ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЕ ЗАМЕТКИ

DOI: 10.24411/2221-3279-2020-10044 ETHNIC CONFLICTS IN NORTH CAUCASUS

Monalisha Acharjee Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

Article history: Abstract: Ethnic confl icts are a challenge to the state as it impacts the foreign policy as well as the domestic politics Received: of a nation. The region of North Caucasus has been the most 03.11.2018 unstable region among the Republics of the Russian Federation. The present article will analyse the causes of the rising tensions Accepted:: among the ethnic groups and the role of Russia in solving the 03.07.2019 problems in the region. It will further explain the drawbacks of the Russian authorities and will recommend policies which About the authors: could bring a positive change in the confl ict. The use of force PhD Research Scholar, Center for Russian and Central would not be able to bring any change in the region rather it Asian Studies, School of International Studies, would be more fruitful if efforts are made to address the causes Jawaharlal Nehru University for the ethnic violence. e-mail: [email protected]

Key words: North Caucasus; ethnicity; Russia; security; Islam; Chechnya; confl ict

The end of cold war and the disintegration has a vast density of languages anywhere on of the Soviet Union have resulted in an increase earth.2 The geostrategic location of the North in the number of ethnic confl icts in the region. Caucasus has played an important role in North Caucasus has been one such region in the the multi diversity of the ethnic group in the Russian Federation where till date there has been region. It was invaded by the Persian, Ottoman, continuous confl icts and instability challenging Byzantine and Tsarist empires. North Caucasus the security of the entire Russian territory. has been inhabited by a large number of ethnic `The region of Caucasus in the Eurasian groups and thus it has been referred to as the continent has been described as an element of “Mountain of Tongues”.3 Alexander Rondeli ‘the new world disorder’.1 The reason behind has argued that the geopolitical location has this defi nition was the ethno-political confl icts led to loss for the Caucasian people rather than and the warfare in the region. However out of any benefi t. Territories of the Caucasian people the total eight civil confl icts in the region of have been annexed; their population have been the former Soviet Union fi ve have occurred in deported and suppressed violently. Caucasus the Caucasus region. For example the confl icts has been an important communication route in the Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, between Europe and Asia and is an important Abkhazia, the Prigorodniy Rayon of North site for production and export of oil and gas Ossetia and Chechnya. These confl icts together resources from the Caspian Sea.4 have resulted into death of thousands of people and large number of refugees and internally displaced persons. 2 Wall, Thomas D. The Caucasus: An Introduction, The region of North Caucasus has been Oxford University Press, 2010. defi ned by Thomas Wall as a region which 3 Catford, J.C, Mountain of Tongues: The 1 Cornell, Svante. Small Nations and Great Languages of the Caucasus // Annual Review Of Powers: A Study of Ethno political Confl ict in the Anthropology, 1997, Vol. 6, PP. 283-314. Caucasus. Taylor and Francis Group, London and 4 Rondeli, Alexander. The North Caucasus: A View New York, 2000. from Tbilisi, Turkish Political Quarterly, 2011.

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Concept of ethnicity fought between the nations.7 The shift from the generic war to the ethnic war was evident An ethnic group can be defi ned as a set of especially since the collapse of the multi ethnic people who share common language, religion, Soviet Union and the homogenous Yugoslavia culture, race, territory or economic system. during the 1990s. In both the cases the ethnic The concept of ethnicity is defi ned by various confl icts resulted into violence and civil war.8 scholars. There is no one defi nition of ethnicity. For some “ethnicity” is understood in terms of ancestry for others it means physical attributes. Different theories of ethnicity Norman Yetman argues that ethnicity is matter Primordialist school. In this school of identity or a sense of belonging to a particular ethnicity is understood as an ascribed identity or group.5 Ethnicity is subjective in the sense as it is assigned status. It is something that is inherited a product of human mind and human sentiments. from one’s ancestors. For example if your On the other hand it is defi ned as objective in ancestors are Japanese then you are also Japanese the sense that it has objective characteristics as because you inherit certain features from your well as it is constructed by power relations and forefathers. Thus, the proponents of this school social forces. There are some who also argue argue that ethnicity is very deeply rooted, it is that ethnicity is a combination of subjective a primal bond to one’s ancestral bloodline. The perceptions based on some objective physical primordialists argue that ethnicity relies on the attributes such as culture, ancestry or national concept of kinship between members of the origin. ethnic group. Horowitz further supports this All over the world the importance or the argument and state that the kinship is the factor identity based on ethnicity has been rising. that enables the ethnic groups to think in terms Some of the evidences are the war in Yugoslavia of family resemblances. The second argument has led to fragmentation of its territory, ethnic of this school is that there is a demarcation confl ict in Northern Ireland, Quebec and other between who is a member of ethnic group European countries despite several peace- and who is not a member. Therefore, ethnicity making efforts in the Israeli Palestinian confl ict is static, fi xed and cannot be altered. Thus, if the clash between the two groups remains you are born a Japanese you will be forever a continued. In India the ethnic collisions between Japanese – the membership of an ethnic group Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and other communities cannot be changed. is a concerning issue. In Sri Lanka the confl ict The third argument is that ethnicity between the minority Tamils and the majority is determined by common ancestry. Thus, Sinhalese has resulted in death of thousands of members of an ethnic group share similar people and many as refugees. In Rwanda ethnic biological and cultural origins. This school is clashes remain evident in 1994 between the called “primordialist” because it emphasises majority Hutu and the minority Tutsi tribe. on the primordial factors such as lineage and Ethnic confl ict is a world view phenomenon. cultural ties in determining ethnicity.9 It persists in every part of the world and has been Constructivist school. The origin of the a central feature of places where heterogeneous Constructivist school could be determined population live.6 At the beginning of the twenty since 1970s. The proponents of this school fi rst century the term ethnicity has replaced the argue that ethnicity is socially constructed terms “races” or “nations” which were used in identity. In other words, ethnicity is created it the nineteenth century. The rise of multi-ethnic is contrast to the argument by the primordialist societies has brought the concept of ethnic that ethnicity is inherited. The next assumption confl ict as separate from the generic “war” of this philosophy is that ethnic boundaries

5 Yetman, Norman R., ed. Majority and Minority: 7 Center for Systemic Peace, 30 October 2006. The Dynamics of Racial and Ethnic Relations. 8 Smith, A. Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History. 5th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1991. Cambridge: Polity, 2011. PP. 54-55. 6 Horowitz, D. Ethnic Groups in Confl ict. Berkeley, 9 Berghe, Pierre L. van Berghe. The Ethnic CA: University of California Press, 1985. P. 57. Phenomenon,Greenhood Press: London, 1981.

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are fl exible and changeable. Lastly ethnicity defi nes ethnic groups as “human groups that is a dynamic entity which is determined and entertain a subjective belief in their common constructed by the society. Any change in the descent because of similarities of physical type social environment of the society has an impact or of customs or both because of memories of on the ethnic communities existing in the colonization or migration ‒ in such a way that society. William Yancey explained ethnicity in this belief is important for the continuation of terms of an “emergent phenomenon” which is the non-kinship communal relationships”.13 In created by the structural conditions. He further some countries people are given the freedom argues that industrialization process in the to choose their ethnicity whereas in certain society has an impact on the development of countries they are not. People are considered to ethnic identity of the communities.10 be born into the ethic group according to the Instrumentalist school. The scholars in rules set by the society. this school view ethnicity as an instrument or strategic tool for gaining resources. Anthony Causes of ethnic confl ict in North Caucasus Smith in his work traces the origin of the instrumentalist view. According to him, this Ethnic confl icts are based on three school evolved during the 1960s and 1970s in factors such as religion and language, ethnic United States in the debate about (white) ethnic discrimination like political, social and persistence in what was supposed to have an economic and the third factor is the conscience effective “melting pot”.11 people who write or speak their views on According to this theoretical framework ethnicity through books newspapers and or people are affi liated to their ethnic groups till any other form of social media. Ethnicity they are benefi tted for being a member of the implies both structural (material) and cultural group. In other words, “ethnicity and race” are (subjective) features. Structural ethnicity refers viewed as instrumental identities organized to the relative location of the ethnic group in as means to particular ends. Instrumentalists terms of its relation with the other social groups claim that differences in ethnic groups are not in the stratifi cation of the society. On the other the only cause for confl ict rather ethnic confl ict hand cultural, social and psychological sense of begins from difference in human relations ethnicity refers to a feeling of belongingness to and from the believe that some ethnic groups a particular group who share common cultural, benefi t from the disadvantage of the other. linguistic, religious and national features.14 These inequalities among various groups lead Security Dilemma to ethnic confl icts resulting in the instability in the region. The pioneers of these school In the words of Vesna Pesic ethnic confl ict Nathan Glazer and Daniel Moynihan state that is caused by the “fear of the future, lived through ethnicity is like class and nationality which are the past.15 Barry P. Posen has for the fi rst time ways for political mobilization for advancing used security dilemma in international relations group interests.12 with reference to ethnic confl ict. Security Integrated approach. This approach is a dilemma occurs in a state of anarchy. In anarchy combination of all the three school. In this they the states are dependent on the self-help system argue that ethnicity is socially constructed by for their security. Thus, the groups maintain and ancestry as well as by the society. Max Weber expand their military capabilities. This could threaten others who start arming themselves 10 Yancey, William; Ericksen, Eugene P.; Juliani, Richard N. Emergent Ethnicity: A Review and 13 Weber, Max. Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft (Eng. Reformulation // American Sociological Review, Tr.Economy and Society). 1920. 1976, Vol. 41, No. 3, Pp. 391-403. 14 Shibutani, T., et al. Ethnic Stratifi cation: A Compa- 11 Smith, A. Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History. rative Approach. Macmillan, 1965. Cambridge: Polity, 2011. Pp. 54-55. 15 Pesic, V. Remarks on the Institute on Global 12 Glazer, Nathan; Moynihan, Daniel Patrick. Confl ict and Cooperation (IGCC) Working Group Ethnicity: Theory and Experience. Harvard on the International Spread and Management of University Press,1975. Ethnic Confl ict, October 1, 1994.

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resulting in the arms race between the ethnic example, in case of Checheno-Ingushetia groups. The dilemma follows from the inability ASSR in 1944 after the deportation of the entire of the two sides to observe each other intentions. ethnic group. The motive behind the alteration If the party would know that they are arming of the administrative boundaries was a reward themselves only for defensive purposes and not for a particular national group in favour of the to attack the other group. As Posen sums up his loyalty by the group to the state.19 argument in the statement, “what one does to On the contrary the intention of the enhance one’s security causes reaction that, in government was to weaken a coalition or the end, can make one less secure”.16 Lake and large ethnic group that either posed a threat to Rothchild have argued that ethnic confl ict is Russia’s domination of Soviet politics or had caused by the collective fears for the future and the objective of secession from USSR. For not because of inter-ethnic differences, hatred example in case of Circassians their territories for the other group or age-old rivalry. They were divided into new Soviet “nationalities” of state that as groups begins to fear for safety, Adygei, Cherkess and Kabardins or in cases the strategic dilemmas arise that contain within territory which belonged to other ethnic groups them the potential for tremendous violence. As were added to their individual national units the security dilemma widens groups becomes in order to dilute the population even further apprehensive the state weakens and the confl ict and keep them in constant competition over is more likely to occur.17 The fear of the future political and economic resources. arises among the groups when the state is Historical Factor unable to arbitrate between groups or provide guarantees of protection for the groups. Barry Historical events in the region has an Posen refers to this scenario as “emerging important impact on the memories of the anarchy” and in this situation physical security ethnic groups. History not only tells about becomes the foremost concern for the survival the events in the past but it also leaves many of ethnic groups.18 issues unanswered which are used as advantage by the leaders to be interpreted by them. In Territorial Demarcation case of North Caucasus, the memories of the Since Soviet era there has been several deportation in the minds of the ethnic groups times readjustment of the territory’s borders. had great signifi cance in their lives. This For example, the division of the Union and experience among the groups had evolved Autonomous Republics into separate units, a feeling of hatred for the Soviet authorities subdivisions of the Circassian people of the and sense of deprivation in comparison with North Caucasus in the 1920s and 1930s. There other ethnic groups who were favoured by the were some cases in which different nationalities Russians. The stories of ethnic groups and the were merged into a single territorial unit as miseries and brutalities experienced by them was evident in case of Kabardino-Balkaria were told from one generation to another. This in 1922. Further in 1936 the autonomous kept the fl ame of hatred keep blowing among unit of Kabardino-Balkaria was promoted the people for being ostracized by the Russian from Autonomous Oblasts to Autonomous authorities from the territories. On the other Republics. On the other hand some of the hand, the groups who were not deported or the autonomous units were even dissolved. For Russian communities had a sense of hatred for the deported groups as they were told that these 16 Posen, Barry P. The Security Dilemma and Ethnic groups had favoured the German to invade the Confl ict // Survival, 1993, Vol. 35(1), Pp. 27-47. Russian territories. The deportations of the 17 Lake, D.; Rothchild, D. Ethnic fears and Global specifi c ethnic groups were as a punishment to Engagement: The International Spread and them for being disloyal to the Soviet authorities. Management of Ethnic Confl ict // Institute on Global Confl ict and Cooperation, 1996, No. 20, 19 Wixman, Ronald. Soviet Nationality Policy and Pp. 5-47. Practice. Language Aspects of Ethnic Patterns and 18 Posen, Barry P. The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Processes. University of Chicago: Department of Confl ict // Survival, 1993, Vol. 35(1), Pp. 27-47. Geography, January 1980. Pp. 121-170.

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Thus, the elders of the communities told the North Caucasus region are mainly dominated stories to their successors which was carried by the mineral and raw material extraction and forward by the coming generations. The gross the production of oil and gas. human rights violations by the Soviet authorities In case of Chechnya, prior to the attempt during the deportation were also mentioned in of secession from the Russian Federation the history books. Chechnya accounted for 50% of the total oil production in the region. It was also the centre Economic Factor of oil refi ning in the North Caucasus with the North Caucasus is Russia’s leading refi nery in Grozny producing 90% of Russia’s agricultural region producing almost one quarter aviation engine oil. Prior to 1992 50-70% of all its annual agricultural output. North of the budget revenues of the republics came Caucasus Economic region along with Rostov from direct federal subsidies and centralized Oblast accounts for 50% of Russia’s vegetable bank credits with Chechnya, Ingushetia and oil, 42% of Russia’s sugar 33% of Russia’s Dagestan being the most heavily subsidized. By wool, 25% of Russia’s grain, 20% of Russia’s 1992 the industrial production in the region fell vegetables and 15% of Russia’s meat.20 In spite in different regions of the North Caucasus for of its pre-eminence as a center of agricultural example in North Ossetia it fell by 36 percent, output North Caucasus faces a severe economic in Chechnya by 30 percent, by 28 percent in crisis since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Dagestan. By 1992, the industrial production in The main reason for the economic decline is the the North Caucasus by 23 percent and further in deteriorating population density. Prior to 1991 1993 by 21.6 percent. The factor which further North Caucasus had the largest rural population had a deteriorating impact on the economy was in Russia with 43 percent of rural population the average salaries of the working population living in the rural areas. Chechnya, Ingushetia, in the North Caucasus declined to one third of Dagestan and Karachaevo-Cherkessia had the the average for Russia on the other hand the highest ratio of rural to urban population in prices of all commodities rose across the entire the region. During the Soviet period the high federation. By 1993 the entire economy of the birth rate and the population density was used region had collapsed and the impact on the as a labour surplus in the North Caucasus. This economy of the region was as such 97 percent surplus was used by the local authorities to of the republican budget of Ingushetia came avoid destabilizing levels of unemployment. from the Russian federal government subsidies. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union the These economic hardships in the region of the boundaries were permeable and encouraged North Caucasus has been an important factor people to migrate for work. As a result, working in enhancing the ethno-political confl ict in the population migrated from the mountains to the region. lowlands and the urban centres. According to Political Factor the 1989 Census one in four North Caucasians lived beyond the borders of their National Elections can have enormous infl uence on Republics. With the dissolution of Soviet inter-group collaboration as well on the negative Union and deterioration of command economy side and evolve the circumstances for confl ict. In left large number of unemployed in rural areas favourable circumstances an agreement on the consequently increasing pressure on land and rules of the political game, broad participation housing. Due to the asymmetrical population in the voting process and a promising economic profi le and corresponding low level of industrial environment election can promote stability. On development has led to the weakening of the the other hand, the multiparty systems and in economy of the seven North Caucasus republics an undemocratic countries election leads to making them largely dependent on the subsidies violence in the state due to corruption and the from the Centre. The major industries in the ineffi ciency of the State to control it. There are cases when there are opportunities given 20 Hill, Fiona. Russia’s Tinderbox / Confl ict in the for coalition with other parties as a result this Caucasus and Its Implications for the Future of the coalition gives the minority parties to gain Russian Federation, September 1995, Pp. 1-97.

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power in the future and a chance to advance North Caucasus on the pretext that they were their individual and collective interests. responsible for the increasing crime since the However, in a multi ethnic state the impact collapse of USSR and thus expelled them from of election can bring problems. In legislature the Moscow city. The Moscow government where minority groups are represented there is uses the term “people of the Caucasian a a possibility that the minority groups would not nationality” in the offi cial usage in order to refer be involved in the decision-making process as to a person having his origin from Caucasus. most of the resolutions would be passed by the Even though Caucasians are a group of people majority voting. One of the ways to ensure the in the Caucasus region and not a single ethnic minimal representation of all ethnic groups in group. In Moscow the people from Caucasus the society is to imbibe certain electoral rules were called by the name as “blacks”. These which would ensure minimal representation of prejudices of the Russians towards the people all ethnic groups in the society. There should from Caucasus have furthered a sense of be a proportional representation of all ethnic deprivation and humiliation among the people groups in the legislature. In case of elections who restore to violence against the Russian in the Russian Duma in a chamber of 450 authorities.22 On the other hand there has been members half were represented on the basis an equal hostile attitude against Moscow by of single member constituencies and half the North Caucasian groups. The reason is the were represented on the basis of proportional result of the historical legacy of struggle against representation. incorporation into the Russian Empire in the 19th century and repression by the Bolsheviks Religious Factor and Soviet governments in the 20th century. The next reason was the religious Foreign Infl uence affi liation of the people in the region. Most of the people professed Islam in the North When an outside country tries to support an Caucasus region in contrast to the majority of ethnic group in their claims and promote anti- the Russians following Orthodox Christianity. Russian sentiments. Example of it was when As Huntington terms it “clash of civilizations”21 Chechens were supported by the Wahabhis in according to him in the post-cold war era the Arab countries. the main source of confl ict would be cultural Migration of the Population and religious identities of the people. In case of North Ossetia and Ingushetia one group is The other aspect to be kept in mind is the a follower of Christianity and the other is an migration from the region “hot spots” due to ardent Muslim populated region. The objectives confl icts in Chechnya, Dagestan and the region of the ethnic groups also includes demands for of Ingush- Ossetia confl ict. The migration fl ow some religious favour from the authorities. In affects the economic and demographic situation case of Chechnya the Wahhabi Islamic leaders in North Caucasus. The North Caucasus is from Saudi Arabia supported the demands of characterised with high birth rate and a large the Chechens for an independent state and later younger population had a negative impact the demand was to establish an Islamic state in on the economy of the region as the working the region. educated and professionally trained population of the region either migrated to other places Feeling of Victimization for employment. At the same time the young The Russians have hostile attitude towards people who stayed back in the region were the people from North Caucasus. This was infl uenced by the radical forms of Islam and evidence for example from 1992 to 1994 the joined the extremist’s groups. authorities in the Moscow city had attacked The intensive migration processes have the vendors and traders in the region from 22 Kaplan F. Moscow Cracks down on Outsiders: 21 Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilization Police Take Advantage of State of Emergency and the Remaking of World Order. New York: to Drive Many Ethnics from City / The Boston Touchstone, 1997. Globe, October 14, 1993.

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restructured ethnic composition of the population neither brotherly nor as foes. It was the foreign as well as the economic pattern of the region. involvement in the region that deteriorated the The infl ow of immigrants from Dagestan in the relations between the two groups. With the steppe regions of Stavropol krai contributed to advancement of Russia in the region of North the spread of distant pasture cattle raising there, Caucasus the Ossetian supported the Russians putting competitive pressure on other forms of and they became one the important allies of the farming and leading to the exhaustion of grazing Russians in the region. areas and hayfi elds. Most of the ethnic confl icts During the Soviet era the Ossetians and in the region are due to the changing population the Ingush were part of the Gorskaya Republic. dividend in the region putting pressure on the In 1924 this Republic was dissolved and economic structure of the region. the Ingush were allocated their autonomous oblast. At present this autonomous oblast has been a disputed territory. The distinction Ethnic confl ict in the North Caucasus region between the territorial claim of North Ossetia Ingushetian and Ossetain confl ict and Ingushetia has been very uncertain, the reason being that the border passed through The confl ict between Ingushetia and Vladikavkaz it is a densely populated areas Ossetian arose in 1992 in the district of and is the present capital of North Ossetia but Prigorodniy. Ingushetians are the indigenous has a majority of Ingush living in the region. Caucasian people who lived in the mountains but The root cause of the problem began during due to Russian coercion they had to shift from the Second World War. In June 1946, the Chechen the mountains to the valleys and towns. Whereas Ingush ASSR was abolished and distributed among the Ossetians were called as the ‘foothillers’ as its neighbours and the Ingush were deported to they lived at lower altitudes in the plains or the Central Asia and Siberia. During this period the hills. The other factor in the relation between the important Prigorodniy Rayon of Vladikavkaz two groups is that the Ingush are the indigenous was handed over to North Ossetia. This region people of the Caucasus on the other hand the was signifi cant for the Ingush as it comprised of Ossetians are the ‘immigrants’ who had settled half of the Ingushetia’s territory.24 In January 1957 in the Caucasus in the sixth century AD.23 They when the Chechen- Ingush ASSR was restored, have a difference in language the Ossetians are the Prigorodniy Rayon remained within North more closely related to Persian and the Ingush Ossetia. When the Ingush were allowed to return are more familiar with the Caucasian language during Khruschev’s era they found Ossetians closely related to the Chechens. The difference settled in their homeland. When the Ingush tried in languages between the two communities to restore their homes they were resented by resulted in lack of communication between the local Ossetians who were supported by the the two groups even though they both used North Ossetian authorities. The North Ossetian Kumyk a Turkic language. The diffi culty in authorities initiated every possible way to prevent communication was one of the factors which the Ingush from returning to their residences. In the further increased the tensions between the two later years legal instruments were implemented to groups. The other point of difference is on the make it impossible for the Ingush to resettle in the basis of religion. The Ingush are the people who region. Some of the measures were in the period are mainly Sunni Muslims who have a strong between 1982 and 1990 decrees were issued to Sufi infl uence particularly the Qadri tariqat. limit the movement of people by implementing Most of the Ossetains are traditional Orthodox compulsory “propiski(internal passports)” in the Christians and in the northern part of the region a district of Prigorodniy.25 Yet these decrees could minority of the Muslims also exist in Ossetia. Thus throughout history the relations 24 Nekrich, Alexandr. The Punished Peoples: the between the Ossetians and the Ingushs were Deportation and the Fate of the Soviet Minorities at the end of the Second World War, New York: 23 Birch, Julian. Ossetia: a Caucasian Bosnia in Norton and Co., 1978. P. 9. Microcosm // Central Asian Survey, 1995, No. 1, 25 Cornell, Svante. Small Nations and Great Powers Pp. 43-74. a study of Ethnopolitical confl ict in the Caucasus.

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not stop the Ingush from settling in their lands. Chechnya They used both legal as well as illegal ways The cause of ethnic confl ict can be traced to occupy their land and by 1989 there were back to the Stalin period when the entire ethnic almost 33.000 Ingush were living in the North group of Chechens were deported to Central Ossetian ASSR out of which almost 17.500 had Asia. The event is remembered as genocide in the settled in Prigorodniy region. By this time the minds of the Chechens which cannot be erased till relations between the Ingush and the Ossetians date in the successors of the victimized Chechens. had strained and sporadic violence on the basis The Chechens also faced the problem of territorial of ethnic grounds had begun between the two demarcation and their land was occupied by communities. other ethnic groups when they returned in 1957 According to the Human Rights Watch after the Khruschev’s reforms. Gorbachev’s there was an arms race between the Ingush glasnost and perestroika gave an opportunity and Ossetians.26 The Ingush bought arms from to the Chechens to demand independence from Chechnya and on the North Ossetia side they cited the Russian federation. In 1994 the demand for the war in the South Ossetia as a need for them to independence by the Chechens took a violent turn arm themselves. Even the Russian authorities also and in 1994 they fought a violent war with the supplied arms to the North Ossetian. Thus it could Russian authorities. The violence again erupted in be argued that the North Ossetia was in a better 1999 but now the course of the war had changed. position than the Ingush as they had the support of The territories of Chechnya were invaded by the the Republican administration. Tensions between foreign Islamist Wahhabi leaders. The earlier the two communities had increased since the 1991 demands of the secessionists were now converted with the Ossetians blaming the Ingush for the to the demand for the establishment of an Islamic violence and extremism on the other hand Ingush state in the territory. The invasion of Islamic alleged that the paramilitary forces of Ossetia extremists in the region posed a security threat to harassed and killed Ingushetians. The increasing the entire Russian Federation. The unemployed power of the Ossetian paramilitary forces was youth joined these extremist forces and carried responded by the Ingush in the Prigorodniy region out violence in the region. These terrorist constructed fences, armed themselves and even activities were not confi ned to Chechnya it even organized guards in the villages. spread to its neighbouring territories of Dagestan In October 1992 war occurred between and Ingushetia. The ethnic confl ict which began the two communities. One of the reason was on with aim of cession from Russia had now turned October 20 a pipeline which transported gas from bloody resulting in the death of thousands. Russia to Armenia and Georgia passing from Suicide bombing, kidnapping, hijacking are Prigorodniy was destroyed. On the same day in forms of terrorist activities were involved in order the settlement of Oktyabrskoye, a 12-year-old to threaten the civilians. The Beslan tragedy was Ingush girl was trampled by a loaded personnel a one of the violent activities carried out by the transporter from the North Ossetia.27 The Ossetian extremists. justifi ed the incident as a mere accident but when The Russian authorities used force to two more Ingush were killed the next day the deal with the issue. On the Russian part they Ingush had become suspicious. Thus, leading to initiated “mob up” operations in the region. confl ict between the two communities in Yuzhniy A mob up operation is that the authorities could leading to the death of six men.28 arrest randomly anyone on the suspicion that he had links with the extremists. Taylor and Francis: London, 2001. 26 Human Rights Watch/Helsinki. Punished Peoples’ North Western Caucasus of the Soviet Union: the Continuing Legacy of Stalin’s Deportations. New York: Human Rights The region of west central part of the watch, 1991. Pp. 48-49. North Caucasus is inhabited by two different 27 Tscherwonnaja, Swetlana. Der Ossetisch- ethnic groups. The fi rst group belongs to the Inguschische Konfl ikt im Nordkaukasus / indigenous Circassian people composed of the Osteuropa, August (8) 1995, P. 741. Adyge, the Kabardins and the Cherkess. The 28 Izvestiya, 20 October 1992. linguists divide the Circassian language into

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two parts one which is spoken in the western due to the fact that the Karachai-Balkars were part and the other which is spoken in the eastern the vassals of the Kabardin nobility from the part of the region. The western vernacular is fi fteenth century. The Kabardins consider spoken by the Adyghe and Cherkess whereas the themselves superior due to their nobility on the eastern vernacular is spoken by the Kabardins. other hand they consider Balkars as inferior The second group of people are the and primitive.32 The Balkars area was not Karachais and the Balkars who live in the high advanced due to the lack of education amongst valley of the central North Caucasus. They them caused by the deportation during Stalin speak a dialect which is similar to Western era. In this region also the Russia government family of the Turkic languages. The number of used its policy of instilling a ally in the region. Karachais are double the number of Balkars.29 The role of ally was played by the Cossacks. Of all the Muslim Caucasian mountain In 1993 the Cossack units were made part of people, the Kabardins were the ones who were the Russian armed forces. The same year the the most pro-Russian and their feudal elite tensions between Cossacks and Karachai- was co-opted to a great extent by the Russians Cherkessia arose as the Cossacks were accused during their conquest of the Caucasus.30 On putting pig carcasses in the mosques. The the other hand the Circassian are more anti- Russian government had given the Cossacks Russian in their attitude. Religion plays an the authority to patrol the streets at night.33 important role in the lives of Karachai-Balkars The Karachais led a national movement in comparison to the Circassian. The reason called Jamagat with an aim for the division of behind the importance of Islam is the events in their autonomous oblast in 1988. The Centre Second World War when the entire ethnic group responded to the demand by raising the status of of the Karachai-Balkars were exiled to Siberia the region to an ASSR however the Karachais and Central Asia.31 had a demand for a full territorial rehabilitation Since 1920s the region of North Western which they enjoyed from 1926 to 1943.34 Caucasus has been divided into two independent Demand of Lezgin for unifi cation units the Karachai-Cherkess and the Kabardino- Balkar republics. The Circassians live to the The Lezgin are the successor of the north and the Karachai-Balkars live towards Dagestani people. They lived in the Southern southern portion. Both these ethnic groups lived portion of Dagestan and some of them even peacefully in their units the problem arose by lived in the Northern part of Azerbaijan in the the policies of Stalin. Stalin initiated the policy region through which the Samar River fl ows.35 of divide and rule with an aim to create two According to the density of the population they ethnically heterogeneous units. The northern are the fourth largest group after the ethnic boundaries of these units were drawn further groups of Avars, Dargins and Kumyks. There north extending its boundaries to the Slavic were no territorial problems till the First World populated regions mostly the Cossacks. The War, however during the national delimitations Cossacks have age old enmity with the Muslims. of the early Soviet era there was still peace in the The relations between the Karachai-Balkars and region even though Samur river was taken as a the Circassian people have unstable relations 32 Arutionov, Sergei. Ethnicity and Confl ict in the 29 Bennigsen, Alexandre; Wimbush, S. Enders. Caucasus. / Paper presented at a 1997 symposium Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide. London, of the Slavic Research Centre, Hokkaido Hurst, 1985. Pp. 190-200. See also: Smeets, University. P. 8. Rieks. Circassia // Central Asian Survey, 1995, 33 Pustilnik, Marina. Caucasian Stresses / Transition, No. 1, PP. 107-125. 15 March 1995, PP. 16-18. 30 Lemercier, Chantal. Quelquejay, Cooptation of the 34 Hill, Fiona. Russia’s Tinderbox: Confl ict in the Elites of Kabarda and Dagestan in the Sixteenth north Caucasus and its Implications for the Future Century / Marie Bennigsen Brozup (ed.) The North of the Russian Federation. Cambridge. Harvard Caucasus Barrier. London, Hurst, 1992. University, JFK School. 31 Bennigsen, Alexandre; Wimbush, S. Enders. 35 Matveeva, Anna; McCarthy, Clem. The Lezgins: Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide. London, A Situation Assessment / International Alert Hurst, 1985. Pp. 190-200. Report, May 1997.

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border between the RSFSR and the Azeri SSR. the Gorbachev era Lezgins began to organize There was still no problem as this boundary was themselves politically and in July 1990 the not considered as an international boundary. Lezgin Democratic Union was formed in Union The main agitation of the Lezgin started in Sadval was formed in Southern Dagestan The 1991 as their territory was divided between demands of the Lezgin were not responded two sovereign states of Russia and Azerbaijan. by the Russian government as a result they This was the result of the disintegration of the turned towards radical measures. However Soviet Union resulting in the independence after the disintegration of the Soviet Union of Azerbaijan. Earlier to the independence of in December 1991 the All Nation Congress Azerbaijan the border between the RSFSR and of the Lezgin people declared the creation Azeri SSR had created no obstruction to the of an independent state of Lezgistan which Lezgins. had incorporated territories of both Dagestan It was in 1965 when the Lezgin demanded a as well as Azerbaijan. By 1992 the relations territorial entity under the national organization between Russia and Azerbaijan deteriorated as headed by Dagestani writer, Iskander Kaziev. a result Russia imposed stricter border controls This organization protested against the on the Azeri border to an extent that the assimilation policies towards the Lezgins and Lezgins crossing borders would have to apply demanded for a unifi ed territorial unit which for visas either way they were travelling. The would comprise of the territories of Dagestan main objective behind initiating visa was to and Azerbaijan. The main aim for the demand put obstacles to contacts between the Lezgins of the unifi ed Lezgin entity was to enable the living across the borders. Lezgin freely practice their culture and traditions The Lezgins demonstrated on both the and would prevent assimilation. The Lezgins sides of the border with the help of Sadval. In have denounced the policies of the Azerbaijan response to these unrests there were meetings government in particular. The offi cial fi gures between the Azerbaijani, Russian and Dagestani of the Lezgins in the Azerbaijani documents governments. The government of Azerbaijan account to around 180,000 on the other hand were threatened by the uprising of the Lezgins in reality some accounts show the number as as it was facing a war period in the Karabakh it much as 700, 000 Lezgins in Azerbaijan.36 was not ready to fi ght another ethnic confl ict on If we focus on the condition of the Lezgins its territory. On the other hand Russia was also in Azerbaijan in comparison to their position in weary of the unrest on its southern border. The Dagestan the Lezgins in Azerbaijan are in a justifi cation for the border control as given by better position with a better quality of education the Russian government was that such a step than those in Dagestan. The Lezgins have also was taken to prevent smuggling. Furthermore, integrated well in the society of the Azerbaijani the Azeris considered the Russian hand behind leading to inter marriage of Lezgin and the demonstration by the Sadval with an Azeris.37 The Lezgins in Azerbaijan consider intention to further destabilize Azerbaijan in their existence of ethnic kin in Dagestan as of order to force the country to accept the Russian much importance. The Lezgins have been able military bases and border troops as had been to preserve their language and ethnic identity done in case of Georgia. through the contacts with Dagestan on the other In order to resolve the issue in October hand the Talysh, Tats and Kurds in Azerbaijan 1992 at as Sadval Congress in Makhachkala has lost relevance and subsumed their identity the Lezgins in Dagestan as well as the Lezgin with the Azeris.38 During the later phase of in Azerbaijan had gathered to fi nd a solution to movement policy. There were differences 36 Fuller, Elizabeth. Caucasus: The Lezgin between the two the Lezgins in Azerbaijan Campaign for Autonomy / in RFE/RL Research was more radical than their Dagestani kin. Report,16 October 1992. Pp. 30-32. They were ready to use arms if the Azerbaijani 37 Akiner, Shirin. Islamic Peoples of the Soviet government did not accept their demands. On Union. London, Kegan Paul, 1983. 38 the other hand the Dagestani Lezgins were less Cheterian, Vicken. Les Milleet Une Guerres du militant and were more fearful of the ethnic Caucuse / Le Monde Diplomatique, August 1994.

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confl ict due to the fact that Dagestan comprised or cattle breeding. Thus, this new law on of multi ethnic groups and confl ict in one would pretext of distant pastures would deprive them infl uence the other ethnic groups. For example of 80 percent of their territories.40 Earlier also a city called Derbent in the Southern Dagestan there were laws passed in order to curb the land populated by Azeris, Lezgins, Tabasarans which belonged to the Balkars. In 2005, new and Tats. In May 1994 the murder of several republican legislation certifi ed that a signifi cant Lezgins in the region brought ethnic tension to part of the Balkar property to “inter- settlement the point of civil war. lands” which would have put it under republican There were explosions in Baku in March jurisdiction. The law was to transfer two large 1994 resulting in the death of twelve people and Balkar rural settlement populated by 15,000 over 50 were injured. From the investigation people would be transferred to the capital city it was found that Sadval were involved in the of Nalchik. The Balkars challenged both these terrorist activities. Further it was found that decisions in the Constitutional Court in 2007. there were connections between Armenian These claims of Balkars are criticized security services and Sadval. The Armenians by the Kabardins they argue that the Balkars aimed to stir ethnic confl ict in Azerbaijan. claim of high altitude pasturages as 60 percent Two years later two Sadval activists were of the Balkars live in plains. The remaining sentenced death punishment and eleven of 40 percent if gets the pasturages they would them were sentenced to prisonment for this have access to half the territory where most act. In July Ramazanov who had become the of the natural resources are concentrated. The leader of the Lezgin in Azerbaijan was arrested Kabardins argues that the real objective of the on the accusation that he had been organizing Balkars to gain as much as mountain property training camps for terrorist in Dagestan. On as possible with an aim of establishing their the other hand, in reaction to the detention of own ethnic territory and secede from the KBR Ramazanov around 300 Lezgins captured four as they attempted to do in November 1991. On Azeri police offi cers on the Dagestani border the other hand the Kabardins want to keep the with a demand for the release of Ramazanov. land public so that they can continue to use it The Azeris responded to this action and on 14th independently of the Balkar municipalities. July Ramazanov was released. The acceptance These differences have failed to reach of demand of the Lezgins by the Azeris proved an agreement between the Balkars and the that Azerbaijan would avoid ethnic confl ict at Kabardins. Any concession by the government every cost.39 to one community has an immediate protest on the other side. As a result the 2007 Constitutional Confl ict of Kabardins and Balkars over land Court decision was not implemented instead The Parliament of Kabardino-Balkaria on a conciliatory commission was set up which June 28, 2011 passed a law on distant pastures. failed to reach an agreement. Since 2008 the According to the law the large pastures land in interethnic relations has deteriorated between the Balkar regions could not be privatised and the two communities. Leading activists of both can only be rented. The law was considered by the groups were targeted resulting in violence the Balkar as a violation of their right to land in the region. Some of the evidences are in 2011 and economic self-suffi ciency and a number a Kabardin activist and leader of the group of federal laws. One of the laws which they named Ibrahim Yaganov was twice attacked cited as violated was the “Law on General and beaten ruthlessly. On the Balkar side also Principles of Local self-Government in the several Balkar leaders had to face violence. Russian Federation”. This law gave the Balkars Some of the incidents were twice a journalist the right over lands adjacent to their settlement Ruslan Buduyev was attacked; Balkar leaders in mountain areas. There is not even a single Baydayev and Rakhayev cars were burned; a enterprise in the territory of Balkaria. The main member of the Council of Elders of the Balkar subsistence of the Balkars is from their gardens 40 Crisis Group Interview. Ismail Sabanchiyev, 39 Tension in Dagestan on Eve of Lezgin Congress // chair, Council of Elders of the Balkar people, The Jamestown Monitor, 2 December 1997. Nalchik, Kabardino-Balkaria, December 2011.

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people named Tamara Gereyeva was illegally their activities and the causes underlying the arrested and her arm was also broken. Even the problems needs to be addressed. offi ce of the Council of Elders was burned and The federal authorities should work more the organization was closed in May 2010 by effi ciently in the region. There should be a the orders of the Supreme Court of Kabardino- regular inspection of the civilian offi cials, Balkaria. politicians and experts who should spend time in the republics to assess needs engage in Clashes in Stavropol Krai dialogue and explain policies. There should be This is the only region in the North a regular evaluation of federal programmes by Caucasus Federal District with a majority of assessing their relevance, effectiveness, impact, the ethnic Russians. The Russians were asked sustainability of the policies among the people. to settle in the North Caucasus to replace the The government should ensure that deported people during the 1940-1950s. But common cultural space is observed in all North now there is an outfl ow of the Russians from Caucasus Republics. The religious people the region due to security reason and socio- should be allowed be follow their religion on economic concerns. Tensions occur mainly in the the other hand secular people should be given region’s eastern districts where local authorities the freedom to ensure a secular life without any try to contain the migration from neighbouring pressure from religious authorities. republics and in the urban centres of Mineralnye In the post confl ict regions, the government Vody and Stavropol. Those towns have the should take initiatives to maintain peace and largest concentration of students from other stability. As in case of Prigorodny district North Caucasian republics while businessmen there should be a joint collaboration between from the neighbouring republics purchase real North Ossetian and Ingush scholars to look into estate and invest in local enterprise. Since 2007 the problems of internally displaced people, to 2008 there has been continuous violence effective ways in implementing decisions and among interethnic groups mainly involving the agreement taken on the issue. youth. Many of these confl icts in the east are Initiate ways to contribute to the positive between local Nogays and Dargins, they had development of students such as development replaced the Russians in the region. of sports, organize debating clubs, essay competitions or cultural activities. The Recommendations to avoid ethnic confl ict state should make efforts to provide formal employment or involve them in professional The law should defi ne “hate speech” and development after their secondary education so should hold accountable the people who use hate that they do not get attracted to the extremists. speech. Thus the media person educationist, activist Further the representatives of the state should or those involve in activist groups should refrain initiate ways to listen and try to solve the from the use of any such words which would problems of the youth. invoke to the use of violence by the people. The authorities should keep a record There should be a propagation of political of social media, internet or mobile phone pluralism, ethnic and religious tolerance among technology which is mostly used by the youth. the people. Different ways should be initiated Ideological extremism is spread through these in order to encourage people in the active social media. participation of citizen in public affairs. The institutions of governance should In order to combat the impact of role of be accountable to the people. Effective public Islamic leaders in the ethnic confl ict a preventive enquiry mechanisms should be implemented approach should be followed rather than a effective and transparent implementation of punitive approach. Efforts should be made to policies. Corruption should be minimized address the causes of extremism rather than the effective punishments for offi cials involved in consequences of extremism. There should be it. In order to reduce corruption independent an analysis of the ways in which the Islamic media, NGOS should be given the freedom to extremists try to mobilise and recruit people in conduct surveys to monitor system operated

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by Ministry of Regional Development. Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilization Performance ratings should be implemented and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Touchstone, 1997. to analyse the working of the Republics in Kaplan F. Moscow Cracks down on Outsiders: Police comparison to others. Take Advantage of State of Emergency to Drive Many Investigation of all breach of law such Ethnics from City / The Boston Globe, October 14, 1993. Lake, D.; Rothchild, D. Ethnic fears and Global as abduction, torture and implement justice as Engagement: The International Spread and Management early as possible. The human rights activists of Ethnic Confl ict // Institute on Global Confl ict and should be allowed to monitor police and other Cooperation, 1996, No. 20, pp. 5-47. law enforcement offi cials’ activities and also Nekrich, Alexandr. The Punished Peoples: the 41 Deportation and the Fate of the Soviet Minorities at the the detention operations by the offi cials . end of the Second World War, New York: Norton and Co., 1978. Posen, Barry P. The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conclusion Confl ict // Survival, 1993, Vol. 35(1), pp. 27-47. Shibutani, T., et al. Ethnic Stratifi cation: A Comparative Thus, North Caucasus remains an Approach. Macmillan, 1965. important region in the southern portion Smeets, Rieks. Circassia // Central Asian Survey, 1995, of Russian Federation. Stability in North No. 1. Caucasus is crucial for the framing of the Smith, A. Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History. Cambridge: Polity, 2011. policies of Russia as stability or instability in Tscherwonnaja, Swetlana. Der Ossetisch-Inguschische this region affects the entire region. Russia’s Konfl ikt im Nordkaukasus / Osteuropa, August (8) 1995. communications with the Transcaucasus Wall, Thomas D. The Caucasus: An Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2010. and its objective to influence the three Wixman, Ronald. Soviet Nationality Policy and independent republics of the region depend Practice. Language Aspects of Ethnic Patterns and on the stability in North Caucasus. Thus Processes. University of Chicago: Department of ethnic conflicts pose a security challenge Geography, January 1980. Yancey, William; Ericksen, Eugene P.; Juliani, and question the survival of Russia in its Richard N. Emergent Ethnicity: A Review and present territorial structure. Reformulation // American Sociological Review, 1976, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 391-403. References: Yetman, Norman R., ed. Majority and Minority: The Dynamics of Racial and Ethnic Relations. 5th ed. Boston: Akiner, Shirin. Islamic Peoples of the Soviet Union. Allyn and Bacon, 1991. London, Kegan Paul, 1983. Arutionov, Sergei. Ethnicity and Confl ict in the Caucasus / Paper presented at a 1997 symposium of the Slavic Research Centre, Hokkaido University. Bennigsen, Alexandre; Wimbush, S. Enders. Muslims of the Soviet Empire: A Guide. London, Hurst, 1985. Pp. 190-200. Berghe, Pierre L. van Berghe. The Ethnic Phenomenon,Greenhood Press: London, 1981. Birch, Julian. Ossetia: a Caucasian Bosnia in Microcosm // Central Asian Survey, 1995, No. 1, pp. 43-74. Catford, J.C. Mountain of Tongues: The Languages of the Caucasus // Annual Review Of Anthropology, 1997, Vol. 6, pp. 283-314. Cornell, Svante. Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethno-political Confl ict in the Caucasus. Taylor and Francis Group, London and New York, 2000. Glazer, Nathan; Moynihan, Daniel Patrick. Ethnicity: Theory and Experience. Harvard University Press,1975. Hill, Fiona. Russia’s Tinderbox / Confl ict in the Caucasus and Its Implications for the Future of the Russian Federation, September 1995. Horowitz, D. Ethnic Groups in Confl ict. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985.

41 Report on “North Caucasus: views from within People’s perspectives on peace and security”, 2012 published in Saferworld.

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DOI: 10.24411/2221-3279-2020-10044 ЭТНИЧЕСКИЕ КОНФЛИКТЫ НА СЕВЕРНОМ КАВКАЗЕ

Моналиша Ачарджи Университет имени Джавахарлала Неру, Нью-Дели, Индия

Информация о статье: Аннотация: Этнические конфликты являются вы- зовом для государства, поскольку они влияют как на Поступила в редакцию: внешнюю политику, так и на внутреннюю политику 3 ноября 2018 нации. Регион Северного Кавказа является наиболее нестабильным регионом среди республик Российской Принята к печати: Федерации. В данной статье будут проанализирова- 3 июля 2019 ны причины роста напряженности среди этнических групп и роль государства в решении проблем в регио- Об авторах: не. Анализируются недостатки государственной по- PhD, научный сотрудник, литики и предлагаются меры, способные привести к Центр изучения России и Центральной Азии, положительным изменениям. Применение силы не Школа международных исследований, сможет привести к каким-либо изменениям в регио- Университет имени Джавахарлала Неру не; более конструктивны усилия по устранению при- чин этнического насилия. e-mail: [email protected] Ключевые слова: Северный Кавказ; этнос; Россия; безопасность; ислам; Чечня; конфликт

Для цитирования: Acharjee, Monalisha. Ethnic Confl icts For citation: Acharjee, Monalisha. Ethnic Confl icts in in North Caucasus // Сравнительная политика.– 2020. – North Caucasus // Comparative Politics Russia, 2020, № 3. – С. 174-187. No. 3, pp. 174-187. DOI: DOI: 10.24411/2221-3279-2020-10044 DOI: DOI: 10.24411/2221-3279-2020-10044

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