design of educational academic outcomes. The findings of this study also extend on the environments to counteract the effects of attentional lapses on reading comprehension work of Schooler et al. (2004), and Small- classroom learning. While some of the individual findings reported wood, McSpadden et al. (2008) by demonstrating that in real world here may seem intuitive, the value of undertaking an empirically sound, educational environments, increases in TUIT frequency have a quantitative examination of attention within the educational domain negative impact on the learning and comprehension of information provides the potential to enhance the quality of teaching and learning from lectures. environments. S.I. Lindquist, J.P. McLean / Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167 165

Acknowledgements occur. When you hear the alarm, please indicate on this sheet whether at the exact moment that the alarm occurred you were experiencing a The authors would like to thank the three anonymous reviewers for daydream by circling YES. If when you heard the alarm you were not their comments and ideas on earlier drafts of the manuscript. The authors experiencing any thoughts or images unrelated to the material being would also like to thank the students of the University of Queensland presented and were paying attention to the lecture, please indicate by enrolled in PSYC1020, semester 1 2008, for being good sports and circling NO. Information regarding the speciﬁc content of your thoughts participating in this study. is not required. If you have questions please raise your hand.

Appendix A. Consciousness: In-class demonstration of daydream frequency recording Probe Daydream experienced Probe 1 YES/NO Duringthecourseofthislecture,youmayfind yourself thinking about Probe 2 YES/NO things other than the material being presented by your lecturer. These Probe 3 YES/NO thoughts may simply pop into your head, or you may choose to think Probe 4 YES/NO Probe 5 YES/NO about something other than the lecture content. In this demonstration, we are interested in both of these instances of daydreaming. For the purposes of this demonstration, daydreaming is defined as any thoughts or images that are experienced throughout the lecture that are not Participation in this demonstration is voluntary. If you do not wish related to the course material being presented during the lecture. to take part, simply leave your handouts blank. In addition, with your Examples of daydreams include ‘What will I have for dinner?’, ‘Iwonder permission the results will be used in the PhD research of Sophie what my friends are doing now?’ and ‘I hope the bus home isn't too crowded’. Lindquist. For research purposes, it would be valuable to know some Today's demonstration involves the daydream self-classification of the correlates of daydreaming, so if you could please fill out the probe method, a method that has the ability to index the frequency of demographic sheet in addition to this recording sheet we will be able self-reported daydreaming. This method involves the instruction of what to investigate these potential correlates. If you specifically do not want constitutes a daydream, the sounding of auditory probes (e.g. a beep or to be included in analyses involving examination scores and course alarm) during the lecture and the recording of whether a daydream was grades, please leave the student number field on your demographic being experienced at the point in time when the probe sounded. On this sheet blank. If you take part in the demonstration but at the end of the sheet you are able to record whether you are daydreaming or not lecture decide that you no longer wish to participate, do not return whenever you hear the alarm during the course of this lecture. A total of your handouts at the end of the lecture. Please be advised that the around five alarms will sound during this fifty minute lecture. However, coordinators of PSYC1020 will not be able to identify you from the you will have no prior knowledge of the times at which these alarms will data recorded in this demonstration.

Consciousness: In-class Demonstration of Daydream Frequency Recording Demographic Information Sheet

1. Age:......

2. Gender:......

3. Degree Program (e.g. B.A., B.Sc., B.Psy.Sc.):......

4. Overall Position (OP) Score (or alternative entry score):......

Please circle your response for the following questions

5. How interesting have you found John McLean’s lectures and cognitive psychology so far?

12 3 4 5

(not interesting) (slightly interesting) (moderately interesting) (very interesting) (extremely interesting)

6. Have you downloaded and printed the lecture notes in advance for today’s lecture? Yes / No.

7. How many notes on average do you record in addition to those provided on your lecture notes, or overall if you do not have lecture notes:

12345

(no notes) (minimal notes) (moderate notes) (detailed notes) (very detailed notes)

8. Approximately where are you sitting in the lecture theatre?

Front third Middle third Back third

9. Student Number (optional: see below):......

(8 digit number as shown on student card) 166 S.I. Lindquist, J.P. McLean / Learning and Individual Differences 21 (2011) 158–167

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